# jatan.space 🌙 > Website & Blog of Jatan Mehta, a globally published & cited space writer. Read deep dives on global lunar and space exploration. Public Ghost content for AI and LLM tooling. This file includes a bounded export of public pages first, then recent public posts. Append `.md` to any post or page URL to get the content in Markdown (for example, `/example-post.md`). ## Pages ### Connect with me URL: https://jatan.space/connect/ Last updated: 2026-08-23T08:57:45.000Z Emails and direct messages are the best for authentic responses and deep conversations. Write to me to say hi, share your thoughts about [my writing](https://jatan.space/about), suggest a good read, [sponsor](https://jatan.space/support) my work, or [hire](https://jatan.space/consulting/) my services: [hey@jatan.space](mailto:hey@jatan.space) [Signal ](https://jatan.space/signal) [Text / RCS](sms:hey@jatan.space) You can also sign my fun [digital guestbook](https://jatan.space/guestbook)! ### My Blogs URL: https://jatan.space/blogs/ Last updated: 2026-09-13T14:42:49.000Z Hi, I’m Jatan, a [space writer](https://jatan.space/about) and [slow thinker](https://journal.jatan.space/about). I like to write on my blogs, linked below. They are the best place to find and read my thoughts on the Internet. You can follow my blogs directly via email or using the cool technology [called RSS](https://journal.jatan.space/why-use-rss/). No algorithms, no ads, no noisy feeds, and no attention-monetizing social networks in between. ## Space Blog 🌙 Visit at [**jatan.space**](https://jatan.space/about) for deep dives on global lunar exploration, space technology, Indian space, and planetary science. Subscribe [via Email](https://jatan.space/subscribe): [or use RSS →](https://jatan.space/feeds) ## Journal J ☕️ Visit at [**journal.jatan.space**](https://journal.jatan.space/about) for musings and verses from and on life. Subscribe [via Email](https://journal.jatan.space/subscribe): [RSS →](https://journal.jatan.space/feeds) ## Microblog Visit my microblog at [**web.jatan.space**](https://web.jatan.space), where I share instances from life on Earth. It reads better if you know me. [Follow the thoughts](https://web.jatan.space/subscribe) of Jatan the human. ### Hi, I’m Jatan Mehta URL: https://jatan.space/about/ Last updated: 2026-03-15T10:08:09.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/me-speaking-at-2024-galaxy-forum-wenchang-3-2.jpeg) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/glex-2025-global-lunar-exploration-panel-moderator-speaking-1.jpg) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/jatan-speaking-at-esa-estec-on-chandrayaan-3-web-1.jpg) Me, speaking during [invited talks](https://jatan.space/talks/) in [China](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-206/#my-experience-at-the-galaxy-forum-in-china), [India](https://jatan.space/talks/#iaf-glex-2025) and [Europe](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-163/#speaking-at-esa) at international events and conferences. ### Writer of [Moon Monday](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday), [Indian Space Progress](https://jatan.space/tag/indian-space/) and a [poetry pamphlet](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/) 🌙 ### Journalist with [](https://jatan.space/tag/articles)[articles published globally](https://jatan.space/published) ### [Tech Communications Lead](https://jatan.space/joining-open-lunar-as-their-science-communications-lead/) for the [Open Lunar Foundation](https://www.openlunar.org/team#l-jatan) ### [Quoted and cited](https://jatan.space/quoted-and-cited/) in Books, on Nature, Wikipedia, and more ### [Editorial Consultant](https://jatan.space/consulting) for space organizations [Email me: hey@jatan.space](mailto:hey@jatan.space) --- ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/01/our-moon-transparent-black-bg-icon-1.png) **If you’re new to my space blog, start here:** - [Why explore our Moon](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) - [How we test spacecraft before launch](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/) - [Solar System History 101](https://jatan.space/solar-system-history-101/) - [How Chandrayaan 3 made its historic touchdown on our Moon](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) [Explore the blog →](https://jatan.space/start) --- ## Subscribe Get new articles I publish in your inbox for free. Subscribe [via email](https://jatan.space/subscribe): [or use RSS →](https://jatan.space/feeds) ## Connect with me Email remains the best medium on the Web to deeply connect with people. Write to me to say hi, [sponsor](https://jatan.space/support) my work, share your thoughts, or [hire](https://jatan.space/consulting) my services: [Email me: hey@jatan.space](mailto:hey@jatan.space) You can also Signal me at [moonmehta.17](https://jatan.space/signal) --- ## Sponsors and Supporters Here are the kind organizations who support my independent writing & journalism via sponsorships: [![https://www.openlunar.org](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/open-lunar-foundation-logo-bg-white-small.jpg)](https://www.openlunar.org) [![https://takshashila.org.in](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/takshashila-logo-no-bg-small.png)](https://takshashila.org.in) [![https://astrolab.space](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/06/astrolab-logo-orange-black-no-bg-small-3.png)](https://astrolab.space) [![https://catalyx.space](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/03/catalyx-space-logo-transparent-bg.png)](https://catalyx.space) [![https://piersight.space](https://cdn.magicpages.co/spaceimpact.mymagic.page/2024/05/piersight-logo-small-no-bg-1.png)](https://piersight.space) [![https://orbitalindex.com](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/orbital-index-logo-bg-small-1.png)](https://orbitalindex.com) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/gurbir-singh-small-1.png)](https://gurbir.co.uk) [****Gurbir Singh**](https://gurbir.co.uk) Many [kind individuals](https://jatan.space/support/#individuals) have also donated to support my work. I accept sponsorships for [Moon Monday](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) as well as [Indian Space Progress](https://jatan.space/tag/indian-space) in line with my [Editorial Independence Policy](https://jatan.space/ethics). If you love my work, kindly support my independent writing & journalism. [Support my writing 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### Follow my space blog via RSS URL: https://jatan.space/feeds/ Last updated: 2026-03-27T13:07:15.000Z RSS feed aficionados, you can subscribe to new posts from [my space blog](https://jatan.space/about) in any supported reader of your choice via this RSS feed link: - If you don’t know what RSS is, here’s an [intro and how it would benefit you](https://journal.jatan.space/why-use-rss). Use the buttons below to add my blog to your reader instantly: > *Web readers* [Inoreader](https://www.inoreader.com/feed/https%3A%2F%2Fjatan.space%2Frss) [Feedly](https://feedly.com/i/discover/sources/search/feed/jatan.space/rss) [Feedbin](https://feedbin.com/?subscribe=https://jatan.space/rss) [Newsblur](https://www.newsblur.com/?url=https://jatan.space/rss) [Feeder](https://feeder.co/discover/f50833aa05/jatan-space) > *Apps* [Unread](unread://feeds?url=https%3A%2F%2Fjatan.space%2Frss) [Reeder](reed://https://jatan.space/rss) [NetNewsWire / News Explorer](feed://https://jatan.space/rss) [Tapestry](tapestry://feedfinder?url=https://jatan.space/rss) [Readwise](wiseread://add?url=https://jatan.space/rss) [Fiery](fiery://subscribe/https://jatan.space/rss) > *More* > [CommaFeed](https://www.commafeed.com/rest/feed/subscribe?url=https://jatan.space/rss) • [WordPress Reader](https://wordpress.com/reader/feeds/162982112) • [Qi Reader](https://www.qireader.com/discover?query=https://jatan.space/rss) > [Feedland](https://feedland.com/?feedurl=https://jatan.space/rss) • [Minifeed](https://minifeed.net/blogs/pXovkg) • [Artemis](https://artemis.jamesg.blog/add?url=https://jatan.space/rss) • [FeedCity](https://feed.city/feed?url=https://jatan.space/rss) • [Fraidycat](https://fraidyc.at/s/#!/add?url=https://jatan.space/rss) > [follow.it](https://follow.it/jatan-s-space?pub) • [FeedHQ](https://feedhq.org/subscribe/?feeds=https://jatan.space/rss) • [BazQux](https://bazqux.com/add?url=https://jatan.space/rss) • [Good News](https://goodnews.click/add?url=https://jatan.space/rss) • [Rivered](https://www.rivered.io/add?url=https://jatan.space/rss) • [The Old Reader](https://theoldreader.com/feeds/subscribe?url=https://jatan.space/rss) Thank you for using the best, most ethical reading technology on the Internet. 🤓 --- **Feed links for key post categories:** - [Moon Monday](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday/rss) - [Indian Space](https://jatan.space/tag/indian-space/rss) --- More blogs I recommend reading: [Good Reads 🌙](https://jatan.space/blogroll) --- ### Support me If you reached all the way here, you must really like [my work](https://jatan.space/about). I’m on a lifelong mission to promote exploration of space and our Moon, and all my work is absolutely free to access by everyone, with no ads. If you find value in what I do, please consider sponsoring my work: [Support my writing ♡](https://jatan.space/support) ### Support independent writing and journalism URL: https://jatan.space/support/ Last updated: 2026-09-01T15:55:16.000Z Hi, I’m [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about), a [globally published](https://jatan.space/published) and [cited](https://jatan.space/quoted-and-cited/) space writer & journalist on a lifelong mission to promote the exploration of our Moon and space. [All of my work](https://jatan.space/about) on this website, including my flagship [Moon Monday](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) blog+newsletter, is absolutely free to access by everyone. And I never display ads. *Moon Monday* has been [quoted on Nature](https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-02685-4), cited [in books](https://jatan.space/quoted-and-cited/) and [by ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/UnionCabinetApprovesIndiasMission.html), featured on the lunar community sites like [Lunar-L](https://academicweb.nd.edu/~cneal/Lunar-L/) and [NextGen](https://nextgenlunar.space/resources), and recommended by [Centauri Dreams](https://www.centauri-dreams.org) and [Ars Technica](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/08/rocket-report-europe-splashes-some-cash-on-launch-startups-pallas-1-nears-debut/) among others. Moon Monday has become a globally read community resource, and is purely community-supported by the [kind donors listed below](https://jatan.space/support/#organizations). If you too find value in my work, kindly sponsor Moon Monday as an individual or organization. Thank you for considering supporting independent writing & journalism, which the world needs more of. ## Sponsor as an organization If your company or organization would like to sponsor Moon Monday and get visibility with my global lunar audience, email me and I’ll send you a sponsorships document with details: [Email me: hey@jatan.space](mailto:hey@jatan.space) I accept sponsorships for [Moon Monday](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) as well as [Indian Space Progress](https://jatan.space/tag/indian-space) in line with my [Editorial Independence Policy](https://jatan.space/ethics). ## Support as an individual Support one or multiple Moon Mondays as you please: - **$50: Support one Moon Monday edition** - Get [credited](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-257/#more-moon) with your website/social link - Permanent acknowledgement on the [Supporters page](https://jatan.space/support) (this page) - **$500: Support a Moon Monday every month for a whole year** - Get [credited](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-257/#more-moon) every month with your website/social link - Your picture and web link on my [About page](https://jatan.space/about) - A brief [welcome message](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-33/) for my readers - Permanent acknowledgement on the [Supporters page](https://jatan.space/support) (this page) - Your name & web link in my next globally published booklet on space (Ebook & Print) ### Payment options [PayPal (preferred)](https://jatan.space/paypal) - **UPI** (for Indians): [₹2,000](https://www.upi.me/pay?pa=moonmehta@ybl&am=2000&tn=Support jatan.space 🌕) | [₹5,000](https://www.upi.me/pay?pa=moonmehta@ybl&am=5000&tn=Support jatan.space 🌕) | ID: moonmehta@ybl - [Wise](https://wise.com/pay/r/sA1Vt3j5RRVKHKY) / [Donorbox](https://donorbox.org/moonmehta) / [](https://ko-fi.com/moonmehta)[Patreon](https://jatan.space/patreon) / [Ko-Fi](https://ko-fi.com/moonmehta) *If you have any queries, or are facing issues,* [*get in touch*](https://jatan.space/connect)*.* --- ## My sponsors & supporters ### Organizations Here are the kind organizations who currently sponsor either my [Moon Monday](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) newsletter or the [Indian Space Progress](https://jatan.space/tag/indian-space-progress) reports. - [Open Lunar Foundation](https://www.openlunar.org) - [The Orbital Index](https://orbitalindex.com) - [Astrolab](https://astrolab.space) - [PierSight](https://piersight.space) - [The Takshashila Institution](https://takshashila.org.in) - [Catalyx Space](https://catalyx.space) - [Gurbir Singh](https://gurbir.co.uk) [](https://arunraghavan.net/) The following organizations have previously sponsored Moon Monday or Indian Space Progress with at least $500 or more. My sincere thanks goes to them as well. - [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io) - [Off Planet Research](https://www.offplanetresearch.com) - [SkyServe](https://skyserve.ai) - [GalaxEye Space](https://galaxeye.space) - [KaleidEO](https://kaleideo.co) - [Space Age Publishing](https://www.spaceagepub.com) ([ILOA](https://iloa.org)) - [SWISSAPOLLO](https://www.swissapollo.com/en) ### Individuals Here are the kind people who have donated me at least $50\. Thank you so much to everyone in here. I’m quite glad and proud of the diversity of this list. - [Abhinav Yadav](https://linktr.ee/particlewave) - [Abhishek Shetty](https://abhishekshetty.carrd.co) - [Adithya Kothandhapani](https://adithyapani.bio.link) - Aditya K - [Ajay Kothari](https://www.linkedin.com/in/ajay-kothari-739b0b32/) - [Alexandra Witze](http://alexandrawitze.com), Correspondent for Nature - [Andrew Cantino](https://andrewcantino.com) - [Andrea Battisti](https://planet3.eu) - [Arun Raghavan](https://arunraghavan.net) - [Barbara Giuri](https://orcid.org/0009-0006-0187-3112) - [Ben Hockman](https://www-robotics.jpl.nasa.gov/who-we-are/people/benjamin%5Fhockman/) - [Bethany Ehlmann](https://ehlmann.caltech.edu) - Christian Stock - [Craig Hardgrove](https://www.linkedin.com/in/craig-hardgrove-707bbb33/) - [Cyrus Khan](https://cyruskhan.com) - [Dany Waller](https://danywaller.github.io/) - David Blewett, Planetary scientist - [David Draper](https://www.linkedin.com/in/david-draper-78116b95/), NASA’s former Deputy Chief Scientist - Deepika Jeyakodi, who kindly wishes me to link to the cause of [PARI](https://ruralindiaonline.org) instead - [Frank Genin](https://www.amazon.com/dp/2958293009) - [Gordon Roesler](https://www.linkedin.com/in/gordon-roesler-687a0426) - [Henry Throop](https://www.linkedin.com/in/henry-throop-a47a6a7) - [Hunter Danque](https://www.linkedin.com/in/hunter-danque) - [James Tuttle Keane](https://www.jamestuttlekeane.com) - Jamie Rumbelow, who kindly wishes me to link to [GiveWell](https://www.givewell.org) instead - [Jason Davis](https://www.planetary.org/profiles/jason-davis), Senior Editor at The Planetary Society - [Jim Singh](https://moonsummits.carrd.co) - [Joseph Biernat](https://www.linkedin.com/in/joseph-j-biernat-24858425) - [Justin Alva](https://in.linkedin.com/in/justinalva) - [Karan Maindan](https://hello.karanmaindan.com) - [Kris Zacny](https://www.linkedin.com/in/kris-zacny-8a71ba1) ([Honeybee Robotics](https://www.honeybeerobotics.com)) - [Kyle Acierno](https://www.linkedin.com/in/kyleacierno/) - [Louis Burtz](https://www.linkedin.com/in/ljburtz) - [Mahesh Anand](https://profiles.open.ac.uk/mahesh-anand) - [Mat Kaplan](https://www.planetary.org/profiles/mat-kaplan), Host of [Planetary Radio](https://www.planetary.org/planetary-radio) - [Marchel Holle](https://www.linkedin.com/in/marchel-holle) ([ispace Japan](https://ispace-inc.com/)) - [Matt Ryall](https://www.linkedin.com/in/mattryall) - [Marc Rayman](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B0PbFp-y6Dc) - [Mark Lucas](https://www.linkedin.com/in/mark-j-lucas) - [Max Mednik](https://www.maxmednik.com) ([Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io/)) - MB - [Michael Palank](https://macventurecapital.com/team/michael-palank) - [Narayan Prasad](https://www.narayanprasad.com), Co-founder of [Satsearch](https://satsearch.co), Curator of [NewSpace India](http://www.newspaceindia.com) - [Nathan Price](https://www.countdowntothemoon.org/went) - [Nitin Pai](https://www.nitinpai.in) ([Takshashila](https://takshashila.org.in)) - Nitish - [Olivier Lamarre](https://www.olamarre.com) - [Parvathy Prem](https://www.parvathyprem.space) - [Paul Savio](https://cosmofluencer.com) - [Pradeep Mohandas](https://pradx.in/about-us) - RBK - [Rushabh Gala](https://rushabh.space) - [Ryan Duffy](https://www.linkedin.com/in/rfduffy) - [Sanket Suman Dash](https://www.linkedin.com/in/sanketsumandash/) - [Sean Gulick](https://www.jsg.utexas.edu/researcher/sean%5Fgulick/) - [Shane McFarland](https://www.linkedin.com/in/shane-mcfarland) - [Sonia Tikoo](https://profiles.stanford.edu/sonia-tikoo-schantz) - Sourabh Maltare - [Stéphane Leclair](https://www.linkedin.com/in/stephaneleclair) - Steve B - [Subha Comandur](https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/author/37085804361) - [Tanya Harrison](https://www.tanyaharrison.com) - [Tim Glotch](https://www.stonybrook.edu/commcms/geosciences/people/%5Ffaculty/glotch.php) - [Vidyasagar Mundroy](https://www.instagram.com/mvsagar) - [Vinayak Vadlamani](https://www.linkedin.com/in/vinayakvadlamani/) - [Vishesh Vatsal](https://www.linkedin.com/in/vishesh-vatsal-3b16ba15) - [Vishnu Vishwanathan](https://www.drvishnu.com) - [Yuqi Qian](https://yuqiqian.com) *To an open and spacey future for everyone.* ### Explore jatan.space URL: https://jatan.space/start/ Last updated: 2026-04-13T13:40:55.000Z Read articles and blog posts on space exploration and our Moon by globally published & cited space writer [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about). ## The Blog If you’re new to my space blog, start here: - [*Why explore our Moon*](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) - [*How we test spacecraft before launch*](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/) - [*Solar System History 101*](https://jatan.space/solar-system-history-101/) - [*How Chandrayaan 3 landed on the Moon*](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) - [*Latest and all posts*](https://jatan.space/) - [*Search*](https://jatan.space/search) ## Key sections - [*Moon exploration updates*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) - [*Indian Space*](https://jatan.space/tag/indian-space/) - [*Articles*](https://jatan.space/tag/articles/) ## Key topics - [*China and Luna*](https://jatan.space/tag/china-and-luna/) - [*NASA Artemis & CLPS*](https://jatan.space/tag/artemis/) - [*ISRO Chandrayaan*](https://jatan.space/tag/chandrayaan/) - [*Japan and Selene*](https://jatan.space/tag/japan-and-selene/) ## Curated - [*Poetry*](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/) - [*Verses*](https://jatan.space/tag/verses/) - [*Explore our Moon*](https://jatan.space/our-moon) - [*Luna Sights*](https://jatan.space/lunasights) - [*Our search for life*](https://jatan.space/search-for-life) - [*Talks*](https://jatan.space/talks) - *Best of* [*2023*](https://jatan.space/best-of-2023/) */* [*2022*](https://jatan.space/best-of-2022/) */* [*2021*](https://jatan.space/best-of-2021/) */* [*2020*](https://jatan.space/best-of-2020/) - [*Browse all*](https://jatan.space/tag/explore) --- ## Subscribe for free Get new articles I publish in your inbox. Subscribe [via email](https://jatan.space/subscribe): [or RSS →](https://jatan.space/feeds) --- Like my efforts to provide free resources for space communities worldwide? Kindly sponsor my work to support independent writing: [Support my writing 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### Consult with Jatan’s Space URL: https://jatan.space/consulting/ Last updated: 2026-04-03T06:14:33.000Z If your organization is doing something cool in (civil) space or Moon exploration, I can help you boost your orbit. I’ve aided several space companies, organizations, and media publications up their editorial front across these themes: - Blogging and Newsletter Advisory - Article Editing - Report Writing and Editing - Industry and Media Insights & Networking - Communications and Website copy-editing Some of my notable clients include: - [The Planetary Society](https://www.planetary.org) - [Open Lunar Foundation](https://jatan.space/joining-open-lunar-as-their-science-communications-lead/) - [SkyServe](https://www.skyserve.ai) - [Innovation Centre Denmark](http://icdk.dk/our-locations/bangalore) - [Cosmofluencer](https://cosmofluencer.space) Please get in touch to inquire about my availability and rates: [Contact me →](https://jatan.space/connect) As a writer and journalist, my editorial independence and integrity is of utmost importance to me, and so I take up consultancies only in line with my [Editorial Independence Policy](https://jatan.space/ethics). To our Moon and beyond. **–** [**Jatan**](https://jatan.space/about) ### Publications written for URL: https://jatan.space/published/ Last updated: 2026-06-25T15:40:09.000Z Here are most of the key national and international media publications, outlets, and institutions I've written [articles](https://jatan.space/tag/articles/) on space exploration for. As [an independent science writer](https://jatan.space/about), I’m proud of this list. - [***The Planetary Society***](https://www.planetary.org/profiles/jatan-mehta)*(also former Editorial Contributor)* - [***Scientific American***](https://www.scientificamerican.com/author/jatan-mehta) - [***Nature***](https://www.nature.com/search?author=Jatan+Mehta) - [***The Wire Science***](https://science.thewire.in/author/jmehta) - **The Space Review* (*[*One*](https://www.thespacereview.com/article/4036/1)*,* [*two*](https://www.thespacereview.com/article/4756/1)*,* [*three*](https://www.thespacereview.com/article/4807/1)*,* [*four*](https://www.thespacereview.com/article/4933/1)*, and* [*five*](https://www.thespacereview.com/article/5164/1)*)* - [***Universe Today***](https://www.universetoday.com/145356/indias-chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-we-have-of-the-moon/) - [***SpaceNews***](https://spacenews.com/indias-shukrayaan-orbiter-to-study-venus-for-over-four-years-launches-in-2024/) - [***Open Lunar Foundation***](https://jatan.space/openlunararticles) - [***The Orbital Index***](https://orbitalindex.com/archive/2026-01-07-Issue-350/#we-hope-the-moon-likes-rovers-cause-it-s-getting-a-lot) - [***The Takshashila Institution***](https://web.archive.org/web/20250718073253/https://takshashila.org.in/blogs/indian-space-progress-2) **Also published on:** - *Supercluster:* [*One*](https://www.supercluster.com/editorial/trekking-to-mars-with-ula-chief-tory-bruno)*,* [*two*](https://www.supercluster.com/editorial/indias-role-in-the-new-race-to-the-moon)*, and* [*three*](https://www.supercluster.com/editorial/learning-to-live-and-work-off-planet) - [*Astrobites*](https://astrobites.org/2019/05/01/on-the-verge-of-revealing-a-singularity/) - [*Payload Space*](https://payloadspace.com/author/jatanm) *(also former Editorial Contributor)* - [*ThePrint*](https://theprint.in/author/jatan-mehta) - [*Open Magazine*](https://openthemagazine.com/feature/the-anatomy-of-chandrayaan-2/) - [*TeamIndus*](https://medium.com/teamindus/tech/home) - *Tata Institute of Fundamental Research:* [*One*](https://web.archive.org/web/20220416112659/https://www.tifr.res.in/TSN/article/kate-scholberg-interview.pdf)*,* [*two*](https://web.archive.org/web/20220416113227/https://www.tifr.res.in/TSN/article/miron-livny-interview.pdf)*, and* [*three*](https://web.archive.org/web/20220416112653/https://www.tifr.res.in/TSN/article/k-vijayraghavan-interview.pdf) ## My journey **→** [**How I became a space writer and where it’s going**](https://jatan.space/my-science-writing-journey) ## Follow Get new articles I publish in your inbox for free. Subscribe [via email](https://jatan.space/subscribe): [or use RSS →](https://jatan.space/feeds) --- *Like my work? Support me to keep me going.* [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support) ### Curated space talks URL: https://jatan.space/talks/ Last updated: 2025-08-19T15:19:50.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/me-speaking-at-2024-galaxy-forum-wenchang-3-3.jpeg) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/glex-2025-global-lunar-exploration-panel-moderator-speaking-2.jpg) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/jatan-speaking-at-esa-estec-on-chandrayaan-3-web-2.jpg) Me, speaking during invited talks in [China](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-206/#my-experience-at-the-galaxy-forum-in-china), [India](https://jatan.space/talks/#iaf-glex-2025) and [Europe](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-163/#speaking-at-esa) at international events and conferences. Hi, I’m [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about), a globally published independent space writer and invited speaker. I’ve been invited to give in-person and online public talks by schools, universities, space organizations, media publications, podcasters, and more. This page lists some such curated talks. If you’d like me to speak at your event, [get in touch](https://jatan.space/connect). ## IAF GLEX 2025 I had fun moderating a [stellar panel](https://www.iafastro.org/events/global-series-conferences/global-conference-on-space-exploration-2025/programme/plenary-programme/friday-9-may/iaf-gnf-session-iloa-ilewg-galaxy-forum-international-newspace-to-the-moon.html) at the IAF-organized and ISRO-hosted international Global Space Exploration Conference ([GLEX](https://www.iafastro.org/events/global-series-conferences/global-conference-on-space-exploration-2025/)) in India. We [discussed](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4mWvT1o-hQ4) current themes and challenges in global Moon exploration. 🌙 ## European Lunar Symposium (2023) I [gave a talk](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5HLPe4Op6bI) at the [2023 European Lunar Symposium](https://sservi.nasa.gov/els2023) about how despite the emergence of private and commercial Moon missions there’s no alternative to public buy-in, funding, and outreach to sustain lunar exploration globally and reap its [immense benefits](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon) to science and technological progress. ## Duke University’s Space Diplomacy Lab I was invited by the Duke University’s Space Diplomacy Lab to speak at [their Annual Media Roundtable](https://sites.duke.edu/rethinkingdiplomacy/sdls-2024-space-media-roundtable-roundup-optimism-in-outer-space/) alongside Kristin Fisher, CNN’s Space Correspondent. Here’s the [video](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YM7PoDzgB%5FY). *Related:* [*Did China choose the same lunar landing sites as the US for Chang’e 7? Or is it the other way round?*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#the-instrumental-and-increasingly-international-7) ## On International Moon Day (2022) I was invited by the [Moon Village Association](https://moonvillageassociation.org) India to give a talk on the 2022 International Moon Day. The topic I chose was: “[From Chandrayaan to Artemis, highlighting collaboration in our return to the Moon](https://jatan.space/talk-from-chandrayaan-to-artemis/)”. ## On Carnegie I was a [guest on Carnegie India’s podcast](https://carnegieindia.org/podcasts/interpreting-india/indias-lunar-exploration-past-present-and-future-with-jatan-mehta?lang=en¢er=india) Interpreting India. In light of the recently approved [Chandrayaan 4](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-194/) sample return mission, we discuss for a good 45 minutes where [India’s Moon exploration plans](https://jatan.space/tag/chandrayaan/) are heading, and what are the enablers and constraints on the increasingly complex road for ISRO to send an Indian to the Moon. Give it a listen on [Spotify](https://open.spotify.com/episode/70zj5rFL1YclkI7XmiA5JD?si=PPvRjkujQQCZzX4aNF8zRw), [Apple Podcasts](https://podcasts.apple.com/in/podcast/indias-lunar-exploration-past-present-and-future/id1476357131?i=1000673433521), [YouTube](https://music.youtube.com/watch?v=%5F-RDf7jvdMA&feature=shared), or below: ## More talks and podcast appearances - On [The Space Industry podcast](https://blog.satsearch.co/2024-03-26-podcast-on-planetary-science-and-lunar-exploration-with-jatan-mehta) by satsearch to discuss planetary and lunar exploration themes of various countries, and what [independent space writing](https://jatan.space/about) has been like for me. - On [The Planetary Society podcast](https://www.planetary.org/planetary-radio/the-wonderful-film-clare-lewins-cady-coleman) to talk about [South Korea’s first Moon mission](https://jatan.space/kplo/). - On the [NewSpace India podcast](https://share.transistor.fm/s/b5cea33e) speaking on the [outcomes of India’s Mars orbiter](https://jatan.space/missing-science-from-mangalyaan/) - On Firstpost Tech2: [Does India have a space exploration roadmap?](https://jatan.space/talk-does-india-have-a-space-exploration/) - Chai and Why: [Why aren’t we living on the Moon already?](https://jatan.space/talk-why-arent-we-living-on-the-moon-already/) - Mumbai University: [Technical careers in space exploration as a physics graduate](https://jatan.space/talk-technical-careers-in-space-exploration/) --- If you’d like me to speak at your event, get in touch: [Contact me →](https://jatan.space/connect) If you like my efforts to promote space exploration globally, I’d appreciate your support: [Support my work 🌙](https://jatan.space/support) ### Space Research URL: https://jatan.space/research/ Last updated: 2026-04-23T13:44:10.000Z - [**Where my writing has been quoted and cited**](https://jatan.space/quoted-and-cited/) - My [Google Scholar profile](https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=VhCabS4AAAAJ&hl=en) --- As a former science officer at [TeamIndus](https://medium.com/teamindus/teamindus-z-01-moon-mission-aa4ca0afbbc2), I selected landing sites for their Moon missions, identified science objectives, and converted them to engineering requirements. Here are notable works I was actively involved in while I was there. 1. Co-developed a framework with veteran scientist [Dr. Jim Head](https://vivo.brown.edu/display/jheadiii) and peers for maximizing science in lunar landing missions. [Abstract](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2019/pdf/1843.pdf) and [poster](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2019/eposter/1843.pdf), presented at [LPSC 2019](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2019). 🌗 ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/08/lpsc-landing-sites-poster-ti-ob.png) [AbstractPDFlpsc-landing-sites-abstract.pdf140 KBdownload-circle](https://jatan.space/content/files/2025/08/lpsc-landing-sites-abstract.pdf "Download") 1. Part of the TeamIndus group collaborating with [Brown University](https://www.brown.edu/news/2019-02-25/moonmission) on a science-optimized rover traverse in a Moon landing mission. Paper [published on NewSpace](https://web.archive.org/web/20210628110635/http://www.planetary.brown.edu/pdfs/5389.pdf). [Science optimized rover traverse at Mare Imbrium to decipher its volcanic pastPDFbrown-uni-rover-traverse-optimization-for-science-at-mare-imbrium.pdf577 KBdownload-circle](https://jatan.space/content/files/2025/08/brown-uni-rover-traverse-optimization-for-science-at-mare-imbrium.pdf "Download") --- I also have some research experience in Astrophysics, specifically in analyzing X-rays from cosmic objects as measured by [Astrosat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrosat), India’s first space telescope. [Analysis of X-rays from Intermediate Polar V1223 Sgr by Jatan MehtaPDFProject report on Intermediate Polar V1223 Sgr - Jatan Mehta.pdf2 MBdownload-circle](https://jatan.space/content/files/2025/08/Project-report-on-Intermediate-Polar-V1223-Sgr---Jatan-Mehta.pdf "Download") ### Editorial Independence Policy, sponsorship standards, and other disclaimers for Jatan’s Space URL: https://jatan.space/ethics/ Last updated: 2026-06-02T12:15:27.000Z *Dear reader, I’d like to request your attention for 5 minutes, especially if you regularly consume my work. What follows below are formal disclaimers regarding the ethical standards of* [*my space writings*](https://jatan.space/about) *at large. This page is updated over time as necessary.* --- Hi, I’m [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about), the sole author, editor and owner of [Jatan’s Space](https://jatan.space/), an independent blog, newsletter, and publication covering the exploration of space and our Moon. While I broadly adhere to the [ethical standards](https://inn.org/sample-editorial-independence-policy) proposed by the *Institute for Nonprofit News*, something widely adopted by a variety of media publications around the globe, I’d like to take this space to be transparent to my readers on the specific ways in which I ensure editorial independence of [my writings](https://jatan.space/about) and the exact way I run sponsorships. 1. I never display any ads anywhere on Jatan’s Space. This policy extends to my auxiliary web presence in the form of social media and other things. 2. Sponsorships are the key mechanism by which I sustain my flagship [Moon Monday](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) newsletter as well as the monthly [Indian Space Progress](https://jatan.space/tag/indian-space-progress) reports. Sponsors help fund said works monetarily and get acknowledged for the same in return. They also get a few non-promotional perks, all of which are listed below on this page. Sponsors, by design, DO NOT get any editorial leverage over my writings or any purely promotional perks such as sponsored messaging or ads. Moreover, if I happen to mention a sponsor in the content of a post, a clear disclaimer adjoins it stating that they sponsor the newsletter. These reasons are especially why I’m grateful to my sponsors who support my work primarily just because they want to. 3. Accepting monetary support does not necessarily imply I endorse the products, services or opinions of my sponsors. At the same time, sponsors DO NOT bear the weight of being seen as a supporter of opinions I express in my writings or editorial decisions I make. 4. Sponsors have the ability to receive the following perks at large in return for their monetary support. In every case, I manage the final wording of all information. 1. Sponsors get a logo on Jatan’s Space’s [About page](https://jatan.space/about), linked to their website. 2. Sponsors get [acknowledgement credits](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-168/#china-set-to-launch-queqiao-2) in newsletter editions. 3. Sponsors get a yearly brief [welcome message](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-236/) to introduce them to my readers. 4. Sponsors can list some *factual dispatches* in newsletter editions, such as job listings and event announcements. These never contain use of adjectives or any such ad-like messaging. 5. Sponsors can separately ask me to write an article on a *theme* of their choice but specifically not on their product in any way. Such an article is written without their editorial involvement. For a piece that best demonstrates such an example, see “[*Past mistakes to avoid in our grand return to the Moon this decade*](https://jatan.space/past-lunar-mission-mistakes-to-avoid/)*”.* This perk of [sponsoring an article](https://jatan.space/commission-an-article) is available to individuals as well, at a lower cost than to organizations. 5. I accept sponsorships only from organizations that are pro-science, pro-space, and pro-Moon, and are doing a legitimate business or activity. I do not accept sponsorships from organizations purely in the defense sector, or from dedicated subsidiaries to that effect. Alas, space technology *is* dual-use and political by its very nature, and so attaining a complete refrain of affiliation from any defense-related organization at all is possible in principle. In any case, I only cover developments where civil space is involved. 6. Sponsors don’t get access to email addresses of any subscribers, or any such related personal stats for that matter. What I do and will share with potential sponsors are several bulk stats, such as the total number of subscribers of my newsletters and their overall open rates, none of which is individually identifying information in any way. Nevertheless, I offer all readers an option to [subscribe to my blog via RSS](https://jatan.space/feeds) so you don’t need to take my word for it. 7. In my regular coverage when I write about an organization which is a sponsor of my writing, I disclaim them being a sponsor [in parentheses](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-239/#science-does-not-exist-in-a-lunar-vacuum) or provide a [full disclaimer](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-246/#more-moon) itself whenever necessary. Note that as stated above, such organizations cannot sponsor any particular coverage, only the newsletter as a whole. 8. I accept support [from individuals](https://jatan.space/support) too. The kind of people who personally support my work has been gratifying. If that includes you, I extend a heartfelt thank you. 9. I seek multiple sponsors to reduce dependence on any individual organization. 10. I disclose the name of every sponsor that donates to me at least $1000 in a year. In an unlikely event that a circumstance causes me to consider otherwise, I’ll say that someone or some organization has donated an amount X and share the reason for granting them anonymity. There hasn’t been such a case so far. 11. Jatan’s Space contains all space articles I’ve written, for the convenience of my readers to [follow](https://jatan.space/subscribe), [browse](https://jatan.space/start/), and [search](https://jatan.space/search) across my work as well as for the purposes of archival and redundancy. The writings on Jatan’s Space are absolutely free to access by everyone. This includes syndicated versions of [articles I’ve written for publications](https://jatan.space/published). In every such case, I honor the publication-required hold period before republishing my work on here. The typical hold period demanded by media publications is 24 or 48 hours, and sometimes much more. 12. I do not own shares of any space companies, public or private, primarily to keep my writing unbiased. If this state changes, I will declare the same here. I wish for more publishers, writers, and creators to reveal beforehand if they have any such vested interests. 13. If I formally consult for a space company, I disclose it in on [its page](https://jatan.space/consulting) and in a relevant new article, newsletter or post I publish as soon as possible, after having seeked and received due permissions in the agreement. If at any point you find a discrepancy in my work with regards to the ethical standards I’ve laid out above, or if you want to make me aware of a major element I haven’t considered, please reach out to me: [Email me: hey@jatan.space](mailto:hey@jatan.space) Thank you for your time, care, and curiosity. ### Space Poetry URL: https://jatan.space/poetry/ Last updated: 2026-04-23T13:30:50.000Z ### Read my globally published pamphlet of space poetry. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/share-seven-universes-poetry-qr-1.jpeg) #### Seven uni-verses (booklet) By [****Jatan Mehta**](https://jatan.space/about). Poetry on all that space evokes. [About & Read →](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/) > *On our Moon* > *from where the Sun never shines,* > *a new era will dawn.* ### [*An ode to our Moon*](https://jatan.space/an-ode-to-our-moon/) ### [*Triple sunset*](https://jatan.space/triple-sunset/) ### [*Does life really have a purpose?*](https://jatan.space/the-purpose-of-life/) ### [*Space dreams*](https://jatan.space/space-dreams/) ### [*The dawn of your light*](https://jatan.space/the-dawn-of-your-light/) ### [*More verses →*](https://jatan.space/tag/verses/) *–* [*Jatan Mehta*](https://jatan.space/about) ### Where my writing has been quoted and cited URL: https://jatan.space/quoted-and-cited/ Last updated: 2026-09-03T14:04:00.000Z My [independent space writing](https://jatan.space/about) has been quoted and/or cited globally in books, within published research, by ISRO, by media outlets like Nature, on Wikipedia, and more. I list many of these below, something I’m proud of. If you like the quality of my writing and journalism for space communities worldwide, please [support my work](https://jatan.space/support) since I keep everything absolutely free to access for everyone and display zero ads. Reader-supported writing is difficult but the best. **Jump to:** 1. [Books](https://jatan.space/quoted-and-cited/#books) 2. [Research papers and documents](https://jatan.space/quoted-and-cited/#research-papers-and-documents) 3. [Public good and commons](https://jatan.space/quoted-and-cited/#public-good-and-commons) 4. [Communities](https://jatan.space/quoted-and-cited/#communities) 5. [Media outlets](https://jatan.space/quoted-and-cited/#media-outlets) 6. [Bloggers and creators](https://jatan.space/quoted-and-cited/#bloggers-and-creators) ## Books - [Reaching for the Moon: Lessons from the Chandrayaan Missions](https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/241496754-reaching-for-the-moon), by Menaka Raman - [The Skeptics’ Guide to the Future](https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/60021453-the-skeptics-guide-to-the-future), by Steven Novella et al. - [Those Magnificent Women and their Flying Machines](https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/44578585-those-magnificent-women-and-their-flying-machines), by Minnie Vaid - [All You Want To Know About The Moon](https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/188313149-all-you-want-to-know-about-the-moon), by Ramesh Shishu - [Technocapitalism](https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/190855026-technocapitalism), by Loretta Napoleoni - [Space to Grow](https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/205959835-space-to-grow), by Matthew Weinzierl & Brendan Rosseau - [Climate Change and Life](https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/125636181-climate-change-and-life), by Gabriel M. Filippelli - and more ## Research papers and documents - [2025 Lunar Policy Snapshot](https://lunarpolicyplatform.org/s/2025-Lunar-Policy-Snapshot.pdf), by the Lunar Policy Platform - [Lunar Servicing, Assembly, and Manufacturing; Legal and Environmental Issues](https://digitalcommons.law.uga.edu/gjicl/vol53/iss2/3/), by Francesca Giannoni-Crystal - [Lunar Refueling: Legal Issues and Suggested Solutions](https://repository.law.umich.edu/jlm/vol2025/iss1/2/), by Francesca Giannoni-Crystal - [Moonstruck! International Aspirations in Cislunar Space](https://csps.aerospace.org/papers/moonstruck-international-aspirations-cislunar-space), by Angie Bukley and Colleen Stover for the Center for Space Policy and Strategy - [Understanding the Lunar Governance Challenge](https://web.archive.org/web/20250319143052/https://takshashila.org.in/research/understanding-the-lunar-governance-challenge), by Adithya Ramanathan - [A Quad Space Station for India?](https://takshashila.org.in/content/publications/20221104-Examining-the-Opportunities-and-Challenges-for-India’s-Human-Spaceflight-Programme.html) by Pranav Satyanath - [LUX-Thermal: A Heat Storage, Management and Distribution System on the Lunar Surface](https://doi.org/10.32865/2346/102737), by Tobias Flecht, et al. - and more Here’s my [Google Scholar profile](https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=VhCabS4AAAAJ&hl=en). ## Public good and commons - [Wikipedia](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?search=%22mehta%2C+jatan%22&title=Special%3ASearch&profile=advanced&fulltext=1&ns0=1) - NASA pages on [Moon Phases](https://science.nasa.gov/moon/moon-phases/) and [Moon Formation](https://science.nasa.gov/moon/formation/) - [ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/UnionCabinetApprovesIndiasMission.html) ## Communities - [Lunar-L](https://academicweb.nd.edu/~cneal/Lunar-L/) - [NextGen](https://nextgenlunar.space/resources) - [Moon Village Association](https://moonvillageassociation.org) - [Spaceport SARABHAI](https://www.spaceportsarabhai.org/#perspectives) ## Media outlets and organizations - [Nature](https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-02685-4) - [Nature newsletter](https://mailchi.mp/nature/daily-briefing-13896088) - [The Hindu](https://web.archive.org/web/20191222143752/https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/landers-are-always-on-slippery-slope/article29363044.ece) - [NPR](https://www.npr.org/2023/08/22/1195289242/india-is-set-to-land-a-robotic-probe-on-the-moon-tomorrow) - [China in Space](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/in-space-with-indonesia-possibly) - [Ars Technica](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/08/rocket-report-europe-splashes-some-cash-on-launch-startups-pallas-1-nears-debut/) - [Open Magazine](https://openthemagazine.com/feature/gaganyaan-indias-next-space-odyssey/) - The Indian Express: [One](https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-sci-tech/why-india-sign-artemis-accords-significance-8808051/), [Two](https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-sci-tech/lunar-time-standard-moon-9260264/) - [The New Indian Express](https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/2025/Jun/26/ax-4-opens-doors-for-space-stations-commercial-missions) - [Hindustan Times](https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/chandrayaan-2-orbiter-on-track-as-window-to-relink-with-lander-shrinks/story-fmVkW2XGRnnf3JBMauI86O.html) - [The Planetary Society](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/the-moons-nearside-and-farside-2) - [Open Lunar Foundation](https://www.openlunar.org/projects/education-and-outreach) - and more ## Bloggers and creators - [Universe Today](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pygx-mseIZY&t=1022s) - The Orbital Index: [One](https://orbitalindex.com/archive/2026-01-07-Issue-350/), [Two](https://orbitalindex.com/archive/2025-09-10-Issue-335/), [Three](https://orbitalindex.com/archive/2024-06-19-Issue-274/), [Four](https://orbitalindex.com/archive/2024-03-06-Issue-259/) - Root Privileges: [One](https://rootprivileges.net/2025/07/15/watch-the-celebrations-on-mute/), [Two](https://rootprivileges.net/2024/08/26/psa-about-business-today/), [Three](https://rootprivileges.net/2024/03/06/to-the-moon-or-the-stock-market/), [Four](https://rootprivileges.net/2023/08/20/luna-25/) - [Moon and Beyond](https://moonandbeyond.blog/p/two-landers-one-mission-2025-lunar-exploration-begins-2) - [The Space Race](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-yrO%5FbD9YXo) - [Demux’d Thoughts](https://adithyapani.substack.com/p/mars-gets-a-network-moon-gets-a-market) - [Magic Pages](https://www.magicpages.co/podcast/episodes/what-is-magic-pages/) - and more ### Seven uni-verses: Poetry on all that space evokes URL: https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/ Last updated: 2026-01-16T09:52:48.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/10/share-seven-universes-poetry-book-2.jpeg) #### Seven uni-verses (booklet) By [****Jatan Mehta**](https://jatan.space/about). Poetry on all that space evokes. [Read for Free](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry-read/) ***Seven uni-verses*** is a pamphlet of poems dedicated to humanity’s exploration of the universe. There’s nothing quite as bold and beautiful as committing to venturing the brutal colossal desolation that is space. Every (civil) space launch carries not just hardware but hope. The act of exploring the void makes humans special. As someone who has [dedicated his work life to space](https://jatan.space/about), I’ve written these verses over the years to attempt and capture the sheer intensity of emotions and intellectual ambition the cosmos and its exploration evokes. I love poetry, and have an innate desire to merge it with my first love—space. While my poems are intended to be read by everyone, many lines allude to technical concepts for those in the know to savor. A few key references as well as backstories are mentioned in the endnotes. About me: I’m a [globally published](https://jatan.space/published) and [cited](https://jatan.space/quoted-and-cited/) space writer & journalist, and [invited speaker](https://jatan.space/talks/). I author [Moon Monday](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday), the world’s only blog & newsletter dedicated to the exploration of our Moon by countries worldwide. ## Get your copy for free *Seven uni-verses* is available worldwide in multiple formats to support [enhanced accessibility](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/#values), which is important to make reading equitable. To that end, I’m also providing the booklet officially for free digitally and at minimal cost in print. :) Ebook, Print, Audio, Libraries, and Public Archives: [Get Seven uni-verses ✨ ](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry-read/) ## Bookmark and Review - [*Goodreads*](https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/242135025-seven-uni-verses) *|* [*Open Library*](https://openlibrary.org/books/OL60292587M/Seven%5Funi-verses) - [*Fable*](https://fable.co/book/seven-uni-verses-by-jatan-mehta-9789334418880) *|* [*StoryGraph*](https://app.thestorygraph.com/books/8193e0bd-0a1c-42c0-b530-0af9c65a2ad3) *|* [*Hardcover*](https://hardcover.app/books/seven-uni-verses) *|* [*Literal*](https://literal.club/book/jatan-mehta-seven-uni-verses-h4101) - [*Bookwyrm*](https://bookwyrm.social/book/2116170/s/seven-uni-verses) *|* [*Micro.blog*](https://micro.blog/books/9789334418880) - *Search for ISBN number *9789334418880* in book tracking apps* Getting my poetry pamphlet out in the world in an independent manner has also helped me lay the foundation for the next phase of my space writing: [Merge the worlds of blogs and books](https://jatan.space/presenting-seven-uni-verses-poetry/#merging-the-worlds-of-blogs-and-books). Get notified of ****new books & articles** I publish for free: [or use RSS →](https://jatan.space/feeds) ## Values ***Accessibility*** The Ebook supports multiple accessibility needs, including resizable text, image descriptions, font options in Epub, and multiple devices. There are also diverse formats. Moreover, the book is being offered free of DRM restrictions so you can download it from my website, and consume and archive it in your preferred way. These terms do not support or encourage piracy. Also see copyleft note below. ***Copyleft*** The core text of this book—the poems—are published under the freedom-supporting [CC BY-SA 4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) license. This means you’re free to adapt & repurpose my poetry and (re)distribute it as long as you credit me as the author of the original text, and as long as your adaptation is available under the same license for others to do the same. Visit the [Creative Commons terms](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) for specifics of this particular license and [contact me](https://jatan.space/connect) for any queries or doubts. ***Open access*** To support global open access, and in the same vein as [my blog](https://jatan.space/about), I’m making the Ebook and PDF of Seven uni-verses *available for free* on my website. The book is also listed on multiple online platforms worldwide for $0 wherever allowed. For print versions where the distribution costs cannot be $0, and for online platforms like Amazon which don’t allow a $0 listing, I’m providing the book at minimum viable prices which cover printing & binding costs, distribution charges, various platform fees, their royalty cuts, and myriad currency conversions. This effort is over and above catering to accessibility needs as well as releasing the core text of my work under the freedom-supporting license described above. If you like what you read and find value in my ****open access** approach to publishing this as well as future books worldwide, kindly directly support independent writing & journalism as a reader: [Support my work 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### Read Seven uni-verses: Poetry on all that space evokes URL: https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry-read/ Last updated: 2026-01-21T08:11:36.000Z *My poetry pamphlet* [***Seven uni-verses***](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/) *is published worldwide in ebook, print, audio, libraries, and public archives. I’m making it available as* [*open access*](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/#values)*, officially for free digitally and at minimal cost in print.* :) *–* [*Jatan*](https://jatan.space/about) [Format: Epub (Free)Download and enjoy on your e-reader.seven-uni-verses-poetry-jatan-mehta-ebook.epub3 MBdownload-circle](https://jatan.space/content/files/2026/01/seven-uni-verses-poetry-jatan-mehta-ebook.epub "Download") [Format: PDF (Free)Print it if you like.seven-uni-verses-poetry-jatan-mehta-ebook.pdf3 MBdownload-circle](https://jatan.space/content/files/2026/01/seven-uni-verses-poetry-jatan-mehta-ebook.pdf "Download") [Read on the Web](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry-read/#web) ## Get your copy - [Ebook](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry-read/#ebook) - [Paperback](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry-read/#paperback) - [Audiobook](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry-read/#audiobook) - [Libraries](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry-read/#libraries) - [Public Archives](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry-read/#public-archives) If you like what you read and find value in my [open access approach](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/#values) to publishing this as well as future books worldwide, kindly directly support independent writing & journalism as a reader: [Support my work 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ## Ebook Reading *Seven uni-verses* as an Ebook on a digital device will provide you with an enriched experience since the embedded links inside the booklet are clickable to feed your curiosity and enable discovery. The Ebook also supports [enhanced accessibility](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/#values), which is important to make reading equitable. ***On reading platforms globally*** - [*Kobo*](https://www.kobo.com/ebook/seven-uni-verses) *|* [*Fable*](https://fable.co/book/seven-uni-verses-by-jatan-mehta-9789334418880) *|* [*Smashwords*](https://www.smashwords.com/books/view/1863631) - [*Apple*](https://books.apple.com/us/book/seven-uni-verses/id6753005820) *|* [*Google*](https://play.google.com/store/books/details?id=PaKJEQAAQBAJ) *|* [*Barnes & Noble*](https://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/seven-uni-verses-jatan-mehta/1148410632?ean=9789334418880) - [*Indigo*](https://www.indigo.ca/en-ca/seven-uni-verses-poetry-on-all-that-space-evokes/c55bd57d-5518-3c4d-b10e-3a82878bf1f1.html) *|* [*Lulu*](https://www.lulu.com/shop/jatan-mehta/seven-uni-verses/ebook/product-e7dv6d6.html?page=1&pageSize=4) *|* [*Leanpub*](https://leanpub.com/seven-universes-poetry-jatan-mehta) *|* [*Everand*](https://www.everand.com/book/924176602/Seven-uni-verses-Poetry-on-all-that-space-evokes) - [*Ebooks.com*](https://www.ebooks.com/en-in/book/347021144/seven-uni-verses/jatan-mehta/) *|* [*Thalia*](https://www.thalia.de/shop/home/artikeldetails/A1076967223) *|* [*Vivlio*](https://shop.vivlio.com/product/9789334418880%5F9789334418880%5F10020/seven-uni-verses) *|* [*Pothi*](https://store.pothi.com/book/ebook-jatan-mehta-seven-uni-verses/) - [*Kindle*](https://books2read.com/u/mVO99P?store=amazon&format=EBOOK) *(Amazon, the only one which disallows a free listing..)* *Search for the ebook’s ISBN number *9789334418880* on your preferred website.* --- ## Paperback For print, the distribution costs cannot be $0\. So I’m providing the book at minimum viable prices which cover printing & binding costs, distribution charges, various platform fees, their royalty cuts, and myriad currency conversions. ***India*** - [*Pothi*](https://store.pothi.com/book/jatan-mehta-seven-uni-verses/) *|* [*Flipkart*](https://www.flipkart.com/seven-uni-verses-poetry-all-space-evokes/p/itm79e93094348d2) *|* [*Amazon*](https://www.amazon.in/dp/9334448830) ***International*** - [*Bookshop*](https://bookshop.org/p/books/seven-uni-verses-poetry-on-all-that-space-evokes-jatan-mehta/06e6f2dce227b625) *(IndieBound) |* [*Lulu*](https://www.lulu.com/shop/jatan-mehta/seven-uni-verses/paperback/product-45jvvyp.html) *|* [*BAM!*](https://www.booksamillion.com/p/Seven-uni-verses/Jatan-Mehta/9789334432558) *|* [*Powell’s*](https://www.powells.com/book/seven-uni-verses-poetry-on-all-that-space-evokes-9789334432558) - [*Thalia*](https://www.thalia.de/shop/home/artikeldetails/A1077108004) *|* [*Agapea*](https://www.agapea.com/libros/Seven-uni-verses-9789334432558-i.htm) *|* [*Foyles*](https://www.foyles.co.uk/book/seven-uni-verses/jatan-mehta/9789334432558) *|* [*Waterstones*](https://www.waterstones.com/book/seven-uni-verses/jatan-mehta/9789334432558) - [*Booktopia*](https://www.booktopia.com.au/seven-uni-verses-jatan-mehta/book/9789334432558.html)*|* [*Wheelers*](https://www.wheelersbooks.com.au/product/Seven-universes-Poetry-on-all-that-space-evokes-Jatan-Mehta/9789334432558) *|* [*Takealot*](https://www.takealot.com/seven-uni-verses/PLID99891694) - [*Amazon*](https://books2read.com/u/mVO99P?store=amazon-paperback&format=PAPERBACK) *|* [*Barnes & Noble*](https://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/seven-uni-verses-jatan-mehta/1148410632?ean=9789334432558) *|* [*Walmart*](https://www.walmart.com/ip/Seven-uni-verses-Poetry-on-all-that-space-evokes-Paperback/18106712222) *Search for the paperback’s ISBN number *9789334432558* on your preferred place.* --- ## Audiobook **Experimental**: Linked below is the audiobook of *Seven uni-verses*, provided for free to enable accessibility needs. Catering to the same has meant using a digitally synthesized voice—though one which has been human-guided. It’s not intended to replace a human narrator but rather seen as a low-cost enabler where otherwise there might not be a clearly accessible audio option of the book at all. ***Listen on*** - [*Google Play Books*](https://play.google.com/store/audiobooks/details?id=AQAAAECqX0of8M) - [*Barnes & Noble*](https://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/seven-uni-verses-audiobook-jatan-mehta/1148504586) - [*Spotify*](https://open.spotify.com/show/6GKqWuyHQMesC5LvmjhmvV) - [*Everand*](https://www.everand.com/audiobook/931487095/Seven-uni-verses-Audiobook-Poetry-on-all-that-space-evokes) --- ## Libraries - [*OverDrive*](https://www.overdrive.com/media/12381049/seven-uni-verses) *|* [*WorldCat*](https://search.worldcat.org/title/1543027357) - [*CloudLibrary*](https://ebook.yourcloudlibrary.com/library/oclc/detail/a23at3r9) *|* [*Hoopla*](https://www.hoopladigital.com/ebook/seven-uni-verses-jatan-mehta/18774405) - [*Palace Marketplace*](https://market.thepalaceproject.org/item/7010630) ## Public Archives For posterity. - [*Internet Archive*](https://archive.org/details/seven-uni-verses-ebook-jatan-mehta) - [*Google Books*](https://www.google.com/books/edition/Seven%5Funi%5Fverses/PaKJEQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0&kptab=overview) - [*Z-Library*](https://z-library.sk/book/123572829/7ea917/seven-universes-poetry.html)*, legally, since I’m the author* :) --- ## Web ****Note:** For full context, please read the full book only from the sections above. The pages linked below are for quick reference on the web, and for sharing individual poems. - ***Chapters*** - [*An ode to our Moon*](https://jatan.space/an-ode-to-our-moon/) - [*Triple sunset*](https://jatan.space/triple-sunset/) - [*Does life really have a purpose?*](https://jatan.space/the-purpose-of-life/) - [*Space dreams*](https://jatan.space/space-dreams/) - [*Hope in desolation*](https://jatan.space/hope-in-desolation/) - [***Internet Archive***](https://archive.org/details/seven-uni-verses-ebook-jatan-mehta/page/n1/mode/1up) There’s also [automatic audio](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2b%5Fa9jtZU5s&list=PLDIYuWK6FJ1r79TdzQXfF4m9%5FV1t4ioHe&index=1) for accessibility needs. --- Thank you for reading my words. :) Get notified of new books & articles I publish for free: [or use RSS →](https://jatan.space/feeds) If you like what you read and find value in my [open access approach](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/#values) to publishing this as well as future books worldwide, kindly directly support independent writing & journalism as a reader: [Support my work 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/share-seven-universes-poetry-qr-3.jpeg) #### Seven uni-verses (booklet) By [****Jatan Mehta**](https://jatan.space/about). Poetry on all that space evokes. [About & Review →](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/) ### NASA Lunar Trailblazer Anomaly Review Board Report URL: https://jatan.space/nasa-lunar-trailblazer-failure-report-pdf/ Last updated: 2026-03-09T12:07:07.000Z [NASA Lunar Trailblazer Anomaly Review Board ReportPDFlunar-trailblazer-anomaly-review-board-report.pdf3 MBdownload-circle](https://jatan.space/content/files/2026/03/lunar-trailblazer-anomaly-review-board-report.pdf "Download") Source: [NPR / NASA](https://www.npr.org/2026/02/26/nx-s1-5727622/nasa-lunar-trailblazer-moon-new-report-what-went-wrong) ## Posts ### Moon Monday #292: An obsessively linked rundown of recent global lunar exploration and cooperation updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-292/ Last updated: 2026-09-14T10:52:26.000Z ## Mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/09/long-march-5-wenchang-chang-e-7-first-launch-attempt-1.jpg) Beautiful shot of the Long March 5 rocket housing the Chang’e 7 spacecraft, imaged around its first lunar launch attempt in August at Wenchang | [Image: NARIT](https://www.narit.or.th/th/PressRelease-20260824-CE-7-MATCH) - The launch of China’s [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-248/) mission, intending to systematically study [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon, was first delayed from late August 2026 [to September](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/change-7-moon-mission-delayed-by) due to poor weather conditions from a tropical depression but later [delayed entirely to early next year](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/change-7-moon-launch-moved-to-early) without CMSA stating any specific reason. Jack Congram [notes](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/state-owned-firms-vow-to-improve) that the delay does take place against the background of quality issues facing China’s launch vehicles this year, amid otherwise [successful](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/china-recovers-rocket-booster-debuts) [streaks](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/landspace-recovers-chinas-second). The Sino government says it’s [keen on resolving issues across the board](https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/RuzVA%5FUTV%5FQS-Et45aFrqg). - This means the next lunar mission launching this year could thus be Astrobotic’s large [Griffin CLPS lander](https://www.astrobotic.com/griffin), which aims to land on the Moon’s south pole. It will deploy the [FLIP rover](https://www.astrolab.space/flip-rover/) by Astrolab (a Moon Monday sponsor), who [onboarded last year](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-212/) after NASA [decided not to fly](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/#viper-rover-delivery-by-astrobotic) the critical [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) for studying water ice aboard Griffin. FLIP is yet to be integrated with Griffin, which will take place [pre-launch at SpaceX’s facilities](https://www.astrobotic.com/griffin-1-lunar-lander-unveiled-ahead-of-environmental-testing/). Astrobotic has so far shared that it has integrated three of the other lander payloads: [NASA’s Navigation Doppler LiDAR](https://www.astrobotic.com/ndl-integrated-with-griffin-1/) (NDL) which will aid Griffin’s navigation, the company’s own [CubeRover](https://www.astrobotic.com/cuberover-integrates-with-griffin-1/), and [ESA’s LandCam-X](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2022/09/Landcam-X) which will help improve landing precision. [Astrobotic was acquired by Voyager Technologies](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-to-join-voyager-technologies-accelerating-americas-moon-base/) with a desire to position Griffin’s hoped-for success to bag more [Artemis Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-268/) contracts from NASA. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/08/astrobotic-voyager-space-griffin-lander-2026.jpg) The first Griffin lander at Astrobotic’s cleanroom facility in Pittsburgh, USA. [Image: Astrobotic](https://www.astrobotic.com/griffin-1-lunar-lander-unveiled-ahead-of-environmental-testing/) - Eric Berger [reports on an independent review](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/09/it-turns-out-that-orions-much-maligned-heat-shield-performed-really-well/) of the performance of the [Artemis II](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-270/) Orion capsule’s heat shield during its April descent to Earth with astronauts. The review found that NASA’s [decision to change the reentry profile](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-260/#the-heat-shield) for reducing the shield’s material loss worked quite well since said loss was about an order of magnitude lower than [seen during Artemis I](https://oig.nasa.gov/office-of-inspector-general-oig/audit-reports/nasas-readiness-for-the-artemis-ii-crewed-mission-to-lunar-orbit/). ***Related:** [**How NASA planned to keep Artemis II astronauts safe throughout their Moon mission*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-260/) 👨🏽‍🚀 - China [demonstrated](https://www.stdaily.com/web/gdxw/2026-08/26/content%5F570163.html) optical laser communications between a lunar orbiter and Earth, as part of its efforts to build a lunar navigation and communications network. Here’s a [comprehensive review](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-291/) of each major component China has demonstrated towards having such capabilities. China also [announced a constellation](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/china-led-mission-to-deploy-scientific) of up to \~30 small satellites to monitor objects in cislunar (Earth-Moon) space and study the lunar environment, with foreign partners being invited to co-build satellites or payloads. ***Related:** [**A comprehensive review*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-291/) *of each major component China has demonstrated towards having such capabilities.* 🛰️ - US-based Zeno Power Systems [will fly a 5-watt Radioisotope Heater Unit](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-aerospace-onboards-zeno-power-on-blue-ghost-mission-to-demonstrate-radioisotope-technologies-to-survive-the-lunar-night/) (RHU) on a Firefly lunar lander, possibly [on a 2028 mission](https://fireflyspace.com/missions/blue-ghost-lunar-near-side/) to the Moon’s nearside as part of the NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). - The Advanced-Space-led and NASA-funded team behind the [CAPSTONE-02](https://advancedspace.com/advanced-space-is-heading-back-to-the-moon-for-nasa-with-new-mission-capstone-02/) mission [announced](https://advancedspace.com/advanced-space-completes-critical-design-review-milestone-for-capstone-02/) the successful completion of the Critical Design Review (CDR) phase. The mission aims to launch in 2027 and demonstrate rendezvous and docking of two satellites in lunar orbit as well as advance autonomous navigation capabilities. - Russia’s near-future lunar exploration plans [still involve](https://tass.com/science/2152141) launching the polar reconnaissance orbiter of [Luna 26](https://www.laspace.ru/en/activities/projects/luna-resurs-oa/?ELEMENT%5FCODE=luna-resurs-oa). Its primary goal after launching circa 2027 is to map our Moon’s surface in multiple wavelengths at high resolutions. Luna 26 is expected to operate for one year in a low lunar orbit at 60 to 80 kilometers, and for two years in higher orbits of 150 to 200 kilometers. Luna 26 will particularly help scientists better grasp the distribution of [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s poles, which will be useful data to help plan the China-led [ILRS Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/) project of which Russia is a member. Another major goal of Luna 26 is to measure and characterize the radiation and plasma environment around the Moon. Luna 26’s instruments are listed below. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/05/luna-26-instruments-andrei-sadovski-galaxy-forum.jpg) Slide presented at the [2024 Galaxy Forum, China](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-205/). Slide credit: Andrei Sadovski / IKI / RAS - Jack Congram [reports](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/wenchang-space-forum-takes-place) that launch complex infrastructure at the Wenchang spaceport for China’s [Long March 10](https://english.www.gov.cn/news/202508/15/content%5FWS689eec3dc6d0868f4e8f4dcb.html) rocket, which will [launch taikonauts to the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-267/), has been progressing well ahead of a first robotic test launch in H2 2027. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/09/wenchang-launch-complex-jan-2026-1.jpg) The Wenchang space launch complex as captured by an orbiting WorldView Legion satellite in January 2026\. | [Image: Vantor](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/wenchang-space-forum-takes-place) ## Cooperation and collaboration - A joint [German-US-Israeli study](https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adz1892) has found that on NASA’s [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-i/) mission, the [test vest worn by a mannequin](https://blogs.esa.int/orion/2023/01/20/first-radiation-checks-on-female-phantoms-after-moon-ride/) onboard the Orion spacecraft was effective at [reducing radiation exposure by \~50%](https://blogs.esa.int/orion/2026/08/28/artemis-i-radiation-results-to-protect-astronauts/). The result is promising for using similar protective vests on long-duration lunar and deep space missions in the future, especially when [solar storms pass through](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-247/) the Earth-Moon space. This study complements [another Artemis I radiation evaluation](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-1/artemis-i-radiation-measurements-validate-orion-safety-for-astronauts/), which found that radiation exposure to future astronauts will vary not only based on time spent at locations within the capsule but also on Orion’s orientation in space. For example, [the paper said](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07927-7) that when Orion’s orientation was altered during an engine burn, exposure levels dropped nearly in half due to the highly directional nature of the radiation in the Van Allen belt. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/02/artemis-1-radiation-experiements.jpg) The Artemis I Orion spacecraft carried multiple radiation experiments onboard, including anatomically accurate female torsos, a protective radiation vest, and various radiation sensors. [Images: Stuart George, at al. / NASA / Lockheed Martin / DLR](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07927-7/figures/1) ***Related:** [**How ISRO’s Chandrayaan 2 orbiter is a Sun watcher at the Moon*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-247/) 🌗 - The US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords) for cooperative lunar exploration and [data sharing](https://www.nasa.gov/organizations/oiir/artemis-accords/nasa-boosts-open-science-data-sharing-with-artemis-accords/) onboarded three more signatories—[Serbia](https://www.nasa.gov/organizations/oiir/artemis-accords/nasa-welcomes-serbia-as-newest-artemis-accords-signatory/), [Mauritius](https://www.nasa.gov/organizations/oiir/artemis-accords/nasa-welcomes-mauritius-as-70th-artemis-accords-signatory/), and [Turkey](https://www.nasa.gov/organizations/oiir/artemis-accords/nasa-welcomes-turkiye-as-newest-artemis-accords-signatory/)—while the US President [claimed the Moon to be American territory](https://web.archive.org/web/20260906215020/https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/posts/117225384741591978). The latter went completely unreported by many western space and technology media outlets who otherwise cover equivalent statements by officials on the other side of the world. Anyway, the total number of signee nations of the Accords are now 71\. The [cancellation](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-268/) of the NASA-led Gateway international lunar habitat though has already previously demonstrated that the Accords have little bearing on preserving international partnerships in the Artemis program, much less flourishing them. ESA and Northrop Grumman are looking into [repurposing](https://spacenews.com/esa-opens-call-to-repurpose-gateway-communications-module/) their [respective Gateway elements](https://spacenews.com/northrop-grumman-canadian-space-agency-repurpose-their-gateway-projects/) as independent lunar missions. - NASA [invited India](https://www.isro.gov.in/India%5FUS%5FCivil%5FSpace%5FJoint%5Fmeeting%5Fat%5FISRO.html) to join the [Artemis Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-268/) program. [As has China](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-225/) last year for the [ILRS Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/). So far, India has [signed](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-133/) the Artemis Accords but not China’s equivalent program. [ISRO has been aiding NASA](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/#isro-aids-artemis) in crewed Moon landing site selections for Artemis. Any new cooperation intent though is only on paper for now so we will have to wait and see what actually manifests as time goes by. ***Related:** [**How the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter helped Japan nail SLIM’s Moon landing*](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/) 🎯 ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/09/artemis-iii-nine-landing-region-candidates.jpg) The nine candidate sites for the [Artemis IV](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-264/) crewed Moon landing mission. Image: [NASA / GSFC / ASU / LRO](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-provides-update-on-artemis-iii-moon-landing-regions/) - In collaboration with IBM and several academic institutions, NASA has [launched open-source AI models](https://science.nasa.gov/science-research/artificial-intelligence-lunar-foundation-model/) built specifically to aid lunar science. Trained primarily on sections of data from NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lro/) (LRO), the agency claims that the [open](https://github.com/NASA-IMPACT/NASA-IBM-Lunar-Foundation-Model) [models](https://huggingface.co/collections/nasa-ibm-ai4science/nasa-ibm-lunar-fm-and-downstream-models) will help accelerate geologic studies of the Moon. - China has [established joint laboratories](https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/Y1THSVzfZLqfrjLQbHiqxg) with Thailand and Serbia for lunar science and exploration studies. - [An overview of international mechanisms related to the Moon](https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/oosadoc/data/documents/2026/aac.1052026crp/aac.1052026crp.33%5F0.html) --- **Many thanks to* [***Catalyx Space**](https://catalyx.space) *and* ***Elisa Perednia** [**of ILOA*](https://iloa.org/about-us/) *for sponsoring* [**Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday)**. If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly* [**support*](https://jatan.space/support) *my independent writing as it’s purely reader-funded. I don’t use AI to write a single word and* [**cite everything*](https://jatan.space/i-write-for-you/)**.* [Support Moon Monday 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### China is building a lunar navigation and communications network. Lasers shine again in latest demonstration. URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-291/ Last updated: 2026-09-09T09:18:30.000Z China [announced](https://www.stdaily.com/web/gdxw/2026-08/26/content%5F570163.html) last month that it has demonstrated two-way optical laser communications between Earth and its DRO-A satellite, which was launched in 2024 and put in a stable [Distant Retrograde Orbit](https://skyriddles.wordpress.com/2022/01/25/change-5-returns-to-the-moon/) (DRO). Earlier this year during NASA’s [Artemis II](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-270/) mission, the Orion spacecraft [demonstrated](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-2/nasa-laser-terminal-enhances-views-during-artemis-ii-mission/) the same high-data-rate communications technology at 2.5 times DRO-A’s downlink speed of 100Mbps. The technology could be used by each country to get high quality streams of astronaut landings on the Moon [of China](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-267/) and [the USA](https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/artemis/) respectively later this decade and early next. Jack Congram has [reported](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/china-demos-two-way-laser-link-with) additional context on China’s optical communications advancements with satellites in Earth orbit. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/09/dro-a-lunar-optical-communications-demonstration.jpeg) Graphic showing components of the Earth-Moon optical laser communications demonstrated by China’s DRO-A satellite. [Image: CSU / CAS](https://www.stdaily.com/web/gdxw/2026-08/26/content%5F570163.html) Optical communication is one part of the stack of technologies required in building a comprehensive lunar navigation and communications (navcom) network. Last year, China cemented and further advanced its multi-component lead in building and demonstrating parts of such a network, which included autonomous navigation at the Moon, and achieving the first ever daytime Earth-Moon laser distance measurements with a lunar orbiter. This article explains the rationale for building a lunar navcom network, and summarizes and contextualizes each major component China has demonstrated towards the same. ## Queqiao, China’s ambition to build a lunar navcom constellation Under the collective label Queqiao, Chinese technologists have been [conducting studies](http://journal26.magtechjournal.com/kjkxjs/EN/10.16708/j.cnki.1000-758X.2024.0035) for a phased constellation of over a dozen satellites around the Moon. \[In Chinese mythology, Queqiao is a bridge formed for the reunion of lovers after a long separation.\] Such a satellite constellation would provide [high-precision navigation](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3270195/satnav-system-moon-chinese-scientists-plot-possible-route) as well as [high-bandwidth communications](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3270910/chinese-scientists-propose-information-superhighway-between-earth-and-moon) services to lunar missions, as a “bridge” between Earth and the Moon which touts high area coverage & redundancy. [Earlier studies](https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4102-9%5F86) focused on a navcom constellation that optimizes coverage availability for the [lunar south pole](https://jatan.space/the-lunar-south-pole-needs-global-data-sharing/), where most of the upcoming major robotic and crewed missions are expected to take place. The primary intent of Queqiao is to support China’s ambitious [crewed lunar surface missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-267/) and then a full-fledged Moonbase called the [International Lunar Research Station](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/) (ILRS). Related work also involves China developing capabilities to [monitor and track spacecraft](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/china-led-mission-to-deploy-scientific) across cislunar space, which is the region of space enveloping Earth and the Moon. The US intends to have similar capabilities, starting with the launch of Advanced Space’s [Oracle spacecraft](https://advancedspace.com/afrl-cislunar-mission-progresses-through-key-milestones/) later this decade as a cislunar traffic monitor. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/07/china-lunar-navcom-constellation-concept-1.jpg) A three-stage concept for developing a cislunar navigation and communications constellation as proposed by Chinese researchers. [Image: SCMP](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3270910/chinese-scientists-propose-information-superhighway-between-earth-and-moon) Since 2018, China has deployed two communications relay orbiters around the Moon, called [Queqiao 1](https://www.planetary.org/articles/0519-change-4-relay-satellite) and [Queqiao 2](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-169/). They relayed communications for the [Chang’e 4](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/change-4) and [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) missions respectively on the [Moon’s farside](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). The US is yet to demonstrate this capability. Queqiao 2 will also relay communications for China’s upcoming [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-248/) and [Chang’e 8](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/#prepare-for-crew-and-double-down-with-mission-eight) lunar landers, which CMSA (and [not CNSA anymore](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/change-missions-are-now-managed-by)) is now targeting to launch in [2027](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/change-7-moon-launch-moved-to-early) and 2028 respectively. Also, the Queqiao 2 launch carried two experimental Tiandu CubeSats, which [entered lunar orbit too](https://twitter.com/AJ%5FFI/status/1772184355357467099) to perform laser-based distance ranging and more, as elaborated in later in this article. In all, the Queqiao 2 mission has been [testing and verifying technologies](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3250884/testing-testing-china-try-out-new-satellite-tech-change-6-lunar-mission) which will feed into China’s upcoming full-fledged navcom constellation. In a [paper published](https://doi.org/10.11728/cjss2024.03.2023-0129) in the Chinese Journal of Space Science, researchers proposed that China should integrate their Queqiao lunar satellites with the existing Earthbound Tianlian ones, which notably serve China’s Tiangong space station, among other things. As Andrew Jones had [highlighted](https://spacenews.com/china-could-develop-dual-relay-satellite-system-for-earth-moon-communications-to-reduce-geopolitical-risks/), the proposal’s driving rationale is to substantially improve surface coverage time and area for China’s upcoming ambitious [crewed lunar missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-267/) and then for the [ILRS Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/). It would also allow redundancy if and when China faces ground station availability issues from its terrestrial partners across the globe. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/09/proposed-earth-moon-communications-links-for-ilrs-by-china.jpg) An illustration showing proposed Earth-Moon communications links for China’s planned Moonbase, the International Lunar Research Station. [Image: Zhenhe Wang et al.](https://doi.org/10.11728/cjss2024.03.2023-0129) ## Why build a navcom constellation around the Moon? For one, such a system can enable cost-effective Moon missions since several spacecraft would no longer necessarily need to carry hefty communications hardware and rent as much ground infrastructure. Partner nations with smaller space budgets can take advantage of such a network to send their own lunar missions at lower costs, including to the [less explored](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) farside. A navcom constellation can especially aid crew and hardware on the Moon’s poles by relaying communications, where direct Earth visibility is limited due to our planet being way lower on the horizon than for near-equatorial sites. A navcom constellation will also aid [future rovers](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-256/) hunting for [lunar water](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) by allowing them to stay connected as they venture inside [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/), where direct Earth visibility worsens further. Moreover, lunar navcom satellites can provide a [common time reference](https://web.archive.org/web/20230126063252/https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-00185-z) for the Moon, which would help swarms of lunar spacecraft [operate safely](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/timekeeping-blog). It would also improve the accuracy of lunar-based fundamental physics and astronomy experiments, including [farside radio astronomy](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-285/) measurements. Time synchronization between lunar satellites [has become increasingly important](https://jatan.space/a-registry-of-moon-missions/) to [coordinate orbits](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/timekeeping-blog) in order to operate safely. But a common lunar time of some sort will also enable synergistic operations. To both ends, last year Chinese researchers [released](https://github.com/xlucn/LTE440) a first-of-its-kind software package to enable engineers to coordinate Moon and Earth times for multiple lunar missions in an integrated fashion. The authors consider the timing accuracy of this initial work to be sufficient for coordinating spacecraft over the next decade, and note that improvements will follow. What’s commendable is that the software is public on [GitHub](https://github.com/xlucn/LTE440), and the paper describing the work and methodology [open access](https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202557345). The project is being funded by the Chinese government institutions of [CAS](https://english.cas.cn/) and [NSFC](https://www.nsfc.gov.cn/english/site%5F1/index.html). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/07/lunar-pathfinder-relay-service.jpg) Europe’s Lunar Pathfinder will relay communications between Earth and robotic mission hardware at the Moon as a commercial service. [Image: SSTL](https://www.esa.int/Applications/Navigation/Galileo%5Fwill%5Fhelp%5FLunar%5FPathfinder%5Fnavigate%5Faround%5FMoon) **Who else is planing lunar navcom constellations?** Other than China, ESA also aims to have a lunar navcom constellation with its [Moonlight](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-198/#moonlight-in-motion-and-contrasting-queqiao) initiative. The UK’s SSTL-built, 280-kilogram [Lunar Pathfinder](https://jatan.space/nasa-esa-collaborate-on-lunar-pathfinder/) orbiter will constitute ESA’s first Moonlight satellite out of five. It’s planned for launch [onboard Firefly’s second Moon mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-285/) part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) later this year or early next. ESA will be Moonlight’s [anchor customer](https://www.esa.int/Applications/Telecommunications%5FIntegrated%5FApplications/Wanted%5Ffirms%5Fto%5Fconnect%5Fand%5Fguide%5FMoon%5Fmissions) but expects European companies to actively commercially provide lunar navcom services to missions globally. On the US side, NASA is planning a navcom constellation called the [Lunar Communications Relay and Navigation Systems](https://www.nasa.gov/goddard/esc/lcrns/) (LCRNS). The first satellite in this network, Intuitive Machines’ [Altus-1](https://www.nasa.gov/technology/space-comms/nasa-delivers-navigation-system-for-commercial-lunar-relay/), will launch onboard the company’s [third CLPS lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-189/#nasa-clps-mission-to-a-magnetic-swirl-also-delayed) next year. Furthermore, ispace Japan and US-based Argo Corp had [announced](https://web.archive.org/web/20260414145854/https://www.ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=8731) this year that the duo aim to deploy at least five lunar navcom satellites by 2030, with the first one aimed for 2027. ## Against the odds, China achieved an Earth-Moon navigation link ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/04/dro-a-b-l-lunar-satellites-cas.jpg) ****Top left:** Illustration of the attached DRO-A and DRO-B small lunar satellites; ****Bottom left:** A schematic diagram of DRO-A, DRO-B, and Earthbound DRO-L spacecraft testing laser-based navigation between Earth and the Moon; ****Right:** DRO-A and DRO-B as imaged by the other spacecraft after entering lunar orbit showing their bent solar panels. Images: [CAS / CSU](https://danielmarin.naukas.com/2025/04/17/123-dias-de-rescate-en-el-espacio-cislunar-la-aventura-de-las-sondas-chinas-dro-a-y-dro-b/) / [Journal of Deep Space Exploration / SCMP](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3275415/china-space-engineers-kick-doomed-satellite-pair-life-lunar-orbit) China managed to put the aforementioned DRO-A spacecraft and its twin DRO-B into their intended lunar distant retrograde orbits (DRO) in 2024 [despite a failure](https://spacenews.com/surprise-chinese-lunar-mission-hit-by-launch-anomaly/) of the upper stage of their launch vehicle Long March 2C. Qiu Chenhui of China Youth Daily [reported](https://zqb.cyol.com/pad/content/202504/16/content%5F409832.html) based on a presentation in April last year by a Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) researcher Zhang Hao on how their team managed to achieve the feat. The upper stage deployed the attached DRO-A-B craft with a high spin rate of once every 1.8 seconds, which bent and damaged their solar panels. While the satellite operators quickly stabilized the craft and figured out dynamic optimal solar panel orientations to stay power positive, the anomalous launch had also left the small satellites at less than half the distance from the Moon than intended. Within days, the team took a key decision to not separate the twin spacecraft and alternately use either craft’s engines to perform precisely timed orbit-raising maneuvers which conserve and balance fuel availability. It worked. Combined with this fuel-efficient, low energy trajectory to the Moon generated as contingency, the still attached DRO-A-B craft entered lunar orbit and DRO in August 2024\. The two craft separated from each other shortly after. It was only days later that DRO-A and DRO-B fulfilled their primary mission objective: establish a laser-based navigation, timing, and communications link between themselves and the Earth-orbiting [DRO-L](https://spacenews.com/china-launches-20-satellites-on-separate-inland-and-sea-rocket-launches/) satellite. Since then, the three craft have been able to track each other and navigate autonomously instead of relying heavily on, or [choking](https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/08/nasas-artemis-i-mission-nearly-broke-the-deep-space-network), terrestrial ground stations. This was a notable world first. And with it, not only did China avoid a mission failure but it cemented its lead in building a lunar communications and navigation network. The NASA-funded and Advanced Space-led [CAPSTONE](https://www.nasa.gov/smallspacecraft/capstone/) lunar orbiter has [made some progress](https://web.archive.org/web/20240326143654/https://advancedspace.com/advanced-spaces-resilient-capstone-mission-for-nasa-is-operating-at-the-moon-for-445-days-continues-to-transform-exploration-with-cutting-edge-technology/) in cross-communicating with NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lro/about/) (LRO) since over three years now to perform similar Moon-to-Moon demonstrations but with a relatively limited scope and success than the Sino-DRO trio. As an unrelated but interesting tangent, DRO-A also [touts all-sky detection of gamma-ray bursts](https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2401.07513) from highly energetic cosmic objects. This is achieved through placing of five detectors across four sides of the craft. The same has thus been enabling extended mission objectives, and continued the trend of China [maximizing spacecraft capacity and time](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-193/). ***Tangent:** [**Repurposing lunar missions to enable deep space exploration*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-193/) ## Maneuvering with fluidity, lasers on target ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/09/tiandu-1-2-illustration.jpg) Illustration showing the Tiandu-1-and-2 satellites before separation. [Image: CNSA / CASC](https://space.skyrocket.de/doc%5Fsdat/tiandu-1.htm) Last year, China [successfully made](https://www.space.com/astronomy/moon/lunar-laser-china-makes-1st-daytime-laser-ranging-measurement-from-earth-to-the-moon) daytime Earth-Moon distance measurements wherein a 1.2-meter telescope reflected an infrared laser off of a small retroreflector on the 61-kilogram [Tiandu-1](https://space.skyrocket.de/doc%5Fsdat/tiandu-1.htm) lunar orbiter. This was the first ever daytime laser distance measurement using an orbiter, accomplished despite massive interference from our Sun. Tiandu-1 was [launched alongside Queqiao 2](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-169/) in March 2024\. The [CASC release](http://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4334001/content.html) about the daytime distance measurements stated that the demonstration will “support the argumentation and implementation of major deep-space exploration projects in the future, such as the International Lunar Research Station” \[[Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/)\]. Ling Xin [had reported](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3312860/did-chinas-tiandu-1-satellite-beat-us-competitors-critical-earth-moon-orbit) that last year in May, China moved Tiandu 1 from DRO to a 3:1 resonance orbit, where it [loops around Earth thrice](https://bsky.app/profile/coastal8049.bsky.social/post/3lpzz25h4b22k) for every revolution of the Moon around our planet. It’s a stable orbit, requiring minimal maintenance. It reminds me of how in 2023, ISRO pulled Chandrayaan 3’s [propulsion module](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/science/chandrayaan-3-mission-150kg-fuel-left-in-propulsion-module-life-span-now-years/articleshow/102866268.cms) from lunar orbit [to Earth orbit](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-157/), demonstrating a small but key capability that will be required to pull off a robotic sample return mission in the future with [Chandrayaan 4](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-241/). Coming back to China, another spacecraft was maneuvered out of DRO last year. As per [graphics published by CAS](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9QsoFSApZuQ) and subsequently reported by others, CAS made the DRO-B lunar satellite depart DRO in April and enter a 3:2 resonance orbit—a world first. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/06/dro-a-dro-b-dro-l-new-geometry-with-resonance-orbit.jpg) Graphic showing the new geometry of the DRO-A, DRO-B, and DRO-L satellites tracking each other. In its 3:2 resonance orbit, DRO-B travels through the Earth-Moon Lagrangian L3, L4, and L5 regions—where the gravitational forces of the two bodies roughly balance. [Image: CAS](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9QsoFSApZuQ) The damaged solar panels of DRO-B post its anomalous launch do reduce the extent of automated navigation the craft can perform in its new orbit with the other DRO satellites but demonstrations and spacecraft operations continued nevertheless. Enthusiastic spacecraft observer [Scott Tilley](https://bsky.app/profile/coastal8049.bsky.social), who has tracked Chinese lunar satellites and independently confirmed many of their orbits, has [pointed out](https://bsky.app/profile/coastal8049.bsky.social/post/3lpiwpfnifs2e) that Chinese researchers [have published a paper](https://doi.org/10.2514/1.G008582) on exactly these kinds of orbital maneuvers. From paper to practice, China has now demonstrated several low-energy orbital transfers as well as autonomous navigation in complex multi-body gravitational environments. ## Queqiao 2 and looking beyond the Moon China is doing more still in the Earth-Moon space. With the immediate mission of [Queqiao 2](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-169/) of enabling the [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) spacecraft modules to fetch [farside lunar samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-201/) being [accomplished](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-182/) in 2024, the orbiter then began making observations to pursue its other [scientific goals](https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/stag1580). This includes using it for the Astrophysics technique of [Very Long Baseline interferometry](https://www.earthdata.nasa.gov/data/space-geodesy-techniques/vlbi) (VLBI), which helps determine observer orientations with respect to celestial objects. CASC [provided an update](https://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4342585/content.html) on Queqiao 2 last year in May: > The satellite has been stably operating in orbit for 14 months. \[...\] The satellite’s extreme ultraviolet camera captured the first global 83.4-nanometer ionosphere image, providing crucial data for studying the impact of solar activity on the plasmasphere. The satellite’s VLBI experiment system, in coordination with the Shanghai 65m Radio Telescope, extended the observation baseline to 380,000 kilometers and successfully observed deep-space targets like radio source A00235 and the Chang’e-6 orbiter. At the time, Chinese researchers were expected to publish results based on these observations within a year. Checking in on the same, that has [manifested](https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-3881/ae3bd9). Chinese researchers have also suggested that when coupled with Earth-based ground stations, China’s lunar navcom network can help the country track its deep space missions with sub-kilometer accuracy all the way to Jupiter, and even beyond. As noted by Chi Wang, et al. in a [December 2023 paper](https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwad329), Queqiao 2 will try testing an element of this during the upcoming [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-248/) Moon mission: > The LOVEX \[payload\] on the relay satellite is used \[sic\] to construct a 400,000-km baseline Moon–Earth VLBI measurement and observation experiment system to improve the accuracy of orbit determination in deep space and to carry out astrometry and astrophysics observation and study. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/06/farside-moon-and-earth-change-5-t1.jpg) Earth and our Moon as seen from beyond the lunar farside by China’s Chang’e 5 T1 test spacecraft on October 28, 2014\. [Image: CAST](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/earth-and-the-moon-from-change5t1) ## How China has an edge in sustaining future crewed Moon missions over the US When considering all the developments above, it becomes clear that China has an extended, multi-component lead over the US in lunar navigation, communications, and related complex orbital operations. Other than Orion’s laser communications demonstration, the US did [demonstrate a GPS lock](https://www.asi.it/en/2025/03/lugre-achieves-historic-lunar-radionavigation-milestone/) on the Moon through private company Firefly’s [first CLPS Moon lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-218/#firefly-deserves-an-unusual-kudos) last year but that’s pretty much it. The NASA-funded and Advanced Space-led [CAPSTONE](https://www.nasa.gov/smallspacecraft/capstone/) lunar orbiter’s autonomous navigation goals will have to be demonstrated firmly by the upcoming [CAPSTONE 02](https://advancedspace.com/advanced-space-completes-critical-design-review-milestone-for-capstone-02/) instead. ESA is yet to launch its first Moonlight satellite, and so is NASA its first navcom mission. In contrast, China’s visibly great progress in building a full-fledged Queqiao lunar navcom constellation is bound to substantially improve both the surface coverage time and area for China’s upcoming ambitious [crewed lunar missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-267/), which along with robotic explorers will systematically lead up to the [ILRS Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/). ILRS is a long-term undertaking, and the Queqiao constellation’s capabilities will afford China redundancy even if—or when—there are ground station availability issues from its terrestrial partners across the globe. This year NASA [rejigged the Artemis program elements & crewed missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-264/), and has been [catalyzing its Moonbase plans](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-268/), in an effort to gain momentum after over a decade of lapses. While Artemis III is now supposed to be a test mission in Earth orbit ahead of attempting to land humans on the Moon with Artemis IV, the former [won’t “test like you fly”](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-279/) since [challenges](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-272/) confront NASA across aspects of both missions, including [Starship’s repeated lapses](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-276/) and [Blue Origin’s explosive delay chain](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-277/). Even if the US somehow lands humans on the Moon first with Artemis IV later this decade, the long term game of sustaining human and robotic lunar presence currently favors China because it has demonstrated and achieved more complex capabilities in orbital infrastructure as well as modern surface missions, gaining valuable operational experiences therein. --- **Many thanks to* [***Open Lunar Foundation**](https://www.openlunar.org/) *and* [***Ajay Kothari**](https://www.linkedin.com/in/ajay-kothari-739b0b32/) *for sponsoring* [**Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday)**. If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly* [**support*](https://jatan.space/support) *my independent writing as it’s purely reader-funded. I don’t use AI to write a single word and* [**cite everything*](https://jatan.space/i-write-for-you/)**.* [Support Moon Monday 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### The fiery origin of our Moon tied to Earth, as unraveled by scientists through Apollo and now modern missions URL: https://jatan.space/origin-of-our-moon-and-earth/ Last updated: 2026-09-04T15:01:58.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fd9a8b14c-02a7-4e9e-afad-d8262d8c9198_2500x1600-jpeg.jpg) Our Moon as seen by the Galileo spacecraft when it flew past on December 7, 1992\. [Image: NASA](https://www.flickr.com/photos/nasacommons/9458193857/) Where did [our Moon](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) come from? The origin of Earth’s cosmic companion is a fundamental question in planetary science. From [Galileo’s first telescopic observations of the Moon](http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/observations/moon.html) to humans walking on its surface, our understanding of its origins has come a long way. Yet it’s far from complete. Over the decades, scientists have proposed multiple hypotheses to attempt explaining how the Moon came to be. In this article, I focus on the one with the highest consensus among scientists: the Giant Impact Hypothesis (GIH). According to the GIH, a titanic collision took place 4.5 billion years ago, when the planets had just formed in a [still-chaotic Solar System](https://jatan.space/solar-system-history-101/). A young Mars-sized planet, named Theia, slammed into the newly born Earth. The blistering impact ejected a colossal amount of material. While some of this material escaped to space, the rest stayed in orbit around Earth and coalesced to form our Moon. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f4c4b0edd-e2cc-4c93-a253-9b01674da740_1035x620.png) A simplistic representation of the Giant Impact Hypothesis. Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about); derivative work of Wikipedia user [BedrockPerson](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bigsplashsimple.png) and released under [CC BY-SA 4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) The best evidences for the GIH come from NASA’s [Apollo Moon landings](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/celebrating-apollo-at-50) between 1969 and 1972, whose [382 kilograms of lunar rock, soil, and core samples](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/samples/atlas) brought to Earth allowed us to test multiple hypotheses in various ways. [300 grams of samples](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/samples/#lunas) fetched by the former Soviet Union’s three Luna missions also contributed to our understanding. The picture of the Moon’s formation emerging from Apollo and Luna sample studies has been anything but simple. The results have been difficult to reconcile and interpret for scientists. Here’s a rundown of some key findings, both for and against the GIH. ## Findings in support of the GIH ### Magma ocean The GIH implies that the newly formed Moon post-Earth-impact must be in a molten state. Scientists have estimated our Moon to have been covered in a vast magma ocean [at least 500 kilometers deep](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2011.02.004). Over time, this magma would crystallize to form the Moon’s mantle and crust. During this process, heavier minerals like [olivine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olivine) and [pyroxene](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyroxene) would’ve sunk to form the mantle. And lower density minerals, principally [plagioclase](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plagioclase), would float on top and crystallize into light [anorthosite](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anorthosite)\-based crust, which is what the bright “highland” regions on the Moon we see should be made of. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/magma-ocean-early-moon-illustration.jpg) Illustration of a young Moon with a global magma ocean and newly forming crust. [Image: CCTV+](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d8EfwGxza50) The GIH further predicts that during this process, any chemically incompatible elements in the magma would get sandwiched between the crust and mantle, forming what is known as [KREEP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KREEP)\-rich magma. **KREEP** is an acronym built from the letters **K** (Potassium), **REE** (rare-earth elements) and **P** (Phosphorus). The REE part encompasses [heat-producing and radioactive elements](https://www.planetary.org/articles/3013) such as thorium. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f839cd6a4-4d99-4eef-90e4-a417666f5fd8_975x389.png) A simplified illustration of how the Moon’s crust formed. [Graphic: LPI](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/LEA/presentations/OpeningPlenary/Pieters%5FNAC%5FNRCpresentation.pdf) The very first lunar samples, [brought to Earth by Apollo 11](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/apollo/apollo%5F11/samples) contained millimetric fragments from the rocky highlands nearby. These fragments were not only found to be made of anorthosites but had KREEP-rich materials as well, [suggesting a molten state](https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaw7580) for the ancient Moon and supporting the GIH. Samples from later Apollo missions and Luna ones [supported](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/samples/atlas/compendium/Luna20Core.pdf) the hypothesis too. ### The lunar core Also supporting the GIH were three independent experiments on Apollo missions that provided scientists insights into the Moon’s interior. Data from the [Passive Seismic Experiments](https://web.archive.org/web/20170627080839/https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/apollo/apollo%5F16/experiments/ps/), [Laser Ranging Retroreflectors](https://web.archive.org/web/20160727220755/https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/apollo/apollo%5F15/experiments/lrr), and [Lunar Surface Magnetometers](https://web.archive.org/web/20160306013050/http://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/apollo/apollo%5F15/experiments/lsm/) all implied that the Moon’s core shouldn’t be larger than 900 kilometers. That means the lunar core, solid and liquid combined, represents only about 25 percent of the Moon’s radius, in contrast to about 50 percent for other rocky planets like Earth. The GIH predicts that the Earth-Theia collision would result in Theia’s core getting absorbed into Earth, leaving a smaller core mass for the Moon. The calculated sizes of the Moon’s core from these three independent experiments thus agrees with the GIH. It’s also worth noting that Earth is the densest planet in our Solar System, which could be explained by the absorption of Theia’s core. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/08/moon-earth-composition-comparison.jpeg) Simplified view of the layers of our Earth’s interior and that of Luna, showing how the proportions of the two are very different. [Image: NASA / Vi Nguyen](https://science.nasa.gov/moon/composition/) ### Volatile depletion Another area of interest for the GIH is volatiles, which are elements with low boiling points such as nitrogen, water, carbon dioxide, hydrogen and more. Their low boiling points mean their abundances on planetary bodies deplete with time, inversely proportional to factors like the object’s gravity. On the Moon, large scale volatile depletion could’ve been due to two processes happening at different times: first, the evaporation of volatiles when the Moon formed and second, evaporation from ancient volcanism. Scientists figured that studying [isotopes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotope)—which are different subatomic forms of a given element—in existing lunar volatiles will help us know the Moon’s past. Since isotopes in volatiles deplete differently based on the nature of the event, the kinds we measure can tell us which and how much of the above two processes shaped the Moon of today. For example, lighter isotopes of Zinc would get evaporated in large amounts during the Moon’s fiery formation but remain unaffected by volcanic processes. Scientists observed in Apollo samples that [lighter isotopes of Zinc are less abundant than the heavier ones](https://doi.org/10.1038/nature11507). This means large amounts of volatiles were indeed lost during the Moon’s formation, supporting the GIH prediction of a fiery formation of Luna from a volatile-rich Earth. ## Findings against the GIH ### Titanium isotopes If the Moon indeed formed from the collision of two objects as the GIH posits, it should’ve inherited some of its material from Earth and some from Theia. One way to test that is to measure the titanium isotopic composition of the Moon and compare it to Earth’s. If the Moon formed from both Earth’s and Theia’s materials, its titanium signature should be a mix of both. Titanium is a good element to measure because it isn’t easily vaporized and tends to remain solid or molten even at high temperatures. Our Moon’s titanium abundances should thus roughly be in the same state now as during its formation. [Comparative analysis of titanium in Apollo samples](https://news.uchicago.edu/story/titanium-paternity-test-fingers-earth-moons-sole-parent) indicates that the Moon’s titanium [came from Earth alone](https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo1429); it’s not a mix of Earth and Theia. In stark contrast, meteorites found on Earth show two orders of magnitude larger variations in titanium isotopes, indicating their distinct and varied origins. How then could the GIH be correct? One unlikely explanation is that Theia had the same composition as Earth but that’s a long shot. [Computer simulations of the GIH collision](https://arxiv.org/abs/1012.5323) by Caltech researchers in 2007 estimated the origin of various materials relative to the Sun, and how they would’ve been distributed across the early Solar System. They found the likelihood of Theia naturally having an identical isotopic composition to Earth to be less than 1%. And so for the Moon to have identical titanium signatures as the Earth is a major anomaly for the GIH. Many scientists call it the “isotope crisis”. On the other hand, scientists proposed in 2021 that the two continent-sized regions discovered in Earth’s mantle with greater density, one beneath Africa and one beneath the Pacific Ocean, [could be Theia’s remains](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2021/pdf/1980.pdf). That between Earth and the Moon, the former would’ve absorbed most of Theia’s material not lost to space. In 2022, scientists [published a study](https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abl4920) of six lunar meteorites, which concluded that [the Moon’s noble gases like helium and neon come from Earth](https://ethz.ch/en/news-and-events/eth-news/news/2022/08/one-more-clue-to-the-moons-origin.html) too, bolstering the GIH. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fdb517b1d-f2df-4f7d-af9a-6fe37751e1ff_1022x246-jpeg.jpg) Remains of proto-planet Theia may be in Earth’s mantle. [Image: Q. Yuan et al.](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2021/pdf/1980.pdf) ### A shared water source for Earth and Luna Much like the case with titanium, the isotopic compositions of lunar hydrogen and oxygen can be compared with that of Earth. The volcanic glass samples brought back [from Apollo 15](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/apollo/apollo%5F15/samples) and [17](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/apollo/apollo%5F17/samples) had minor quantities of water in them. The isotopic composition of hydrogen in this water [is nearly identical](https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1235142) to that of water in Earth’s mantle. Likewise, the Moon’s oxygen isotopic composition, measured in Apollo 11, 12, 15, 16 and 17 samples, [also show identical natures](https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1063037) to Earth. When [compared to other Solar System objects](http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Dec01/Oisotopes.html), such as Mars, the Earth-Moon system is thus compositionally distinct from them and identical to each other, with seemingly no trace of a distinct Theia in Luna. [More recent and higher precision data](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-020-0550-0) suggests a slight difference in oxygen isotopes between Earth and the Moon, suggesting Theia’s presence albeit only minimally. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f79effce7-b029-447f-9a1a-3dd0fa912cc2_709x567-jpeg.jpg) Oxygen isotopic composition for the Earth-Moon system and Mars. The Moon’s composition is identical to Earth. [Image: K Pahlevan / D Stevenson / Caltech](https://arxiv.org/pdf/1012.5323.pdf) Iron isotopes of the Earth and Moon are identical too. Some of the [latest measurements](https://doi.org/10.1126/science.ado0623) ([open access](https://www.science.org/stoken/author-tokens/ST-3067/full)) of iron composition and distribution in lunar samples, Earth rocks, and meteorites entrench the outcome but do suggest a slight variation possibility between Terra and Luna from a Theia formed closer to the Sun than Earth. In any case, the Earth-Moon isotope crisis remains across all modern measurements at large across titanium, oxygen, iron, and so on. In oxygen’s case especially though, a much broader study is necessary because [Apollo landing sites](https://jatan.space/apollo-landing-sites-overview/) represent a small slice of the Moon’s diversity, all being near-equatorial and on the nearside. When scientists study [lunar water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and oxygen-rich polar soil samples fetched by future missions, and [determine the relative contributions of various sources](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/#the-search-for-lunar-water-deepens) of the Moon’s water and oxygen, it will provide us a far firmer basis for any comparative analysis on the origins of Earth and Luna. ## Chang’e and Chandrayaan contribute Some modern missions have continued contributing to the endeavor of figuring out the specifics of our Moon and Earth’s origin story. With robotic instruments for surface-only studies becoming increasingly advanced, [scientists suggested in 2021](https://doi.org/10.3847/PSJ/abee7f) that even non-sample-return missions can now provide some significant insights with higher precision measurements that before, especially if performed in key and diverse places on the Moon. India’s [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) mission falls in that category. It landed on the Moon’s nearside in August 2023 at the near-polar location of [69.37°S, 32.32°E](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/#the-moment-of-touchdown), which lies far away from Apollo and Luna sampling sites. The Chandrayaan 3 rover [Pragyan](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/#a-lunar-region-never-explored) made lunar soil composition measurements using its X-ray spectrometer, finding it broadly similar to Apollo and Luna samples. This bolstered our Moon’s fully molten origin scenario as laid out by the GIH, or [extended its validity](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-190/) to high-latitude regions on the nearside at the very least. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/05/ch3-rover-apxs-measurements-of-lunar-crust.jpg) ****Top left:** The Chandrayaan 3 rover rolling out of the lander’s ramp during pre-launch testing; ****Bottom left:** The co-added spectrum from all 23 lunar surface soil and rock measurements by the rover’s X-ray spectrometer; ****Right:** An artist’s concept of our Moon shortly after its formation, with a magma ocean and a newly forming rocky crust. Images: [ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan3%5Fcurtainraiser%5Fvideo.html) / [Santosh Vadawale, et al.](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07870-7.epdf?sharing%5Ftoken=4ZQFD5zK9GT9acs31FeVNNRgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0MR1M6jsWV0QR20SmA7k7Hvrkyl3GgMk99HFFb15nD09447WpwTLcpEaBgvj9C4YhThW7GJgQ7WgMAckZYS0fZ6FTf8RdEwv0eX%5FN4HvzLxBwhFq2fqKCzi0YsrWI%5FcfAQ%3D) / [NASA Goddard](https://www.dlr.de/content/en/articles/news/2020/03/20200710%5Fa-slightly-younger-moon.html) The fact that the elemental measurements came from a [unique region](https://doi.org/10.1093/mnrasl/slad106) on the Moon is important. Factions of scientists have been counter-hypothesizing that our Moon was either [only partially molten](https://doi.org/10.1038/nature10328) ([PDF](https://www.academia.edu/download/60498765/Borg%5FNature201120190905-102493-qjf321.pdf)) after its formation or that the lunar crust [didn’t solidify homogeneously enough](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-020-0559-4) ([PDF](https://drive.google.com/file/d/19RcAgVv-q57an4Fu6iGpipZ7LvOLm-PH/view)), both tenets opposing the GIH’s dominant global magma ocean model. Chandrayaan 3’s measured compositional ground truth thus uniquely casted a metaphorical wide net across the Moon. There’s also a small chance the rover [might have stumbled upon lunar mantle material](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-224/) amid measurements of volatiles. Its detection of such materials makes the [Chandrayaan 3 landing region](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/#the-moment-of-touchdown) a potential [mantle sampling location](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-39/) for future missions and studies of the Moon and Earth’s origins. From [the paper](https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-025-02305-1): > Prior to ISRO’s Chandrayaan-3 mission, there were no in-situ volatile abundance measurements from the lunar southern high-latitude highlands. Consequently, our understanding of the variations in the concentrations of volatiles across the lunar surface is constrained by the limited scope of measurements obtained primarily from lunar samples collected from equatorial regions. This points to a substantial gap in our understanding of the mechanisms governing enrichment-depletion of volatiles such as sodium (Na), potassium (K) and sulfur (S) on the Moon. Of course, more grounded and more versatile studies still require and benefit from samples. In 2024, China’s [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) spacecraft [collected samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-179/) from the Moon’s farside, a world first. Since then, fervent studies of the samples have [transformed our understanding of the Moon’s evolution](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-233/) by anchoring key events in the lunar timeline. In one such study, Chinese researchers analyzed two grams of Chang’e 6 samples and found the [isotopic measurements of key chemical elements](https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adt3332) to be compatible with a fully molten young Moon. Chang’e 6 thus lent unequivocal credence to the GIH, anchoring a key event in our Moon’s origin and evolution. Another Chang’e 6 study analyzing 578 particles revealed for the first time that the Moon’s farside mantle [contains less water](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-08870-x) than within the nearside, another factor in the [contrasting farside-nearside volcanic activity](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). The finding added to [the debate on the topic](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-85/) in a grounded and unique way, favoring the GIH hypothesis that our Moon indeed lost a major portion of its water and its constituents amid a fiery formation. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/chang-e-6-lander-on-the-moon.jpg) A panorama from China’s Chang’e 6 lander on the Moon’s farside, showing one of its legs and the scoop sampling arm near its surface digs. Chang’e 6 collected 1.93 kilograms of soil and rocks across scoops and drills. [Image: CNSA / CLEP](https://x.com/SegerYu/status/1798688466026594539) ## Future findings While [various](https://web.archive.org/web/20121103215146/http://www.nasa.gov/topics/solarsystem/features/moon%5Fformation.html) [forms](https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.1410.3819) of [modifications](https://www.skyandtelescope.com/astronomy-news/could-a-giant-impact-have-vaporized-earth-to-create-the-moon/) of the GIH have been proposed to account for deviances in evidences, the fact remains that specifics of the Moon’s and Earth’s origin stories are still a mystery. Despite the fact that Apollo missions [landed in largely similar geological areas](https://jatan.space/apollo-landing-sites-overview/), they still transformed our understanding of the Moon’s possible origins. At the same time, its results left us with more knowledge but farther away from a firm conclusion, a common outcome in complex scientific research. Chandrayaan and Chang’e results added nuanced layers to our understanding gained from Apollo while opening new questions still. To continue piecing together the complex origin and history of the Earth-Moon system, we need samples from new locations, including geologically pristine rocks below the lunar surface, the poles, and the farside. We need to probe the nature of [water on the Moon’s poles](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and [in the lunar interior](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/#the-search-for-lunar-water-deepens) to know their origins. A nice, detailed review paper, [*Origin of the Moon*](https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2103.02045), summarizes recent advances in our knowledge. The paper highlights ten key datasets that would clear the dust on our Moon’s formation. This includes getting a better understanding of the role of magnetic fields, which [likely accelerated the process](https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/abbffd). An intriguing inclusion in the list is measuring the isotopic composition of [Venus](https://jatan.space/why-explore-venus/) so that scientists can get a better grip on what made the inner solar nebula, and thus Theia and early Earth. Upcoming missions to Venus [from India](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-20/), [Europe](https://jatan.space/esa-envision-mission-to-venus/), and [the US](https://jatan.space/nasa-veritas-mission-to-venus/) could provide anchor points to that end. Researchers are also [bringing advanced simulations](https://doi.org/10.34133/space.0153) to the field, overcoming limitations of past computational models and better analyzing possible compositions of Earth, Theia, and Luna. This will help researchers determine specific measurements future missions can make to help us know if our Moon has a blue origin. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f80676e27-0f16-4cec-8705-df7edd4b8178_1475x1600-jpeg.jpg) ****Top panel:** Shocks propagating through the bodies during the collision of Earth and a Mars-sized planet (0–0.5 hours). ****Middle panel:** The tidal arm of debris (2–14 hours). ****Bottom panel:** The proto-lunar disk (24–48 hours). See [animation](https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/abbffd#apjlabbffdf1). [Image: P. D. Mullen, and C. F. Gammie](http://www.astroexplorer.org/details/apjlabbffdf1) Later this decade or early next, India’s [Chandrayaan 4](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-241/) & [Chandrayaan 5](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/) spacecraft as well as multiple crewed missions [from China](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-267/) and the US’ [Artemis program](https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/artemis/) aim to explore south polar sites. The region is [intertwined scientifically](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-09582-y) to the Moon’s internal structure and thus its formation and evolution. The poles are also where [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other volatiles persist, allowing scientists to close in on the goal. Other than on-ground measurements by such missions and its findings, there will be detailed studies of samples brought by Chinese and US crewed flights as well as India’s robotic Chandrayaan 4\. These samples are expected to host pieces of ancient crustal and potential mantle materials. Crewed missions in particular are expected to bring more diverse and more amount of samples over time. Much like Apollo, studying a fresh set of novel samples will likely transform not just how we look at our Moon and Earth but [also the Solar System](https://jatan.space/solar-system-history-101/) and beyond. Luna’s pristine interior compared to other geologically active worlds means it helps researchers understand the baseline layer of processes that drive the interior evolution of rocky worlds everywhere. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f8c672e4e-1970-467b-8dca-b352ed273996_1344x756-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of astronauts doing science on the Moon and collecting samples. [Image: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-companies-to-develop-human-landers-for-artemis-moon-missions) What a profound success it would be to unravel the origin story of our dear Moon and Earth. Being the [most accessible and well preserved body](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) in our Solar System to study fundamental planetary processes, our Moon beckons. 🌖 --- **Many thanks to* [***Alexandra Witze**](http://alexandrawitze.com) *and* [***Ajay Kothari**](https://www.linkedin.com/in/ajay-kothari-739b0b32/) *for sponsoring* [**Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday)**. If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly* [**support*](https://jatan.space/support) *my independent writing as it’s purely reader-funded. I don’t use AI to write a single word and* [**cite everything*](https://jatan.space/i-write-for-you/)**.* [Support Moon Monday 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) *The Apollo half of this article was originally published in 2018\. The article has been significantly updated, rewritten, and expanded in August 2026 to reflect new research results and the updated landscape of missions. Thanks to* [*Phil Stooke*](http://publish.uwo.ca/~pjstooke/) *for fact-checking the original piece, which was republished by* [*The Planetary Society*](http://www.planetary.org/blogs/guest-blogs/2018/apollo-moon-origin.html)*, and featured in their* [*Apollo at 50*](http://www.planetary.org/explore/space-topics/space-missions/apollo-50-years.html) *celebrations.* ### Exploring the marvel that are mountains on the Moon URL: https://jatan.space/exploring-moon-mountains/ Last updated: 2026-08-24T12:58:06.000Z Unlike the millions of years it takes for most mountains on Earth to form, lunar mountains crop out near-instantly, geologically speaking. Mountains on our dear Earth primarily form when two colliding plates of Terra’s crust lift up volumes of rock, slowly creating an elevated landform. Over millions of years, wind, water, and gravity erode these uplifted sections, shaping their surface as the mountains we are familiar with today. But the Moon has no plate tectonics, atmosphere, or running water. How then does it boast mountains several kilometers tall? For instance, [Zeeman Mons](https://jatan.space/zeeman-mons-on-the-moon/) on [the Moon’s farside](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) peaks as high as Mount Everest. The answer lies in the one of Luna’s most apparent features: [craters](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-lunar-craters/). Most lunar craters are [small and bowl-shaped](https://jatan.space/fresh-crater-like-hell/), formed by asteroids and comets impacted the lunar surface. This shape persists for crater sizes up to about 20 kilometers but craters larger than that display variety due to more complex physics. When giant [asteroids or comets](https://jatan.space/articles-on-asteroids-comets-and-dwarf-worlds/) strike the Moon, their high velocities impart tremendous forces onto the surface. This process doesn’t just create a crater by punching the crust but compresses the surface in and around the impact point with enough intensity that it melts the crust. When the melted crust can’t be compressed any further, it bounces back and forms a central mountain upon cooling. This process is visualized in the GIF below. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f8f4b0a56-6b89-4ca2-ab35-311023d39ea7_390x143-1.gif) A central mountain emerges in a large crater formed due to a big and fast asteroid or comet impacting the Moon. [GIF: Nick Strobel](http://www.astronomynotes.com/solarsys/s8b.htm) Most lunar mountains formed by this highly energetic process emerged in geologically negligible passages of time. Two such fine peaks mark the centers of the city-sized [Aristarchus crater](https://jatan.space/glorious-aristarchus/) and 86-kilometer-wide [Tycho crater](https://jatan.space/tycho-crater-mountain/). Each peak stands over a kilometer tall. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f63a1045f-9d29-4677-8b62-3bf517d491a7_1058x832-jpeg-1.jpg) The 86-kilometer-wide Tycho crater on the Moon and its central peak. [Image: NASA / GSFC / ASU / LRO](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tycho%5FLRO.png) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f0d831a35-dc90-4152-9d5a-73d233878496_1641x985-jpeg-2.jpg)](https://jatan.space/tycho-crater-mountain/) The 1.6-kilometer-high central peak of the Tycho crater on the Moon. [Image: NASA / GSFC / ASU / LRO](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/384) Two fun facts about the Tycho crater are that you can [spot it easily](https://www.planetary.org/articles/moon-features-you-can-see-from-earth) as a bright feature in the southern hemisphere of the Moon, and that it was [formed about 108 million years ago](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/209), a time when dinosaurs thrived on Earth. For all we know, tall and curious [Sauropods](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sauropoda) witnessed the formation of this massive crater. That would’ve been their clue to start a space program and avoid their extinction caused by the Earth-impacting asteroid [42 million years later](https://doi.org/10.1126/science.208.4448.1095). [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f5e4c4524-23a1-4ab1-b5ec-714ac9608056_1098x770-jpeg.jpg)](https://quickmap.lroc.im-ldi.com/?prjExtent=-492182.9412551%2C-1394780.4102778%2C-191573.124008%2C-1227989.0658081&earthShadowEnabled=true&proj=16&stack=64%2C522&defs=N4IgbALCBcoPYAcCGBjAlgFwJ4wIwF98g) [EXPLORE ON A MAP](https://quickmap.lroc.im-ldi.com/?prjExtent=-492182.9412551%2C-1394780.4102778%2C-191573.124008%2C-1227989.0658081&earthShadowEnabled=true&proj=16&stack=64%2C522&defs=N4IgbALCBcoPYAcCGBjAlgFwJ4wIwF98g) | Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) The Aristarchus crater was one of the candidate landing sites for the eventually cancelled Apollo 17+ missions. Visiting Aristarchus or Tycho in a future mission will allow us to study exposed lunar interiors by the virtue of their central mountains. Unlike Earth and Venus, the Moon lacking any significant tectonic activity means the structure of its interior is largely well preserved since [its formation about 4.4 billion years ago](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/). Luna is a [natural archive in the sky](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) for scientists to understand how insides of planets form across the Solar System and even those beyond. The central mountain of Tycho offer an easier glimpse into the Moon’s interior. Some large craters host not one but two mountains. If the impactor that created them is a more massive body, or slams with a higher velocity, the mechanics work such that the newly formed crater’s central peak splits into two before solidifying. The 93-kilometer-wide [Copernicus](https://jatan.space/copernicus-crater-moon-mountains/) and 77-kilometer-wide [King](https://jatan.space/y-shaped-mountains-in-king-crater/) craters host two such distinct peaks respectively, each towering for more than six kilometers. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f8930dba1-fd4a-4f6f-9911-4fe4224cd88d_1250x1000-jpeg-1.jpg) The Copernicus crater on the Moon, touting its two central peaks. [Image: NASA / GSFC / ASU / LRO](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Copernicus%5F%28LRO%29%5F2.png) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f6452fbfe-93cf-4b00-bafe-a3e9e0dec55c_999x825-jpeg-2.jpg)](https://jatan.space/y-shaped-mountains-in-king-crater/) The King crater and its Y-shaped mountains on the Moon’s farside, as captured from orbit by Apollo 16\. [Image: NASA](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/32) Apart from these places being lucrative for scientists to study the Moon’s interior, they also help researchers understand exactly how impact cratering takes place, not just on the Moon but across the Solar System and worlds beyond. The airless Moon is the calibration ground to understand the fundamentals of impact physics. ## Put a ring on it During the formation of even larger craters, the central peak splits and spreads to form a mountain ring, just like a liquid drop causes a ripple in still water. The intensity of the asteroid strike is so massive in such cases that ripples in water is essentially the same physics that applies to visualize a ripple in melted crust! The 312-kilometer-wide [Schrödinger crater](https://jatan.space/the-crowned-crater-of-schrodinger/) on the Moon’s farside is a well preserved example with a crowned mountain ring, despite being almost four billion years old. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fe3abe0a4-1603-48c1-b239-25c25223f1e3_1056x890-jpeg-2.jpg) The ringed Schrödinger crater on the Moon’s farside. [Image: NASA / GSFC / ASU / LRO](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Schr%C3%B6dinger%5F%28LRO%29%5F500%5Fkm.png) An exploration mission to Schrödinger, such as the one [NASA contracted](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-184/) in 2021 but [cancelled](https://www.ispace-inc.com/2026/07/15/ispace-u-s-update-on-contract-with-draper/) in 2026, can help advance [fundamental mysteries about the Moon’s evolution](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/), adding to the recent rich insights gained about the lunar crust and mantle from China’s [Chang’e 6 farside samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-233/). The [Chicxulub crater](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicxulub%5Fcrater) on Earth, linked to the extinction of dinosaurs, is also thought to have formed as a ringed crater but Earth’s active weathering has worn down its impact-created structure. As such, craters like Schrödinger on the Moon offer us a way to better understand Chicxulub as well. For craters larger than 500 kilometers, you get not one but multiple ripples and thus multiple mountain rings. The 930-kilometer-wide ancient [Orientale](https://jatan.space/outstanding-orientale-multi-ring-basin-on-the-moon/) crater on the Moon’s farside boasts three mountain rings, most of which remain preserved. The Artemis II astronauts, who [flew around the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-270/) in April 2026, observed Orientale from their spacecraft. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f4a1de0e1-3546-441c-8f81-09209335b514_807x808-jpeg.jpg) Orientale basin on the Moon and its multiple mountain rings. [Image: NASA / GSFC / ASU / LRO](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/306) Surface missions to and samples from both Schrödinger and Orientale can help scientists understand exactly when and how large asteroids and comets excessively bombarded bodies in the Solar System. This period of blistering impacts is particularly important as Earth is thought to have gotten its water, and possibly life-critical organics, from asteroids and/or comets during this time. In fact, what we learn from such missions can challenge the chain of events we only assume to have happened. For example, a [recent Chang’e 6 sample study](https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aee8718) argues for a more gradual decline in impacts about four billion years ago as opposed to the more popular notion of a sudden spike in impacts around that time. For some ancient craters like Imbrium on Moon’s nearside, only parts of its outermost mountain ring are visible today. The basin’s interior has been drowned in lava plains, which you see as dark regions on the Moon. The prominent, arc-shaped mountain range of [Montes Apenninus](https://jatan.space/the-mountain-range-montes-apenninus/) on Imbrium’s southeastern border stretches 600 kilometers long. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f982cf5a4-2ac4-454b-b345-bd2df309a83c_1098x770-jpeg.jpg) The arc-shaped mountain range of Apenninus on the Moon. Images: [Tom Wildoner](https://www.flickr.com/photos/tomwildoner/41384676121/) / NASA | Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) Multi-ring impact basins exist on many other worlds in the Solar System as well. There’s [Caloris](https://airandspace.si.edu/multimedia-gallery/9780640jpg) on Mercury, [an unnamed basin](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/20130614%5Fg8gsrngbas01) on Jupiter’s moon Ganymede, [Evander](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dione%5F-%5FEvander%5Fbasin.jpg) on Saturn’s moon Dione, and several more. Jupiter’s moon Callisto boasts the Solar System’s largest multi-ring basin called [Valhalla](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valhalla%5F%28crater%29), which spans 3800 kilometers. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f39b14599-50e4-452c-9bd6-d630e7334639_1196x714-jpeg.jpg) The massive multi-ring basin of Valhalla on Jupiter’s moon Callisto. [Image: NASA Voyager 1](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Valhalla%5Fcrater%5Fon%5FCallisto.jpg) Mountains on the Moon are a marvel, providing us a peak (pun intended) into lunar and planetary interiors while also helping us discern the chain of events in the [Solar System’s evolution](https://jatan.space/solar-system-history-101/). The ubiquity of planetary mountains formed by impacts, and their consistent patterns, indicate common physics and geological mechanisms in nature’s play. The Moon being so close to us offers opportunities to study these fundamental processes in planetary physics in great, testable detail. Upcoming [lunar rovers](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-256/) as well as sample return missions like India’s [Chandrayaan 4](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-241/) and crewed [Chinese](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-267/) & [US](https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/artemis/) missions aiming to study the [mountainous](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/Slope%20map%5FSouth%20Pole%5F85%20to%2090%20deg%20S%5Fv2.pdf) and hitherto unexplored [lunar south pole](https://jatan.space/the-lunar-south-pole-needs-global-data-sharing/) will lend us new insights into planetary mountains everywhere. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f033100f9-7930-4c6d-8c81-b2f19b9934b5_2233x1597-jpeg.jpg) Changing morphology of mountains and craters on the Moon with increasing crater sizes. Images: NASA / GSFC / ASU / LRO | Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) ## More Moon [Gallery of lunar mountains ⛰🌔](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-moon-mountains/) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f929b93af-0376-4e85-b08a-fdbabae502fa_949x700-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/lunasights) [****Luna Sights: Browse an inspiring world of craters, mountains, lava channels and more!**](https://jatan.space/lunasights) --- *Article originally published in 2021, edited and updated with more context in 2026\. Original piece republished by* [*The Wire Science*](https://science.thewire.in/the-sciences/lunar-mountains-craters-landing-sites-solar-system/)*.* **Many thanks to* [***Ajay Kothari**](https://www.linkedin.com/in/ajay-kothari-739b0b32/) *and* [***Dany Waller**](https://danywaller.github.io/) *for sponsoring* [**Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday)**. If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly* [**support*](https://jatan.space/support) *my independent writing as it’s purely reader-funded. I don’t use AI to write a single word and* [**cite everything*](https://jatan.space/i-write-for-you/)**.* [Support Moon Monday 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### Skyroot Vikram-1, the least worst case scenario for India’s launch crisis URL: https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-41/ Last updated: 2026-08-23T04:40:49.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/08/skyroot-vikram-1-first-launch-1.jpeg) First launch of Skyroot’s Vikram-1 rocket from ISRO’s Sriharikota launch complex. [Images: Skyroot Aerospace](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=twS9Y5tYVxw) The [successful launch](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/07/indias-first-privately-developed-rocket-reaches-orbit-on-dramatic-debut-launch/) of Skyroot Aerospace’s small [Vikram-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikram-1) rocket on [July 18](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=twS9Y5tYVxw), sans the [mixed outcome for payloads](https://pradx.in/2026/07/21/vikram-1-mission-aagaman-successful/), has been hailed as a revolutionary launch success for India by the company, ISRO, the Indian government, various media outlets, industry executives, and people at large. That it’s rare globally to achieve orbit on first attempt bolstered said outlook and emotion of Skyroot unequivocally making history. However, if India really wants to become a space launch power, we must differentiate between success for Skyroot the company and what it does or does not mean for the nation. A garden does not save the forest, as we’ll see in this article. This article is *Part 6* of my series on India’s launch vehicle crisis. A space program can only move as swiftly and flexibly as its orbital rockets, and India has been amid a grinding halt. As such, I’ve been focusing my [Indian Space Progress](https://jatan.space/tag/indian-space/) blog & newsletter on fully exploring this situation before resuming coverage of national space activities at large. - *Part 1* of the series [reviewed the state of India’s orbital launch vehicles](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-33/), revealing a bleak picture of ambitious goals sliding to the right, in stark contrast to the incessant chest thumping about efficiency. - *Part 2* [analyzed the intricacies of ISRO’s launchpad infrastructure](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-35/), showing how every PSLV rocket failure cascades effects to all Indian rockets in direct or indirect ways. - *Part 3* assessed and concluded that [India’s rockets will not be able to meet its civil space and strategic launch manifest](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-37/) by 2030 even at peak performance. - *Part 4* shows how Chandrayaan 4 is [deeply tied to India’s launch vehicle and human spaceflight programs](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-273/), and how the specific rocket it needs is also the catalyst required to better manage India’s launch crisis. - *Part 5* [lists a multitude of causes slowing down India’s launch vehicles](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-39/), and what would it take for the country to achieve an optimum “hat-trick” state given its many needs and ambitions in space. - *Part 6*, this article, explains how even if we see an optimistic progression of flights from Skyroot, banking on the success of its first flight, India’s growing gaps in orbital launch capacity and manifest remain unresolved anyway. ## Small launch is niche, and India’s manifest is hungry for big rockets Vikram-1 is a small-lift launch vehicle, designed to launch satellites weighing around 300 kilograms to Low Earth Orbit (LEO). That places it in between the \~250 kilograms Rocket Lab’s Electron rocket has been pushing to the same orbit class and the \~350 kilogram range ISRO’s [SSLV rocket](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-19/) can pull. Today Electron, the leader in the small-lift space, launches far less frequently than originally envisioned. What started out as a plan for 50+ launches annually has in practice hovered [around a single dozen](https://spacestatsonline.com/rockets/electron). That’s because medium-lift rockets like SpaceX’s [Falcon 9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon%5F9) have launched the vast majority of orbital probes. Many upcoming market entrants like Rocket Lab’s own Neutron rocket are medium-lift vehicles too, hoping to slice the Falcon 9 pie. As such, it’s doubtful if small-lift rockets have a [sizable market](https://web.archive.org/web/20230102031113/https://europeanspaceflight.substack.com/p/more-vehicles-than-customers-1446755) to begin with in order to be revenue positive. The fact that the Hyderabad-based Skyroot effectively also competes with ISRO’s own SSLV rocket, and both vehicles [compete internationally](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-19/) as well, further constrains the chances of business success in a limited market. Even if we hope and assume that the thousand-plus people of Skyroot bag a commendable place in the small-lift launch market, that does not in itself solve India’s space access crisis. We saw in [Part 3](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-37/) that India’s rockets will not meet its civil space and strategic launch manifest even at peak performance this decade. A key observation from that assessment is that the major launch gap lies not just in frequency but in mass-to-orbit as well. Both for this decade and the next, [India’s manifest leans squarely on the heavy-lift side](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-39/) in terms of mass. Even ISRO’s medium-lift PSLV rocket, with its six to seven times greater lift capacity than Vikram-1, can only cater to a smaller fraction of these mass-heavy launches. In the age of literal Moonshots and satellite constellations, the need for Vikram-1-class rockets is largely on the margins for achieving sovereign space prowess. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/03/india-space-launch-manifest-vs-launch-rates-2026-2030.jpeg) [Chart: Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) ## Vikram rockets are not even PSLV replacements People in India have expressed hope that Vikram-1 and other such privately built rockets like from [Agnikul](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-16/) will help resolve India’s [launch bottlenecks](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-33/) soon, particularly by replacing the PSLV. It’s hard to reconcile this hope with reality, even when accounting for planned vehicle upgrades by Skyroot. To understand the niche-ness of their rockets beyond the aforementioned limitations of small launch, let’s look at the launchpads available for Vikram vehicles and place the planned performance upgrades in context. India’s only active orbital spaceport is the [Satish Dhawan Space Centre](https://www.shar.gov.in/sdscshar/index.jsp) in Sriharikota on the country’s south-eastern coast, a low-latitude location ([13.7°N](https://www.openstreetmap.org/?mlat=13.666302&mlon=80.227149#map=19/13.666302/80.227149)) suitable for many kinds of launches. The port primarily houses two launchpads, and their many associated facilities. The two pads are literally called the *First Launch Pad* (FLP) and the *Second Launch Pad* (SLP) respectively. India built the FLP in the early 1990s for ISRO to launch the then-new PSLV rocket. Today, the pad also supports launches of the SSLV rocket. Vikram-1 was launched from the FLP as well. The company does not have a pad of its own yet. As for ISRO’s SLP, it can also host PSLV or SSLV launches but does so less frequently as ISRO built that pad in 2005 to primarily launch the heavier rockets [GSLV Mk II](https://www.isro.gov.in/GSLV%5FCON.html) and [LVM3](https://www.isro.gov.in/GSLVmk3%5FCON.html). These latter two vehicles cannot be launched from the FLP due to them sporting cryogenic upper stages. Given these launchpad availability dynamics, whenever a PSLV rocket fails, which has [happened the last two times](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-35/), India effectively loses the value of its First Launch Pad. The SSLV and Vikram-1 are small-lift launchers. Even a five fold increase in their launch frequency doesn’t match the amount of mass a single PSLV can lift off of Earth to equivalent orbits. In fact, because rockets launched from Sriharikota need to maneuver around the southern Sri Lankan mainland for safety, the SSLV and Vikram-1 rockets utilize a larger fraction of their fuel in this process compared to the PSLV. This reduces their practical lift capacity. Skyroot’s [planned upgrade to Vikram-1](https://spacenews.com/skyroot-prepares-for-first-orbital-launch-attempt/) with strap-on boosters, called Vikram-1U, only increases the capacity enough to remove this negation but doesn’t change its mass class. The SSLV’s equivalent [upcoming performance boost](https://www.isro.gov.in/first%5Fstage%5Fof%5FSmall%5FSatellite%5FLaunch%5Fvehicle.html) with an upgraded first stage falls in the same category. While Vikram-1’s carbon-fiber composite structure and 3D-printed upper stage liquid engine help conserve mass and slightly increase performance, they do not change the fundamental penalty the rocket equation levies when maneuvering around a large landmass. In fact, [open source orbital data](https://celestrak.org/NORAD/elements/table.php?INTDES=2026-164&SHOW-OPS) from CelesTrak reveals that Vikram-1’s upper stage has not been deorbited, a maneuver necessary for the safety of others operating in orbit. This could be either due to Skyroot losing control of the vehicle or the lack of sufficient fuel onboard. For a small launch vehicle, any deviation from a nominal flight quickly results in this possibility of leaving an uncontrollable upper stage in orbit post satellite deployment. Coming back to Sriharikota, the fact that the SSLV and Vikram rockets utilize the FLP to launch means they will effectively keep blocking PSLV’s FLP launches due to pre-launch planning and post-launch refurbishments; all while also reducing the nation’s overall lofted mass to orbit. The dynamic is thus a tradeoff between the PSLV’s greater lift capacity and the swiftness of small rockets. Even when Skyroot makes and flies the more powerful [Vikram-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikram-2) rocket with a cryogenic upper stage later this decade, it would not come close to the PSLV’s prowess as the latter would still lift about three times more mass to space at once. And it’s a vehicle that already exists. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/08/pslv-pride-in-its-peak.jpeg) Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) | PSLV image: [ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/PSLV%5FC59%5FPROBA3%5FGallery%5FPost%5FLaunch.html) Now, yes, ISRO is building a [dedicated launch complex](https://www.isro.gov.in/Foundation%5FStone%5FLaid%5Ffor%5FLaunch%5FPad%5Fat%5FSSLV%5FLaunch%5FComplex.html) further down south in Kulasekarapattinam for small-lift vehicles such that they don’t need to maneuver around the Sri Lankan mainland post-launch. Paired with a higher frequency of annual launches through dedicated facilities at this complex, at roughly a dozen per vehicle, SSLV and Vikram can become more competitive relative to their current states when launching from here. But the fruits of these efforts are not expected to begin until [at least 2028](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/working-towards-50-launches-a-year-by-2029-says-isro-chief/articleshow/124934033.cms), which is when the new launchpad is supposed to host its first orbital launch. And that’s assuming no further delays for the pad that’s already slipped past an originally intended 2025 debut. The ramp up for optimal usage of the complex will also take time. In any case, improvements through India’s second launch complex will only be so in the small launch space. They do not close the gap against the performance delivered by the medium-lift PSLV. If anything, the major contribution of the second launch complex will be to keep the small rockets out of the way from the FLP at Sriharikota so that the [facilities there to increase PSLV’s launch rate](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-35/) can be efficiently utilized after all. But if India wishes to forget the PSLV, which still hasn’t returned to flight after two back-to-back failures, and lean on the SSLV and private Indian rocket companies instead, the country will end up launching far less useful mass to orbit this decade and next compared to doing so on PSLVs, ultimately meeting even less of [our space manifest](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-37/). There is simply no place in India building a PSLV replacement. For Skyroot or any other India-operated company to build and operationalize a PSLV-class vehicle will take time. ## ISRO support is great but only a baseline ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/03/skyroot-kalam-250-stage-2-rocket-motor-firing.jpg) Test firing of the Vikram-1’s Kalam-250 second stage rocket motor ([video](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5oHfEuhcaXk)). [Image: Skyroot](https://twitter.com/SkyrootA/status/1773253058476036453/photo/1) Skyroot and its ex-ISRO founders received good support from the Indian government, including from ISRO via sister organization [IN-SPACe](https://www.inspace.gov.in/inspace), whose mandate is to enable, promote, and somehow regulate private space activities in the country. Particularly for Vikram-1’s launch, ISRO through IN-SPACe provided [comprehensive technical support](https://www.isro.gov.in/ISRO%5FEN/First%5Fprivate%5Forbital%5Flaunch%5Flifts%5Ffrom%5FSriharikota.html) to the company. This includes motor casting and testing of the rocket’s solid stages, liquid upper stage testing, support in vehicle assembly and transport, use of the FLP for launch, safety reviews, and in-flight tracking and commanding. By any measure, this is a huge list of things. It underscores the need for ISRO, as [laid out](https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/indian-state-draining-isro-hard-won-excellence/article71261853.ece) by Mukunth in an article, at a time when the organization is facing challenges in retaining talent, as [reported](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/departement-of-space-moves-to-stem-exodus-from-key-isro-missions-at-least-100-quit-in-past-few-months-sources/articleshow/132424302.cms) by Chethan Kumar. But all of this support from ISRO is essentially of a singular, technical nature. Between the aforementioned low demand gaps for small-lift rockets globally and the Indian government not being an anchor customer node, national companies have been fighting an [uphill battle](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-16/) for customers, funding, and talent base. This partly reflects in the fact that India’s private rocket development timelines have been much longer than global competitors, as the following chart shows. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/06/development-times-of-small-lift-orbital-rockets-2015-beyond-1.jpeg) Development times manually calculated based on the time of establishment of the companies to their first launch attempt. For ISRO SSLV, the former part is replaced with official project kickoff. [Chart: Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) Similar to how NASA [fetches foreign commercial payload customers](https://jatan.space/nasa-esa-collaborate-on-lunar-pathfinder/) for its [lunar CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) companies, ISRO’s sister institutions [NSIL](https://www.nsilindia.co.in) and [IN-SPACe](https://www.inspace.gov.in/inspace) meant to aid space commercialization should fetch customers for India’s private launch companies other than only [doing so for ISRO](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-03/). Obviously, this is to be done only on a competitive basis rather than through nepotism. Broadly in India, there’s also a lack of a thriving space research & development base across industry and academia, especially for propulsion. ISRO and the private sector have to nurture talent more than leverage it. In contrast, NASA funds and orchestrates the [SBIR/STTR](https://www.nasa.gov/sbir%5Fsttr/) and [GCD](https://www.nasa.gov/stmd-game-changing-development/) programs to provide a boost to the US commercial industry while tapping into emerging, advanced technologies early on. ISRO’s [RESPOND](https://www.isro.gov.in/RESPONDProjects.html) program for academia offers orders of magnitude lower funding and lack of mission integration. And [unlike China](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-39/), ISRO’s support doesn’t extend to technologically catalyzing national rocket companies to let them innovate faster. Taking these steps together would expand collective national launch offerings instead of companies being left to reinvent wheels that may not even be round while also having to compete with ISRO’s own rockets. ## Private companies do not, and should not, replace ISRO At the same time, support for private launch companies in India might be going too far astray in the other direction. IN-SPACe Chief Pawan Goenka [has said](https://www.indiatoday.in/science/story/isro-will-not-make-any-launch-vehicle-all-tech-to-be-handed-to-private-sector-2976849-2026-08-21) that going forward “ISRO will not make any launch vehicles and will not manufacture any launch vehicles.” Goenka added, “That will all be done by the private sector or PSU.” This also includes handing over operations of the upcoming second launch complex to the private industry. I’ve already assessed and demonstrated in [Part 3](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-37/) and [Part 5](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-39/) of the launch vehicle series that ISRO’s role and responsibility in building and flying launch vehicles cannot be relinquished if India is to even come close to meeting its national goals across civil, defense, planetary, and human spaceflight programs. Handing over launch to the private sector completely would be a grave mistake for several reasons, including national security. As established above, neither Skyroot nor another such launch company in India is currently building a replacement for even ISRO’s PSLV. It’s impossible right now for Indian private companies to realistically think about building the even bigger LVM3-and-[NGLV](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-33/#the-next-decade-and-nglv)\-class rockets. At the moment, to put it pithily, ISRO designs and the industry assembles. But planning [technology transfers](https://www.inspace.gov.in/inspace?id=lvm3%5Ftot%5Feoi) of ISRO’s launch vehicles to the industry and/or their [production-ization](https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/indl-goods/svs/engineering/hal-lt-to-build-five-pslv-rockets-bags-rs-860-crore-deal-from-nsil-for-the-project/articleshow/93980649.cms) through the industry will catalyze more possibilities for the future. However, the onus of orchestrating both increased launch capacity of national vehicles and catalyzing industrial innovation remains with the Indian government’s Department of Space, not with individual companies like Skyroot. A key thing the Indian government can do at some point is to let ISRO and private players compete for national launches to ensure that critical national missions are not [delayed too much](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-39/). The US Space Force’s [National Security Space Launch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%5FSecurity%5FSpace%5FLaunch) (NSSL) program and NASA’s [Launch Services Program](https://www.nasa.gov/kennedy/launch-services-program/) (LSP) have enabled innovative commercial launch vehicles to be built and flown frequently. SpaceX’s Falcon 9 is the most well known example but there are others too like the [New Glenn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%5FGlenn) and [Vulcan Centaur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulcan%5FCentaur). The US government acts as an anchor customer for launching both NASA’s civil space missions and the country’s strategic ones. Companies vie for these lucrative contracts, in turn competing, innovating, and accelerating. However, it’s important to note that India doesn’t have enough parallels with the US for this solution to make direct sense here. ISRO [was not structurally built to be scalable](https://adithyapani.substack.com/p/india-space-the-followers-dilemma) like Western space industries. And India’s unique defense needs, the kind the US doesn’t have, cannot be reliably outsourced to private companies without ensuring the government is in command of the loop—of which ISRO is one part. That Skyroot’s Indian co-founders [do not own the majority of their company](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/only-2-of-top-20-space-startups-have-founder-majority/articleshow/133305911.cms) should be an important consideration. Of course, due diligence on the board structure of any such companies would be needed before handing out any national contracts. Blindly following the US model would risk India losing national capacity to private firms altogether, firms that may not even be or remain Indian. But having ISRO itself compete with Indian private companies or even other national organizations for appropriately graded national space launches could work. In other words, India should eventually decouple national space satellites from necessarily launching on ISRO’s rockets. At least some of India’s civil launches or even just scientific payloads can certainly be offloaded to Indian commercial rockets to ease the load on ISRO’s own vehicles, which will be busy meeting higher national priorities amid a [growing backlog](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-39/). The move would incentivize ISRO to improve their launch vehicle capabilities and cadence. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/02/sdsc-shah-birds-eye-view.jpeg) A birds-eye panoramic view of India’s orbital launch complex in Sriharikota captured in 2023\. A PSLV rocket is at the first launch pad while the second pad lies in the distance. [Image: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/PSLVC55%5Fgallery.html) China has already announced something along these lines for their own programs. The country is [planning to expand competition](https://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4498944/content.html) for national launches from the current internal state competition—which has already produced good outcomes—to soon between state-led companies and the private sector companies, greatly expanding the pool of options and incentivizing fierce innovation. More importantly, this will allow China to maintain high national launch capacity while touting a [flourishing private sector](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/landspace-recovers-chinas-second), avoiding the pitfalls of having mostly only commercial launch vehicles like in the US. India too needs to ensure that ISRO’s own launch capacity stays alive and is competitive while the private sector is being nurtured. In the last few years, China has offered much greater support to its private launch sector than India has to its own, including personnel and tech transfers, having clarity [on standards](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/china-releases-space-standards-system) and [legal regulations](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/china-updates-commercial-space-regulation), [access to infrastructure](https://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4498944/content.html) like ground networks and nationally-built launchpads, and even [state-supported investments](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/landspace-receives-more-funding-multiple) in companies as well as [provincial & policy support](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/chinas-vice-premier-visits-wenchang). This has allowed operational [commercial launchers](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/chinas-launch-sites-and-rockets#§commercially-operated-launch-vehicles) to enter the turf in China, which have successfully [supplemented](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/china-national-space-administration) the country’s launch capacity and frequency. In turn, companies too have [invested in infrastructure facilities](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/ispace-space-pioneer-expect-reusable) near national launchpads like in Wenchang. Indian companies lack such strong incentives to build their own infrastructure due to the lack of national co-investments. Skyroot doesn’t have a true launchpad of its own at the moment. India should encourage, allow, and incentivize the private sector to build dedicated, independent launch infrastructure of their own outside of ISRO’s complexes. Take all the above factors together, and it becomes clear that Skyroot’s success with the first flight of Vikram-1 is only the least worst case scenario for India’s launch vehicle crisis. It’s not at the peak alongside people’s emotions but at the bare minimum level to cater to but a fraction of India’s needs in space. The Indian government should enhance its support for private launch companies but not at the cost of effectively losing national launch capacity. Instead of relying on a single flagship rocket like the Falcon 9 and privatizing launch altogether, China’s [resilient, multi-launcher and mixed orbit access approach](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-33/#a-launch-trifecta) is more suitable and desirable for India to draw aspects from to achieve a [true orbital launch trifecta](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-39/). A trail has been left in the forest, and we can only notice it if we step outside the garden. --- **Many thanks to* [***The Takshashila Institution**](https://takshashila.org.in)**,* [***PierSight**](https://piersight.space)**,* [***Catalyx Space**](https://catalyx.space/) *and* [***Gurbir Singh**](https://gurbir.co.uk) *for sponsoring* [**Indian Space Progress*](https://jatan.space/tag/indian-space/)**. If you too appreciate my efforts to capture nuanced trajectories of India in space, provided to space communities worldwide for free and without ads, kindly* [**support*](https://jatan.space/support) *my independent writing as it’s purely reader-funded. I don’t use AI to write a single word and* [**cite everything*](https://jatan.space/i-write-for-you/)**.* **My series of articles on India’s launch vehicle crisis spans an analysis timeframe of two decades. It has taken me about a year of work to research and publish. If you found the series useful or insightful, please* [**support*](https://jatan.space/support) *it through donations and sharing.* [Support my writing 🚀 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### Rocket equation 101: Revealing our Moon’s value as a launchpad URL: https://jatan.space/the-moon-as-a-rocket-platform/ Last updated: 2026-08-17T13:50:16.000Z The [global rush to the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-282/) this century is catalyzed in major part by the presence of [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/), soil rich in [oxygen and metals](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-153/), and other such resources. The long-term bet is that extracting resources in-situ on Luna, using oxygen and hydrogen as rocket fuel, and [manufacturing things there itself](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-244/) will ultimately create an independent enough planetary economy that’s no longer completely dependent on Earth for at least the most basic supplies needed by humans and bots alike. Rockets and spacecraft launched from the Moon would have easier access to destinations across the Solar System than terrestrial ones do. To that end, building for the [harshest environments on the Moon](https://jatan.space/the-lunar-south-pole-needs-global-data-sharing/) makes it easier to build for many places in the Solar System as well. Whether the long-term bet will actually work in practice is not a guarantee at this nascent point in humanity’s space endeavors, no matter what the marketing and punditry of the space sector would have you believe. Nor is it guaranteed that any scale of sustained living across the Solar System will be equitable and responsible across many ethical considerations. \[[James Corey](https://www.jamessacorey.com)’s Sci-Fi book series starting with [Leviathan Wakes](https://openlibrary.org/books/OL27104249M/Leviathan%5FWakes) and its progeny show [The Expanse](https://www.imdb.com/title/tt3230854) are a good mental excercise to this end.\] However, unlike the [fallacy of true orbital data centers](https://spectrum.ieee.org/orbital-data-centers-heat) existing in space anytime soon, without brute force and twisting of definitions, at least physics does not rule out the idea of our Moon being a potent launchpad. If anything, the fundamental nature of gravity staunchly supports the premise. This article explains how. ## Getting to space When dabbling with the laws of motion in the 17th century, Isaac Newton realized that it’s indeed possible to send an object out of Earth, into space. As long as an object is unobstructively shot away from Earth with a high enough velocity, it *will* reach space and orbit our planet. With the launch of the Sputnik satellite in 1957 onboard a powerful enough rocket, the Soviet Union achieved exactly that. For the first time in the roughly four billion years of life on Earth, something was intentionally sent to space. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f01a9fd34-b28c-4e9f-b768-f825d2c7594d_1024x388-jpeg.jpg) ****Left:** Launch of the Sputnik satellite on October 4, 1957 by the Soviet Union, starting Earth’s Space Age. ****Right:** An engineer handling the Sputnik satellite. Images: USSR Give a satellite a greater speed boost, either by launching it on a more powerful rocket or using onboard thrusters, and it can raise its orbit or even escape Earth’s gravitational hold altogether. That’s how you can send missions to [our Moon](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/), [Venus](https://jatan.space/why-explore-venus/), [Mars](https://www.planetary.org/worlds/mars), [asteroids](https://jatan.space/articles-on-asteroids-comets-and-dwarf-worlds/), [Saturn](https://jatan.space/why-explore-saturn/) and [so on](https://jatan.space/gravity-assist-the-simple-physics-trick-thats-allowed-humanity-to-explore-deep-space/). But one of these two things is not like the other. Enter the [Tsiolkovsky rocket equation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsiolkovsky%5Frocket%5Fequation). This rocket equation is what allows scientists and engineers to quantify and compare the energy required to reach various destinations in space. Its implications are far reaching but not intuitive so I attempt to explain them here without the use of any mathematics. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/08/it-is-rocket-science.jpg) [Meme: Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) The rocket equation tells us that the amount of energy a rocket must expend to go from the Earth’s surface to an orbit 250 kilometers above, called Low Earth Orbit (LEO), is almost thrice as much as going from that orbit to the Moon. Likewise, getting to LEO from Earth costs twice as much energy than to reach Mars from LEO. Even if we include the energy expenditure to land on the Moon instead of just reaching its vicinity from LEO, the first part of getting to Earth orbit from land itself is about 50% more expensive still. In other words, attaining Earth orbit is the first and the most significant barrier to space exploration. The giant leap for humanity was thus not [stepping on the Moon](https://jatan.space/apollo-landing-sites-overview/) but getting to Earth orbit in the first place. `**Note:** Technically, energy expenditure is different from delta-v, which is the actual measure of work required by rockets to reach different destinations. But since energy expenditure is proportional to delta-v, they have been approximated to have the same effect here to make the article tangible for the masses.` ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f27d051e0-9e1f-4b02-a799-72f09b944b10_1024x576-jpeg.jpg) Energy expenditure numbers to travel from one place in space to another, calculated using the rocket equation. Graphic: ULA ## Planetbound The rocket equation doesn’t just dictate how much energy you must spend to reach various destinations in space but also if you can reach space at all. Even though a satellite comprises but a small fraction of the total mass of the rocket that lifts it, relatively smalls changes in its mass greatly affects the mission. When you increase a satellite’s mass, to make it more useful perhaps, it also means you’d require more rocket fuel to loft the heavier satellite to the desired orbit. But that added fuel in itself makes the overall system weigh more too. This means some more fuel is required to fly the system in a way that your satellite attains the same final orbit. As a rule of thumb, fuel requirements increase [exponentially](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tsiolkovsky%5Frocket%5Fequation.svg) with every step increase in mass added to a satellite or spacecraft. This is how we end up with rockets being mostly fuel and less metal. The mighty Saturn V rocket that sent astronauts to the Moon comprised about 85% fuel by mass and only 13% in structures—including the rocket body, its plumbing, and other parts. Only the remainder 2% of the total mass made up the Moonbound spacecraft with astronauts inside. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f5f4480e2-882a-4a21-b42d-1f801f6eeedb_2100x1755-jpeg.jpg) A cutaway illustration of the Saturn V rocket showing its structure and the Moonbound spacecraft in the top section. [Image: NASA](https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/news/337/what-was-the-saturn-v/) The dinosaurs could not [stop an asteroid](https://jatan.space/when-to-worry-about-an-asteroid-strike/) from destroying their reign over Earth. They did not have a space program \[citation needed\]. Even if they did have one, lofting the larger, more massive dinosaurs to space would be a challenge when such a tiny percentage of rocket mass is available for the payload. One of today’s most powerful rockets, NASA’s [SLS](https://www.nasa.gov/reference/space-launch-system/), cannot carry the larger dinosaurs alongside the ship’s life support systems to space. So maybe the most imposing dinosaurs were doomed after all. There’s a limit to how large and massive rockets can get, thereby limiting the mass they can deploy to space. Of course, you can keep docking and stacking smaller spacecraft launched to space but that can be exponentially more expensive and complicated compared to single large flights. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/08/can-dinosaurs-fit-in-modern-space-rockets.jpg) [Graphic: Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) The mass limit works in the other direction too. Imagine if our Earth was 10% more massive or dense. A rocket would require more fuel than that percentage to match the enormous amount of energy needed to enter orbit. Such a rocket might be 90–95% fuel-heavy and 10–5% metal. Increase Earth’s mass further and the fuel-to-mass ratio starts skyrocketing to a point where it’s simply not possible to engineer such a nearly-all-fuel rocket. Crunching the numbers in this manner, it turns out that if our Earth was 50% more massive, you simply wouldn’t be able to get to space even with the most energetic chemical fuel combination of liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen. Such a massive rocky planet is not imaginary; many of its kind exist. Of the thousands of planets around other stars we’ve discovered to date in our galaxy, more than a thousand belong to a category scientists have labelled as ‘[Super Earths](https://exoplanets.nasa.gov/what-is-an-exoplanet/planet-types/super-earth)’. These are planets which are up to 10 times more massive than Earth and up to twice as large. Beyond that limit, planets don’t remain rocky and start turning into [Uranus](https://www.planetary.org/worlds/uranus)\- or [Neptune](https://jatan.space/why-explore-neptune/)\-like gas giants. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f0511f6ca-c525-4310-b2d0-9122800c0107_1024x546-jpeg.jpg) Artist’s impression of a Super Earth compared in size to Earth and Neptune. Images: [Aldaron](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Exoplanet%5FComparison%5FCoRoT-7%5Fb.png), [Ginny Keller](https://www.flickr.com/photos/groovychk/474966449) Many Super Earths lie in the respective habitable zones around their stars, meaning conditions there could support life as we know it. Given that we’ve only searched a small fraction of our galaxy for planets, it’s fair to say there could be millions of Super Earths, many of which could host life. If intelligent life were to exist on these Super Earths, they would have a hard time building rockets that get things off-planet. Since even the most energetic chemical rockets won’t get them to space, they might get incentivized to build something with more thrust that works, such as nuclear propulsion rockets. Sometimes nature doesn’t give you a choice. The Moon is not [the harsh mistress](https://openlibrary.org/books/OL40279577M/The%5FMoon%5Fis%5FA%5FHarsh%5FMistress). Gravity is. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/08/the-moon-is-not-the-harsh-mistress-gravity-is.jpg) Images: Hodder & Stoughton / Frits Ahlefeldt | [Meme: Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) You might be wondering where is our Moon in all this as noted in the beginning? Well, just like the rocket equation makes it exponentially harder to orbit and escape a planet as mass increases, it also makes it exponentially easier to leave objects as mass lowers. Luckily, the nearest celestial body to us is one such place. ## Dalla Luna, to the red planet and beyond Our Moon’s gravity is weaker than Earth by about six times, allowing rockets to take off from its surface with ease. This was most notable during the Apollo missions, when even a spacecraft hosting two astronauts [could gracefully make its way to lunar orbit](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9HQfauGJaTs). Importantly, the Moon lies at the outer edge of Earth’s gruesome gravity well, meaning it’s far easier to escape our planet’s pull completely if we can launch spacecraft from Luna. One can reach Mars from the Moon and still have some fuel to spare compared to the energy expenditure required to merely get from Earth’s surface to low Earth orbit. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f20b22600-a2cc-4660-88e7-50c8a01749e9_1024x628-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of a rocket taking off from a Moonbase. [Image: SpaceX](https://web.archive.org/web/20200527073355/https://www.spacex.com/media/starship%5Fusers%5Fguide%5Fv1.pdf) Likewise, the rocket equation lends an advantage to future spacecraft launched from Luna in efficiently reaching other worlds in our Solar System. The equation tells us that even when objects in the outer reaches of the Solar System are closer to Mars than the Moon distance-wise, the more massive red planet’s deeper gravity well means greater energy is required to get out of its pull than to reach those destinations from thereon. For a rocket to reach the asteroid belt from the Moon’s surface, it takes at least 40% less energy than from Mars’ surface—even though the red planet is about *75 million kilometers* closer to the belt. This is the difference gravity makes, and which the rocket equation allows us to see. True lunar launchpads, untethered to Earth, can accelerate missions to places like Ceres and Vesta, which can in turn with refueling stations lend us the same kind of energy expenditure advantages as Luna embodies for vividly exploring outer worlds of immense scientific promise such as [Europa](https://jatan.space/esa-juice-mission-to-jupiter-moons/), [Enceladus](https://jatan.space/when-will-we-explore-enceladus-to-find-life/), [Miranda](https://www.jhuapl.edu/news/news-releases/241028-uranus-moon-miranda-with-ocean-beneath-surface-new-study), [Neptune and its moons](https://jatan.space/why-explore-neptune/), and so on. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fb9e31a92-78a0-44a2-9773-be1a45a97407_1700x1000-jpeg.jpg) A fleet of spaceships line up and approach a docking area seen as glowing lights on an inhabited asteroid. [Concept image: Erik Wernquist](https://erikwernquist.com/wanderers) Our Moon’s accessibility as a cosmic neighbor, its low gravity barrier, and its unique resources are few of the reasons why [Luna is valuable even beyond itself](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-239/). Of course, all of this assumes we’re even able to build out and sustain an independent enough presence on our Moon for living and manufacturing. Even if we don’t keep fighting ourselves and stay focused, it might take a long time for us to have true lunar launchpads. But at least there’s nothing in the physics to disallow it. What physics doesn’t dictate however is ethics. That responsibility is on us to carry alongside our spacecraft as we explore more and more of the Solar System and Cosmos. To that end, I wrote a poem. ## Poem: On the edge *Craft launched from Luna, no tether* *can go farther, faster* *while being lighter* *Exploring more worlds* *with joy and curiosity* *hosting ideas, deploying empathy* *and even skepticism for humanity* *From the edge of a gravitational well* *they can push the discourse* *and shape its course* *All of these futures can bloom* *with the fervor and fragrance of you.* --- **Poem notes:** I love writing poetry where words allude to technical space themes. It’s challenging and fun to distill the complex thoughts and concepts into words that flow while making sense in layers. Just like my poem [The dawn of your light](https://jatan.space/the-dawn-of-your-light/), this one was written to appreciate the qualities of someone I’ve had the pleasure of working with. The gratitude extends to others in my circles sharing those qualities. :) --- *If you liked this space poetry of mine, read* [***Seven uni-verses***](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/)*, my globally published poetry pamphlet.* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/share-seven-universes-poetry-qr-3.jpeg) #### Seven uni-verses (booklet) By [****Jatan Mehta**](https://jatan.space/about). Poetry on all that space evokes. [About & Read →](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/) --- *Article originally published in 2021, updated and more context included in 2026\. Original piece republished by* [*The Wire Science*](https://science.thewire.in/the-sciences/tsiolkovsky-rocket-equation-gravity-well-lunar-base-solar-system-exploration/)*.* *Thanks to* [*Adithya K Pani*](https://adithyapani.bio.link) *for reviewing the article.* **Many thanks to* [***Catalyx Space**](https://catalyx.space)**,* [***Ajay Kothari**](https://www.linkedin.com/in/ajay-kothari-739b0b32/)**,* [***Gordon Roesler**](https://www.linkedin.com/in/gordon-roesler-687a0426) *and* [***Justin Alva**](https://in.linkedin.com/in/justinalva) *for sponsoring* [**Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday)**. If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly* [**support*](https://jatan.space/support) *my independent writing, which is purely reader-funded. I don’t use AI to write a single word and* [**cite everything*](https://jatan.space/i-write-for-you/)**.* [Support Moon Monday 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### Poem: On the edge URL: https://jatan.space/on-the-edge/ Last updated: 2026-08-14T13:10:00.000Z *Craft launched from Luna, no tether* *can go* [*farther, faster*](https://jatan.space/the-moon-as-a-rocket-platform/) *while being lighter* *Exploring more worlds* *with joy and curiosity* *hosting ideas, deploying empathy* *and even skepticism for humanity* *From the edge of a gravitational well* *they can push the discourse* *and shape its course* *All of these futures can bloom* *with the fervor and fragrance of you.* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f20b22600-a2cc-4660-88e7-50c8a01749e9_1024x628-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of a rocket taking off from a Moonbase. [Image: SpaceX](https://web.archive.org/web/20200527073355/https://www.spacex.com/media/starship%5Fusers%5Fguide%5Fv1.pdf) **Poem notes:** I love writing poetry where words allude to technical space themes. It’s challenging and fun to distill the complex thoughts and concepts into words that flow while making sense in layers. Just like my poem [The dawn of your light](https://jatan.space/the-dawn-of-your-light/), this one was written to appreciate the qualities of someone I’ve had the pleasure of working with. The gratitude extends to others in my circles sharing those qualities. :) --- *If you liked this space poetry of mine, read* [***Seven uni-verses***](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/)*, my globally published poetry pamphlet.* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/share-seven-universes-poetry-qr-3.jpeg) #### Seven uni-verses (booklet) By [****Jatan Mehta**](https://jatan.space/about). Poetry on all that space evokes. [About & Read →](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/) ### Moon Monday #287: Mission updates from China, the US, Europe, and Japan URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-287/ Last updated: 2026-08-10T13:54:48.000Z *Before we begin, I’m thrilled to share that* [*Open Lunar Foundation*](https://www.openlunar.org) *is continuing as a sponsor of my* [*Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) *blog+newsletter for the sixth year!* 🌕 [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/08/open-lunar-foundation-logo-bg-white-small.jpg)](https://www.openlunar.org/) *Open Lunar is a US-based non-profit organization with a* [*global team*](https://www.openlunar.org/team) *that develops* [*bottom-up tools of lunar governance*](https://www.openlunar.org/projects) *to enable and promote cooperative, peaceful, and sustainable exploration of our Moon by all countries.* **Disclaimer for transparency:* I aid Open Lunar’s work with* [*technical communications*](https://jatan.space/joining-open-lunar-as-their-science-communications-lead/)*, and have newly joined their* [*Lunar Ledger*](https://www.lunarledger.space) *project as a global missions data contractor. Open Lunar’s sponsorship, just like that of* [*all other supporters*](https://jatan.space/about/#sponsors-and-supporters)*, abides by my public* [*Editorial Independence Policy*](https://jatan.space/ethics) *with zero exceptions. Particularly, this has included and will continue to include stating about them being a sponsor in parentheses every single time I mention their work in my coverage or writing.* ## Mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/10/change-7-lander-orbiter-illustration.jpg) A render of the Chang’e 7 lander and orbiter going around the Moon. [Image: CMG](https://news.cgtn.com/news/2023-06-05/China-sets-record-in-sixth-rocket-engine-trial-of-crewed-lunar-mission-1knNhdQYU6I/index.html) - China’s [Chang’e 7 mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-248/) to systematically study [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) on the lunar south pole has been gearing up for launch as early as [August last week](https://forum.nasaspaceflight.com/index.php?topic=58150.msg2807113#msg2807113) or September first half. The Long March 5 rocket elements for the mission [arrived last month](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/change-7s-long-route-from-wenchang) for final assembly, integration, and checks. The spacecraft elements had [arrived in April](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/change-7-moon-mission-arrives-in). Jack Congram [summarizes](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/what-nations-are-going-to-the-moon) the international instruments aboard and Leonard David [reports](https://www.leonarddavid.com/water-ice-on-moon-looking-for-good-vibrations/) on a [study](https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adz7220) of how the lander’s seismometer might be able to help scientists infer buried water ice deposits based on how they affect seismic waves. However, [today’s failure of a Long March 7A rocket](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/chinasat-spacecraft-lost-in-failed) might delay Chang’e 7’s launch by several weeks due to the two vehicles sharing YF-100 engines on their booster designs. - On July 10, China [successfully flew and landed](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/china-recovers-rocket-booster-debuts) the [Long March 10B](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fKQc7Nv2jWg) orbital rocket booster stage, a first such recovery for the country. The kerolox first stage is essentially the same design to be used by the Long March 10A, three of which will form the [Long March 10](https://english.www.gov.cn/news/202508/15/content%5FWS689eec3dc6d0868f4e8f4dcb.html)’s first stage to launch [taikonauts towards the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-237/). ***Related:** [**China surfaces details of spacecraft to land humans on Luna by 2030*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-267/) 📑 ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/08/long-march-10b-first-stage-recovered-jul-2026.jpeg) The Long March 10B rocket’s first stage booster recovered onboard the Linghangzhe ship on July 10th 2026\. [Image: CASC](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/recovered-long-march-10b-booster) - SpaceX’s [thirteenth suborbital test flight](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/successful-flight-for-starship-ift-13/) of its two-stage [Starship](https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/starship) rocket on July 25, was successful in its liftoff, stage separation, temporary Starlink satellite deployments, the upper stage’s in-space engine restart, and later a soft oceanic splashdown with its heat shield intact through atmospheric reentry. However, like the [previous flight](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/05/spacexs-starship-v3-still-a-work-in-progress-mostly-successful-on-first-flight/), this one failed again in seeing a soft splashdown of the large booster. While the thirteenth flight was a relative success on many counts, the delayed achievements of the same have meant that [SpaceX continues to lapse on Starship’s expected milestones for NASA’s Artemis program](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-276/) as a lander element. Furthermore, Eric Berger [reports](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/07/despite-recent-successes-rapid-reuse-of-starship-remains-a-tough-nut-to-crack/) on how Starship’s heat shield is its pacing item as well as fundamental constraint. ***Related:** [**Milestones pending for SpaceX Starship to be a Moonship for NASA astronauts*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-276/) - The upper stage of a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket which [launched two lunar missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-209/) in January 2025 [collided with the Moon on August 5](https://www.leonarddavid.com/moon-impact-of-rocket-stage-observed/) along its solar orbit, [exposing risks](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/falling-falcons-coordination-contamination-and-the-case-for-a-public-record) for future lunar activity, science, and peaceful lunar governance. South Korea’s [KPLO](https://jatan.space/kplo/) spacecraft [observed the impact](https://www.leonarddavid.com/moon-impact-site-imaged-by-koreas-danuri-lunar-orbiter/) from orbit. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/08/spacex-falcon-9-moon-nearside-impact-2026-imaged-by-kplo.jpg) Impact of a SpaceX Falcon 9 upper stage on the Moon as imaged by South Korea’s KPLO orbiter. [Image: KARI](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=411Xv9wJxws) - NASA [has said](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/moon-base/nasa-provides-updates-on-moon-base-cargo-landers-tech-demonstrations/) Blue Origin’s [Blue Moon Mark I](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-277/#blue-moon-mark-1-the-first) lander to be launched towards the Moon’s south pole has completed communications checkout on ground with NASA’s Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System and the Deep Space Network. The assembly of the lander, named Endurance, is nearing completion, with payload integration to follow. Endurance [passed space environmental testing](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/blue-origin-moon-lander-completes-testing-at-nasa-vacuum-chamber/) at NASA’s Johnson Space Center earlier this year. The lander is supposed to carry a few NASA payloads as part of the agency’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) and launch on Blue’s New Glenn rocket, which [exploded in May and delayed all of NASA’s Moon missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-277/) with the company. Eric Berger [reports](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/08/blue-origin-narrowing-in-on-root-cause-of-catastrophic-rocket-accident/) Blue’s CEO Dave Limp saying that the explosion originated in the main oxygen valve on of the seven BE-4 engines on the booster stage. The root cause of the issue remains unresolved. In the meanwhile, the agency has also [provided a few updates](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/moon-base/nasa-provides-updates-on-moon-base-cargo-landers-tech-demonstrations/) on other upcoming CLPS landers without noting any specifics about their launches. ***Related:** [**How engineers test Moon landers on Earth*](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-moon-landers/) ⚙️ - Astrobotic’s large [Griffin CLPS lander](https://www.astrobotic.com/griffin) aims to land on the Moon’s south pole [later this year](https://www.astrobotic.com/griffin-1-mission-update/). It will deploy the [FLIP rover](https://www.astrolab.space/flip-rover/) by Astrolab (a Moon Monday sponsor), who [onboarded last year](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-212/) after NASA [decided not to fly](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/#viper-rover-delivery-by-astrobotic) the critical [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) for studying water ice aboard Griffin. FLIP is yet to be integrated with Griffin, which will take place [pre-launch at SpaceX’s facilities](https://www.astrobotic.com/griffin-1-lunar-lander-unveiled-ahead-of-environmental-testing/). Astrobotic has so far shared that it has integrated three of the other lander payloads: [NASA’s Navigation Doppler LiDAR](https://www.astrobotic.com/ndl-integrated-with-griffin-1/) (NDL) which will aid Griffin’s navigation, the company’s own [CubeRover](https://www.astrobotic.com/cuberover-integrates-with-griffin-1/), and [ESA’s LandCam-X](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2022/09/Landcam-X) which will help improve landing precision. Amid the company’s desire to position Griffin’s hoped-for success to bag more [Artemis Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-268/) contracts from NASA, [Astrobotic has been acquired by Voyager Technologies](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-to-join-voyager-technologies-accelerating-americas-moon-base/), who wishes to accelerate said proposition. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/08/astrobotic-voyager-space-griffin-lander-2026.jpg) The first Griffin lander at Astrobotic’s cleanroom facility in Pittsburgh, USA. [Image: Astrobotic](https://www.astrobotic.com/griffin-1-lunar-lander-unveiled-ahead-of-environmental-testing/) - NASA [says](https://www.nasa.gov/technology/space-comms/nasas-capstone-completes-extended-mission-testing-lunar-technologies/) the agency-funded and Advanced Space-led [CAPSTONE](https://www.nasa.gov/smallspacecraft/capstone/) lunar orbiter demonstrated autonomous optical navigation at the Moon, including during [Artemis II](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-270/) when the Deep Space Network communications availability for the craft was limited. NASA [has awarded](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/armd/nasa-announces-new-spacecraft-technology-demonstration-mission-at-moon/) the same team of companies a contract of unspecified value for the [CAPSTONE-02](https://advancedspace.com/advanced-space-is-heading-back-to-the-moon-for-nasa-with-new-mission-capstone-02/) mission, which aims to demonstrate rendezvous and docking of two satellites in lunar orbit and advance autonomous navigation capabilities. - ispace US’ [first CLPS mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-184/) through Draper Laboratory was targeting landing on [the Moon’s farside](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-285/) later this decade. It was supposed to carry NASA payloads onboard as well as [a rover from ispace Europe](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7495), intended to [perform seismic studies and study the local surface & environment](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-184/#science). However, the contract to carry NASA payloads has been [cancelled](https://www.ispace-inc.com/2026/07/15/ispace-u-s-update-on-contract-with-draper/), and was announced as such on July 15\. It’s possible NASA might reallocate the flight-ready payloads to another CLPS lander but we’ll have to wait and watch for future announcements following feasibility studies. ***Related:** [**Upcoming missions to the Moon’s farside*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-285/) 🌗 - Relatedly, an ispace Europe led team won a \~[€65 million ESA contract](https://www.ispace-inc.com/2026/07/24/esa-awards-ispace-europe-contract-for-execution-of-magpie-esas-first-lunar-rover/) to collaborate with the agency on the [MAGPIE rover mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-228/#two-new-european-moon-missions) to study lunar polar [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other such volatiles. The rover will launch on ispace Japan’s M4 lander mission for which the company is being [funded by JAXA](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=8438) to demonstrate a precision lunar polar landing by the end of this decade with aid from navigation and communications ([navcom](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-185/)) relay satellites in lunar orbit. This is interesting; JAXA has [already achieved a precision robotic landing](https://jatan.space/precision-moon-landings-and-the-future/) with the SLIM mission in 2024 without needing any external spacecraft. The move therefore denotes other considerations such as cost and abstracting out the sophisticated touchdown capability to a persistent infrastructure layer at the Moon so every lander can utilize it. The M4 lander will follow M3, aimed to be launched in 2028 [on a Japanese H3 rocket](https://www.ispace-inc.com/2026/07/29/ispace-and-mitsubishi-heavy-industries-agree-to-launch-mission-3-ultra-lunar-lander-aboard-h3-rocket/), touting a large design with high payload capacity and improved navigation over ispace’s first [M1](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-129/) and [M2](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-228/) missions which entered lunar orbit but failed to land. --- **Many thanks to* [***Open Lunar Foundation**](https://www.openlunar.org/)**,* [***Ajay Kothari**](https://www.linkedin.com/in/ajay-kothari-739b0b32/) *and* [***Arun Raghavan**](https://arunraghavan.net) *for sponsoring* [**Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday)**. If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly* [**support*](https://jatan.space/support) *my independent writing, which is purely reader-funded. I don’t use AI to write a single word and* [**cite everything*](https://jatan.space/i-write-for-you/)**.* [Support Moon Monday 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### Our Moon is two-faced. Science missions unravel its layers. URL: https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/ Last updated: 2026-08-31T13:49:26.000Z It wasn’t until 1959 that any being on Earth saw our Moon’s farside for the first time. Because the Moon is [tidally locked](https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/4709) to Earth, we only ever see its familiar nearside face. In the early days of space exploration, the Soviet Luna 3 and spacecraft succeeding it transmitted the [first lunar farside images](https://web.archive.org/web/20210319153331/https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/imgcat/html/mission%5Fpage/EM%5FLuna%5F3%5Fpage1.html). While these captured images at low resolutions by today’s standards, the photos nevertheless revealed a far more cratered hemisphere than the Moon’s nearside. It looked more akin to [Mercury](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/mercury%5Fglobe%5Fmessenger%5Fflyby2%5Fdepart%5Fcw0131775256f) and Jupiter’s moon [Callisto](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/global-callisto-in-color) than the gray world in our skies. The Moon’s farside also lacks its nearside’s [familiar dark splotches](https://www.planetary.org/articles/moon-features-you-can-see-from-earth), volcanic plains formed about 3 to 4 billion years ago. To this day, scientists [don’t know exactly why](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-24626-3) our Moon has two distinct hemispheres. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/08/moon-nearside-farside.jpg) Our Moon’s nearside and farside. The farside is more cratered and lacks dark plains which are abundant on the nearside. [Images: NASA / LRO / ASU | Graphic: Jatan Mehta](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/298) Observations by more spacecraft later on only deepened the dichotomy. Several lunar orbiters showed that the Moon’s farside rocks have a [noticeably different chemical composition](https://doi.org/10.1002/jgre.20103) from nearside ones, meaning they formed in different ways. The [twin NASA GRAIL orbiters](https://www.planetary.org/articles/12110923-grail-results) launched in 2011 revealed that the farside crust is about [20 kilometers thicker](https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JE005826) on average than the nearside. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f505bef83-6aaa-413c-8c00-c01a40b119fc_1475x975-jpeg.jpg) Crustal thickness on the Moon’s nearside and farside as inferred from NASA’s GRAIL mission data [Illustration: NASA / JPL / GSFC / MIT / IPGP](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/moon-crust-thickness-grail) Scientists are especially interested in this lunar dichotomy because it’s tied to the Moon’s formation and evolution, in itself tied to Earth. Scientists think Earth and the Moon [have a shared origin](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/). The Moon likely coalesced from the orbital shards of a gigantic Earth impact; after a Mars-sized object named Theia collided with the newly born Earth about 4.5 billion years ago. While our planet’s active geological processes have erased hints of Earth’s makeup in those early years, material from the infant Earth that formed the Moon remains largely preserved on our [airless cosmic companion](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/). This is even more true for the lunar farside where large regions haven’t been volcanically altered. Studying rocks here can provide scientists with insights not just on the Moon’s *split-history* but into baby Earth as well. Understanding what caused our Moon’s two faces will also allow us to better gauge why [Mars is asymmetric too](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/mars-orbiter-laser-altimeter), as are some other bodies in the Solar System. ## The molten Moon Researchers think Earth may be responsible for lending the Moon’s nearside a thinner crust than its farside. [When the Moon coalesced](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/) as a molten body from leftover debris of Theia’s collision with Earth, it was about 15 times closer to us than it is today. It became tidally locked soon after, likely [within \~100 days](https://doi.org/10.1088/2041-8205/788/2/L42), a time that barely registers on geologic timescales. The Earth was still extremely hot from the force of the planetary collision. The Moon’s nearside constantly faced early Earth’s fuming temperatures of about 2500°C, and thus [remained molten](https://doi.org/10.1088/2041-8205/788/2/L42) for longer than the farside. Catalyzed by [other factors such as tidal heating](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-24626-3), the nearside magma cooled and crystallized into rocky crust slower than the farside. Some crustal elements like aluminum and calcium continued vaporizing on the molten nearside and condensing on the relatively cooler farside, thickening its crust. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/magma-ocean-early-moon-illustration.jpg) Illustration of a young Moon with a global magma ocean and newly forming crust. [Image: CCTV+](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d8EfwGxza50) At first, scientists thought that having a thinner nearside crust allowed magma inside the Moon’s mantle to ascend and volcanically erupt on the surface more easily than on the farside. This would explain the nearside’s abundant, dark volcanic plains. However, the farside [South Pole-Aitken Basin](https://science.nasa.gov/moon/lunar-craters/what-is-the-south-pole-aitken-basin/) (SPA)—the largest, deepest impact crater on the Moon—refutes that as the only explanation. The asteroid or cometary impact that created the \~2500-kilometer wide basin carved deep into the lunar crust, and possibly excavated some of the mantle too. Later sizable impacts on top of the basin carved further into the surface, making it very thin compared to the rest of the farside. And yet [only 3 to 4%](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/985) of SPA floor is covered in basaltic lava plains. Crustal thickness thus alone cannot explain the contrast in volcanic activity between the Moon’s hemispheres. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/08/spa-basin-moon.jpg) The \~2500-kilometer wide South Pole-Aitken basin region (dashed white circle) on the Moon, with some notable craters marked within. [Image: Lunar and Planetary Institute](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/exploration/CLSE-landing-site-study/SouthPoleAitkenBasin/) Researchers then thought that since the nearside crystallized slower than the farside, its crust and mantle may have accumulated more [heat-producing and radioactive elements](https://www.planetary.org/articles/3013) such as potassium and thorium. [High-temperature experiments](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-020-0559-4) on Earth suggest that the presence of such elements would lower the melting temperatures of rocks in the nearside mantle, producing about 4 to 13 times more magma than below the farside. [Simulations have supported this](https://doi.org/10.1038/nature.2013.14106) by showing that about four billion years ago, Oceanus Procellarum, the largest volcanic plain on the nearside, should’ve been hundreds of degrees hotter than the farside crust. Because of the temperature difference, nearside impacts would’ve thus produced deeper and larger craters overall than the farside, making the nearside crust thinner and increasing volcanic activity on the surface. ## The deepest lunar basin and nearby Chandrayaan 3 A sample return mission to the South Pole-Aitken Basin [has been assessed](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-74/) as the highest priority for lunar exploration in multiple [Planetary Decadal Surveys](https://www.planetary.org/blogs/guest-blogs/2020/the-next-10-years.html), a report produced every 10 years by the US scientific community to guide future NASA missions. [On-ground measurements](https://doi.org/10.3847/PSJ/abee7f) and [sampling of key areas within SPA](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-39/) will help scientists determine the nature and ages of farside crustal and mantle material. Coupled with equivalent results from nearside studies, it will help us know the exact conditions under which the Moon & Earth formed and evolved. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/08/moon-mantle-deposits-concentrations.jpg) Orbit-measured Thorium concentrations across the vast SPA basin on the Moon’s farside indicate the distribution of potential dense mantle material excavated by the basin-forming impact. Two craters (right) have particularly high potential. Images: [NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2021/lro-deep-secrets-of-moon) / [Dan Moriarty et al.](https://doi.org/10.1029/2020JE006589) Earlier this decade, two NASA-funded studies [identified good surface locations](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-39/) to collect and study potential pieces of the Moon’s mantle in SPA. NASA then planned to launch the [Endurance-A](https://science.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/endurance-spa-traverse-and-sample-return.pdf) mission later this decade, which would see a robotic rover traversing 2000 kilometers across the basin. It would measure rock and soil composition at key locations, and collect about 100 kilograms of samples to bring to Earth. However, even four years after a [formal recommendation](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-74/) and consideration, the mission is not yet approved. It will not be ready to fly until next decade. India’s [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) mission landed on the Moon’s nearside at the near-polar location of [69.37°S, 32.32°E](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/#the-moment-of-touchdown) in August 2023\. While not a farside mission, the site’s proximity to the SPA meant that the region’s history and some of its material are linked to the large farside basin. The Chandrayaan 3 rover [Pragyan](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/#a-lunar-region-never-explored) made lunar soil composition measurements using its X-ray spectrometer, which bolstered our Moon’s fully molten origin scenario from Theia’s impact, or [extended its validity](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-190/) to high-latitude regions on the nearside at the very least. There’s also a small chance the rover [might have stumbled upon lunar mantle material](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-224/) amid measurements of volatiles. Its detection of such materials makes the [Chandrayaan 3 landing region](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/#the-moment-of-touchdown) a potential [mantle sampling location](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-39/) for future missions and studies of the Moon’s origin and evolution. Some [recent analysis](https://doi.org/10.1038/s44453-026-00041-0) found that the mission’s landing site materials originated from a relatively magnesium-rich lunar crust and regolith, representing a [rarer aspect of lunar evolution studies](https://www.isro.gov.in/Ch3%5FAlpha%5FParticle%5FX-ray%5FSpectrometer.html) and feeding into our understanding of SPA’s history. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/05/ch3-rover-apxs-measurements-of-lunar-crust.jpg) ****Top left:** The Chandrayaan 3 rover rolling out of the lander’s ramp during pre-launch testing; ****Bottom left:** The co-added spectrum from all 23 lunar surface soil and rock measurements by the rover’s X-ray spectrometer; ****Right:** An artist’s concept of our Moon shortly after its formation, with a magma ocean and a newly forming rocky crust. Images: [ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan3%5Fcurtainraiser%5Fvideo.html) / [Santosh Vadawale, et al.](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07870-7.epdf?sharing%5Ftoken=4ZQFD5zK9GT9acs31FeVNNRgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0MR1M6jsWV0QR20SmA7k7Hvrkyl3GgMk99HFFb15nD09447WpwTLcpEaBgvj9C4YhThW7GJgQ7WgMAckZYS0fZ6FTf8RdEwv0eX%5FN4HvzLxBwhFq2fqKCzi0YsrWI%5FcfAQ%3D) / [NASA Goddard](https://www.dlr.de/content/en/articles/news/2020/03/20200710%5Fa-slightly-younger-moon.html) Scientists have made a geological map of Chandrayaan 3’s near-polar landing region and [found it to be 3.7 billion years old](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asr.2025.01.020). The region has been significantly altered since its formation by subsequent impacts and their material ejections. Zooming in a bit, other researchers assessed the mission’s landing site to [lie above an ancient crater](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2024.116329) which spans about 160 kilometers across and is up to 4.4 kilometers deep. This inference is primarily based on ejecta trails around the landing site as imaged by the mission’s rover coupled with high-resolution views of the larger region from the [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan/#chandrayaan-2-orbiter). Scientists think the ancient crater has been filled with material ejected from subsequent crater-forming impacts in the south polar region. These deposits include swaths of possible mantle material displaced here by the SPA-forming impact. ## The first farside samples transform lunar science ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/chang-e-6-lander-on-the-moon.jpg) A panorama from China’s Chang’e 6 lander on the Moon’s farside, showing one of its legs and the scoop sampling arm near its surface digs. Chang’e 6 collected 1.93 kilograms of soil and rocks across scoops and drills. [Image: CNSA / CLEP](https://x.com/SegerYu/status/1798688466026594539) The world’s first lunar farside landing was achieved by China, wherein the [Chang’e 4](https://www.eoportal.org/satellite-missions/chang-e-4) spacecraft lander [in a crater within SPA](https://jatan.space/change-4-landing-site-farside-von-karman-crater/) in 2019\. However, the crater’s lava plains cover much of the ancient crust, and the mission’s instruments weren’t designed to probe the lunar dichotomy. It wasn’t China’s only mission to the farside though. In 2024, the [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) spacecraft [collected samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-179/) from within SPA’s [Apollo](https://jatan.space/peak-ringed-apollo-crater/) impact crater, another farside first. Two years later, fervent studies of the samples have [transformed our understanding of the Moon’s evolution](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-233/) by anchoring key events in the lunar timeline. Below is a look at some key discoveries related to advancing our understanding of the Moon’s nearside-farside dichotomy in particular. - One Chang’e 6 sample study found evidence of a [distinct volcanic eruption about 4.2 billion years ago](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-08382-0) amid materials otherwise comprising younger, 2.8-billion-year aged basalts. Scientists concluded that the former was due to the presence of [heat-producing and radioactive elements](https://www.planetary.org/articles/3013) whereas the latter’s eruptions happened despite the lunar interior beneath the landing site being deprived of such volcanic catalysts. Combined with studies of [2-billion-year young volcanic samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-50/) fetched by the [Chang’e 5](https://jatan.space/change-5-landing-site/) mission, these findings validated heat-producing and radioactive elements as a catalyzing factor in the nearside’s volcanic activity being greater than the farside. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/chang-e-6-volcanic-samples-ages-4.2-and-2.8-billion-years-old.jpg) The X-axis shows the ages of volcanic samples brought by Chang’e and Apollo missions. Several lunar meteorites found on Earth are included as well. These are charted against the amount of [heat-producing and radioactive elements](https://www.planetary.org/articles/3013) (KREEP) in the samples to determine their origin and the varying makeup of our Moon’s mantle. The older Chang’e 6 (CE-6) volcanic samples are clearly visible to be more KREEP-rich than the younger ones. [Image: Qian Zhang et al.](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-08382-0) - Until recently, all direct evidence of our Moon being covered in a [global magma ocean](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/) shortly after its formation came from Apollo and Luna samples sourced from nearside equatorial and near-equatorial regions. Surface measurements made by Chandrayaan 3’s Pragyan rover in 2023 [extended this hypothesis’ validity](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-190/) to high-latitude regions on the nearside. But we lacked any such tactile measurements from the Moon’s farside. Recently though Chinese researchers studying two grams of Chang’e 6 samples found the [isotopic measurements of key chemical elements](https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adt3332) to be compatible with a fully molten young Moon. Chang’e 6 thus lent unequivocal credence to said hypothesis, anchoring a key event in the Moon’s origin and evolution. - In another critical study, researchers analyzed 1600 fragments from five grams of Chang’e 6 samples and found 20 relevant pieces to [determine the truest age yet](https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwaf103) of the SPA basin as being 4.25 billion years. This has allowed scientists to now place stringent constraints on when the farside and nearside crusts formed, and thus plan future measurements to evaluate the refined models against. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/chang-e-6-samples-provide-age-of-spa-lunar-basin.jpg) Illustration showing the location of ancient impact melt rock fragments collected among Change’e 6 samples. [Image: CAS](https://english.cas.cn/newsroom/research%5Fnews/earth/202503/t20250321%5F908490.shtml) - The expectations of scientists that the SPA-forming impact would change the physical and chemical makeup of the Moon’s mantle down to hundreds of kilometers was also validated. The dominant Chang’e 6 basalts from lava erupted \~1.4 billion years after SPA’s formation do exhibit a unique makeup compared to nearside volcanic lunar samples. A [study of 16 fragments](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-09131-7) scooped up by Chang’e 6 found them severely lacking elements such as titanium and thorium. More such findings across SPA and the farside would help build a clearer picture of the lunar mantle. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/illustration-of-effect-of-spa-impact-on-the-deep-lunar-mantle-and-subsequent-volcanism.jpg) ****a)** An illustration showing the effect of the 4.25-billion-year old SPA impact on the Moon’s deep mantle. ****b)** The altered mantle makeup then reflects in the 2.8-billion-year aged volcanic basalts, some of which were fetched by Chang’e 6\. [See full legend](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09131-7/figures/4) | [Image: Fu-Yuan Wu et al.](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-09131-7) - Another study analyzing 578 particles revealed for the first time that the Moon’s farside mantle [contains less water](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-08870-x) than within the nearside, another factor in the contrasting farside-nearside volcanic activity. The finding added to [the debate on the topic](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-85/) by lending a solid and unique credence to the hypothesis that our Moon indeed lost most of its water [during its fiery formation](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/). CASC’s [news release](https://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4305200/content.html) on the study noted how [Francis McCubbin](https://ares.jsc.nasa.gov/people/bios/francis-m-mccubbin/), NASA’s Astromaterials Curator and a peer reviewer of the paper, called the work “a landmark study on the water abundance of the lunar farside.” Chang’e 6 has not only transformed our understanding of the Moon’s farside and its evolution but it has also helped scientists worldwide determine the next set of finer measurements to perform with future missions as we continue unraveling the history of our Moon, Earth, and the Solar System. 🌙 ## Future missions The lunar farside will be a destination for [several upcoming missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-285/), albeit most will perform cosmic radio astronomy instead. NASA had planned to have farside geology related instruments on [one commercial lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-184/) part of its [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) study the pristine [Schrödinger crater](https://jatan.space/the-crowned-crater-of-schrodinger/) on the Moon’s farside, particularly the region’s [internal structure and heat flow](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-184/#science). The payloads were contracted to be sent on ispace US’ [first CLPS mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-184/) through Draper Laboratory. However, the contract to carry NASA payloads has been [cancelled](https://www.ispace-inc.com/2026/07/15/ispace-u-s-update-on-contract-with-draper/), and was announced as such on July 15\. It’s possible NASA reallocates the flight-ready payloads to another CLPS lander but we’ll have to wait and watch for future announcements following feasibility studies. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/10/thorium-rich-ejecta-blanket-from-spa-basin-formation-illustration.jpg) The southward, Thorium-rich ejecta blanket (visualized in red) deposited over the lunar surface during SPA’s formation. [Illustration: Jeff Andrews-Hanna / University of Arizona / NASA / NAOJ](https://news.arizona.edu/news/moons-biggest-impact-crater-made-radioactive-splash) Later this decade or early next though, India’s [Chandrayaan 4](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-241/) & [Chandrayaan 5](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/) spacecraft and several crewed missions [from China](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-267/) and the US’ [Artemis program](https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/artemis/) aim to explore south polar sites, which are [intertwined scientifically](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-09582-y) to the SPA and the lunar farside’s internal structure. Other than findings from on-ground measurements, there will be studies of samples from Chandrayaan 4 and crewed missions, which are expected to contain pieces of ancient polar crustal and potential mantle materials. Much like Apollo, studying a fresh set of novel samples will likely transform not just how we look at our Moon and Earth but also the Solar System and beyond. Luna’s pristine interior compared to other geologically active worlds means it helps researchers understand the baseline layer of processes that drive the interior evolution of rocky worlds everywhere. Another [key site](https://doi.org/10.1029/2009GL040472) could be [Moscoviense](https://jatan.space/farside-surprise-mare-moscoviense-and-luna-3/), a large lava plain on the farside. Missions here will likely be robotic but studying how its volcanic rocks differ from the nearside plains will not only inform scientists about nearside-farside volcanic contrasts but also [lend more insights](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/43) into how the two mantles evolved differently. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/08/high-priority-lunar-farside-sample-target-sites.jpeg) The distribution of high-priority sample targets materials and sites on the Moon’s farside. [Illustration: Dan Moriarty et al.](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-24626-3) Being the [most accessible and well preserved body](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) in our Solar System to study fundamental planetary processes, our Moon beckons. 🌗 --- **Many thanks to* [***Astrolab**](https://astrolab.space) *and* [***Gurbir Singh**](https://gurbir.co.uk) *for sponsoring* [**Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday)**. If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly* [**support*](https://jatan.space/support) *my independent writing, which is purely reader-funded. I don’t use AI to write a single word and* [**cite everything*](https://jatan.space/i-write-for-you/)**.* [Support Moon Monday 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### Upcoming missions to the Moon’s farside—that’s definitely not its dark side. URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-285/ Last updated: 2026-07-27T12:44:52.000Z ** ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/07/change-4-lander.jpg) Chang’e 4 lander on the farside of the Moon, as imaged by the Yutu 2 rover. [Image: CNSA](http://www.planetary.org/blogs/jason-davis/change-4-update.html) China pioneered exploring our Moon’s [mysterious farside](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) with the [Chang’e 4](https://www.eoportal.org/satellite-missions/chang-e-4) and [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-182/) missions. Soil and rock samples fetched by Chang’e 6 [changed our understanding of the Moon’s evolution](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-233/), paving the way for future missions to seek answers to the next set of scientific questions about our Moon and its [connection to Earth](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/) as well as events in the Solar System. Chang’e 4 and its associated [Queqiao 1](https://www.planetary.org/articles/0519-change-4-relay-satellite) satellite demonstrated farside relay communications, a first as well, and carried an [instrument for cosmic radio measurements](https://doi.org/10.1029/2023RS007906) to prepare for leveraging the lunar farside’s value as a [unique platform for cosmology](http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/May21/radio-astronomy-from-Moon.html). Here are future missions planned for launch by 2030—or around that time when accounting for delays. ## The second Firefly ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/07/firefly-blue-ghost-2-uae-rashid-rover-2-illustration.jpg) Illustration of the Blue Ghost 2 lander and Rashid rover on the Moon’s farside. [Image: Firefly](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-aerospace-adds-uaes-rashid-2-rover-to-blue-ghost-mission-to-the-far-side-of-the-moon/) The closest upcoming mission to the Moon’s farside is [Blue Ghost 2](https://fireflyspace.com/missions/blue-ghost-mission-2/), wherein US-based Firefly Aerospace aims to deliver a lunar orbiter and surface payloads later this year at the earliest as part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). The company will leverage a similar lander design as its [successful first CLPS Moon mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-218/#firefly-deserves-an-unusual-kudos) but will add an orbital transfer stage called [Elytra Dark](https://fireflyspace.com/elytra/). The latter will help deliver the 280-kilogram [Lunar Pathfinder](https://jatan.space/nasa-esa-collaborate-on-lunar-pathfinder/) spacecraft for ESA in lunar orbit. Pathfinder is a stepping stone towards [Moonlight](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-198/#moonlight-in-motion-and-contrasting-queqiao), ESA’s upcoming navigation and communications constellation in support of lunar surface missions. Post Lunar Pathfinder’s deployment, Elytra Dark will commence the company’s Ocula lunar imaging service, which [can fill some—but not all—critical gaps for NASA](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-230/#the-silver-ocula-to-fill-some-gaps-for-nasa) on the lunar reconnaissance front. ***Related:** [**A giant leap in orbital imagery is what we need to realize advanced Moon missions*](https://jatan.space/we-need-a-giant-leap-in-lunar-orbital-imagery/) The Blue Ghost lander itself will attempt to touchdown on the Moon’s farside. Once on the surface, it will deploy the NASA-funded [LuSEE-Night](https://science.nasa.gov/lunar-science/clps-deliveries/cs-3/) instrument. It’s a first of its kind, aiming to [measure faint but unique radio signals](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-118/) from our Universe’s ‘Dark Ages’—a slice of time right before the first stars were born. LuSEE-Night will [help us characterize](https://web.archive.org/web/20230204183038/https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/bale4lusee.pdf) the Moon’s radio emissions for [future farside radio telescopes](http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/May21/radio-astronomy-from-Moon.html). Firefly has also won an extended [$18 million contract](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-awarded-18-million-nasa-contract-to-provide-radio-frequency-calibration-services-from-lunar-orbit) from NASA for Elytra Dark to provide communications and radio frequency calibration services for LuSEE-Night. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/07/moon-farside-radio-quietness-map.jpg) This map shows estimated radio frequency interference, or how radio-quiet it is, on the Moon’s farside versus the nearside, in decibel units. Areas within “-10 dB” face ten times lower noise on average than the nearside, -50 dB a hundred thousand times lower, and -90 dB a billion times. Yellow stars are some suitable places for ultra-sensitive radio telescopes. [Image: Burns et al. (2021) / NASA LRO](https://doi.org/10.3847/PSJ/abdfc3) Blue Ghost 2 will [also carry](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-aerospace-adds-uaes-rashid-2-rover-to-blue-ghost-mission-to-the-far-side-of-the-moon/) UAE’s [second Rashid rover](https://iafastro.directory/iac/paper/id/92294/abstract-pdf/GLEX-2025,2,4,2,x92294.brief.pdf?2025-01-06.11:34:53). UAE’s near-identical Rashid rover 1 launched in 2023 but it couldn’t operate on the Moon since [ispace Japan’s first Moon lander](https://jatan.space/ispace-japan-m1-moon-mission/) carrying the rover [crashed](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-129/). The Rashid 2 rover will have largely the [same science & technology goals](https://jatan.space/ispace-japan-m1-moon-mission/#the-robotic-rashid-rover). For Firefly and NASA, Blue Ghost 2 carrying the Rashid 2 rover to the Moon would be a milestone in flying actual commercial payloads instead of those funded by the US government or its longtime allies. Moreover, the lander will host Volta Space’s [CSA-funded](https://www.voltaspace.co/fireflypr) wireless power receiver aboard. It’s a technology demonstrator ahead of building receivers for a planned lunar power network and service called LightGrid. Blue Ghost 2 will [also carry](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-announces-agreement-with-fleet-space-to-deliver-payload-to-the-moon) a commercial seismometer from Australia-based Fleet Space Technologies. Once deployed, it will operate by tapping into lander-provided power and communications services—much the same as how the [seismometer](https://www.isro.gov.in/Ch3%5FILSA%5FListens%5FLanding%5FSite.html) deployed by India’s [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) lander operated. Part of the larger global effort to [study Moonquakes](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-199/), SPIDER will offer scientists insights into the physical structure and nature of the local crust and subsurface. It might also provide hints of resources such as [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/), depending on the chosen landing site which is as yet unannounced. ***Related:** [**Not the fault in our stars but certainly stressful faults on our Moon*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-199/) ## More farside missions - ispace US’ [first CLPS mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-184/) through Draper Laboratory was targeting landing on the Moon’s farside later this decade. It was supposed to carry NASA payloads onboard as well as [a rover from ispace Europe](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7495), intended to [perform seismic studies and study the local surface & environment](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-184/#science). However, the contract to carry NASA payloads has been [cancelled](https://www.ispace-inc.com/2026/07/15/ispace-u-s-update-on-contract-with-draper/), and was announced as such on July 15\. It’s possible NASA might reallocate the flight-ready payloads to another CLPS lander but we’ll have to wait and watch for future announcements following feasibility studies. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/07/farside-seismic-suite-draper-lander-science-clps.jpg) Science goals of the Farside Seismic Suite supposed to fly aboard the Draper-led, ispace-developed CLPS landing mission. Image: [Mark Panning et al.](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2022/pdf/1576.pdf) - The Honk Kong University and Chinese-mainland-based ASES are collaborating on the [Lunar Flash orbiter](https://file.bagevent.com/resource/20251103/0926266284040586.pdf). Largely funded by the Hong Kong government at almost $100 million HKD, the 100-kilometer altitude polar-orbiting satellite will monitor flashes of meteorite impacts on the Moon’s farside. This will help scientists determine the phenomenon’s poorly constrained sizes, rate, and potential impact (pun intended) on long-term robotic and crewed exploration. Combined with more such data from other missions, it will help us understand risk from [micrometeorites](https://jatan.space/the-tiniest-of-impact-craters/) too specifically to better plan future humans, habitats, and hardware on the Moon’s south pole. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/IMG_3054-2.jpeg) Quentin Parker presenting the anticipated outcomes of systematically measuring meteorite impact flashes on the Moon’s farside at the [ILSRS symposium](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-252/) in 2025\. Image: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) / ILSRS - ESA approved a similar mission in 2024 called the **LU**nar **M**eteoroid **I**mpacts **O**bserver ([LUMIO](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FEngineering%5FTechnology/Shaping%5Fthe%5FFuture/LUMIO%5FNew%5FCubeSat%5FIlluminating%5FLunar%5FImpacts)). ESA aims to launch the LUMIO CubeSat in 2027 to the second Earth-Moon Lagrangian point (EM-L2) from where it can continuously observe the Moon’s farside. The CubeSat also aims to demonstrate [autonomously determining its position](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2024/07/Eye%5Ftest%5Ffor%5Flunar%5Fimpact%5Fsurveyor) in space and navigating accordingly, independent of communications with Earth, something China [pioneered with its DRO lunar craft](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-222/) recently. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/07/lumio-mission-phases.jpg) Mission phases of LUMIO. [Image: ESA](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FEngineering%5FTechnology/Shaping%5Fthe%5FFuture/LUMIO%5FNew%5FCubeSat%5FIlluminating%5FLunar%5FImpacts) - China’s upcoming mission called [Discovering Sky at Longest wavelength](https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/stab3623) (DSL) aims to [make radio measurements of the cosmic ‘Dark Ages’](https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2019.0566) from the Moon’s farside with one mother satellite and eight trailing daughter satellites. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/07/dsl-cosmic-ages-radio-measurements-illustration-1.jpeg) Illustration of the DSL lunar satellites making radio measurements related to the Cosmic Dark Ages. [Images: Xuelei Chen et al.](https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2019.0566) - China’s [Chang’e 8](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/#prepare-for-crew-and-double-down-with-mission-eight) mission, targeting launch in 2028, will carry three small antennae called [BALLS](https://developspace.africa/programs/africa2moon/) from Africa, making it the continent’s first lunar payload. While Chang’e 8 will land on the lunar south pole, BALLS will function as a demonstrative precursor to the full [African2Moon radio telescope array](https://www.leonarddavid.com/africas-moon-mission-china-to-launch-technology-demonstrator-for-radio-astronomy/) of 55 antennae aimed to be placed on the lunar farside by a future mission to also measure the Dark Ages. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/07/balls-african-lunar-mission.jpeg) Illustration of the bounced African Low Lunar Sphere (BALLS) antennae on the Moon. [Image: Africa2Moon](https://developspace.africa/programs/africa2moon/) - India is developing the [PRATUSH orbiter mission](https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2507.05654) to detect signals from the cosmic Dark Ages as well. There has been progress on demonstrating the sensitivity of the [radiometer hardware](https://www.rri.res.in/highlights/tiny-computers-big-role-unveiling-universes-earliest-whispers) although a commissioned phase with a launch vehicle remains out of sight for the mission. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/07/pratush-lunar-cosmic-ages-observation-orbiter-observation-time.jpg) A diagram showing PRATUSH’s window for scientific observations when orbiting over the lunar farside. [Image: Mayuri Rao et al.](https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2507.05654) ***Related:** [**Our two-faced Moon*](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) --- **Many thanks to* [***Gordon Roesler**](https://www.linkedin.com/in/gordon-roesler-687a0426) *and* [***Dany Waller**](https://danywaller.github.io/) *for sponsoring* [**Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday)**. If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly* [**support*](https://jatan.space/support) *my independent writing, which is purely reader-funded. I don’t use AI to write a single word and* [**cite everything*](https://jatan.space/i-write-for-you/)**.* [Support Moon Monday 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### Articles on asteroids, comets, and dwarf worlds URL: https://jatan.space/articles-on-asteroids-comets-and-dwarf-worlds/ Last updated: 2026-07-23T14:28:14.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/07/asteroids-comets-2022.jpg) A montage of some asteroids and comets photographed up close by spacecraft. [Image: The Planetary Society](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/asteroids-and-comets-visited-by-spacecraft) - [**Why explore asteroids, comets, and other small worlds**](https://jatan.space/why-explore-small-worlds/) - [When to worry about an asteroid hitting Earth](https://jatan.space/when-to-worry-about-an-asteroid-strike/) - [Psyche, exploring a metal world](https://jatan.space/nasa-psyche-mission-to-psyche/) - [Japan wants to sample Mars’ moon Phobos with its MMX mission](https://jatan.space/japan-mmx-mars-moons-sample-return/) - [Weirdest types of moons in our Solar System](https://jatan.space/weirdest-types-of-moons-in-the-solar-system/) --- **Related:** [*Articles on moons other than our Moon*](https://jatan.space/moons-other-than-our-moon-articles/) --- Like my writing and efforts to provide free resources for space communities worldwide? Kindly sponsor my work to support independent writing: [Support my writing 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### Explore our Moon! URL: https://jatan.space/our-moon/ Last updated: 2026-09-03T14:19:17.000Z Our Moon is a unique place to answer fundamental questions about our Solar System and also help enable sustained human presence in space. Over years, I’ve been writing accessible stories about the Moon’s said value for as broad an audience as I can. I’ve placed all that work together in context on this curated Moon page, along with several external resources, to provide a good entry point for people from all backgrounds to learn about our Moon and its specific themes, and evangelize its continued exploration. I hope you like my labor of lunar love. **–** [**Jatan Mehta**](https://jatan.space/about) **Note:* You can also click on the images to open the respective links. (Since this is a visual browsing page, image credits are inside the links.)* ## Look up to our Moon [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9fe36306-66da-4806-b77b-29815510131e_2500x1600-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) [****Why explore our Moon**](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/08/farside-moon-and-earth-change-5-t1.jpg)](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-239/) [****Our Moon is valuable even beyond itself ✨**](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-239/) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/08/moon-nearside-farside.jpg)](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) [****Our Moon is two-faced. Science missions unravel its layers.**](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f6a114358-654a-449e-b904-adca06d3fb5c_2190x1500-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/lunasights/) [****Luna Sights – A visual tour of our Moon, at scales big and small**](https://jatan.space/lunasights/) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/07/our-moon-rebecca-boyle-book-cover-small-2.jpg)](https://rebeccaboyle.com/our-moon-how-earths-celestial-companion-transformed-the-planet-guided-evolution-and-made-us-who-we-are/) [****Book: Our Moon, by Rebecca Boyle**](https://rebeccaboyle.com/our-moon-how-earths-celestial-companion-transformed-the-planet-guided-evolution-and-made-us-who-we-are/) [Science facts from simply watching the Moon 🌕](https://bigthink.com/starts-with-a-bang/5-science-facts-moon/) [NASA’s Moon page 🌙](https://science.nasa.gov/moon/) ## Programs and global progress [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fe53238ad-bcc1-4884-a2d1-9370d1aa80af_2000x1430-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/) [****How the Apollo missions transformed our understanding of the Moon’s origin**](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/07/artemis-ii-astronauts-return-to-earth-after-lunar-flyby.jpeg)](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-270/) [****Artemis II flew four astronauts around the Moon**](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-270/) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/06/lunokhod-1-2-render.jpg)](https://www.smithsonianmag.com/air-space-magazine/the-other-moon-landings-6457729/) [****The Soviet Luna landings**](https://www.smithsonianmag.com/air-space-magazine/the-other-moon-landings-6457729/) [Curated Apollo stories 🧑🏻‍🚀](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/celebrating-apollo-at-50) [Experience Apollo in real time ⏱️](https://apolloinrealtime.org/) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/04/ch-2-orbiter-cover.jpg)](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan/) [****Deep dive into India’s Chandrayaan Moon missions**](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan/) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f63d7d66c-881b-4f74-881c-5bbb5fcbfe6e_1559x1134-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/kplo/) [****KPLO, South Korea’s first Moon mission**](https://jatan.space/kplo/) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/12/firefly-blue-ghost-clps-lander-at-mare-crisium-and-on-earth.jpg)](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-218/#firefly-deserves-an-unusual-kudos) [****Blue Ghost 1, the first successful private Moon lander**](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-218/#firefly-deserves-an-unusual-kudos) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/chang-e-5-and-6-samples.jpeg)](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-255/#china) [****China’s lunar leaps and fetched samples**](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-255/#china) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f6ed0f2dc-d28d-443c-9f44-8a5b1d67f918_640x480-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/precision-moon-landings-and-the-future/) [****JAXA’s SLIM lander sparked an era of precision landings**](https://jatan.space/precision-moon-landings-and-the-future/) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/chandrayaan-3-stack-in-acoustic-chamber.jpg)](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-moon-landers/) [****How engineers test Moon landers on Earth**](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-moon-landers/) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/03/artemis-iii-candidate-landing-regions.jpg)](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/) [****How India-US and India-Japan have collaborated to select lunar landing sites**](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/) [Global lunar activities in 2026 🌗](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-282/) [Moon missions worldwide in 2025 🌕](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-255/) [2024 lunar exploration rundown 🌙](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-206/) ## Lunar science [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/07/water-ice-moon-map-m3.jpg)](https://jatan.space/how-nasa-and-chandrayaan-discovered-water-on-the-moon/) [****How NASA and India discovered water on the Moon**](https://jatan.space/how-nasa-and-chandrayaan-discovered-water-on-the-moon/) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f70aa76c7-04a4-4f3b-8fea-9b1aa9aedc62_1641x985-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/exploring-moon-mountains/) [****Moon mountains are a marvel of instant formation**](https://jatan.space/exploring-moon-mountains/) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/07/chang-e-6-basalt-sample-under-a-polarizing-microscope.jpg)](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-233/) [****Visualizing a new Moon based on scientific discoveries by China’s Chang’e 6 mission**](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-233/) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/07/lro-water-on-the-moon-gif-snapshot-1.jpg)](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) [****Ultimate guide to water on the Moon**](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and [****permanently shadowed regions**](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/09/our-moon-sky-space-motion-visualized.jpg)](https://ciechanow.ski/moon/) [****Visualize our Moon and its path around Earth**](https://ciechanow.ski/moon/) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/10/chang-e-7-mobile-hopper-1.jpeg)](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-248/) [****How China’s Chang’e 7 mission will comprehensively study lunar polar water**](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-248/) [ESA’s Library of Lunar Science 🔭](http://lunarexploration.esa.int/library) ## Lunar poetry [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/12/earth-moon-horizon-kplo-2.jpg)](https://jatan.space/an-ode-to-our-moon/) [An ode to our Moon 🌙](https://jatan.space/an-ode-to-our-moon/) [Selene, smashed not shattered 💥](https://jatan.space/selene-smashed-not-shattered/) [Back to the Moon.. ](https://jatan.space/back-to-the-moon/) [Don’t screw up the Moon :/](https://jatan.space/dont-screw-up-the-moon/) [The dawn of your light 🌕](https://jatan.space/the-dawn-of-your-light/) --- ## Fascinated by our Moon? To track and understand how countries worldwide are exploring our Moon, follow [my space blog](https://jatan.space/about) for free and join 12000+ readers. You can subscribe [via email](https://jatan.space/subscribe): [or use RSS →](https://jatan.space/feeds/) --- **This curated Moon page and all* [**my Moon projects and articles*](https://jatan.space/moon-projects/) *are completely free to access by everyone and regularly updated. If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly* [**support*](https://jatan.space/support) *my independent writing, which is purely reader-funded. I don’t use AI to write a single word and* [**cite everything*](https://jatan.space/i-write-for-you/)**.* [Support my Moon writing 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### Slightly different articles on Mars and missions to it URL: https://jatan.space/mars-articles/ Last updated: 2026-07-16T13:29:29.000Z I’m very much a [Moon person](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) but I’ve written a bit about Mars over the years as well, highlighting a few key aspects about the red planet’s exploration which I thought aren’t discussed as much or in detail. ## NASA explores Mars ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/07/mars-rovers-comparison.jpg) A comparison of three generations of NASA Mars rovers. These are flight-spares inside NASA JPL's [Mars Yard](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/jpl/twin-of-nasas-perseverance-mars-rover-begins-terrain-tests/) testing area. The Sojourner rover’s twin is front and center, a Mars Exploration Rover spare is on the left, and the Curiosity twin is on the right. [Image: NASA / JPL-Caltech](https://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/imagegallery/image%5Ffeature%5F2154.html) - [**Looking back at Pathfinder as the start of modern Mars exploration**](https://jatan.space/nasa-mars-pathfinder-mission/) - [**How NASA decides where to land on Mars**](https://jatan.space/how-nasa-choses-mars-landing-sites/) - [How NASA defines “Special Regions” for Mars missions](https://jatan.space/how-nasa-defines-special-regions-for-mars-missions/) - [NASA’s MAVEN spacecraft revealed how Mars lost its atmosphere and water](https://jatan.space/nasa-maven-mars-orbiter/) - [Interviewing Tory Bruno on leading the company that has launched every NASA mission to Mars](https://jatan.space/interviewing-tory-bruno-ceo-ula/) ## India reaches the Red Planet ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/07/01-olympus-mons-tharsis-monetes-valles-marineris.jpg) Global view of Mars from the Mangalyaan spacecraft, captured on October 4, 2014\. [Image: ISRO / Emily Lakdawalla](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/global-view-of-mars-from-mom-tharsis) - [**Reviewing Mangalyaan, India’s first Mars mission**](https://jatan.space/reviewing-mission-mangalyaan/) - [**India’s Mars orbiter completes six years at the red planet, but where is the science?**](https://jatan.space/missing-science-from-mangalyaan/) - [Debate: Mangalyaan’s low science output still reflects on ISRO](https://jatan.space/debate-missing-science-from-mangalyaan-still-reflects-on-isro/) - [Mangalyaan spacecraft terminated—it was never a science mission](https://jatan.space/how-to-honor-mangalyaan/) - [**My article on Mangalyaan was rejected 8 times but I published it anyway**](https://jatan.space/story-behind-that-mangalyaan-article/) - [Views of Mars from India's Mangalyaan orbiter](https://jatan.space/views-of-mars-from-mangalyaan/) - [Book review: Those magnificent women and their stories that must be told](https://jatan.space/book-review-those-magnificent-women-and-their-stories/) ## Looking ahead ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/07/mars-north-pole-esa-mars-express.jpg) The north polar region of Mars imaged by ESA’s Mars Express orbiter. [Image: ESA / DLR / FU Berlin / J. Cowart](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/20190128%5Fborealis-planitia-mars-express) - [Japan wants to sample Mars’ moon Phobos with its MMX mission](https://jatan.space/japan-mmx-mars-moons-sample-return/) - [ExoMars: A European mission to find signs of life on Mars](https://jatan.space/exomars-2022-esa-rover/) - [Experiments at the International Space Station that paved the way to living on Mars and beyond](https://jatan.space/iss-experiments-living-on-mars-and-beyond/) - [**Can we make Mars Earth-like?**](https://jatan.space/can-we-make-mars-earth-like/) --- **Related:** [*Articles on Venus*](https://jatan.space/venus-articles/) --- Like my writing and efforts to provide free resources for space communities worldwide? Kindly sponsor my work to support independent writing: [Support my writing 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### The Moon’s south pole is a place of promise and perils. Effective data sharing will benefit and save everyone. URL: https://jatan.space/the-lunar-south-pole-needs-global-data-sharing/ Last updated: 2026-07-13T12:46:18.000Z We may have gone to the Moon before but we haven’t been to its south pole. There’s a big difference. The south polar environment is far harsher than the [near-equatorial or mid-latitude sites](https://jatan.space/apollo-landing-sites-overview/) where Apollo astronauts and most robotic missions have landed. At the lunar poles, the slopes are [far steeper](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/Slope%20map%5FSouth%20Pole%5F85%20to%2090%20deg%20S%5Fv2.pdf), Sun and Earth visibility for power and communications respectively more limited, temperatures inside water-hosting [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) crossing into [cryogenic realms](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/SPole%5F85S%5FDLREallT%5Fv20190829.pdf), and smooth enough [reliably lit patches](https://lroc.im-ldi.com/images/271) for spacecraft to touchdown upon not just smaller but far fewer amid treacherous mountainous terrain. For all practical purposes, the lunar south pole is a different Moon-like planet that’s even more unforgiving than Luna. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/07/data-src-image-c3ef244a-fc00-41ac-b07c-ab9c31404a7b.jpeg) The steep slopes at the Moon’s south pole (85–90°S). [Image: CLSE / LPI](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/Slope%20map%5FSouth%20Pole%5F85%20to%2090%20deg%20S%5Fv2.pdf) ## A giant chasm Despite facing a whole new plane of challenges, the [global rush to the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-282/) this century is grander in ambition than even Apollo. Countries and companies wish to repeatedly land more humans and robots than before, operate for longer than past missions have, and eventually construct and operate Moonbases that can harvest local resources like [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and [oxygen & metals](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-153/) in lunar soil. In the meanwhile, the budgets available are [far less than half of Apollo](https://www.planetary.org/articles/three-charts-that-show-how-nasas-artemis-compares-to-apollo) for Artemis as well as programs globally. Moreover, about half the world’s robotic lunar landing attempts still fail. The only exception to the latter is China, whose Chang’e 3–6 missions have bagged four out of four successful robotic landings, including [two sample returns](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-252/). One of the keys to Sino’s success at Luna is that institutional lessons and outcomes from each national space & Moon mission are made to flow fully and freely across the country. This is not the case with the US, where private companies [compete to carry NASA’s payloads to the Moon](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) as part of the agency’s CLPS program. Companies thus tend to be selective about sharing mission data, information, and insights, done only when deemed necessary or immediately beneficial. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/07/data-src-image-eced1f69-3a58-4edb-9251-29c2061ce948.jpeg) Comparison of Apollo and Artemis budgets, adjusted for inflation. Image: [The Planetary Society](https://www.planetary.org/articles/three-charts-that-show-how-nasas-artemis-compares-to-apollo) Couple these budgetary and operational shortcomings with the fact that [almost](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-275/) everything we know about the Moon’s south pole and its promise comes from orbital missions alone. Orbiters can only provide imagery and physical & chemical data at coarse resolutions compared to fine ground truths experienced by surface missions. Even the latest and next-generation orbiters from various entities globally are [not planning coordinated observations](https://jatan.space/we-need-a-giant-leap-in-lunar-orbital-imagery/) beyond a [handful of polar sites](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/#isro-aids-artemis). Their data quality and availability will therefore not compound to inform the [next set of advanced missions](https://jatan.space/pitfalls-in-lunar-exploration/). All robotic and crewed surface missions will have to operate cautiously to navigate the harshness of the lunar south pole. As many past space and Moon missions have shown, [operational errors do terminate missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-281/) or [severely degrade outcomes](https://jatan.space/past-lunar-mission-mistakes-to-avoid/). As but one example, operators of the former Soviet Union’s Lunokhod 2 rover [accidentally drove it into a crater](https://www.smithsonianmag.com/air-space-magazine/the-other-moon-landings-6457729) amid tricky lighting conditions around sunset, which ended the mission prematurely. Such lighting conditions [persist all-day, every day](https://www.nasa.gov/ames/feature/the-dark-side-of-the-crater-how-light-looks-different-on-the-moon-and-what-nasa-is-doing) on the lunar south pole due to a perpetually near-horizon Sun. Since no mission has explored polar water ice directly yet, we have no idea of its true physical, chemical, and geotechnical nature. How exactly will its cryogenic environments treat our hardware over time? Will instruments work as intended? How about our [space grade electronics](https://jatan.space/space-grade-electronics/) and [Moonbase materials](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-244/)? ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/07/data-src-image-75292ab3-cea4-4e79-b288-b50ad4042fb8.jpeg) NASA’s Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory mimics lighting conditions on the Moon’s poles, which present a tricky, disorienting environment for humans and robots to operate in. [Image: NASA / Lauren Maples](https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/dark-mode-activated) ## Avoiding polar pitfalls As we mount many lunar missions to the south pole, an ordeal of an engineering challenge, having prior access to more operational and scientific data from more missions will avoid us from losing multi-hundred-million-dollar hardware after they even manage to make it to the Moon in one piece. However, mission data and information sharing [as it currently exists](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/lunar-takes-1) is largely fragmented, incoherent, and incompatible between various actors. Achieving herculean ambitions and having a lack of baseline information are mutually exclusive. Space experts like [Marieta Valdivia Lefort](https://www.linkedin.com/in/marietaconstanza/) of the Royal Astronomical Society have [previously highlighted](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/lunar-takes-1) the barrier of technical interoperability for Moon missions: > These issues are especially important for lunar missions, which depend on accurate ephemeris data, surface coordinates, timing synchronisation, and environmental measurements. These are [essential](https://ccsds.org/Pubs/502x0b3e1.pdf) for safe operations, Moon-based astronomy, and studies of polar water ice. And yet space agencies, companies, and universities still use different data formats, reference frames, metadata, and procedures. Amid competition, US private lunar companies will remain tightfisted about sharing information even on mission aspects that aren’t sensitive to intellectual property. When companies begin exploring the lunar south pole, withholding information will only grant them a temporary edge among each other while the harsh environment will continue to overpower collective progress. The current state of the US’ lunar information sharing and coordination is thus [neither safe](https://jatan.space/a-registry-of-moon-missions/) nor [efficient](https://jatan.space/pitfalls-in-lunar-exploration/) for progress. It will also keep setting precedents and policies that are ineffective due to lack of full ground truth information. On the other hand, mutual sharing of polar resource prospecting data will not only bring down technical risks but also help grow the pie of potential customers and investments. Lunar science and exploration have always gone hand-in-hand. [Chandrayaan 1](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/)’s discovery of water ice and its mineral mapping of the Moon is what catalyzed the global Moon rush. Then, the planning of all 21st century Moon landing missions—including China’s—was possible in part thanks to the [over 1.6 petabytes of data](https://assets.science.nasa.gov/content/dam/science/psd/resources/senior-review/2025/PMSR25%5FFinal%5FReport%5FPackage%5FJune9%5F2025.pdf) shared freely by NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter ([LRO](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lro/about/)) mission. LRO’s high-resolution imagery and topographic data has been the bedrock for filtering landing sites in particular. Likewise, scientific data from China’s Moon missions has been available through their [Lunar and Planetary Data Release System](https://moon.bao.ac.cn/), with [Chang’e 5 lunar samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-233/) being [shared with international researchers](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-223/) as well to better understand our Moon’s evolution. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/07/data-src-image-cecaf65b-a81a-4a34-9798-7bc44d3ef3a1.jpeg) Illustration of NASA’s LRO spacecraft mapping a section of the Moon at different angles over consecutive orbits to create a 3D topographic image. [Image: NASA / LROC](https://jatan.space/the-moon-in-3d/) ## Polar pathfinders The next layer of multi-mission datasets that will enable the planning and execution of advanced Moon missions is yet to be gained. No single entity can efficiently tackle the unprecedented challenges of the lunar south pole. Instead of expending substantial time, effort, and money in independently re-inventing lunar polar wheels, multiple countries and companies could share baseline information sets about the perils of the lunar poles at a minimum. It would also be a way for actors with limited resources to reduce geopolitical tensions. To avoid future advanced movers at the Moon from unilaterally and selectively [gating access](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/regulation-without-appropriation) to resources, land, and infrastructure, which would set dangerous legal precedents, independent actors can pool their data to play crucial swing roles in shaping space policies for broader benefit. Two such upcoming missions planned to study and characterize the Moon’s south pole have exactly such potential: India’s [Chandrayaan 4](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-241/) sample return mission, and [Chandrayaan 5 / LUPEX,](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/) a joint ISRO-JAXA mission to study [shadowed polar water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). With Chandrayaan 4 bringing lunar polar samples, ISRO has the potential to [open up the samples and its findings](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-241/#the-case-for-india-to-study-and-exchange-change-lunar-samples) with the broader international community while simultaneously gaining an [ability to steer space governance norms](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-273/). Chandrayaan 5 / LUPEX is notably a symmetric partnership between India and Japan, with India building the Moon lander and Japan the rover and launch vehicle while both countries contribute about half the mission’s scientific instruments. Because it’s such a tightly interlocked mission in terms of both engineering and science, ISRO and JAXA will not only share its datasets with each other but do so in standard, accessible formats from which globally shareable data products can be created. Tight collaboration thus ensures wider access to scientific and related technical data by its very nature, advancing the field faster than the sum of its parts. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/07/data-src-image-f9646893-4cbc-484d-8ddf-efdc5adda9b3.jpeg) Multi-agency instruments planned to be on the LUPEX rover. [Image: JAXA / M. Ohtake, et al.](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/1918.pdf) ## On the shoulders of scientists and engineers To encourage more entities to better share lunar mission data and information, the Open Lunar Foundation (a [Moon Monday](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) sponsor) soft-launched the [Lunar Ledger](https://www.lunarledger.space/) project last year towards [building a collaborative global database](https://jatan.space/a-registry-of-moon-missions/). Six companies [signed up](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/ledger-launch-press-release) for the Ledger with an eye towards mission data sharing: [ispace](https://ispace-inc.com/), [Firefly](https://fireflyspace.com/), [Astrolab](https://www.astrolab.space/), [JAOPS](https://www.jaops.com/), [Dymon](https://dymon.co.jp/), and [SpaceData](https://en.spacedata.jp/). As the Ledger approaches a full public launch later this year, JAOPS and Dymon have agreed to share operational data from their [YAOKI lunar rover](https://dymon.co.jp/en/yaoki/), which flew onboard Intuitive Machines’ [IM-2 lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-216/#tipped-intuitive-mooncraft-dies-with-none-of-the-net-130-million-worth-of-payloads-deployed) part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), as open access. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/07/data-src-image-7592ab39-1416-44ec-a5e1-435076eceab9.jpeg) The IM-2 lander’s leg pictured by the YAOKI rover on the Moon. [Images: Dymon](https://dymon.co.jp/en/news/yaoki%5Fon%5Fthe%5Fmoon%5F20250307/) /[ Phil Stooke](https://web.archive.org/web/20250317115225/https://forum.nasaspaceflight.com/index.php?PHPSESSID=1blb8j64dc398nd9i6pnmvrjra&topic=62540.msg2671642#msg2671642) While YAOKI [couldn’t be deployed](https://dymon.co.jp/en/news/yaoki%5Fon%5Fthe%5Fmoon%5F20250307/) on the lunar surface due to the IM-2 lander hard-landing sideways, the rover did manage to [snap images](https://dymon.co.jp/en/news/whatdidyaokisee%5F202503/) from its hosted position. The team shared these online, [enabling](https://dymon.co.jp/en/news/announcement-of-winners/) [public analysis](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ISZTTEtHcTg&t=310s) and showcasing how independent payloads can bring in more transparency to a mission. “Opening up the images really spurred both citizen scientists and academics to analyze what happened more than we \[the mission team\] could’ve done alone,” said [Louis Burtz](https://www.linkedin.com/in/ljburtz), co-founder of JAOPS. In prep for the Ledger release, the YAOKI team has [shared all the raw telemetry and telecommands](https://github.com/jaops-space/im2-yaoki-yamcs-public) from their mission through the same software which was used for mission operations, which is also [open source](https://github.com/yamcs/yamcs) on GitHub. “Through our approach, we hope to encourage future missions and payloads to do the same,” noted Burtz. “Honestly, it also provides credibility for our company and its mission to promote best practices in spacecraft operations.” [Jonathan McDowell](https://planet4589.org/jcm/index.html), an astronomer, spaceflight tracker, and the creator of the popular [Jonathan’s Space Reports](https://planet4589.org/space/jsr/jsr.html), said that “the more organizations that do this, the more we’ll all benefit.” Gladly, the Ledger is gradually gaining global momentum. Recognizing the importance of free sharing of scientific and related technical data between polar Moon missions, [COSPAR](https://cosparhq.cnes.fr/about/), the largest international scientific society dedicated to promoting space research cooperation worldwide, [signed a Memorandum of Understanding](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/open-lunar-and-cospar-sign-mou) with the Lunar Ledger on March 20 in support of its activities. “This development is an important step in giving Open Lunar Foundation both visibility and legitimacy as a real player,” noted McDowell. *This is an expanded version of an* [*article published*](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/data-sharing-is-key-to-a-sustainable-presence-on-the-moon) *on the blog of Open Lunar Foundation (a* [*Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) *sponsor) as their* [*Science & Tech Communications Lead*](https://jatan.space/joining-open-lunar-as-their-science-communications-lead/)*. The article is republished here on* [*my blog*](https://jatan.space/about) *because of its relevance to my Moon Monday readers as well as for archival.* --- **Many thanks to* [***Open Lunar Foundation**](https://www.openlunar.org/) *for sponsoring* [**Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday)**. If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly* [**support*](https://jatan.space/support) *my independent writing, which is purely reader-funded. I don’t use AI to write a single word and* [**cite everything*](https://jatan.space/i-write-for-you/)**.* [Support Moon Monday 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### Achievements and shortfalls in global lunar exploration this half year | Moon Monday #282 URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-282/ Last updated: 2026-07-06T13:30:47.000Z Welcome to a linked rundown of global developments in the exploration of [our Moon](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) across the first half of 2026\. There’s also a section on global outlook because we must not forget our interconnectedness and collective action needs over sovereign interests. Each linked article below explains and contextualizes said development. As usual, I make a conscious effort to curate events and trends that actually happened instead of amplifying speculative coverage of upcoming events that may or may not be as successful and/or as timely as they’re being touted and reported to be. If someone asks you what’s happening at the Moon, say *all of this* is. Oh, there’s also a lunar poetry section at the end. 🌙 ## China ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/07/china-crewed-landing-trajectory.jpeg) China’s crewed lunar landing trajectory design. [Images: BICE / SAST / CASC](https://journal26.magtechjournal.com/kjkxjs/CN/10.16708/j.cnki.1000-758X.2026.0025) | Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) - [China conducted a multi-hardware-element test](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-262/) unlike any other nation in its [steady march](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-237/) towards landing humans on Luna by 2030. - [Chinese scientists & engineers surfaced details of spacecraft](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-267/) which will land humans on the Moon. - All major elements of China’s [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-248/) Moon mission [arrived at Wenchang](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/change-7-moon-mission-arrives-in) for pre-launch integration and final tests prior to an H2 launch this year. *Related:* [*Tests China planned to conduct this year in prep towards crewed lunar landings*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-258/) ## The US ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/07/artemis-ii-astronauts-return-to-earth-after-lunar-flyby.jpeg) The Orion spacecraft with Artemis II astronauts returned to Earth on April 10 after their flyby around the Moon on April 6\. ****Bottom left:** The lunar flight crew from left to right: Mission Specialists [Christina Koch](https://www.nasa.gov/astronauts/biographies/christina-h-koch) & [Jeremy Hansen](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronauts/canadian/active/bio-jeremy-hansen.asp), Pilot [Victor Glover](https://www.nasa.gov/astronauts/biographies/victor-j-glover), and Commander [Reid Wiseman](https://www.nasa.gov/astronauts/biographies/reid-g-wiseman). [Images: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-ii-multimedia/) - The Artemis II mission launched and [flew four astronauts around the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-270/), a feat repeated after over 50 years, making “why haven’t humans gone back to the Moon” [no longer a valid question](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-269/) for many. Relatedly: - [Did NASA’s Artemis II mission really do lunar science?](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-271/) - [How NASA planned to keep Artemis II astronauts safe throughout their Moon mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-260/) - NASA [rejigged the Artemis program elements & crewed missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-264/), and has been [catalyzing its Moonbase plans](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-268/), in an effort to gain momentum after over a decade of lapses. - While Artemis III is now supposed to be a test mission in Earth orbit ahead of attempting to land humans on the Moon with Artemis IV, the former [won’t “test like you fly”](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-279/) since [challenges](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-272/) confront NASA across aspects of both missions, including [Starship’s repeated lapses](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-276/) and [Blue Origin’s explosive delay chain](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-277/). - [NASA faltered in communications yet again with Lunar Trailblazer failure](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-265/) - NASA awarded [crew-capable rover contracts](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-provides-update-on-moon-base-rovers-landers-missions/) to Astrolab (a Moon Monday sponsor) and Lunar Outpost respectively. These \~1000-kilogram rovers will be [more advanced than the one driven by Apollo astronauts](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-171/). - NASA [awarded four CLPS Moon landing contracts](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-awards-more-moon-base-science-previews-new-opportunities/), two to Astrobotic and one each Firefly and Intuitive Machines, to deliver three site-agnostic scientific instruments meant to improve our understanding of the lunar environment for safer and more swift landings in the future. NASA also awarded Intuitive Machines a [$180.4 million contract](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/clps/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-to-deliver-artemis-science-tech-to-moon/) to deliver seven payloads to the Moon’s south pole in 2030\. This includes Australia’s first lunar rover called [Roo-ver](https://www.space.gov.au/meet-roo-ver) as part of a [US-Aussie partnership](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-97/). - NASA JPL [chose Firefly](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-aerospace-wins-75-million-nasa-jpl-moonfall-subcontract-to-deliver-drones-to-the-moons-south-pole/) to have its [Elytra Dark](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-230/#the-silver-ocula-to-fill-some-gaps-for-nasa) spacecraft deliver 3-4 “[Moonfall](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/moonfall/)” hopper drones to the Moon. ## India ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/07/chandrayaan-4-is-more-than-a-moon-mission.jpg) Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) | Individual images of the LVM3 rocket, the two Chandrayaan 4 spacecraft stacks, and the Moon’s south pole: [ISRO](https://www.lpsc.gov.in/newProjects.html) / [NASA / GSFC / Timothy McClanahan / LOLA](https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/moon/nasas-lro-lunar-ice-deposits-are-widespread/) - ISRO [selected the landing region](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-263/#chandrayaan-4-landing-site-in-sight) for the upcoming [Chandrayaan 4](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-273/) sample return mission. - [Science results continued flowing from Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-275/), grounding our understanding of the near-polar lunar surface and environment. - [Putting an Indian with flesh and blood on Luna](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-39/) ***Related special page:** [**Deep dive into India’s Chandrayaan Moon missions like never before*](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan/) 🛰️ ## More countries ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/07/lev-2-mobile-bot-jaxa-slim.jpeg) The LEV-2 lunar robot in its stowed and deployed configuration. [Image: JAXA / TOMY / Sony / Doshisha University](https://global.jaxa.jp/press/2026/06/20260618-1%5Fe.html) - [Japan is funding public-private Moon missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-274/#japan-funds-public-private-lunar-missions) - JAXA [published research](https://doi.org/10.1126/scirobotics.aec8039) proving that the small [LEV-2 mobile robot](https://global.jaxa.jp/press/2026/06/20260618-1%5Fe.html) on the [SLIM landing mission](https://jatan.space/precision-moon-landings-and-the-future/) demonstrated navigation, image capture, and data transmission—all autonomously—on the lunar surface. - Japan-based Dymon & JAOPS [open sourced mission data](https://github.com/jaops-space/im2-yaoki-yamcs-public) from their [YAOKI rover](https://dymon.co.jp/en/yaoki/), which flew aboard Intuitive Machines’ [second CLPS craft](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-216/#tipped-intuitive-mooncraft-dies-with-none-of-the-net-130-million-worth-of-payloads-deployed) last year. - Related article by me on the Open Lunar Foundation (a Moon Monday sponsor): [Data sharing is key to a sustainable presence on the Moon](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/data-sharing-is-key-to-a-sustainable-presence-on-the-moon) - ESA released calls for proposals for a [pipeline of scientific instruments](https://ideas.esa.int/core/servlet/hype/IMT?documentTableId=6668269872843059782&userAction=Browse&templateName=&documentId=2f48eec2e6af52ce72c55b7737cce4d8), [commercial lunar data buys](https://ideas.esa.int/core/servlet/hype/IMT?documentTableId=6668269872852222698&userAction=Browse&templateName=&documentId=250c1ac4da7bb39b048d0cf299ff93ca) (including from non-European providers), and [the second flight](https://esastar-publication-ext.sso.esa.int/ESATenderActions/details/183966) of the [NILS](https://presentations.copernicus.org/EPSC2022/EPSC2022-992%5Fpresentation-h642517.pdf) instrument which flew to the Moon on [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-233/) and [detected negatively charged particles](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/First%5Fdetection%5Fof%5Fnegative%5Fions%5Fon%5Fthe%5FMoon). - The Russian Academy of Sciences approved the concept of the Russian segment to be part of the China-led [International Lunar Research Station](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/) (ILRS). One of the expected Russian contributions is a [5 kilowatt nuclear power plant](https://tass.com/science/2113099), currently targeted to be launched in [three parts](https://tass.com/science/2113811) next decade. ## Global outlook ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/07/earth-moon-horizon-kplo.jpg) Our Earth on the Moon’s horizon as imaged by South Korea’s KPLO lunar orbiter. [Image: KARI](https://www.kari.re.kr/kplo/danuri/news/newsView.do?nttId=8597&pageIndex=1&searchCnd=&searchWrd=) - [All the rovers heading to the Moon over the next 10 years](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-256/) - Artemis II astronauts gazed at our Moon with joy, curiosity, and reverence. [Through finer robotic orbital views, so can you](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-270/). - [We can build cities on the Moon—but who will govern them?](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-266/) - The number of signatories of the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords) reached [68](https://www.nasa.gov/organizations/oiir/nasa-welcomes-botswana-as-68th-artemis-accords-signatory/), with NASA touting cooperative and collaborative lunar exploration among countries worldwide. However, the [NASA-led Gateway international lunar habitat’s cancellation](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-268/) amid the Artemis rejig demonstrated that the Accords have little bearing on preserving, much less flourishing, international partnerships in the Artemis program. - Analysis of India’s Chandrayaan 4 mission shows how lunar sampling missions [intertwine science, rockets, space governance, and human spaceflight](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-273/). - [Lessons on lapses in lunar missions operations from the 20th century](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-281/) - [What NASA’s planning in the lead up to safe Apollo astronaut landings teaches us about preparing for the next frontier this century](https://jatan.space/its-craters-all-the-way-down/) ## Lunar poetry - [*Selene, smashed not shattered*](https://jatan.space/selene-smashed-not-shattered/) - [*Back to the Moon..*](https://jatan.space/back-to-the-moon/) - [*Don’t screw up the Moon*](https://jatan.space/dont-screw-up-the-moon/) - [*The dawn of your light*](https://jatan.space/the-dawn-of-your-light/) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/07/orion-artemis-ii-moon-solar-eclipse.jpg) Our Moon during a solar eclipse from the vantage point of the [Artemis II](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-270/) Orion spacecraft during its lunar flyby. Image: [NASA / Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/gallery/lunar-flyby/) --- *So that was a comprehensive look at global lunar exploration developments this half year. I wrote it* [*for you*](https://jatan.space/i-write-for-you/)*, not social media or SEO. If you enjoyed my coverage, please share it with other space buffs by* [*grabbing this link*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-282/)*.* ***Related:** [**Achievements and shortfalls in global lunar exploration in 2025*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-255/) 🌗 --- **Many thanks to* [***Catalyx Space**](https://catalyx.space) *and* [***Gurbir Singh**](https://gurbir.co.uk) *for sponsoring* [**Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday)**. If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly* [**support*](https://jatan.space/support) *my independent writing, which is purely reader-funded. I don’t use AI to write a single word.* [Support Moon Monday 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### Lessons on lapses in lunar missions operations from the 20th century | Moon Monday #281 URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-281/ Last updated: 2026-06-29T11:43:59.000Z *Announcement before we begin: I’m excited to welcome* [***PierSight***](https://piersight.space) *as a returning sponsor of my* [*independent space writing*](https://jatan.space/about) *for another year!* 🌙 [![https://piersight.space](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/06/piersight-logo-small-no-bg.png)](https://piersight.space/) *Ahmedabad-based PierSight is building a constellation of SAR satellites equipped with AIS sensors for persistent, all-weather ocean studies and monitoring. With* [*$8 million raised*](https://piersight.space/blog/adding-strategic-capital-and-mission-aligned-investors) *in funds, and* [*being co-selected*](https://piersight.space/blog/release-piersight-to-provide-sovereign-sar-backbone-for-india-s-ppp-earth-observation-constellation) *to build India’s first public-private Earth observation constellation, PierSight is targeting a Q1 2027 launch for its first commercial satellite. The company is also* [*hiring for various roles*](https://jobs.gohire.io/piersight-rfd9c90d/)*. Not sponsored: Personally, I’ve learnt much about space and lunar instruments from PierSight CEO and friend* [*Gaurav Seth*](https://www.linkedin.com/in/gauravseth93/)*. He worked on the advanced* [*dual frequency radar*](https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2104.14259) *system on ISRO’s* [*Chandrayaan 2 orbiter*](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan/#chandrayaan-2-orbiter)*. In our conversations, he’s quite happy that both the radar and orbiter at large have produced* [*notable lunar exploration results*](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan/#chandrayaan-2-orbiter)*.* 🛰️ --- The world’s [new rush to the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-255/), catalyzed by the [discovery of water ice](https://jatan.space/how-nasa-and-chandrayaan-discovered-water-on-the-moon/), is targeting not just [robotic](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-256/) and [crewed Moon landings](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-237/) but eventually sustained operations leading to [full-fledged Moonbases](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/). Many of the near-term missions too are targeting [rocky](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/SPole%5FSRidgemap%5FLOLA-Slope5m%5Fv20190515.pdf), [low-Sun](https://www.nasa.gov/ames/feature/the-dark-side-of-the-crater-how-light-looks-different-on-the-moon-and-what-nasa-is-doing) areas around [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) on the lunar poles. The latter contains [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other volatiles of global interest but simultaneously host new unknowns about the Moon. Since no mission has explored polar water ice directly yet, we have no idea of its true physical, chemical, and geotechnical nature. How exactly will its cryogenic environments treat our hardware over time? Will instruments work as intended? How about our [space grade electronics](https://jatan.space/space-grade-electronics/) and [Moonbase materials](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-244/)? Even when our lunar ambitions weren’t this high, the sheer difficulty of orchestrating hundreds to thousands of people and spacecraft parts in past lunar missions during the 20th century meant mistakes were made. Below are two such notable instances that serve as reminder for us to be careful as we mount increasingly complex Moon missions into the unknown. ## Killing your rover with one wrong drive ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/06/lunokhod-1-2-render.jpg) Rendering of the Soviet Lunokhod Moon rover. [Image: NASA](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1973-001A) In 1970, the Soviet Union successfully remotely drove [Lunokhod 1](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1970-095A), the world’s first planetary rover, on the Moon for 11 months. That was seven months more than planned. Thus the scientific expectations from [Lunokhod 2](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1973-001A) in 1973 were even higher. But it [faced a premature death](https://www.smithsonianmag.com/air-space-magazine/the-other-moon-landings-6457729) just 4 months into its mission when its operators on Earth were driving the rover towards a geologically interesting place just ahead of the rover. At the time, the Sun was close to the horizon and behind the rover. The televised views from Lunokhod 2’s navigation cameras showed smooth patches of land ahead but the low Sun angle masked much of the troublesome landscape in shadows. The operators ended up driving the rover into a small crater. Lunokhod’s open lid touched the crater wall, and the solar panels on the lid got covered in lunar dust. Operators did get the rover out of the crater but the mission’s end was already set in stone. For the Lunokhod rovers to survive the freezing lunar night, their lid had to be closed to preserve heat. But doing so for Lunokhod 2 dumped the panel dust—a good insulator—onto the rover’s radiator. When the lid was opened the next morning, the rover could therefore not get rid of the excess daytime heat and died. What the operators should’ve done was to recognize the tricky lighting conditions the previous day and either park the rover for the night or better assess traverse routes based on more data. This century with the lunar south pole, the Sun will be [perpetually near the horizon](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/), presenting a tricky landscape for all upcoming missions at every stage. Operators will have to be extremely careful about inadvertently damaging their hardware, ultimately costing the mission or its key goals. ## Destroying your broadcast from the Moon Apollo 12, the world’s second human lunar landing, carried a color camera instead of Apollo 11’s monochrome one. But the world never saw its television footage. When setting up the camera, astronaut Alan Bean accidentally pointed it directly to the Sun, which destroyed its [Secondary Electron Conduction (SEC) tube](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo%5FTV%5Fcamera#Westinghouse%5FLunar%5FColor%5FCamera). With only an audio feed of the mission available, several television networks switched to showing actors in spacesuits in studios simulating moonwalks, [which unfortunately partly fueled conspiracy theories](https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20191108-the-switch-that-saved-a-moon-mission-from-disaster) about the Apollo landings. \[This year, NASA’s successful [Artemis II](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-270/) mission has hopefully [helped tame](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-269/) the conspiracies.\] To [avoid video footage failure](https://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a12/a12.tvtrbls.html#1161412) on missions after Apollo 12, NASA added lens caps to the color cameras while also flying backup black & white models in case color cameras get damaged otherwise too. NASA also replaced the color camera’s SEC tubes with Electron Bounded Silicon (EBS) tubes, which are less light-sensitive and wouldn’t be quickly destroyed by direct exposure to bright sunlight. A similarly less light-sensitive tube than the SEC was used on the color cameras mounted on the [Apollo Lunar Rovers](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/apollo%5Flrv.html). The risk of damaging cameras on the Moon today hasn’t withered with time but is in fact more serious now. Because the lunar polar Sun is [perpetually near the horizon](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/), and traversing near lit areas would be preferable when possible to save power and heat, many drives will be wonky amid [treacherous terrain](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/SPole%5FSRidgemap%5FLOLA-Slope5m%5Fv20190515.pdf). Explorers, robotic and crewed, will have to be careful about inadvertently rotating their cameras Sunward for long in such a tricky and disorienting environment. Engineers and mission operators are obviously devising ways and procedures to avoid such exposure or damage from it but the [limited orbital data constrains our planning](https://jatan.space/we-need-a-giant-leap-in-lunar-orbital-imagery/) in various ways, and so ultimately the ground truth will be more nuanced and an iterative learning excercise. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/06/nasa-mimics-lunar-polar-lighting-in-a-pool.jpg) NASA’s Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory mimics lighting conditions on the Moon’s poles, which present a tricky, disorienting environment for humans and robots to operate in. [Image: NASA / Lauren Maples](https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/dark-mode-activated) ## Lumpy lunar gravity crashed spacecraft in the past ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/06/lunar-mascons.jpg) Gravity map of the Moon (right). Red areas indicate dense regions possessing greater gravitational pull than the rest. [Images: Lick Observatory (left) and NASA Lunar Prospector (right)](https://www.skyandtelescope.com/astronomy-news/grail-heads-for-the-moon/) The fact that the Moon’s gravitational field is uneven and lumpy was first noticed by the Soviets when they found that their [Luna 10](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luna%5F10) spacecraft was [deviating](https://doi.org/10.1086/110368) from its intended orbit. Shortly after, NASA also noticed their “[Lunar Orbiters](https://jatan.space/its-craters-all-the-way-down/)” deviating from their paths in low lunar orbit [by up to 100 times](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1968Sci...161..680M/abstract) more than expected. So NASA took these gravitational ‘anomalies’ into account for successfully steering and landing humans on the Moon with the [Apollo missions](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/celebrating-apollo-at-50). And yet, while the landings were unaffected, two small satellites put in low lunar orbit by Apollo 15 and 16 did [crash into the Moon](https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2006/06nov%5Floworbit/) due to the anomalies. It was clear that the Moon had more gravity surprises in store, which led to NASA later sending science missions to [map Luna’s gravitational anomalies in great detail](https://jatan.space/the-moons-lumpy-gravity-field/). Today, the challenge is more about us globally managing the [growing orbital congestion](https://jatan.space/a-registry-of-moon-missions/) around the Moon. --- ***Related:** - [**Past mistakes to avoid in our grand return to the Moon this decade*](https://jatan.space/past-lunar-mission-mistakes-to-avoid/) - [**A brief history of space missions lost to human errors*](https://jatan.space/space-missions-lost-to-human-errors/) - [**Space grade electronics: Missions that reminded us space exploration is hard*](https://jatan.space/space-grade-electronics/) --- **Many thanks to* [***PierSight**](https://piersight.space) *and* [***Barbara Giuri**](https://orcid.org/0009-0006-0187-3112) *for sponsoring* [**Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday)**. If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly* [**support*](https://jatan.space/support) *my independent writing, which is purely reader-funded. I don’t use AI to write a single word and* [**cite everything*](https://jatan.space/i-write-for-you/)**.* [Support Moon Monday 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### Smashing success: The time NASA figured out our Moon is cratered all the way down | Moon Monday #280 URL: https://jatan.space/its-craters-all-the-way-down/ Last updated: 2026-06-22T11:33:25.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/06/apollo-14-lunar-module.jpeg) The Apollo 14 Lunar Module, with its 7° tilt apparent in the picture. The onboard astronauts looked out the module’s window often to ensure it was not tipping over. [Image: NASA / David Harland](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/apollo-14-antares-on-the-lunar-surface) For NASA to safely land 12 astronauts on the Moon with the [Apollo missions](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/celebrating-apollo-at-50), a lot had to go right. But before it could even attempt Apollo, the agency needed to know what our Moon is like up close. Worrying about the basic nature of the lunar surface and soil may sound mundane now but it was a big unknown back then. For instance, you do not want to land astronauts on the Moon only to have the lander’s legs or even the low-hanging engine sink and potentially get stuck in soil. To ensure that astronauts could safely land on the Moon, NASA had to first map the terrain at various regions of interest at local scales, know the frequency of hazardous rocks and boulders within, and determine the physical nature of the lunar soil. The trouble was that back then a key way to capture images of our Moon was via big telescopes on Earth, which couldn’t discern much at the required local scales. Launching spacecraft to image the lunar surface up close was the only way to ascertain the required information. Between 1966 to 1967, NASA sent five orbiters under the “[Lunar Orbiter](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/orbiter)” program to make a global map of the Moon with a resolution of roughly 60 meters—10 times better than Earth-based observations. Compared to [meter-scale resolutions](https://jatan.space/we-need-a-giant-leap-in-lunar-orbital-imagery/) of orbiters today, this may seem coarse but the [more than 1600 photographs](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/resources/lunarorbiter) from Lunar Orbiters were one of a kind at the time. It allowed NASA to identify many locally smooth enough landing site candidates for the robotic [Surveyor](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/surveyor) landing missions [as well as Apollo](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/resources/lunar%5Forbiter/bin/info.shtml?205), and help scientists in better understanding the Moon’s geology to inform Apollo science. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f57447686-a340-4f08-9fd4-dbc57e85bea9_1159x750-jpeg.jpg) The southernmost rim of the [Gassendi crater](https://jatan.space/lava-filled-gassendi-crater/), a candidate landing site for the Apollo 17 mission, as captured by the Lunar Orbiter 5 mission. [Image: NASA](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/resources/lunarorbiter/mission/?5) While Lunar Orbiter photographs provided decent local as well as wider views of lunar regions for context, they weren’t good enough for getting lander-scale imagery by themselves to ensure safe touchdowns for future astronauts. For those finer scales, NASA had also launched the [Ranger series of spacecraft](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/ranger) in the prior years. These would intentionally smash into the Moon. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f09ad3905-c0de-4a02-8441-db658faa5f31_1280x773-jpeg.jpg) A diagram showing major elements of the Ranger spacecraft. [Image: NASA](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ranger%5F6789.png) Each Ranger spacecraft was equipped with a TV camera to send images to Earth in near real time while descending towards the Moon. The resolution of images the Rangers ultimately captured before impact was at least 10 times better than possible from orbit at the time. When Ranger 7, the first successful mission of the Ranger Program, took the fall in 1964, its imagery surprised many. Many smooth plains on the Moon, which seemed welcoming at first glance, were full of craters when approached up close. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f016e4ebe-fa2b-480c-a8e1-e646ce661da8_683x683-jpeg.jpg) Photographs sent by NASA’s Ranger 7 spacecraft 90 seconds before smashing into the Moon. The top two images are about 15 kilometers across while the bottom ones are 5.5 kilometers across. [Image: NASA](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/imgcat/html/object%5Fpage/ra7%5Fp100.html) I made a [video from Ranger 7’s camera shots](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nV9nK8dqqU4), containing images captured from 2000 kilometers above the Moon’s surface down to just 500 meters, after which the spacecraft crashes. The Ranger 8 and 9 missions all but confirmed the same trait, that the Moon is riddled with craters down to local landing scales, something to feed into Apollo’s pre-touchdown planning. The [more than 15000 high-resolution photographs](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/resources/ranger/) sent to Earth by the Ranger missions thus provided great complementary data to the Lunar Orbiters, helping NASA select safe landing regions for Apollo. The NASA Ranger missions were thus literally and figuratively a smashing success. Then there was [Surveyor](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/surveyor), the last robotic spacecraft program to precede Apollo. Between 1966 to 1968, the program saw five successful soft landings, four of which were at near-equatorial landing sites, the type considered for Apollo. The fact that the Surveyors were upright, and didn’t sink, was a relief in itself but the landers helped in other ways too. The Surveyors obtained [more than 80000 photographs](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/resources/mapcatalog/Surveyor/press%5Freleases) of the Moon’s surface when on it, imaging at up to millimeter-level resolution. Surveyor images too showed numerous small craters scattered all over the surface. The landers also carried various instruments and a surface sampler, which helped determine the mechanical properties of the lunar soil. This was crucial in planning the large Apollo lander designs as well as the activities astronauts would conduct during the missions. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f536c4c1a-87c2-4e47-a39e-1eb8717f9057_2050x1600-jpeg.jpg) Apollo 12 astronaut Charles Conrad Jr. examines the Surveyor 3 lander. The Apollo 12 Lunar Module is seen in the background. [Image: NASA / Alan Bean](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Surveyor%5F3-Apollo%5F12.jpg) --- **Aside:* To the delight of a scientific mind, the trend of finding craters at smaller and smaller scales on the Moon didn’t end with the Surveyors.* [*Closeup images*](https://jatan.space/lunasights/#explore-moon-rocks) *of rock samples brought back by Apollo and the Soviet Luna missions revealed that our Moon is* [*cratered even on microscopic scales*](https://jatan.space/the-tiniest-of-impact-craters/)*. Our Moon really is cratered all the way down.* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f52f275f5-858d-492e-b428-a2c40fe321fc_881x768-jpeg.jpg) Comparison of a micro-sized lunar crater with a small tardigrade and a human hair strand. Images: NASA / [Wikimedia](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cfaser%5Fhaarrp.jpg) / [Goldstein Labs](https://www.flickr.com/photos/waterbears/) | Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) --- ## Preparing for the next frontier Systematic planning like the case of the Lunar Orbiter, Ranger, and Surveyor programs is what allowed NASA to execute safe landings for Apollo astronauts, each program filling major gaps in our understanding of the Moon’s surface. Planning the same kind of feat today is relatively easier now that we know more about our Moon, including avoiding succumbing to the effects of [the Moon’s lumpy gravity](https://jatan.space/the-moons-lumpy-gravity-field/) either. However, since the world’s [new rush to the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-255/) catalyzed by the [discovery of water ice](https://jatan.space/how-nasa-and-chandrayaan-discovered-water-on-the-moon/) is targeting not just short duration [crewed Moon landings](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-237/) but sustained operations leading to [full-fledged Moonbases](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/), the next layer of technologies and fundamentals about the Moon to attain are at higher scales than Apollo. As just one aspect, we have no idea of the true nature of polar [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) which contain much of the water ice and other volatiles. How exactly will these cryogenic environments treat our hardware over time? Will instruments work as intended? How about our [space grade electronics](https://jatan.space/space-grade-electronics/) and [Moonbase materials](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-244/)? ***Related:** [**Past mistakes to avoid in our grand return to the Moon this decade*](https://jatan.space/past-lunar-mission-mistakes-to-avoid/) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/06/china-led-ilrs-moonbase.jpg) An artist’s concept showing initial plans for the Sino-led scientific Moonbase on the lunar south pole. [Image: CNSA / Roscosmos](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l2P5kFTBuOs) Here, China’s step-by-step approach spanning [robotic sample return missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-252/), [precision water ice explorers](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-248/), [navigation and communications technologies](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-229/), and so on has kept them on the right track. This is what makes upcoming missions like [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-248/) and [Chang’e 8](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/#prepare-for-crew-and-double-down-with-mission-eight) so interesting to follow. NASA, unfortunately, has not been systematic enough this time around, with equivalent outcomes lacking or lagging. The efforts have been so scattered across disparate organizations and time that more than a decade on and the US has still [failed to explore lunar water as a principal goal](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-221/) of the Artemis program, a goal necessary for sustained lunar exploration, while also struggling to develop crewed landers across both [SpaceX](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-276/) and [Blue Origin](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-277/). The US bloc needs to take a step-by-step approach, not unlike Apollo did before or China does today, to also build a set of resilient exploration systems for the Moon’s treacherous poles that will also scale beyond. Nearly everything about these systems will be exotic even for a space mission, from their sheer mobility to their level of robustness and interoperability. Maybe future generations building generalized technologies to explore and live across the Solar System, like shown in [The Expanse](https://www.imdb.com/title/tt3230854), take these technologies as a given. But these have to start existing somewhere at some point. The fact that there are at least two distinct efforts in the world now to sustain crewed and robotic [exploration of our Moon](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) and space gives humanity a better chance. But the more nations that attempt the merrier, both technologically as well as socially, and so countries like India [wishing to land humans on the Moon](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-39/#an-indian-on-the-moon) also need to up their game. --- **Many thanks to* [***Astrolab**](https://astrolab.space) *and* [***Gordon Roesler**](https://www.linkedin.com/in/gordon-roesler-687a0426) *for sponsoring* [**Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday)**. If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly* [**support*](https://jatan.space/support) *my independent writing, which is purely reader-funded. I don’t use AI to write a single word and* [**cite everything*](https://jatan.space/i-write-for-you/)**.* [Support Moon Monday 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### Artemis III, test like you won’t fly? URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-279/ Last updated: 2026-06-16T04:39:04.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/06/artemis-iii-crew-nasa-esa.jpg) The Artemis III crew on the announcement day. [Image: NASA / Robert Markowitz](https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/artemis-iii-crew-announced/) On June 9, NASA [announced an all-male crew](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-marches-toward-artemis-iii-mission-in-2027-names-crew-members/) for the upcoming [Artemis III mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-264/), which aims to dock the crew’s [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) with prototype lunar landers from Blue Origin and SpaceX in low Earth orbit to test several key systems and reduce risks ahead of a crewed Moon landing attempt with [Artemis IV](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-264/). The Artemis III crew comprises three NASA astronauts and one from ESA: - [Randy Bresnik](https://www.nasa.gov/people/randolph-komrade-bresnik/), commander - ESA astronaut [Luca Parmitano](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Astronauts/Luca%5FParmitano), pilot - [Andre Douglas](https://www.nasa.gov/people/nasa-astronaut-andre-douglas/), mission specialist - [Frank Rubio](https://www.nasa.gov/people/frank-rubio/), mission specialist Notably for the mission, SpaceX’s Lunar Starship prototype will not fly with life support systems, and so unlike with Blue Origin’s Blue Moon lander prototype, the astronauts will not enter Starship from Orion after docking. The SLS rocket and Orion spacecraft are on track to be ready by mid-2027 for the mission. The SLS will [not use nor need the upper stage](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-3/nasa-outlines-preliminary-artemis-iii-mission-plans/), instead carrying just a structural “spacer” which replaces the upper stage and keeps exterior interfaces in tact. It’s expected to ready by the end of the year, and saves a functional upper stage for use on Artemis IV. On the Orion side of things, its [European Service Module](https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/space/esm) (ESM) [passed launch acoustic testing](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2026/05/European%5FService%5FModule%5Fat%5Fthe%5Fspace%5Fdisco) in May. However, neither of the landers will be ready until late 2027 at least due to [SpaceX’s setbacks](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-276/) and [Blue Origin’s explosive delay](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-277/) amid slower development than promised & touted. Eric Berger [reports](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/06/we-managed-to-glean-some-interesting-details-about-the-artemis-iii-mission/) NASA’s Artemis program manager Jeremy Parsons saying that in Blue’s case, the lander prototype will not fly with cryogenic fuel. Parsons also noted that the lander may even launch on a ULA Vulcan rocket or SpaceX’s Falcon Heavy if Blue’s own New Glenn doesn’t come back online in the required timeframe following the company’s recent on-pad explosion. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/06/revised-artemis-iii-infographic-2026.jpg) Illustration showing the revised Artemis III mission, which will follow in the footsteps of the ninth Apollo. The crewed Orion spacecraft is seen here docking with Blue Origin’s and SpaceX’s prototype landers respectively. [Image: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2026/02/27/nasa-adds-mission-to-artemis-lunar-program-updates-architecture/) All of these “changes”—or rather “requirement removals”—are being done to meet the 2027 deadline for Artemis III. But NASA originally stated Artemis III’s goal as reducing risks for systems that will land astronauts on the Moon with Artemis IV. Between no life support on Starship, lack of cryogenics on Blue Moon, and a non-New-Glenn launch of a crewed vehicle and its architecture meant for New Glenn, how much of Artemis III is really a “test like you fly” for Artemis IV? Add to this the [scathing March report](https://oig.nasa.gov/office-of-inspector-general-oig/audit-reports/nasas-management-of-the-human-landing-system-contracts/) by NASA’s Office of Inspector General (OIG), which formally functions as an agency watchdog, which pointed out [various shortcomings and risks](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-ig-applauds-nasa-contracting-for-artemis-hls-raises-concerns-about-crew-safety/) in the planned development of both the Artemis landers. Notably, both Blue and SpaceX are targeting lower fidelity uncrewed mission demonstrations prior to carrying crew. In Blue’s case, excluded are important milestones such as the Blue Moon [‘Mark 2’ lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/) not having to get back to lunar orbit after the surface mission. With SpaceX, excluded are things like hosting a complete life support system or the astronaut elevator. The OIG also noted that both of their missions would not simulate the full-scale profile of their respective crewed landing flights. And so even with a successful Artemis III test mission in 2027 and the uncrewed lunar landing and takeoffs, whose timeline is still left unspecified by NASA, the flights may not cover a sufficient envelope of the landing mission with astronauts. The uncrewed flights don’t even have a formal name in the Artemis program! Let’s call them *Artemis 3.5S* and *Artemis 3.5B* respectively. We also *still* don’t have official public information on what Blue’s and SpaceX’s supposed [accelerated lander proposals](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/bolden-bridenstine-share-their-views-on-artemis/) in response to NASA’s [reopening of the astronaut landing contract](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-248/#nasa-reopens-artemis-iii-human-landing-contract) look like. It’s necessary that NASA starts to attach and share firm timelines, milestones, and specifics being targeted by Blue and SpaceX going ahead, providing the missing public information transparency. Such basic mission information and promised progress on taxpayer funded programs is crucial to have from NASA at least. ***Related:** - [**Blue Origin’s Moon lander challenges and delays*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-277/) - [**SpaceX’s Lunar Starship setbacks*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-276/) ## Private sector freedom to government control? ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/06/blue-origin-blue-moon-mk-1-lander-thermovac-test-nasa-johnson.jpg) Blue Origin’s Blue Moon Mark 1 lunar lander is seen here inside one of the thermal-vacuum chambers at NASA’s Johnson Space Center, where it completed space environmental endurance testing. [Image: NASA / Blue Origin](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/blue-origin-moon-lander-completes-testing-at-nasa-vacuum-chamber/) Spaceflight Now [reports](https://spaceflightnow.com/2026/06/04/nasa-head-urges-new-launcher-for-blue-origins-moon-landers-to-meet-artemis-mission-deadlines/) that given New Glenn’s [explosive delay](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-277/), NASA wants Blue Origin to launch its [robotic ‘Mark 1’ Blue Moon lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-277/#blue-moon-mark-1-the-first) on a rocket other than New Glenn. The lander was scheduled for launch later this year, which cannot happen with a New Glenn anymore. Compared to doing a launcher swap for Blue’s much larger, crew-capable Mark 2 lander, Mark 1’s proposition is more feasible and will avoid furthering the excruciating delays that have led to the US [failing to explore lunar water](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-221/) as the principal goal of Artemis. The potential vehicles could be SpaceX’s Falcon Heavy rocket or a ULA Vulcan. The latter, however, is [also grounded](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/ulas-vulcan-gets-ussf-payloads-to-orbit-despite-another-srb-anomaly/) at the moment like New Glenn, leaving SpaceX as the only option. That seems like an uncomfortable situation for Blue given the sour Bezos-Musk relationship. However, even if Bezos agrees to such a launch by acknowledging national priorities over personal priorities, there are still technical challenges like fairing adjustments and having to redo [rocket launch vibration and acoustic tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-moon-landers/) that could take several months at best. ***Related:** [**How engineers test Moon landers on Earth*](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-moon-landers/) Note that the Mark 1 is Blue’s own private mission. It has a payload capacity of 3000 kilograms of which NASA is utilizing less than 3% for a likewise small payment of [$6.1 million](https://sam.gov/opp/bc53a5b240d5469da1b23e8184f4d999/view). That NASA, with its new administrator [revising the missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-264/) and [Moonbase plans](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-268/) as well as [re-re-orienting the agency’s structure](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-announces-realignment-to-accelerate-mission-delivery/), can influence Blue to change launch vehicles for the sake of the greater Artemis program is good for national goals but quite the blow for the freedom of the private sector touted to be central to creating a new era of “commercial” lunar exploration. ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/06/firefly-elytra-dark-deploying-jpl-moonfall-mini-landers.jpeg) Firefly’s Elytra Dark orbiter deploying NASA JPL’s “Moonfall” mini-landers. [Image: Firefly / JPL](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-aerospace-wins-75-million-nasa-jpl-moonfall-subcontract-to-deliver-drones-to-the-moons-south-pole/) - NASA JPL is [awarding a $75 million contract](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-aerospace-wins-75-million-nasa-jpl-moonfall-subcontract-to-deliver-drones-to-the-moons-south-pole/) to Firefly to have its [Elytra Dark](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-230/#the-silver-ocula-to-fill-some-gaps-for-nasa) spacecraft deliver 3-4 “[Moonfall](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/moonfall/)” hopper drones to \~50-kilometer lunar orbit in 2028\. From this point on, each drone will land on the Moon by itself. At [225 kilograms](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/05/nasa-takes-steps-toward-building-moon-base-including-discussing-a-perimeter/) each, these drones are really mini-landers. Each will carry a few instruments to study the lunar surface during hops. NASA aims to acquire lunar surface imagery with centimeter-level resolution ahead of crewed Artemis missions and to also use the drones to [establish a Moonbase “perimeter”](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-awards-initial-moon-base-rover-and-lander-contracts/). - Astrobotic’s large [Griffin lander](https://www.astrobotic.com/griffin) aims to land on the Moon’s south pole as part of NASA [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) program [later this year](https://www.astrobotic.com/griffin-1-mission-update/). It will deploy the [FLIP rover](https://www.astrolab.space/flip-rover/) by Astrolab (a Moon Monday sponsor), who [onboarded last year](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-212/) after NASA [decided not to fly](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/#viper-rover-delivery-by-astrobotic) the critical [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) for studying water ice aboard Griffin. FLIP is yet to be integrated with Griffin. Astrobotic has so far shared that it has integrated two of the other lander payloads: [NASA’s Navigation Doppler LiDAR](https://www.astrobotic.com/ndl-integrated-with-griffin-1/) (NDL) which will also aid Griffin’s navigation, and the company’s own [CubeRover](https://www.astrobotic.com/cuberover-integrates-with-griffin-1/). Amid the company’s desire to position Griffin’s hoped-for success to bag more [Artemis Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-268/) contracts from NASA, [Astrobotic has been acquired by Voyager Technologies](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-to-join-voyager-technologies-accelerating-americas-moon-base/), who wishes to accelerate said proposition. ***Related:** [**All the rovers heading to the Moon over the next 10 years*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-256/) --- **Many thanks to* [***Open Lunar Foundation**](https://www.openlunar.org) *and* ***Nitish** *for sponsoring* [**Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday)**. If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly* [**support*](https://jatan.space/support) *my independent writing, which is purely reader-funded. I don’t use AI to write a single word and* [**cite everything*](https://jatan.space/i-write-for-you/)**.* [Support Moon Monday 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### India and the dream of an orbital launch trifecta | Part 5 of ISRO’s rocket crisis URL: https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-39/ Last updated: 2026-08-21T09:09:07.000Z This article is *Part 5* of my series on India’s launch vehicle crisis. A space program can only move as swiftly and flexibly as its orbital rockets, and India has been amid a grinding halt. As such, I’ve been focusing my [Indian Space Progress](https://jatan.space/tag/indian-space/) blog & newsletter on fully exploring this situation before resuming coverage of national space activities at large. - *Part 1* of the article series [reviewed the state of India’s orbital launch vehicles](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-33/), revealing a bleak picture of ambitious goals sliding to the right, in stark contrast to the incessant chest thumping about efficiency. - *Part 2* [analyzed the intricacies of ISRO’s launchpad infrastructure](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-35/), showing how every PSLV rocket failure cascades effects to all Indian rockets in direct or indirect ways. - *Part 3* assessed and concluded that [India’s rockets will not be able to meet its civil space and strategic launch manifest](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-37/) by 2030 even at peak performance. - *Part 4* shows how Chandrayaan 4 is [deeply tied to India’s launch vehicle and human spaceflight programs](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-273/), and how the specific rocket it needs is also the catalyst required to better manage India’s launch crisis. - *Part 5*, this article,lays down a multitude of causes slowing down India’s launch vehicles, and what would it take for the country to achieve an optimum “hat-trick” state given its many needs and ambitions in space. **Many thanks to* [***The Takshashila Institution**](https://takshashila.org.in)**,* [***PierSight**](https://piersight.space)**,* [***Catalyx Space**](https://catalyx.space/) *and* [***Gurbir Singh**](https://gurbir.co.uk) *for sponsoring* [**Indian Space Progress*](https://jatan.space/tag/indian-space/)**. If you too appreciate my efforts to capture nuanced trajectories of India in space, provided to space communities worldwide for free and without ads, kindly* [**support*](https://jatan.space/support) *my independent writing, which is purely reader-funded. I don’t use AI to write a single word and* [**cite everything*](https://jatan.space/i-write-for-you/)**.* [Support my writing 🚀 ](https://jatan.space/support) *At \~4,000 words, this is a long one so make sure you have your beverage of choice in hand before starting.* ## India’s launch manifest 2031-2040 In [Part 3](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-37/)*,* we established that India’s rockets will not meet the country’s launch manifest by 2030 even at peak performance. Now let’s see if the situation resolves itself for the manifest of 2031-2040 by which time the heavy-lift, reusable [NGLV rocket](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-33/#the-next-decade-and-nglv) is expected to come online alongside capacity or frequency upgrades for existing rockets. Below is the expected manifest based on known plans. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/06/india-launch-manifest-2031-2040-3.jpg) [Table: Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) India thus needs 380+ launches between 2031-2040 to achieve all national goals across the spectrum of space missions. That’s **38+ launches/year** from 2031\. This is a conservative number since we’re assuming no launch backlogs from the last decade even though we’ve established it won’t be true. The number also doesn’t include a massive, global satellite internet constellation should India decide to have one too. That would only increase the frequency. Ultimately, the minimum manifest means India needs to increase its launch rate by at least eight-fold, and that’s excluding small-lift rockets which would skew numbers against meaningful mass lofted to orbit. Now let’s look at our maximum practical launch capacity by 2035, if we meet all our [rocket upgrade plans](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-33/) and also [optimize their launchpad usage](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-35/). - [PSLV = 12](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/working-towards-50-launches-a-year-by-2029-says-isro-chief/articleshow/124934033.cms), when maximizing usage of the First Launch Pad (FLP) at Sriharikota - [LVM3 = 6](https://www.nsilindia.co.in/sites/default/files/Executive%20Summary%20-%20RFQ%20for%20ISRO%27s%20Heavy%20Lift%20Launcher%2C%20LVM3%20Production%20under%20a%20PPP%20with%20NSIL.pdf), when maximizing usage of the Second Launch Pad (SLP) at Sriharikota - NGLV = 2, when using its only compatible pad, the [upcoming Third Launch Pad](https://www.isro.gov.in/CabinetapprovesThirdLaunchPad.html) (TLP) - [SSLV & Private launchers = 25](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/working-towards-50-launches-a-year-by-2029-says-isro-chief/articleshow/124934033.cms), when utilizing their [upcoming dedicated launch complex](https://www.isro.gov.in/Foundation%5FStone%5FLaid%5Ffor%5FLaunch%5FPad%5Fat%5FSSLV%5FLaunch%5FComplex.html) in Kulasekarapattinam While this may provide a peak theoretical launch capacity of 45/year, the one in practice will be closer to **20–25 launches/year**, necessarily excluding most small-lift launches since the manifest leans squarely on the heavy-lift side in terms of mass of spacecraft. Importantly, this shows that India will reach the launch throughput it needs right now only in the second half of the next decade at best. ISRO’s currently demand-based philosophy for making launch vehicles needs to change to a supply-based one. Because of the critical nature of launch vehicles to a space program, a minimum viable throughput level is needed regardless of external satellite availability to meet our own demands first. Now let’s look at a multitude of causes slowing down India’s launch vehicles. ## ISRO’s budget, an overarching constraint ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/06/isro-nglv-rocket-components-and-heavy-variant-1.jpeg) Renders of the NGLV rocket, its heavy variant, and key components. Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) | Images: [LPSC](https://www.lpsc.gov.in/newProjects.html) / [Footy2000](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:NGLV%5FFamily.svg) / [ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/LVM3M3%5Fgallery.html) The FY2026 budget of India’s Department of Space, of which ISRO is [a part](https://www.isro.gov.in/organisation.html), is [\~$1.5 billion](https://www.indiabudget.gov.in/doc/eb/sbe95.pdf), roughly the same amount as approved by the Indian government for the last five years. China and the US allocate at least 10 to 20 times greater budgets respectively for their space activities. India’s small space budget forces it to adopt a linear execution model while the country’s space ambitions and payload manifest grow out of reach. The trouble is development of new rockets meant to reduce chokepoints themselves are built through the same model of linear execution. For example, ISRO is targeting only the first half of the next decade to realize the heavy-lift, reusable [NGLV rocket](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-33/#the-next-decade-and-nglv) and make it operational whereas we need that capability this decade itself. Even though the [$982 million](https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2055979) requested by ISRO to develop the NGLV is approved by the government, the money is being distributed across many years, stretching the realization timeline beyond the fastest viable technical path. In other words, ISRO’s engineering talent is not being utilized efficiently due to fundamental budget constraints that have no viable technological design alternatives. Budgets assigned, however, are only part of the story. Notably, ISRO also consistently underutilizes its allocated funds every year. To illustrate, in FY2023 ISRO underutilized its space technology budget [by about $150 million](https://www.indiabudget.gov.in/budget2024-25/doc/eb/sbe95.pdf). That’s about 10% of the overall budget, a sizable amount that shouldn’t be lost. Curiously, the issue [is present](https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/sustainable-funding-science-power-ambition-india/article67884760.ece) in India’s Ministry of Science & Technology as a whole. While increasing India’s space budget substantially is absolutely necessary, it’s also important to be efficient with the funds that are already being allocated. The following chart illustrates notable delays in several key Indian space projects that could’ve been either avoided or significantly shortened with enhanced budgets coupled with increased efficiencies. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/06/notable-indian-space-delays-1.jpeg) Data manually compiled from publicly available sources for each project, mentioned in the article below. [Chart: Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) - The low production rate of LVM3 has previously already [delayed the launch of Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-100/#chandrayaan-3-slowed-down-by-one-web-of-perplexing-priorities) in order to prioritize commercial OneWeb launches. - The low rate also postponed India’s upcoming, scientifically important [Venus orbiter mission](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-20/) by five years. - The operationalization of the [dedicated launchpad](https://www.isro.gov.in/Foundation%5FStone%5FLaid%5Ffor%5FLaunch%5FPad%5Fat%5FSSLV%5FLaunch%5FComplex.html) for the SSLV, and other such small launch vehicles, has been delayed from 2025 to [at least 2028](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/working-towards-50-launches-a-year-by-2029-says-isro-chief/articleshow/124934033.cms). - The LVM3’s first full vehicle flight was [planned for 2009](https://web.archive.org/web/20200129131043/https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/lu%5F3713.pdf) but took place in [2017](https://www.isro.gov.in/mission%5FGSLVMkIIID1.html). - LVM3’s semi-cryogenic core stage engine upgrade is already [delayed by a minimum of 10 years](https://web.archive.org/web/20150306173135/http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/thiruvananthapuram/Semi-cryogenic-Engine-ISRO-Charting-a-Revised-Plan/2015/03/02/article2693939.ece). Furthermore, following orbital launch failures, India’s return-to-flight times for its rockets are slower than the global rate, even if we don’t normalize for factors like heavier lift capacities or first flights of foreign rockets. The chart below illustrates the gap India needs to close. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/06/orbital-rockets-return-to-flight-times-1.jpeg) Data manually compiled from publicly available lists of space launches by each [rocket](https://spacestatsonline.com/rockets). [Chart: Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) Moreover, the failure of India’s one rocket [stalls or can stall launches](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-35/) of its other vehicles too, like the case of the recent PSLV failures because several of its modules and component designs are utilized by other ISRO rockets too. ## The private sector is building in a vacuum India’s orbital rocket companies like Skyroot and Agnikul have been building vehicles in a vacuum, with only minimal support from the government. The latter is majorly present only in two ways: the government’s enabling of launch companies to seek [Foreign Direct Investments up to 49%](https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=fd285c8a-f843-44b2-8a93-3143552d3684), and ISRO providing [launch reviews](https://www.isro.gov.in/HandholdingStartups.html) and other such technical help, though on an ad-hoc basis. Between [low demand gaps for small-lift launch vehicles](https://web.archive.org/web/20230102031113/https://europeanspaceflight.substack.com/p/more-vehicles-than-customers-1446755) globally, and companies having to fight an [uphill battle](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-16/) for customers without the government being an anchor node, India’s private rocket development timelines have been much longer than global competitors as the following chart shows. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/06/development-times-of-small-lift-orbital-rockets-2015-beyond-1.jpeg) Development times manually calculated based on the time of establishment of the companies to their first launch attempt. For ISRO SSLV, the former part is replaced with official project kickoff. [Chart: Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) Similar to how NASA [fetches foreign commercial payload customers](https://jatan.space/nasa-esa-collaborate-on-lunar-pathfinder/) for its [lunar CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) companies, ISRO’s sister institutions [NSIL](https://www.nsilindia.co.in) and [IN-SPACe](https://www.inspace.gov.in/inspace) meant to aid commercialization should fetch customers for India’s private launch companies other than only [doing so for ISRO](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-03/). Obviously, this is to be done only on a competitive basis rather than through nepotism. Broadly in India, there’s also a lack of a thriving space research & development base across the industry and academia for the private sector or even ISRO to leverage talent from. For example, NASA funds and orchestrates the [SBIR/STTR](https://www.nasa.gov/sbir%5Fsttr/) and [GCD](https://www.nasa.gov/stmd-game-changing-development/) programs to provide a boost to the US commercial industry while tapping into emerging, advanced technologies early on. ISRO’s [RESPOND](https://www.isro.gov.in/RESPONDProjects.html) program for academia offers orders of magnitude lower funding and lack of mission integration. ## Achieving an orbital launch trifecta As elaborated in [Part 1](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-33/), to fulfill India’s needs and ambitions in space, we need to achieve three conditions of launch capabilities simultaneously, an orbital launch trifecta achieved [by the US](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-37/) and [China](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-33/#a-launch-trifecta): 1. Have substantially greater lift mass 2. Tout a high launch cadence at every launchpad 3. Have dissimilar design redundancy in launch vehicles ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/06/orbital-launch-trifecta-1.jpeg) [Graphic: Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) Even though India can theoretically attain a launch cadence of 20–25 launches per year by 2035 across medium-lift and heavy-lift rockets, our human spaceflight missions will actually periodically block the launchpads for robotics launches of the LVM3 and NGLV. Since Gaganyaan astronauts to be launched on human-rated LVM3s will do so from the SLP, with the [upcoming](https://www.isro.gov.in/CabinetapprovesThirdLaunchPad.html) TLP as standby, ensuring their safety means robotic missions of LVM3 could get delayed even if they are of national importance. Instead of the needed doubling of capacity to \~40 launches per year, we might just end up halving it. It’s useful to look at how China solved this problem during an analogous time. China launched its first astronaut in [2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shenzhou%5F5), with preparations beginning since the decade before. During this period, China’s launch output was [roughly the same](https://spacestatsonline.com/launches/country/chn) as India has today. Unlike the US and Russia, China was a squarely developing country like India. So China’s rise is proof that it’s possible for India to improve its launch throughput as well. A key decision India hasn’t made that China did is to have a dedicated launch site for human spaceflight missions. China made this decision for the Long March 2F, the country’s rocket of choice to launch astronauts, all the way back in the [1990s](https://en.cmse.gov.cn/constitutes/jiuquanlaunchcenter/). Having a dedicated human spaceflight launch site or pad is not only safer for astronauts but also avoids [launch pad congestion](https://www.thespacereview.com/article/4670/1), thereby not blocking or delaying robotic national or even commercial launches. The last thing India needs amid a mounting national launch manifest backlog is to slog further on its robotic missions. In fact, China has thoughtfully invested in [four launch complexes](https://cgwic.com/Launchservice/LaunchSite.html). Each complex is optimized for specific needs, with some touting multiple pads. These include dedicated sites for not just human spaceflight but pads for commercial launches too, like [at Wenchang](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/commercial-launch-pad-1-enters-operation). As such for India, which has allocated SLP and TLP for human spaceflight usage as well, only the act of creating dedicated launchpads for LVM3 and NGLV robotic launches coupled with optimized launchpad usage across the board will let us achieve our minimum required launch capacity to fulfill the entire national manifest. This way, we can reach the optimum “hat-trick” state of our rockets to meet our many needs and ambitions in space. To build the TLP, the Indian Government [sanctioned $460 million](https://www.isro.gov.in/CabinetapprovesThirdLaunchPad.html). For two new pads, the cost can thus be estimated to be \~$1 billion. Even when including matching rocket production capacities, I suppose we’re looking at a one-time investment of \~$3 billion dollars. On the scale of 15 years, that amounts to just two extra years of ISRO’s annual budget, something India can very much afford. Besides, when India eventually pursues its intended crewed Moon missions, the NGLV rocket will need to perform back-to-back launches anyway, which would be easier to do when having an additional pad other than the TLP. It’s better to have the inevitable new launchpads sooner rather than later. A high national launch demand would also allow the vendors and contractors to actively support ISRO’s supply chain in a large volume, which would also reduce per vehicle costs. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/06/india-maximal-launchpad-and-orbital-rockets-utilization-1.jpeg) [Graphic: Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) ## Private companies do not, and should not, replace ISRO As we discussed in [Part 2](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-35/), given the nascent stage of India’s private space sector, no place is currently building even a replacement to ISRO’s PSLV. Earlier in this article we also mentioned challenges faced by companies in even getting to the launchpad. As such, it’s impossible right now for Indian private companies to realistically think about building LVM3-and-NGLV-class rockets. Right now, to put it pithily, ISRO designs and the industry assembles. But planned [technology transfers](https://www.inspace.gov.in/inspace?id=lvm3%5Ftot%5Feoi) of ISRO’s launch vehicles to the industry and/or their [production-ization](https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/indl-goods/svs/engineering/hal-lt-to-build-five-pslv-rockets-bags-rs-860-crore-deal-from-nsil-for-the-project/articleshow/93980649.cms) through the industry will both help catalyze more possibilities in the future. However, the onus of orchestrating both increased launch capacity of national vehicles and catalyzing industrial innovation remains with the Indian government’s Department of Space. A key thing the Indian government can do at some point is to let ISRO and private players compete for national launches to ensure that critical national missions are not delayed too much. The US Space Force’s [National Security Space Launch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%5FSecurity%5FSpace%5FLaunch) (NSSL) program and NASA’s [Launch Services Program](https://www.nasa.gov/kennedy/launch-services-program/) (LSP) have enabled innovative commercial launch vehicles to be built and flown frequently. SpaceX’s [Falcon 9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon%5F9) is the most well known example but there are others too like the [New Glenn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%5FGlenn) and [Vulcan Centaur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulcan%5FCentaur). The US government acts as an anchor customer for launching both NASA’s civil space missions and the country’s strategic ones. Companies vie for these lucrative contracts, in turn competing, innovating, and accelerating. However, it’s important to note that India doesn’t have enough parallels with the US for this solution to make direct sense here. ISRO [was not structurally built to be scalable](https://adithyapani.substack.com/p/india-space-the-followers-dilemma) like Western space industries. And India’s unique defense needs, the kind the US doesn’t have, cannot be reliably outsourced to private companies without ensuring the government is in command of the loop of which ISRO is one part. Blindly following the US model would risk India losing national capacity to private firms altogether, firms that may not even remain Indian. But having ISRO itself compete with Indian private companies or even other national organizations for national space launches could work. In other words, we should eventually decouple national space satellites from necessarily launching on ISRO’s rockets. Here people may want to note that this already happens when India uses [foreign launchers](https://www.nsilindia.co.in/sites/default/files/GSAT-N2%20Launched%20successfully.pdf) for lofting its heavy spacecraft. But that’s out of necessity, not by design. ISRO itself has demonstrated that there can be better ways to manage this reliance. For the upcoming [Chandrayaan 5 / LUPEX](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/) Moon mission, JAXA’s heavy-lift H3 rocket will launch the spacecraft as part of the deal between India and Japan as symmetrical partners on the mission. Without the H3, India cannot launch such a heavy craft today, at least not in a single launch. Extending the idea of this kind of a deal, some key civil launches or even just scientific payloads can be offloaded to foreign partner launches or commercial rockets to ease the load on our own rockets and national priorities. For decades, NASA has regularly flown scientific payloads on foreign missions, including on our [Chandrayaan 1](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/) orbiter. In the last few years, China has offered much greater support to its private launch sector than India has to its own, including personnel and tech transfers, having clarity [on standards](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/china-releases-space-standards-system) and [legal regulations](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/china-updates-commercial-space-regulation), [access to infrastructure](https://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4498944/content.html) like ground networks and nationally-built launchpads, and even [state-supported investments](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/landspace-receives-more-funding-multiple) in companies and [provincial & policy support](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/chinas-vice-premier-visits-wenchang). This has allowed operational [commercial launchers](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/chinas-launch-sites-and-rockets#§commercially-operated-launch-vehicles) to enter the turf, which have successfully [supplemented](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/china-national-space-administration) the country’s launch capacity and frequency. In turn, companies too have [invested in infrastructure facilities](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/ispace-space-pioneer-expect-reusable) near national launchpads like in Wenchang. Indian companies lack such strong incentives to build their own infrastructure due to lack of national co-investments. India should also encourage, allow, and incentivize the private sector to build dedicated, independent launch infrastructure of their own outside of ISRO’s complexes. Furthermore, leveraging India’s position as a geopolitically neutral-enough nation, the government can coordinate external launch deals for private companies with foreign partners for commercial launches from their country. In the meanwhile, China has [announced](https://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4498944/content.html) that it’s also planning to expand competition for national launches from the current internal state competition—which has already produced good outcomes—to soon between state-led companies and the private sector companies, greatly expanding the pool of options and incentivizing fierce innovation. More importantly, this will allow China to maintain high national launch capacity while touting a flourishing private sector, avoiding the pitfalls of having mostly only commercial launch vehicles like in the US. India too needs to ensure that ISRO’s own launch capacity stays alive and is competitive while the private sector is being nurtured. Instead of relying on a single flagship rocket like the Falcon 9, China’s resilient, multi-launcher orbit access approach is more suitable and desirable for India to draw aspects from. ## An Indian on the Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/06/chandrayaan-4-is-more-than-a-moon-mission-1.jpg) Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) | Individual images of the LVM3 rocket, the two Chandrayaan 4 spacecraft stacks, and the Moon’s south pole: [ISRO](https://www.lpsc.gov.in/newProjects.html) / [NASA / GSFC / Timothy McClanahan / LOLA](https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/moon/nasas-lro-lunar-ice-deposits-are-widespread/) China landed its first robotic spacecraft, [Chang’e 3](https://www.eoportal.org/satellite-missions/chang-e-3), in 2013\. India achieved the feat 10 years later in 2023 with [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/). China launched a human spaceflight mission on its own in [2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shenzhou%5F5). India is still getting to its Yuri Gagarin moment. China aims to land humans on the Moon by [2030](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-237/), representing a scaled version of their past programs, including having a dedicated launch complex for the vehicles involved. India has [announced](https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1968368) the goal of landing humans by [2040](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/), without any such announced commitments. China got its first samples from the Moon in 2020 with the robotic [Chang’e 5](https://jatan.space/change-5-landing-site/) missions. It’s a precursor to their [multi-module crewed lunar missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-267/). India wants to fetch lunar samples too with [Chandrayaan 4](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-273/) by the end of the decade. As established in [Part 4](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-273/)*,* Chandrayaan 4 is not an isolated planetary mission but is deeply tied to India’s launch vehicle and human spaceflight programs, and how the specific LVM3 rocket it needs is also the catalyst required to better manage India’s launch crisis. The same dynamic will be true for the [NGLV rocket](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-33/#the-next-decade-and-nglv), a heavier variant of which will be the vehicle of choice for sending Indian lunar astronauts. Realizing monetary and technical constraints, ISRO’s Moonshot approach is to explicitly not make an ultra expensive, single-purpose Saturn V class mega rocket. Instead, ISRO will utilize docking of multiple spacecraft elements that are launched separately on maxed-out heavy-lift rockets to then achieve the same goal. This is a scaled up version of the docking-based architecture that [Chandrayaan 4](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-241/) will employ to fetch lunar samples later this decade. With this approach, the same rocket that launches humans to the Moon can also serve other projects in India’s space program, saving costs and ensuring efficient use of taxpayer money. However, getting to repeatedly and reliably launching India’s largest rockets will still cost substantially more money by itself than is available to ISRO. Per the current but morphing plan, Moonbound Indian astronauts will blast off from Earth in a capsule atop a [maxed out NGLV rocket variant](https://indianexpress.com/article/india/for-lunar-missions-isro-building-its-heaviest-rocket-ever-10205892/). As will their lander in another such launch. Developing this central crewed Moon rocket in itself relies on the baseline NGLV launch vehicle coming online and becoming operational faster than its current official projections. Moreover, using a scaled up Chandrayaan 4 architecture implies having reliable back-to-back launches of the largest rocket India will have ever flown. As such, even without a super heavy-lift rocket to blow money onto, the minimum viable cadence and scale of heavy-lift launches necessary for sending crew safely to the Moon and back can neither come for cheap in itself nor can it be achieved with any amount of pure efficiency attained with subpar hardware. Let’s not forget that the small robotic Chandrayaan 3 spacecraft alone filled LVM3’s medium-lift payload capacity to the brim. For a crewed Moon rocket, a giant leap is an immutable requirement. Given India’s ambitions vis-à-vis the Moon being similar to China in scope, and the time periods between the self’s mission milestones and future ambitions being comparable as well, India needs to switch from a linear execution approach to an ambitious multi-lateral mode that China has demonstrated with its complex launch vehicle, human spaceflight, and planetary programs this decade. The point of drawing all the analogues to India’s potent neighbor is not to chase China and its exact execution, [which would be a strategic mistake](https://adithyapani.substack.com/p/india-space-the-followers-dilemma) as elaborated by Adithya Kothandhapani, but to seek ideas and elements that are relevant to India in various ways. Certainly more so than the distinct US and Russian space structures formed and shaped during the Cold War era. As you may note from this article, even after maximally optimizing launchpad usage for ISRO’s rockets and having additional pads, India’s launch rate for medium-and-heavy-lift rockets will not surpass 50 annually, something China and the US can pull off even today. But India doesn’t need that many launches to meet all of its civil and strategic goals, including all the way up to a crewed Moonshot. Meeting the goals is all that matters. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/06/nglv-max-to-the-moon.jpeg) Render of two maxed out variants of the NGLV rocket, which will be used to launch Indian astronauts and their lander to the Moon in the future. The illustration shows two multi-module spacecraft from Chandrayaan 3 and 4 respectively at the Moon to represent many spacecraft modules of a crewed lunar mission. Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) | Images and background: [ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan3%5Fcurtainraiser%5Fvideo.html) / [LPSC](https://www.lpsc.gov.in/newProjects.html) / [Footy2000](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:NGLV%5FFamily.svg) / TeamIndus Just like India bagged Chandrayaan 3’s [triumphant touchdown](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) on the Moon by cutting through the cloud of Chandrayaan 2’s failure with an approach of [expansive testing coupled with uncompromising performance](https://jatan.space/kalpana-kalahasti-chandrayaan-3-nature/), the time is here again to reinforce and scale that philosophy to the largest playground in space this century. Make no mistake, it will be the pinnacle of India’s space program if it launches humans to the Moon circa 2040, or even later on if we’re being realistic. Imagine that future for a moment. The only country in the world after the US and China to achieve the immense feat, and one bagged within around 100 years of independence from colonial claws. China’s rise in space this century culminating in landing humans on the Moon by 2030 shows that an Indian on Luna by 2050 is also not an outright impossible dream. However, the crisis facing ISRO’s rockets makes the prospect far fetched at the moment. But it’s a goal worth pursuing just as [Chandrayaan the program](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan/) was. Apollo inspired many even in India but it took a robotic Chandrayaan 3 to fire the imagination of a much larger populace here. An Indian with flesh and blood on Luna would be much more impactful worldwide in various ways. Had ISRO’s founder Vikram Sarabhai been alive, he’d probably tear up at the sight of this feat. He’d also know that a scalable heavy-lift rocket investment was indispensable so that India could orchestrate the increasingly complex sprawls of its space program. --- **My series of articles on India’s launch vehicle crisis spans an analysis timeframe of two decades. It has taken me about a year of work to research and publish. Like* [**all my writing*](https://jatan.space/about)**, it’s completely free to access by everyone, with zero ads. I don’t use AI to write a single word and* [**cite everything*](https://jatan.space/i-write-for-you/)**. If you found the series useful or insightful, please* [**support*](https://jatan.space/support) *my independent writing to keep such kind of work going since it’s purely reader-funded. Sharing the series or its articles also helps.* [Support my writing 🚀 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### Deep dive into India’s Chandrayaan Moon missions like never before URL: https://jatan.space/chandrayaan/ Last updated: 2026-06-12T16:50:25.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/05/chandrayaan-3-lander-pragyaan-rover.jpg) The Chandrayaan 3 lander on the Moon imaged by the mission’s rover Pragyan. [Image: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/chandrayaan3%5Fgallery.html) India’s Chandrayaan program is one of the few in the world dedicated to the exploration of our Moon. Starting with its discovery of lunar water that catalyzed the global Moon rush of today, the program has gotten media and creator attention worldwide. However, the coverage has often lacked the program’s specific scientific, technological, and geopolitical outcomes being laid out and contextualized against global activities. Without adequate global context and specifics of outcomes, no space mission can be understood well. Which is why I’ve been writing articles and explainers on Chandrayaan Moon missions for years now with these anchor points in mind. Gladly, my work has been [globally quoted and cited](https://jatan.space/quoted-and-cited/) in books, published research, on Nature’s media arm, by ISRO, and so on. The one thing readers have asked many times is where can they browse all my Chandrayaan articles in one place to understand the program in full context or dive into specifics. Well, now you’re on such a page, accessible anytime at “[**jatan.space/chandrayaan**](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan)”. While my blog has long offered [full-text search](https://jatan.space/search) and an [Indian space category](https://jatan.space/tag/indian-space/), I can see why having this dedicated Chandrayaan page can be useful to many. I hope it helps people in at least two ways: 1. Offer a good starting point for anyone either wanting to dive into or catch up on Chandrayaan missions 2. Save research & consumption time of my regular readers who can leverage the [extensive linking policy](https://jatan.space/i-write-for-you/) in my articles, which proudly goes against the media norm by actually giving you all the sources upfront. With that context, presenting below the master list of organized, linked articles covering ISRO’s Chandrayaan lunar program, mission by mission. Have fun diving into the depths of how the Chandrayaans have contributed to lunar exploration, science and policy, get excited about missions in store for the future, and also reflect on parts where the program has lagged or been unsuccessful. As far as I know, no such centralized resource exists the world over. And it’s all free to read, with zero ads. If you value this work done *over years* to improve public understanding of Chandrayaan missions worldwide, kindly [support my independent writing](https://jatan.space/support). 🌙 ## Sections - [**Chandrayaan 1**](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan/#chandrayaan-1) - [**Chandrayaan 2 orbiter**](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan/#chandrayaan-2-orbiter) - [**From a crashing Chandrayaan 2 to an upright Chandrayaan 3**](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan/#from-a-crashing-chandrayaan-2-to-an-upright-chandrayaan-3) - [**Science from Chandrayaan 3**](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan/#science-from-chandrayaan-3) - [**Updates by year**](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan/#updates-by-year) - [**Future Chandrayaan missions**](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan/#future-chandrayaan-missions) - [**Your feedback**](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan/#your-feedback) Click links and feed your curiosity. That’s what the Web is for. :) ## Chandrayaan 1 *India’s first Moon mission* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/04/chandrayaan-1-cover.jpg) Chandrayaan 1 spacecraft illustration. Image: TeamIndus - [**Looking back at Chandrayaan 1 and forward to Artemis**](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/) - [**How NASA and India discovered water on our Moon**](https://jatan.space/how-nasa-and-chandrayaan-discovered-water-on-the-moon/) - [**Interviewing Chandrayaan 1’s Mission Director**](https://jatan.space/interviewing-isro-chandrayaan-1-mission-director/) - [How Chandrayaan 1 viewed a solar eclipse from the Moon](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-22/) - Tangent: [Kids in South Korea and a Moon mission](https://jatan.space/moon-moment-for-south-korea/) ## Chandrayaan 2 orbiter *The one to remember* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/04/ch-2-orbiter-cover.jpg) Illustration of the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter. Image: ISRO - [**ISRO’s Chandrayaan 2 orbiter has been creating the highest resolution map of the Moon**](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) - [Lunar science results from Chandrayaan 2](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-220/#lunar-science-galore-from-chandrayaan-2) - [The sharpest lunar imager](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-237/#more-moon) - [How the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter is a Sun watcher at the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-247/) - [The search for lunar water deepens](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/#the-search-for-lunar-water-deepens) - **International collaboration and outlook:** - [ISRO has been aiding NASA in Artemis crewed Moon landing site selections](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/#isro-aids-artemis) - NASA, ISRO, and KARI are [coordinating lunar traffic for their orbiters](https://jatan.space/a-registry-of-moon-missions/) - [ISRO’s Chandrayaan 2 orbiter helped Japan nail SLIM’s Moon landing](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/) - [A giant leap in orbital imagery is what we need to realize advanced Moon missions](https://jatan.space/we-need-a-giant-leap-in-lunar-orbital-imagery/) ## From a crashing Chandrayaan 2 to an upright Chandrayaan 3 *How ISRO went from a crashing Chandrayaan 2 lander to an upright Chandrayaan 3 on the Moon* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/04/chandrayaan-2-crash-and-chandrayaan-3-moon-landing.jpeg) ****Left:** An artist’s depiction of the Chandrayaan 2 lander in lunar descent: ****Left inset:** The Chandrayaan 2 crash site on the Moon; ****Right:** The Chandrayaan 3 lander on the Moon imaged by the mission’s rover Pragyan. Images: [ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/chandrayaan3%5Fgallery.html) / [NASA LRO](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/1131) - [**On Chandrayaan 2’s landing failure**](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-landing-failure-and-the-road-ahead/) - [Overview of Chandrayaan 2, India’s first Moon landing attempt](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-2-moon-landing-mission/) - [Watching Chandrayaan 2 launch](https://jatan.space/i-saw-a-rocket-launch/) - [Explainer: Why did it take so long to find the Chandrayaan 2 lander?](https://jatan.space/finding-the-chandrayaan-2-lander/) - [Chandrayaan 2, the orbiter to remember](https://jatan.space/india-chandrayaan-2-orbiter-articles/) - [**India aims for the Moon again with launch of Chandrayaan 3**](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) - [Feeling the Chandrayaan 3 launch](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-06/#feeling-the-chandrayaan-3-launch) - [Russia’s Luna 25 was not racing against Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-140/) - [**How Chandrayaan 3 made its historic touchdown on our Moon**](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) - [Chandrayaan 3 was not a south polar landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-142/) - [Chandrayaan 3 hopped on the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-143/) - [Over 200 million Indian school students to learn about Chandrayaan 3, mixed with mythology](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-10/) - [The engineer who played a key role in Chandrayaan 3’s triumphant touchdown](https://jatan.space/kalpana-kalahasti-chandrayaan-3-nature/) - [India signs the US-led Artemis Accords](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-133/) - [On (not) celebrating Chandrayaan 3’s Moon landing](https://jatan.space/on-celebrating-moon-landings/) ## Science from Chandrayaan 3 *The first results from high lunar latitudes* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/05/ch3-rover-apxs-measurements-of-lunar-crust.jpg) ****Top left:** The Chandrayaan 3 rover rolling out of the lander’s ramp during pre-launch testing; ****Bottom left:** The co-added spectrum from all 23 lunar surface soil and rock measurements by the rover’s X-ray spectrometer; ****Right:** An artist’s concept of our Moon shortly after its formation, with a magma ocean and a newly forming rocky crust. Images: [ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan3%5Fcurtainraiser%5Fvideo.html) / [Santosh Vadawale, et al.](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07870-7.epdf?sharing%5Ftoken=4ZQFD5zK9GT9acs31FeVNNRgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0MR1M6jsWV0QR20SmA7k7Hvrkyl3GgMk99HFFb15nD09447WpwTLcpEaBgvj9C4YhThW7GJgQ7WgMAckZYS0fZ6FTf8RdEwv0eX%5FN4HvzLxBwhFq2fqKCzi0YsrWI%5FcfAQ%3D) / [NASA Goddard](https://www.dlr.de/content/en/articles/news/2020/03/20200710%5Fa-slightly-younger-moon.html) - [**An overview of all Chandrayaan 3 science results**](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-275/) - [How Chandrayaan 3 contributed insights on our Moon’s origin and evolution](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-190/) - [Results from Chandrayaan 3 thermal experiment benefit future missions eyeing lunar water](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-219/) - [Chandrayaan 3 rover may (or may not) have stumbled upon the Moon’s mantle material](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-224/) - [Chandrayaan 3 orbiter observed Earth like an exoplanet](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-22/#observing-earth-as-an-exoplanet) ## Updates by year ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/06/chandrayaan-3-launch-gslv-mk-iii.jpg) Liftoff of the Moonbound Chandrayaan 3 by an LVM3 rocket. [Image: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/chandrayaan3%5Fgallery.html) - [2025](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-34/#chandrayaan-progress) - [2024](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-23/#chandrayaans) - [2023](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-11/#policy) - For ongoing updates in 2026, [subscribe](https://jatan.space/subscribe) to [Moon Monday](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday). 🌝 ## Future Chandrayaan missions *A sample return mission, a resource prospector, and more.* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/06/chandrayaan-4-is-more-than-a-moon-mission.jpg) Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) | Individual images of the LVM3 rocket, the two Chandrayaan 4 spacecraft stacks, and the Moon’s south pole: [ISRO](https://www.lpsc.gov.in/newProjects.html) / [NASA / GSFC / Timothy McClanahan / LOLA](https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/moon/nasas-lro-lunar-ice-deposits-are-widespread/) - [**Chandrayaan 4 will bring unique Moon materials—and maybe a giant scientific leap for India**](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-241/) - [The case for India and China to exchange lunar samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-241/#the-case-for-india-to-study-and-exchange-chang%E2%80%99e-lunar-samples) - [Why India needs to launch Chandrayaan 4 in time to ensure maximum national and international benefits](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-273/) - [The Indo-Japanese Chandrayaan 5 LUPEX mission will drill for water on the Moon and aid Artemis](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/) - [ISRO’s Chandrayaan and Gaganyaan programs will converge at Luna](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/) - [ISRO’s NGLV-rocket-based architecture for eventual crewed Moon missions](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-39/#an-indian-on-the-moon) ## Your feedback ***To my regular readers:** *This page is also an experiment to understand your response to having access to such a curated resource. Did it improve your understanding of Chandrayaan and global lunar exploration? Would you like similarly curated linked lists of lunar missions from China and the US? How about edited compilations of such articles as books or booklets, including as portable ebooks? Let me know your thoughts via* [**Email or DMs*](https://jatan.space/connect)**.* 🛰️ --- **Many thanks to* [***PierSight**](https://piersight.space)**,* [***The Takshashila Institution**](https://takshashila.org.in) *and* [***Tim Glotch**](https://www.stonybrook.edu/commcms/geosciences/people/%5Ffaculty/glotch.php) *for sponsoring* [**Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday)**.* **If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated lunar resource for space communities worldwide for free, and without ads, kindly* [**support*](https://jatan.space/support) *my independent writing. I don’t use AI to write a single word and* [**cite everything*](https://jatan.space/i-write-for-you/)**.* [Support Moon Monday 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### What does Blue Origin’s New Glenn rocket explosion mean for NASA’s Artemis program? A domino of timeline lapses and strategic failures. URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-277/ Last updated: 2026-06-02T05:39:33.000Z Following NASA’s [Artemis rejig](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-264/), [catalyzed Moonbase plans](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-268/), and the [crewed Artemis II lunar flyby](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-270/) earlier this year, the agency has been trying to go full speed in its grand plans for returning US astronauts to the Moon alongside placing of long duration infrastructure. It’s to that latter end that on May 26, the agency took another necessary step by [announcing firm, fixed price contracts](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-provides-update-on-moon-base-rovers-landers-missions/) being awarded to teams led by Astrolab (a Moon Monday sponsor) and Lunar Outpost respectively for building crew-capable Moon rovers. Each contract is worth about $220 million. These \~1000-kilogram “Lunar Terrain Vehicles” (LTVs) will be [more advanced than the rover driven by Apollo astronauts](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-171/), capable of long range exploration and site scouting with onboard instruments. They will also tout autonomous driving or remote operations, useful for when astronauts are not around. To deliver these rovers on the Moon, NASA awarded Blue Origin contracts worth up to $280.4 million. Two Blue Moon Mark 1 landers will perform the job as part of the agency’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). The landers hosting the rovers would be launched on Blue’s New Glenn rockets. ## Explosion, not anomaly In what couldn’t be more harsh a timing, just two days later Blue Origin’s New Glenn rocket [suffered a massive explosion](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1O90WZJALYc) during a test fire on its pad ahead of an orbital launch. Felt dozens of kilometers away, the explosion [destroyed](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/05/blue-origins-new-glenn-rocket-just-exploded-during-a-static-fire-test/) the rocket, a lightning protection tower, the pad structure, and the rocket transport. The few elements that survived were also significantly damaged. The only silver lining is that no person was close enough to get killed. Although dangerous debris from the explosion did [enter public waters](https://x.com/SLDelta45/status/2060222855955026006). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/06/blue-origin-new-glenn-may-2026-explosion-1.jpg) Explosion of Blue Origin’s New Glenn rocket on May 28\. [Image: Spaceflight Now](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1O90WZJALYc) In spite of the intensity of New Glenn’s blow up and resulting damage, the company and NASA chose to describe the event as an “anomaly”, as if lending the usage of inapt euphemisms from the company owner’s other businesses in books and the media. Since Blue lost its only launchpad to space, and a second one is still in an early development phase, it will be at least 2027 until Blue regains a baseline level of launch infrastructure. The back-to-pad time for New Glenn will additionally depend on Blue identifying the root causes and fixing them soon enough. The explosion, coupled with the [failure of the third New Glenn rocket](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/04/errant-upper-stage-spoils-blue-origins-success-in-reusing-new-glenn-booster/) in April, have fiercely pushed back every ambition and mission schedule of Blue by at least a year or more, including multiple contracted robotic and crewed Moon missions for NASA. Between Blue’s explosive delays and [SpaceX’s Starship setbacks](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-276/), the US has lost even more years across both its bets to land astronauts on the Moon, which the country [wants to accomplish before China](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-257/) despite having started on its program a decade earlier. While the NASA Administrator Jared Isaacman [expressed](https://x.com/NASAAdmin/status/2060523381699612973) that NASA will support Blue in overcoming the obstacles ahead, and that’s a good thing, receding milestones are inevitable amid physics & engineering realities that no amount of PR or wealth can overcome. While Starship landing astronauts on the Moon in the near future has long been impossible, the small silver lining that the US had of Blue achieving so—only in [its most optimistic universe](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/02/why-is-bezos-trolling-musk-on-x-with-turtle-pics-because-he-has-a-new-moon-plan/)—has now turned on its head upside down. To understand the loss and impact to Blue and NASA, consider the specifics of each mission Blue is supposed to launch and how they are affected as well as related to each other. ## Blue Moon Mark 1, the first ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/05/blue-origin-mk-1-lander-thermovac-test-nasa-johnson.jpg) Blue Origin’s Blue Moon Mark 1 lunar lander is seen here inside one of the thermal-vacuum chambers at NASA’s Johnson Space Center, where it completed space environmental endurance testing. [Image: NASA / Blue Origin](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/blue-origin-moon-lander-completes-testing-at-nasa-vacuum-chamber/) Before New Glenn’s explosion, the company’s first Blue Moon ‘Mark 1’ lander named Endurance was being aimed for launch by the end of this year, following a one-year delay. Targeting a lunar south polar landing, Endurance is a pathfinding mission aiming to test and validate key design decisions and [precision landing](https://jatan.space/precision-moon-landings-and-the-future/) systems ahead of more robotic flights. These latter flights need to carry increasingly important payloads for NASA to study [water ice deposits](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other such resources relevant to sustaining lunar exploration. In turn, these flights will refine systems and knowledge of the local lunar environment, feeding into Blue’s massive ‘[Mark 2](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/)’ lander contracted to land NASA astronauts on the Moon. One payload the first Mark 1 will carry is NASA’s third version of the [multi-camera SCALPSS](https://www.nasa.gov/general/nasa-cameras-to-capture-interaction-between-blue-ghost-moons-surface/) payload. The second SCALPPS, which flew on [Firefly’s first Moon lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-218/#firefly-deserves-an-unusual-kudos) called Blue Ghost in 2025, snapped [close-up images](https://www.nasa.gov/general/nasa-cameras-on-blue-ghost-capture-first-of-its-kind-moon-landing-footage/) of the Moon’s surface as the lander’s thruster plumes [vigorously kicked up lunar dust, soil, and rocks](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=emebSgs1f2w)—collectively called regolith. Together, these measurements will help lunar scientists and engineers better understand how rocket plumes [blast out lunar regolith and affect the local lunar environment](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-180/), and thus how to best protect future astronauts, critical hardware, and long-term habitats on the Moon. NASA is re-flying SCALPPS on a Mark 1 because unlike smaller landers like Blue Ghost, Mark 1 will generate high enough trust to allow NASA to gauge engine plume effects at the scale of large crewed (Artemis) landers like the Mark 2\. That is what allowed NASA to [award the payload’s flight](https://sam.gov/opp/bc53a5b240d5469da1b23e8184f4d999/view) to Blue Origin under a $6.1 million [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) contract without holding a competition. Although NASA [did not publicly announce](https://spacenews.com/nasa-payload-to-fly-on-first-blue-origin-lunar-lander-mission/) the contract itself at the time. The only other NASA payload onboard the first Mark 1 seems to be a small [retroreflector](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/how-nasa-uses-simple-technology-to-track-lunar-missions/) for lunar satellite ranging and navigation studies. Note that the Mark 1 lander has a large payload capacity of \~3000 kilograms. That’s more than the entire fueled mass of smaller landers like Firefly’s Blue Ghost and India’s [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/)! And yet NASA isn’t flying any other scientific instruments on Endurance. Considering that [the US has been failing to explore lunar water](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-221/) as the principal goal of Artemis, and that the Mark I’s landing site is the lunar south pole, it would be remiss for NASA to skip flying any lunar water related payloads on Endurance as a bare minimum. Whether that be through Artemis, CLPS, or other funding sources does not ultimately matter. Carrying two small payloads represents a low value bet on Blue by NASA despite the higher risk postures that CLPS orders are supposed to accept. Endurance recently [passed space environmental testing](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/blue-origin-moon-lander-completes-testing-at-nasa-vacuum-chamber/) at NASA’s Johnson Space Center. The tests were conducted at the center’s [Thermovac Chamber A](https://www.nasa.gov/reference/jsc-thermal-vacuum/), which simulates temperatures and vacuum conditions the lander is expected to face during its flight to the Moon and at the lunar south pole. It was edging closer to flight. New Glenn’s explosive delays though will now keep the large lander grounded. Given the pressing need to nail the lunar landing on its first attempt, and the harsh [lighting conditions](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/ames/the-dark-side-of-the-crater-how-light-looks-different-on-the-moon-and-what-nasa-is-doing-about-it/) on its polar landing site being favorable only during certain times, it’s now quite likely that Blue’s first Mark 1 lander will not launch until the second half of 2027. ## A still tentative VIPER rover delivery ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/06/blue-moon-mark-1-lander-viper-rover-delivery-illustration.jpg) Illustration showing Blue Origin’s Blue Moon Mark 1 lander having deployed NASA’s VIPER rover on the Moon’s south pole. [Image: Blue Origin](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-selects-blue-origin-to-deliver-viper-rover-to-moons-south-pole/) Last year NASA [awarded a potential contract](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-selects-blue-origin-to-deliver-viper-rover-to-moons-south-pole/) to Blue for delivering the agency’s [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) to the Moon’s south pole in late 2027\. This was contingent on the first Mark 1 flight going well, and also on Blue Origin separately demonstrating to NASA how the lander’s mechanisms can safely deploy the [450-kilogram](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/viper/in-depth/) VIPER rover onto the lunar surface post landing. Assuming these milestones are passed, NASA planned to award Blue a $190 million [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) contract for delivering VIPER to the Moon on the second Mark 1 lander. The VIPER rover’s long-planned mission to study and characterize polar [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) has been [critical](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-221/) yet [deprioritized](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/#viper-rover-delivery-by-astrobotic) by NASA, resulting in [the US failing to explore lunar water as the principal goal of Artemis](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-221/). In the meanwhile, China is on track to execute a comprehensive water-studying mission with the launch of [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-248/) later this year. Flying VIPER on the second Mark 1 in late 2027 was supposed to help manage this strategic failure for the US. But given Blue’s situation now, NASA might choose to keep the VIPER delivery contract tentative-only until the first Mark 1 flies and successfully so. VIPER too requires landing and operating during certain times of the year when lighting conditions along its [planned traverse routes](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) are favorable. As such, it’s difficult to imagine the second Mark 1 lander carrying VIPER any sooner than the second half of 2028\. That too only if the first Mark 1 succeeds. ## Constrained choices NASA could consider moving VIPER’s flight up on the first Mark 1 lander to make up for lost time while better utilizing the massive \~3000-kilogram payload capacity available. But that would be a substantial monetary risk and potential geopolitical blunder given the unproven state of the lander. Moreover, a successful VIPER delivery is in itself necessary to achieve before the [aforementioned crew-capable LTV rovers](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-provides-update-on-moon-base-rovers-landers-missions/) contracted by NASA can be delivered to Luna by two more Mark 1 landers. Even if these cutting-edge rovers are somehow developed and ready to fly by 2028, the Mark 1 landers meant to carry them will likely not fly until 2029 at the earliest. Let’s hope that VIPER’s resource prospecting mission actually happens, and that the rover lands in one piece. The Mark 1’s \~3000-kilogram payload capacity is its biggest selling point. Most CLPS landers like Firefly’s Blue Ghost with their entire fueled mass weigh less than that. Upcoming heavier CLPS landers like Astrobotic’s [Griffin](https://www.astrobotic.com/griffin), Intuitive Machines’ [Nova-D](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/clps/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-to-deliver-artemis-science-tech-to-moon/), and ispace’s [ULTRA](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=8718) all have payload capacities in the \~500-kilogram range, which is only half the mass required to transport any of the LTV rovers being built by teams led by Astrolab and Lunar Outpost. Flying the LTVs through SpaceX’s Starship rocket is also not an option given [Starship’s own setbacks](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-276/) while flying Blue Moon on a Falcon Heavy is unlikely as well due to the sour Bezos-Musk relationship. As such, NASA now finds itself in a delayed situation presenting only risky options in the best case with the potential to backfire. Ultimately, all the robotic Mark 1 missions are meant to aid or be complementary to crewed & cargo lunar flights of Mark 2 landers, which will also see delays because of the domino effects of New Glenn’s explosion. ## Lunar pitfalls While NASA has been pushing for commercializing the Moon instead of using a centralized approach to ensure meeting strategic goals first, China has progressed much faster through its state-controlled plans. The country bagged a quicker succession of [milestones in 2025](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-237/) than expected, spanning prototype tests of [its Moon rocket](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-238/), the [crew capsule](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-230/), the [lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-237/), and supporting [navigation and communications infrastructure](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-229/). This year, China conducted an [in-flight abort test](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-262/) of the crew capsule, [provided new details](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-267/) on the planning and development of various elements of China’s crewed Moon missions, and is on track for [more planned tests](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-258/). China’s simple [two-launch approach](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-263/#choosing-the-long-march-10) is proving itself to be more realistic and more strategic than even the simplified four-launch approach [Blue proposed](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/02/why-is-bezos-trolling-musk-on-x-with-turtle-pics-because-he-has-a-new-moon-plan/) when Starship was being [slow to ship](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-248/#nasa-reopens-artemis-iii-human-landing-contract). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/05/china-crewed-moon-mission-profile.jpeg) High-level diagram of the simple, nominal mission profile and architecture China is employing for its upcoming crewed Moon landing missions. [Image: Kaynouky](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:China%5Fcrewed%5Fmoon%5Fmission%5Fprofile.svg) In response to China’s pace, [portrayed by the US as a “race”](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/china-is-not-racing-to-the-moon), NASA has been trying to remove or reduce requirements to allow both Starship and Blue Origin to meet the agency and its Orion craft somewhere in between. For example, the [effective cancellation](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-268/) of the NASA-led [Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/gateway/) lunar orbital habitat earlier this year removed the requirement for Starship or Blue to orbit the Moon in Gateway’s [specific NRHO orbit](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/johnson/lunar-near-rectilinear-halo-orbit-gateway/), allowing them to dock with the crew-hosting Orion spacecraft in other [potentially feasible shared orbits](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/03/nasa-has-shuffled-its-artemis-rockets-but-what-of-the-lunar-landers/). Relatedly, Marcia Smith [reported](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/kshatriya-hints-nasa-may-reconsider-south-pole-for-initial-artemis-landings/) that NASA is considering the first Artemis landing to not be amid the [treacherous terrain](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/SPole%5FSRidgemap%5FLOLA-Slope5m%5Fv20190515.pdf) of the Moon’s south pole and lie more equator-ward instead. Targeting a non-polar landing improves safety from a terrain perspective while also enhancing communications and power availability to carry out the mission. However, the relaxation of these requirements by itself does not solve the majority of the challenges and delays faced by even Blue, whose minimum-4-launch-mission-profile is simpler only when compared to SpaceX. NASA’s Office of Inspector General (OIG), which formally functions as an agency watchdog, [released a scathing report](https://oig.nasa.gov/office-of-inspector-general-oig/audit-reports/nasas-management-of-the-human-landing-system-contracts/) in March pointing out [various shortcomings and risks](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-ig-applauds-nasa-contracting-for-artemis-hls-raises-concerns-about-crew-safety/) in Blue’s crewed Mark 2 lander \[[alongside Lunar Starship](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-276/)\]. Notably, Blue too is targeting a lower fidelity uncrewed mission demonstration prior to carrying crew, excluding important milestones such as the Mark 2 getting back to lunar orbit after the surface mission. As such, the uncrewed flight wouldn’t simulate the full-scale mission profile of [Artemis IV](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-264/), failing to test the full envelope of the landing mission with astronauts. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/06/blue-moon-mk1-and-mk-ii-lunar-landers-compared-to-apollo-lander.jpg) The Apollo lunar lander size compared to Blue Moon Mark 1 and Mark 2 landers. [Image: Blue Origin](https://www.leonarddavid.com/blue-origin-lunar-plans-detailed/) The OIG also noted that Blue hasn’t yet decided to what extent the Mark 2 will tout manual control options of the vehicle by astronauts, if at all. Relatedly, Blue Origin and NASA did [setup a full-size mock Mark 2 crew cabin](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/esdmd/artemis-campaign-development-division/human-landing-system-program/industry-moon-lander-training-cabin-lands-at-nasa-for-artemis/) sometime this year for ground-based astronaut testing and feedback. NASA says the mockup will evolve to support multi-phase mission simulations ahead of crewed flights. In contrast, Chinese taikonauts have already been training for various landing scenarios in a [Lanyue lander simulator](https://journal26.magtechjournal.com/kjkxjs/CN/10.16708/j.cnki.1000-758X.2026.0025), which has manual control options to override autonomous touchdown. This training in itself is providing astronaut feedback to engineers for iterating on the lander’s development. All these challenges are present for Blue while the uncrewed Mark 2 cannot fly even test missions until its now-further-delayed predecessor Mark 1 is itself proven. \[Hey, at least Blue now has the time to rework the interface for [Axiom-Space-provided spacesuits](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-ig-raises-more-questions-about-readiness-for-human-lunar-landings/) to meet new NASA requirements.\] Following New Glenn’s explosion, Eric Berger [noted](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/05/heres-why-the-failure-of-blue-origins-new-glenn-rocket-is-so-catastrophic/) a similar unfortunate conclusion for the Mark 2 lander’s delivery timeline: > As for Artemis IV, the lunar landing mission, this failure further complicates that plan. It is difficult to imagine a scenario in which a crew-rated Blue Moon lander is ready at any point in 2028 now. Even if the hardware is far along, Blue Origin still needs to fly test missions with Blue Moon Mark 1, which are on hold indefinitely Such clarity in reporting for the public is mysteriously absent in the case of SpaceX, where Starship’s setbacks are not presented to be all but certain to miss the [Artemis IV](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-264/) Moon landing timeline in 2028 despite the [sea of untouched milestones](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-276/). ## Competition and “commercialization” overstep national priority and public transparency ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/06/blue-moon-nasa-sustainable-lander-2-labeled.jpg) A labeled illustration of the Blue Moon lander. Image: [Blue Origin](https://www.blueorigin.com/news/nasa-selects-blue-origin-for-mission-to-moon) / Labels: [Jatan Mehta](https://blog.jatan.space/about) Even as Blue and NASA had been aiming to [accelerate New Glenn launches](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/04/blue-origin-certainly-has-ambitious-launch-targets-for-new-glenn/) and [lunar landings](https://www.thespacereview.com/article/5215/1) to make up for Starship’s lapses since the past year, May’s New Glenn explosion and its aftermath has set the Sun on that sliver of hope. How quickly Blue flies New Glenn again, the timing and outcome of the first Mark 1 lander flight, and what NASA shares about the crewed Mark 2 are the key things to watch out for. It’s necessary that NASA starts to attach and share firm timelines for key milestones being targeted by Blue going ahead, providing the missing public information transparency on the [$3.4 billion contract](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/) dolled out to the company. NASA has not been public about any major milestones and associated payments made for the Mark 2’s development. We haven’t even had a firm enough launch target for the Mark 2’s uncrewed lunar landing demonstration either from Blue or NASA. Beyond media reports, we also don’t have official public information on what Blue’s supposed [accelerated proposal](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/bolden-bridenstine-share-their-views-on-artemis/) in response to NASA’s [reopening of the astronaut landing contract](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-248/#nasa-reopens-artemis-iii-human-landing-contract) looks like. Such basic mission information and promised progress on taxpayer funded programs is crucial to have from NASA at least, instead of incessant optimism pulled out of a vacuum. In hindsight, it would seem that the US’ focus on corporatization & commercialization in the name of competition at the Moon, rather than embracing [national collaboration](https://jatan.space/pitfalls-in-lunar-exploration/), has caused the deluge of delays in getting anywhere close to a crewed Moon landing. Had NASA chosen a simpler mission profile for the Artemis Moon landing contract in 2021, when it [questionably selected](https://www.thespacereview.com/article/5053/1) the promising but utterly complex Starship program as [the primary provider](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-23/) instead, the US could’ve been further along in its development. Especially so when you consider Blue’s originally proposed architecture as a reference, which allowed its crewed Mooncraft design to fly in modules across multiple launch vehicle providers instead of being tied to the company’s own New Glenn rocket. Here’s an illustrative excerpt from NASA’s [source selection statement](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/option-a-source-selection-statement-final.pdf) at the time of Lunar Starship’s selection acknowledging Blue’s simpler launch proposal: > Blue Origin proposes to use a launch approach that provides flexibility and minimizes risk. Blue Origin’s initial HLS mission requires only three commercial launches. This very low number of required launches lowers the risk of mission failure due to launch anomalies. This risk is further reduced by the fact that Blue’s HLS elements are capable of interfacing with multiple commercial launch vehicles (CLVs), leaving Blue Origin with near-term options regarding choice of launch vehicle. Finally, Blue Origin’s proposal demonstrates that its architecture closes with an existing CLV. This gives the Government greater confidence in Blue Origin’s approach to launch and 16 mission operations. I find that overall, these attributes of Blue Origin’s approach meaningfully reduce launch-related risks and therefore increase its likelihood of successful contract performance. Fast forward to 2026, and the time to act on any such proposal from Blue or otherwise has long gone. NASA’s crewed lunar lander program has turned out to have a different kind of a blue origin. While prioritizing privatization over all else, the US has: - ended up [failing to explore lunar water](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-221/) as the principal goal of Artemis, to then feed the findings into planning sustained lunar exploration - butchered its decade-long “lead” in the self-defined “race” against China to land humans on the Moon while the promise of sustained landers remains far into the future - and nevertheless come no closer to sustaining robotic lunar exploration outside of taxpayer money as the acclaimed goal of [CLPS](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) either, considering the program’s outcome being a [single nominal, successful landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-218/#firefly-deserves-an-unusual-kudos) so far. It’s all but certain now that barring a major technical failure, the kind Blue has suffered, [China will land humans on the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-237/) before the US does this century. It will take a miracle to have an outcome otherwise at this point. Regardless, it will be amazing to have China as the second nation from Earth to have achieved the feat of landing humans on Luna. We should be happy that we now have two distinct efforts to sustain crewed and robotic [exploration of our Moon](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/). It gives humanity a better chance, especially one that’s at least not driven by [fear-mongering](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/08/after-recent-tests-china-appears-likely-to-beat-the-united-states-back-to-the-moon/). ***Related dive:** [**China surfaces details of spacecraft to land humans on Luna by 2030*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-267/) 🌖 ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/06/china-lanyue-crewed-lander-mockup-propulsion-gnc-test-2.jpeg) Shots from the control systems test of China’s Lanyue lander module for crewed Moon missions. The full-scale lander mockup is seen next to humans in the inset image at the bottom right. Images: [CASC](https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/xywWynVaOQrTpWbKtHfveg) / [CMSA](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LKNt3dCUvjU) | Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) --- **Many thanks to* [***Catalyx Space**](https://catalyx.space) *and* [***Gurbir Singh**](https://gurbir.co.uk) *for sponsoring Moon Monday.* **If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly* [**support*](https://jatan.space/support) *my independent writing. I don’t use AI to write a single word and* [**cite everything*](https://jatan.space/i-write-for-you/)**.* [Support Moon Monday 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### What is pending for SpaceX Starship to be a Moonship for NASA astronauts? Nearly everything. URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-276/ Last updated: 2026-05-25T13:32:48.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/05/starship-v3-first-launch.jpg) First launch of SpaceX’s Starship V3 launch vehicle. [Image: SpaceX](https://xcancel.com/SpaceX/status/2058005949466501590) SpaceX’s [latest suborbital test flight](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/05/spacexs-starship-v3-still-a-work-in-progress-mostly-successful-on-first-flight/) of its two-stage [Starship](https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/starship) rocket on May 22, debuting a [refined V3 version](https://www.spacex.com/updates#starship-v3), was successful in its liftoff, stage separation, mock satellite deployment test, and the upper stage’s soft oceanic splashdown while its heat shield remained intact through atmospheric reentry. However, the flight failed in even attempting a soft splashdown of the large booster, which impacted somewhere unstated in the waters of Gulf of Mexico. The flight also did not test the planned reignition of an upper stage Raptor engine in space because one of the engines had failed early in flight. This means SpaceX will likely have to delay an orbital test flight of Starship until an upper stage engine relight is demonstrated in a future flight. In 2021, NASA [selected](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) Starship’s lunar variant for landing Artemis astronauts on the Moon in 2024 for almost $3 billion, a price proposed by SpaceX itself. Starship’s early developmental challenges meant that target whizzed by. More importantly, [last year’s multiple failures](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-230/#another-blowup-for-artemis) of Starships against SpaceX’s own repeatedly promised timelines continued to mount delays, significantly slowing down NASA’s progress in having humans land on the Moon again via [Artemis IV](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-264/). Given the delays, and the [hanging 2028 political deadline](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-257/) to “beat China”, the agency decided to [reopen the landing contract](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-248/#nasa-reopens-artemis-iii-human-landing-contract). Thus Blue Origin can now vie for the first Artemis landing mission [despite its own challenges](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-272/). In this overall context, the V3 Starship’s first flight continues only slow progress for NASA and the US while a sea of milestones remain untouched in the lead up to landing humans on the Moon. Somehow by 2028, SpaceX still needs to achieve the following: - have lofted Starships return to launchpads by default - perform an orbital flight - consistently deploy satellites and other payloads in Earth orbit - human-rate the whole launch vehicle and demonstrate docking with the [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) for the [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-3/nasa-outlines-preliminary-artemis-iii-mission-plans/) Earth orbit test mission - perform cryogenic fuel transfers between Starship upper stages in Earth orbit - refurbish and refuel Starships fast enough to reach the [high cadence required](https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/11/what-nasa-wants-to-see-from-spacexs-second-starship-test-flight), itself unspecified, for the Artemis IV crewed Moon landing - demonstrate an uncrewed lunar landing and takeoff prior to carrying crew - demonstrate avoiding cryogenic fuel boil-off in lunar orbit and on the Moon’s surface, to simulate Starships waiting for or hosting astronauts Two years later that last promised, even a baseline demonstration of in-orbit fuel transfer between Starship stages has not been in sight. Moreover, we don’t even have a firm enough launch target for Starship’s uncrewed lunar landing demonstration either from SpaceX or NASA. We also don’t have public information on what SpaceX’s supposed [accelerated Lunar Starship proposal](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/bolden-bridenstine-share-their-views-on-artemis/) in response to NASA’s reopening of the astronaut landing contract looks like. Simply put, NASA’s road to landing humans on the Moon again has been crawling through Starship. ## China, the catalyst In the meanwhile, China has bagged a quicker succession of [milestones in 2025](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-237/) than expected, spanning prototype tests of [its Moon rocket](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-238/), the [crew capsule](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-230/), the [lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-237/), and supporting [navigation and communications infrastructure](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-229/). This year, China has conducted an [in-flight abort test](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-262/) of the crew capsule, [provided new details](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-267/) on the planning and development of various elements of China’s crewed Moon missions, and is on track for [more planned tests](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-258/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/05/china-crewed-moon-mission-profile.jpeg) High-level diagram of the simple, nominal mission profile and architecture China is employing for its upcoming crewed Moon landing missions. [Image: Kaynouky](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:China%5Fcrewed%5Fmoon%5Fmission%5Fprofile.svg) Many [dismiss](https://arstechnica.com/space/2024/05/china-just-launched-another-ambitious-lunar-mission-is-nasa-falling-behind/) China’s simple [two-launch approach](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-263/#choosing-the-long-march-10) as being less ambitious than Artemis, saying that being Apollo-like makes their plan faster to execute. Since when is a crewed Moon landing an easy feat in itself? It’s the first time China is even attempting the feat, and *any* architecture for the same makes for an enormous undertaking by default that deserves respect. You can’t call Apollo a historic feat while simultaneously downplaying others trying to take a similarly practical approach. In response to China’s pace, [portrayed by the US as a “race”](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/china-is-not-racing-to-the-moon), NASA has been trying to remove or reduce requirements to allow Starship and Blue Origin to meet the agency and its Orion craft somewhere in between. For example, the [effective cancellation](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-268/) of the NASA-led [Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/gateway/) lunar orbital habitat earlier this year removed the requirement for Starship or Blue to orbit the Moon in Gateway’s [specific NRHO orbit](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/johnson/lunar-near-rectilinear-halo-orbit-gateway/), allowing them to dock with the crew-hosting Orion spacecraft in other [potentially feasible shared orbits](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/03/nasa-has-shuffled-its-artemis-rockets-but-what-of-the-lunar-landers/). Relatedly, Marcia Smith [reported](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/kshatriya-hints-nasa-may-reconsider-south-pole-for-initial-artemis-landings/) that NASA is considering the first Artemis landing to not be amid the [treacherous terrain](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/SPole%5FSRidgemap%5FLOLA-Slope5m%5Fv20190515.pdf) of the Moon’s south pole and lie more equator-ward instead. Targeting a non-polar landing improves safety from a terrain perspective while also enhancing communications and power availability to carry out the mission. However, the relaxation of these requirements by itself does not solve the majority of the challenges and delays faced by SpaceX in particular, given its far more complex mission profile for lunar landings compared to Blue’s. The bulk of the work still rests on SpaceX to work through, including determining and then cracking the code for [fast enough in-space refueling](https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/11/what-nasa-wants-to-see-from-spacexs-second-starship-test-flight) needed to achieve its crewed Moon landings. ## Lunar pitfalls NASA’s Office of Inspector General (OIG), which formally functions as an agency watchdog, [released a scathing report](https://oig.nasa.gov/office-of-inspector-general-oig/audit-reports/nasas-management-of-the-human-landing-system-contracts/) in March pointing out [various shortcomings and risks](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-ig-applauds-nasa-contracting-for-artemis-hls-raises-concerns-about-crew-safety/) in Lunar Starship. Notable among them is that SpaceX is targeting a lower fidelity uncrewed landing demonstration prior to carrying crew, which excludes things like having a complete life support system or the astronaut elevator. The OIG also pointed out that the uncrewed flight wouldn’t simulate the full-scale mission profile of the crewed flight. And so even with a successful robotic lunar landing and takeoff, the flight would still not cover the full envelope of the landing mission with astronauts. The OIG also noted that the Lunar Starship particularly enhances crew risk by lacking sufficient manual control options of the vehicle. In contrast, Chinese taikonauts have been training for various landing scenarios in a [Lanyue lander simulator](https://journal26.magtechjournal.com/kjkxjs/CN/10.16708/j.cnki.1000-758X.2026.0025), which has manual control options to override autonomous touchdown. This training in itself is providing astronaut feedback to engineers for iterating on the lander’s development whereas a high fidelity mock Lunar Starship simulator for Artemis astronauts has either not been created or shared about yet. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/05/lanyue-lunar-lander-and-landing-simulator.jpeg) ****Left:** The Lanyue lander simulator for taikonaut training; ****Right:** View of the Moon’s surface inside the simulator as taikonauts approach touchdown. [Images: BICE / SAST / CASC](https://journal26.magtechjournal.com/kjkxjs/CN/10.16708/j.cnki.1000-758X.2026.0025) As a related aside, Blue Origin and NASA did [setup a full-size mock crew cabin](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/esdmd/artemis-campaign-development-division/human-landing-system-program/industry-moon-lander-training-cabin-lands-at-nasa-for-artemis/) modeled after the company’s [Blue Moon Mark 2](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/) crewed lunar lander sometime this year for ground-based astronaut testing and feedback. NASA says the mockup will evolve to support multi-phase mission simulations ahead of crewed flights. As such, it lags behind China’s simulator at the moment but might be ahead of SpaceX based on publicly available information. Like the OIG, another formal NASA review body has also expressed concerns about Starship’s readiness this decade. The Aerospace Safety Advisory Panel (ASAP) highlighted the following concerns about Starship in its [2025 report](https://www.nasa.gov/asap-reports/) (released this year): > The development and test progress necessary for a version of Starship that has not yet flown in time to support a human lunar landing mission within the next few years appears daunting and, to the Panel, probably not achievable. Beyond this, the physics of landing a six-to-one height-to-width ratio vehicle on the uneven, poorly lit polar lunar surface seems questionable at best. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/05/spacex-artemis-human-landing-system-new-illustration.jpg) An illustration of SpaceX’s Lunar Starship showing it having landed Artemis astronauts on the Moon for NASA. [Image: SpaceX](https://www.spacex.com/updates#moon-and-beyond) During both the [Artemis rejig](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-264/) and [revised Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-268/) plans earlier this year led by NASA Administrator Jared Isaacman, he [positioned](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-adds-mission-to-artemis-lunar-program-updates-architecture/) the efforts and changes as trying to beat China. > With credible competition from our greatest geopolitical adversary increasing by the day, we need to move faster, eliminate delays, and achieve our objectives. In an accompanying [email letter sent to NASA employees](https://xcancel.com/NASAAdmin/status/2036428252693078055) and shared online, Isaacman noted the agency will embed its talent and expertise across the US space industry to increase the chances of successes for Artemis. From said letter: > Few disagree with the direction we are taking, but many question the achievability. There is a belief among some that NASA has drifted so far from its best days that we can no longer undertake big, bold endeavors and deliver on them. That is why we must take ownership of the outcomes. We will not sit on our hands and hope industry saves the day. NASA will assign subject matter experts to every program supporting the National Space Policy, from returning to the Moon to building a lunar base. We will work alongside every vendor, attached to every component on the critical path and down to the subcontractor level. There was also an extended tone of high expectation of returns to this approach, which Eric Berger [captured](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/03/nasa-kills-lunar-space-station-to-focus-on-ambitious-moon-base/) in a report: > The space agency is prepared to do everything it can to help its contractors succeed, from embedding subject matter experts to relaxing requirements. But the time for excuses is coming to an end, he \[Isaacman\] said. “We are not going to sit idly by while schedules slip or budgets are exceeded,” he said. “Expect uncomfortable action if that is what it takes. Because the public has invested $100 billion and has been very patient with America’s return to the Moon. Expectations are rightfully very high. Taxpayers and their representatives in Congress should demand accountability from every leader and every CEO if those expectations are not met.” It will be interesting to see if this demanding hand, including for returns on taxpayer money, manifests for SpaceX’s Lunar Starship too if the company continues to lapse on its promised timelines. It will also be notable, and necessary, if NASA starts to attach and share firm timelines for key milestones being targeted by Lunar Starship, providing the missing public information transparency. NASA has not been public about any major milestones and associated payments made for Lunar Starship’s development. The ambiguity stemming from a lack of well-defined public milestones and timelines makes it easy to sell every Starship launch as a success, perpetually pushing optimism into the future. The prospects of eventually realizing Starship might be amazing, on paper and hopefully in the not too distant future, but it’s also important what is possible right now, tomorrow, next year, and in 2028\. Such basic mission information and promised progress on taxpayer funded programs is crucial to have from NASA at least, instead of a deluge of futuristic sounding plans delivered with optimism forged from a vacuum. --- ### Related reads [**With Artemis II done, challenges confront NASA to send astronauts on Artemis III and IV*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-272/) [**Ignition, not yet liftoff, of NASA’s ambitious Artemis Moonbase plan*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-268/) --- **Many thanks to* [***Open Lunar Foundation**](https://www.openlunar.org) *and* [***Joseph Biernat**](https://www.linkedin.com/in/joseph-j-biernat-24858425) *for sponsoring Moon Monday. If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support Moon Monday 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### Science results from India’s Chandrayaan 3 Moon mission | Moon Monday #275 URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-275/ Last updated: 2026-07-06T07:11:26.000Z India’s [Chandrayaan 3 lunar landing](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) at the near-polar location of [69.37°S, 32.32°E](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=-119.5202449%2C-32.9249309%2C60.4797551%2C-32.9249309&id=lroc&showGraticule=true&layerListFilter=lat&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=32.34810585%2C-69.36768573%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Chandrayaan+3+target+landing+site%22%7D%7C32.31900500%2C-69.37302500%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Chandrayaan+3+actual+landing+site%22%7D%7C32.31901900%2C-69.37303700%2C32.34812400%2C-69.36769200%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Distance%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0yioA&proj=27) in August 2023 marked a key moment for the country’s space program. Its nominal touchdown also maintained the momentum for the world’s march to the Moon. A year later, ISRO finally [made available](https://pradan.issdc.gov.in/ch3) a set of peer-reviewed Chandrayaan 3 payload data online on its portal, accessible by anyone after free registration. ISRO has made its planetary missions data portal compliant with NASA’s Planetary Data System (PDS). And so [just as with the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://pradan.issdc.gov.in/ch2/), Chandrayaan 3 data is available in the latest PDS4 format for international researchers to utilize with less friction than before. Chandrayaan 3 has produced a host of science results, not all of which ISRO has compiled or contextualized. Unfortunately with spaceflight, the flight parts always get more formal communications as well as media coverage globally than actual outcomes (or lack of them) from the missions. To that end, I’ve compiled and contextualized below notable research outcomes from Chandrayaan 3, along with links to explainers and the source papers or public abstracts. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/05/chandrayaan-3-lander-pragyaan-rover-chaste-deployed.jpg) The Chandrayaan 3 lander on the Moon with its ChaSTE thermal probe deployed. The image was taken by the mission’s rover Pragyan. [Image: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/chandrayaan3%5Fgallery.html) - [Results from the ChaSTE thermal probe experiment](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-219/) on the Chandrayaan 3 lander have expanded the possible locations for finding [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) beyond the Moon’s poles, thereby benefiting future scouting missions. Further thermal probe measurements taken after [Chandrayaan 3’s hop](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-143/) on the Moon revealed [finer layers of the lunar soil](https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/ae5228) and their physical properties, which can inform drilling or [extraction](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-153/) activities planned by future near-polar and polar missions. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/05/ch3-rover-apxs-measurements-of-lunar-crust-1.jpg) ****Top left:** The Chandrayaan 3 rover rolling out of the lander’s ramp during pre-launch testing; ****Bottom left:** The spectrum from lunar surface measurements by the rover’s APXS instrument; ****Right:** An artist’s concept of our Moon shortly after its formation, with a magma ocean and a newly forming rocky crust. Images: [ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan3%5Fcurtainraiser%5Fvideo.html) / [Santosh Vadawale, et al.](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07870-7.epdf?sharing%5Ftoken=4ZQFD5zK9GT9acs31FeVNNRgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0MR1M6jsWV0QR20SmA7k7Hvrkyl3GgMk99HFFb15nD09447WpwTLcpEaBgvj9C4YhThW7GJgQ7WgMAckZYS0fZ6FTf8RdEwv0eX%5FN4HvzLxBwhFq2fqKCzi0YsrWI%5FcfAQ%3D) / [NASA Goddard](https://www.dlr.de/content/en/articles/news/2020/03/20200710%5Fa-slightly-younger-moon.html) - The Chandrayaan 3 [rover](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/#a-lunar-region-never-explored) Pragyan made lunar soil composition measurements using its X-ray spectrometer, which [contributed to knowledge of our Moon’s origin](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-190/). It also [may or may not have stumbled upon the Moon’s mantle material](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-224/) when analyzing local soil. *July 2026 update:* [Further analysis](https://doi.org/10.1038/s44453-026-00041-0) found that the mission’s landing site materials originated from a relatively magnesium-rich lunar crust and regolith, representing a [rarer aspect of lunar evolution studies](https://www.isro.gov.in/Ch3%5FAlpha%5FParticle%5FX-ray%5FSpectrometer.html). - The [other spectrometer](https://www.currentscience.ac.in/Volumes/118/04/0573.pdf) on the rover though, which is laser based, hasn’t produced similarly mature results. While [preliminary analysis of its spectra](https://doi.org/10.1109/JSEN.2024.3506037) found the presence of elements like Oxygen, Magnesium, Aluminum, Silicon, Calcium, Iron, Titanium, Manganese, Chromium, etc., hinting at a diversity of minerals in the region, several of those measurements [are being challenged](https://doi.org/10.5194/epsc-dps2025-704) by a group of French scientists. Either way, a follow-up study from the payload team at ISRO hasn’t been published. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/05/ch-3-rover-in-place-turn-1.jpeg) Illumination changes made by in-place turns of the Chandrayaan 3 rover during its traverse on the Moon, as captured from orbit by the high-resolution camera on the Chandrayaan 2 satellite. The green strip and yellow circles are added to aid visualization. [Images: Kannan Iyer et al.](https://www.currentscience.ac.in/Volumes/128/06/0558.pdf) - Researchers used the [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/)’s high-resolution camera, which is the world’s sharpest lunar imager, to [identify sub-resolution tracks of the Chandrayaan 3 rover](https://www.currentscience.ac.in/Volumes/128/06/0558.pdf) based on illumination changes. Scientists have also been using the imager to [study interactions](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/2277.pdf) between the lander’s [engine plumes and lunar soil regolith](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-180/), especially during the time the [Chandrayaan 3 lander hopped](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-143/) towards the end of its surface mission. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/05/chandrayaan-3-orbiter-shape-observation-geometry-and-instrument-design.jpg) The observation geometry (left) of the SHAPE instrument and its configuration (right). [Images: Bhavesh Jaiswal, et al.](https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2302.10712) - The Chandrayaan 3 propulsion module [observed Earth as an exoplanet](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-22/#observing-earth-as-an-exoplanet) from lunar orbit. It’s been more than two years since the intended observations were complete but a paper is yet to come out. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/05/chandrayaan-3-lander-pragyaan-rover-ilsa.jpg) The ILSA seismometer seen deployed from the Chandrayaan 3 lander. The image was taken by the Pragyan rover. Image: ISRO - The seismometer on the Chandrayaan 3 lander, called Instrument for Lunar Seismic Activity (ILSA), was the first since the Apollo era decades ago to measure moonquakes ([paper](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2024.116285), [archived PDF](https://archive.org/details/identification-and-preliminary-characterisation-of-signals-recorded-2024-ic)). In the 12 days of its operations from August 24, 2023, ILSA measured 50 natural seismic events, each lasting several seconds. However, [an independent analysis](https://doi.org/10.1029/2025EA004307) by two international scientists published in late 2025 found it more likely that these events were due to mission activities. ILSA also did explicitly detect 200 events correlated to known activities of either the lander, its instruments, or [traverses](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/#the-surface-mission) of the Chandrayaan 3 rover. Either way, use of ILSA’s measurements are helping scientists better understand or constrain [micrometeorite impacts](https://jatan.space/the-tiniest-of-impact-craters/) and their rate on the Moon’s surface at high latitudes. This will feed into safe planning of future polar exploration missions when paired with more [upcoming seismic measurements](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-199/). The nature of micrometeorite impacts is not well constrained at the moment but is necessary to ensure safety of future human lunar explorers by designing protective suits and habitats accordingly. ***Related:** [**Not the fault in our stars but certainly stressful faults on our Moon*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-199/) 🫨 ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/05/chandrayaan-3-landing-region-geology-map.jpg) Geological map of the Chandrayaan 3 landing region showing geological units, secondary crater chains (blue), and boulders (bright yellow). [Image: R.K. Sinha et al.](https://www.nature.com/articles/d44151-025-00018-0) - The first geological map of Chandrayaan 3’s near-polar landing region [revealed it to be 3.7 billion years old](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asr.2025.01.020). The region has been significantly altered since its formation by subsequent impacts and their material ejections. - Zooming in a bit, scientists have assessed the [mission’s landing site](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/#the-moment-of-touchdown) to [lie above an ancient crater](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2024.116329) which spans about 160 kilometers across and is up to 4.4 kilometers deep. This inference is primarily based on ejecta trails around the landing site as imaged by the mission’s [rover](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/#a-lunar-region-never-explored) coupled with high-resolution views of the larger region from the [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/). Scientists think the ancient crater has been filled with material ejected from subsequent crater-forming impacts in the south polar region. These deposits include swaths of possible mantle material displaced here by the [gigantic impact](https://www.lroc.asu.edu/images/219) that formed the South Pole-Aitken basin south of the Chandrayaan 3 landing site. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/05/ch-3-rover-track-lunar-soil.jpg) A closeup image of the lunar surface captured by the Chandrayaan 3 rover. Rover tracks are visible. Image: ISRO - The [composition of the near-polar lunar soil](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-190/) measured by the Chandrayaan 3 rover was used as a reference [to create lunar soil simulants](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/1861.pdf) for high-latitude rocky highlands. The Moon-like anorthositic rocks needed to make the simulant were sourced from the oceanic-volcanic crust of the [Samail Ophiolite Complex](https://iugs-geoheritage.org/geoheritage%5Fsites/late-cretaceous-samail-ophiolite/) in Oman & UAE. Such high-fidelity simulants (defined in context) are used to test lunar hardware and rovers before flight. This work also was done in the context of UAE’s second lunar rover which [will fly on Firefly’s second lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-226/#firefly-to-carry-second-uae-lunar-rover-and-more) part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) later this year. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/05/ch-3-plasma-probe-electron-density-and-temperature-measurements.jpeg) Electron temperature and density measured at the near-polar Chandrayaan 3 landing site from just above the surface during the lunar day. [Image: G Manju et al.](https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/staf1276) - A dedicated probe installed on the Chandrayaan 3 lander took the [first in-situ plasma environment measurements](https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/staf1276) from near the Moon’s south polar surface, [providing ground truth data](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan3RAMBHALP%5FGroundTruth.html) about the nature of charged particles in the region. Scientists found the electron density to be higher than expected. The results are helping scientists better understand how [the Sun’s wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) of charged particles and [Earth’s magnetotail](https://helio.data.nasa.gov/region/earth-magnetotail) interacts with the Moon’s surface and exosphere. The findings in turn will also help plan radiation protection for hardware as well as astronauts in future near-polar or polar surface exploration missions. ***Related:** [**A Sun watcher at the Moon*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-247/) 🛰️ ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/05/ch-3-lander-nasa-retroreflector-location.jpg) The location of NASA’s retroreflector on India’s Chandrayaan 3 lander. [Image: ISRO / Xiaoli Sun et al.](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2024/pdf/2259.pdf) - NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter ([LRO](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lro/)) has [successfully bounced laser signals](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2024/pdf/2259.pdf) off of the 5-cm retroreflector mounted on top of the Chandrayaan 3 lander. Formally called the Laser Retroreflector Array (LRA), it’sa modern, miniaturized version of the ones [left on the Moon](https://web.archive.org/web/20220825112914/https://www.nasa.gov/mission%5Fpages/LRO/multimedia/lroimages/lroc-20100413-apollo15-LRRR.html) by Apollo missions, which scientists have been shooting laser pulses at to [better understand](https://ilrs.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/williams%5Flw13.pdf) the gravitational nature of the Earth-Moon system as well as the Moon’s interior. The 20-gram LRA on Chandrayaan 3 validated the utility of such small retroreflectors for range measurements, and as navigation markers for future landers with [LiDAR](https://www.astrobotic.com/ndl-integrated-with-griffin-1/) sensors. Furthermore, the LRA team also noted that “laser ranging to LRAs distributed spatially on the lunar surface will provide measurements to improved understanding of the Moon’s dynamics and internal structure.” The near-polar lunar surface and environment had never been measured in-situ before Chandrayaan 3 arrived. Now our understanding of it has been grounded in measurements just as we prepare to send a [wave of Moon missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-256/). ## More lunar science coverage 🌙 - [Visualizing a new Moon based on scientific discoveries by China’s Chang’e 6 mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-233/) - [An assortment of lunar papers from around the world](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-246/) - [Lunar science galore from Chandrayaan 2](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-220/#lunar-science-galore-from-chandrayaan-2) - [Chandrayaan 4 will bring unique Moon materials—and maybe a giant scientific leap for India](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-241/) --- **Many thanks to* [***The Orbital Index**](https://orbitalindex.com)**,* [***Gurbir Singh**](https://gurbir.co.uk) *and* [***Gordon Roesler**](https://www.linkedin.com/in/gordon-roesler-687a0426) *for sponsoring Moon Monday. If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support Moon Monday 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### Moon Monday #274: Artemis updates and Japanese missions galore URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-274/ Last updated: 2026-05-12T05:48:22.000Z ## Artemis updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/05/artemis-iii-sls-rocket-core-stage-arrived-at-kennedy-space-center.jpg) The bulk of the SLS rocket core stage for the Artemis III mission is seen here arriving at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. I love the scale of the image being so apparent with people and cars around. [Image: NASA / Glenn Benson](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2026/04/28/nasas-artemis-iii-moon-rocket-hardware-arrives-artemis-ii-capsule-returns-to-kennedy/) - Science communicator Hank Green made this [interactive website of photos](https://artemistimeline.com/#a-handprint-on-the-moon) spread across the timeline of the [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii/) lunar mission and [flyby](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-270/). - Among the [technological checkpoints](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-269/#artemis-ii-checkpoints) passed by Artemis II, the NASA-MIT-developed [optical laser communications terminal](https://esc.gsfc.nasa.gov/news/Lasers%5FLight%5Fthe%5FWay%5Ffor%5FArtemis%5FII%5FMoon%5FMission) on the Orion spacecraft was [successfully used](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2026/04/04/artemis-ii-flight-day-4-deep-space-flying-lunar-flyby-prep/) to transmit and receive data and imagery during the mission. Its peak transfer speed was close to 260 Mbps [as designed](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/somd/space-communications-navigation-program/nasa-laser-communications-terminal-delivered-for-artemis-ii-moon-mission/), including at an [off-the-shelf receiver](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/04/you-want-your-moon-landings-in-hdtv-so-does-nasa-heres-how-its-happening/) on Earth. \[Note: The linked report from Eric Berger states the off-the-shelf receiver speed as 260 MBps at one place, which is incorrect since the right value is 260 megabits per second.\] As part of an [optical communications program](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2022/the-future-of-laser-communications), the system demonstrated its aim of sending more data with lower size, power, and weight compared to traditional radio systems. However, the [Artemis IV](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-264/) Moon landing mission is currently not planned to have a laser communications unit. ***Related:** [**Did NASA’s Artemis II mission really do lunar science?*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-271/) - The bulk of the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/reference/space-launch-system/) core stage for the crewed [Artemis III](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-264/) Earth orbit mission [reached Kennedy Space Center](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2026/04/28/nasas-artemis-iii-moon-rocket-hardware-arrives-artemis-ii-capsule-returns-to-kennedy/) on April 27\. There it will await its four engines as well as [missing details](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-272/) of which lander will be ready to be tested for the mission’s goal of checking out baseline docking and life support systems ahead of a crewed lunar landing attempt on [Artemis IV](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-264/). ***Related:** [**With Artemis II done, challenges confront NASA to send astronauts on Artemis III and IV*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-272/) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/05/blue-origin-mk-1-lander-thermovac-test-nasa-johnson.jpg) Blue Origin’s Blue Moon Mark 1 lunar lander is seen here inside one of the thermal-vacuum chambers at NASA’s Johnson Space Center, where it completed space environmental endurance testing. [Image: NASA / Blue Origin](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/blue-origin-moon-lander-completes-testing-at-nasa-vacuum-chamber/) - Blue Origin’s [first Blue Moon ‘Mark 1’ lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-226/), named Endurance, has [passed space environmental testing](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/blue-origin-moon-lander-completes-testing-at-nasa-vacuum-chamber/) at NASA’s Johnson Space Center. The tests were conducted at the center’s [Thermovac Chamber A](https://www.nasa.gov/reference/jsc-thermal-vacuum/), which simulates temperatures and vacuum conditions the lander is expected to face during its flight to the Moon and at the lunar south pole where it intends to land. Blue had aimed to launch Endurance by the end of this year, following a one-year delay, to test and validate key design decisions and landing systems ahead of using them for flights with astronauts on the larger ‘[Mark 2](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/)’ lander. However, the [failure of the third New Glenn rocket](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/04/errant-upper-stage-spoils-blue-origins-success-in-reusing-new-glenn-booster/) last month could delay Mark I’s launch further. Even as Blue and NASA aim to [accelerate New Glenn launches](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/04/blue-origin-certainly-has-ambitious-launch-targets-for-new-glenn/) and [lunar landings](https://www.thespacereview.com/article/5215/1), they are taking a cautious approach since they need Endurance to be successful in order to set things on [the right path for Artemis crewed landings](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-272/). How quickly Blue brings the New Glenn to flight again is something to watch out for. ***Related:** [**How engineers test Moon landers on Earth*](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-moon-landers/) - Relatedly, Blue Origin and NASA have [setup a full-size mock crew cabin](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/esdmd/artemis-campaign-development-division/human-landing-system-program/industry-moon-lander-training-cabin-lands-at-nasa-for-artemis/) of the [Blue Moon Mark 2](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/) lander for ground-based astronaut testing and feedback. NASA says the mockup will evolve to support multi-phase mission simulations ahead of crewed flights. Notably, China has made such a simulator already. In [newly unveiled details](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-267/) on the development of various [elements of China’s crewed Moon missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-237/), a paper [revealed](https://journal26.magtechjournal.com/kjkxjs/CN/10.16708/j.cnki.1000-758X.2026.0025) that Chinese taikonauts have been training for various landing scenarios in a Lanyue lander simulator, which has manual control options to override autonomous touchdown. - To begin working towards the [ambitious new Artemis Moonbase plan](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-268/), NASA [issued a procurement notice](https://sam.gov/workspace/contract/opp/1f27cfaee7f14c6d9a0a730599ef8fd8/view) on April 27 announcing its intent to increase the budget cap of its [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) from $2.6 billion to $4.2 billion so as to send more lunar landers this decade. ***Related:** [**Ignition, not yet liftoff, of NASA’s ambitious Artemis Moonbase plan*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-268/) ## Japan funds public-private lunar missions ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/05/jaops-lunar-rover-concept-drawing.jpg) Concept drawing of Tohoku-university-led lunar polar rover. [Image: Tohoku University](https://www.niche.tohoku.ac.jp/zzcmsw/wp-content/uploads/SSF%5FLunar%5FPioneer%5FProject%5Ffull%5Ftext.pdf) As part of the 10-year, ¥1-trillion “[Space Strategy Fund](https://fund.jaxa.jp/content/uploads/Overview%5Fof%5FThe%5FSpaceStrategy%5FFund.pdf)”, the Japanese government and JAXA have been selecting various companies to fund or co-fund the development of key systems which show promise in advancing the state of Japanese space technology and exploration. Thankfully, lunar missions are one of [the fund’s themes](https://www.japanearthobserver.com/jeo-3-japans-space-strategy-fund/), continuing [Japan’s interest in the Moon](https://jatan.space/japan-moon-articles/). Here are highlights of major lunar exploration related selections part of the fund. - ispace Japan [was selected](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7317) to [develop, launch, and operate a lunar orbiter](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=8038) which will use a terahertz wave sensor system to locate and map [water ice deposits](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s poles. Data from this orbiter will be analyzed in tandem with direct surface and subsurface measurements made by the upcoming joint Indo-Japanese [LUPEX south polar mission](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/). - ispace Japan has also been [tentatively selected](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=8438) to demonstrate a precision landing on the Moon’s south pole later this decade with aid from navigation and communications ([navcom](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-185/)) relay satellites in lunar orbit. This is interesting; JAXA has [already achieved a precision robotic landing](https://jatan.space/precision-moon-landings-and-the-future/) with the SLIM mission in 2024 without needing any external spacecraft. The move therefore denotes other considerations such as cost and abstracting out the sophisticated touchdown capability to a persistent infrastructure layer at the Moon so every lander can utilize it. - Speaking of [navcom](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-185/) satellites, ArkEdge was [selected to continue building](https://insidegnss.com/arkedge-space-selected-by-jaxa-to-lead-lunar-navigation-system-development/) the core technologies of a lunar navcom constellation for future national and commercial use. - A [consortium](https://www.niche.tohoku.ac.jp/zzcmsw/wp-content/uploads/SSF%5FLunar%5FPioneer%5FProject%5Ffull%5Ftext.pdf) led by Tohoku university was selected to [develop a lunar rover](https://www.jaops.com/events/space-strategy-fund-grant-lunar-pioneer-project) which will fire an electron beam to melt and solidify lunar soil, the first step ahead of [constructing lunar infrastructure](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-244/) from local materials in the future. ***Related:** [**Articles on Japan’s Moon missions*](https://jatan.space/japan-moon-articles/) ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/05/advanced-space-oracle-p-spacecraft-illustration.jpeg) Illustration of the Oracle-P spacecraft tracking objects in cislunar space. [Image: Advanced Space](https://advancedspace.com/oracle/) - Advanced Space has [passed the Preliminary Design Review (PDR) phase](https://advancedspace.com/afrl-cislunar-mission-progresses-through-key-milestones/) for the development of the Oracle-P lunar satellite. Funded by the US Air Force, the mission’s goal is to track other spacecraft and objects in cislunar space. - NASA has [awarded a $6.9 million contract](https://www.nasa.gov/technology/nasa-fosters-development-of-lunar-resource-seeking-technologies/) to Interlune to develop a lunar payload which collects lunar soil samples, sorts its particles by size, extracts [solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) implanted volatile gases from it, and measures their quantities. This work will leverage the [MSOLO mass spectrometer](https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20230007808) design which NASA had developed and sent to the Moon on [Intuitive Machines’ second lunar flight](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-216/#tipped-intuitive-mooncraft-dies-with-none-of-the-net-130-million-worth-of-payloads-deployed) last year. MSOLO [will fly again](https://doi.org/10.3847/PSJ/ae0a4e) on the [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) in late [2027](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-243/). - US-based Lunar Outpost, which builds lunar rovers, has [raised $30 million](https://www.lunaroutpost.com/post/lunar-outpost-secures-30m-series-b-to-build-the-industrial-foundation-of-the-space-frontier-and-eco) in Series B funding with an eye towards accelerating missions to the Moon. - With the [joining of Ireland](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/nasa-welcomes-ireland-as-newest-artemis-accords-signatory/) this month, all 23 ESA member states have now signed the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords) for cooperative lunar exploration. The total number of Accords signatories now stands at [67](https://www.nasa.gov/organizations/oiir/artemis-accords/nasa-welcomes-paraguay-as-67th-artemis-accords-signatory/). However, as [Gateway’s cancellation](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-268/) demonstrated most recently, the Accords has little bearing on preserving—much less flourishing—international partnerships in the Artemis program. - If you’re a young space scientist, engineer, or student excited about the future of lunar exploration, you should consider joining [NextGen](https://www.nextgenlunar.space), a community which provides free resources, guidance, and networking opportunities for working in the lunar sphere. --- **Many thanks to* [***Astrolab**](https://astrolab.space/) *and* [***Joseph Biernat**](https://www.linkedin.com/in/joseph-j-biernat-24858425) *for sponsoring Moon Monday. If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support Moon Monday 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### Articles on Venus, the ignored URL: https://jatan.space/venus-articles/ Last updated: 2026-07-23T13:37:44.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/05/venus-visible-radar.jpg) ****Left:** Venus as it would approximately look to the human eye, imaged by NASA’s Mariner 10 spacecraft ([full globe view](https://www.planetary.org/multimedia/space-images/venus/global-view-of-venus-from.html)), ****Right:** Radar image (false-color) of Venus’ surface taken by NASA’s Magellan orbiter ([full globe view](https://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA00104)) - [**Why explore Venus**](https://jatan.space/why-explore-venus/) - [VERITAS, NASA’s Venus mapper](https://jatan.space/nasa-veritas-mission-to-venus/) - [EnVision, Europe’s mission to Venus](https://jatan.space/esa-envision-mission-to-venus/) - [ISRO’s plan to study Venus in unprecedented detail alongside NASA and ESA](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-20/) --- **Related:** [*Slightly different articles on Mars and missions to it*](https://jatan.space/mars-articles/) --- Like my efforts to provide free resources for space communities worldwide? Kindly sponsor my work to support independent writing: [Support my writing 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### Articles on moons other than our Moon URL: https://jatan.space/moons-other-than-our-moon-articles/ Last updated: 2026-05-07T08:11:36.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/05/jupiter-galilean-moons-family-portrait.jpg) A composite of images of Jupiter and its four largest moons: Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto. Europa is about the same size as our Moon whereas Ganymede is bigger than the planet Mercury. [Image: ESA](https://sci.esa.int/web/juice/-/58894-jupiter-s-largest-moons) - [**Recipes to make moons**](https://jatan.space/how-moons-form/) - [Weirdest types of moons in the Solar System](https://jatan.space/weirdest-types-of-moons-in-the-solar-system/) - [**When will we explore Saturn’s moon Enceladus to find alien life?**](https://jatan.space/when-will-we-explore-enceladus-to-find-life/) - [Water plumes from Saturn’s icy moon may show promising signs of life](https://jatan.space/saturn-moon-enceladus-habitable/) - [**Is life possible on rogue planets and moons?**](https://jatan.space/is-life-possible-on-rogue-planets/) - **Missions:** - [Japan wants to sample Mars’ moon Phobos with its MMX mission](https://jatan.space/japan-mmx-mars-moons-sample-return/) - [Europe launched the JUICE spacecraft to explore Jupiter’s icy moons in unprecedented detail](https://jatan.space/esa-juice-mission-to-jupiter-moons/) - [Why explore Saturn (and its moons)](https://jatan.space/why-explore-saturn/) - [Why explore Neptune (and its moons)](https://jatan.space/why-explore-neptune/) - [How SpaceX’s Falcon Heavy rocket could enable fantastic science in the outer Solar System](https://jatan.space/how-spacexs-falcon-heavy-could-enable-fantastic-science-in-the-outer-solar-system-a051d65a2b0a/) --- **Related:** [*Articles on our search for alien life*](https://jatan.space/search-for-life/) --- Like my efforts to provide free resources for space communities worldwide? Kindly sponsor my work to support independent writing: [Support my writing 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### India’s Chandrayaan 4 lunar sampling mission cross-pollinates science, rockets, governance, and human spaceflight URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-273/ Last updated: 2026-06-12T17:48:36.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/04/chandrayaan-4-spacecraft-stacks-two-lvm3-rockets.jpg) Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) | Individual images of the Launch Vehicle Mark III (LVM3) rocket, the two Chandrayaan 4 spacecraft stacks, and the Moon’s south pole: [ISRO](https://www.lpsc.gov.in/newProjects.html) / [NASA / GSFC / Timothy McClanahan / LOLA](https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/moon/nasas-lro-lunar-ice-deposits-are-widespread/) --- *Announcement before we begin: I’m excited to welcome* [***Catalyx Space***](https://www.catalyx.space) *as a returning sponsor of my* [*independent space writing*](https://jatan.space/about)*!* 🌗 [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/05/catalyx-space-logo-transparent-bg.png)](https://www.catalyx.space) *Having* [*raised $5.4 million*](https://www.catalyx.space/funding) *in seed funding, Catalyx is building fully integrated autonomous labs and re-entry capsules for microgravity and in-space manufacturing studies. The US-Indian company is* [*hiring for multiple roles*](https://www.catalyx.space/careers)*.* 🚀 --- India’s [Chandrayaan 4](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-241/) mission, projected to launch in 2028 by ISRO, aims to fetch soil and rock samples from the Moon’s south pole for scientific and technological studies. If successful around that timeframe, it would be the world’s first mission to bring valuable lunar polar samples, where global interest is converging due to its potential for [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other [resources](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-153/). Chandrayaan 4 would not just be a scientific leap for India but also a big step forward for the country’s launch capability, space governance influence, and human spaceflight preparations. People tend to look at planetary exploration missions in isolation. Some see it as pure, some a waste of money for developing nations like India, and some as unnecessary distractions against the impetus of national and strategic missions. The reality is planetary missions are neither of those things. From the world’s first set of interplanetary missions by the Soviet Union and the US requiring the development of heavy-lift launch vehicles to India’s PSLV rocket being [modified to its limits](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar%5FSatellite%5FLaunch%5FVehicle#PSLV-XL) to be able to launch [Chandrayaan 1](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/), planetary missions have also catalyzed or even forced leaps in space technology. And because space technology is inherently multi-use, the top tier space powers have always understood planetary missions to be a unique contributor. In the 21st century, China is perhaps the country that has best understood this dynamic. When its [Long March 5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long%5FMarch%5F5) heavy-lift rocket debuted over 10 years ago, the [majority of its launches](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long%5FMarch%5F5#List%5Fof%5Flaunches) involved planetary missions and human spaceflight ones as planned, including the [Chang’e 5](https://jatan.space/change-5-landing-site/) sample return mission, the [Tianwen-1](https://www.eoportal.org/satellite-missions/tianwen-1) Mars mission, and the [massive modules](https://www.eoportal.org/satellite-missions/tiangong-space-station#technicalspecifications) of China’s crewed [Tiangong space station](https://www.eoportal.org/satellite-missions/tiangong-space-station). Only two other Long March 5 launches involved China’s Shijian satellites of direct strategic importance. Years later, while ambitious planetary missions like the successful [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-233/) and the upcoming [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-248/) continue to launch on the Long March 5, the rocket is now primarily positioned for national infrastructure use with launches of China’s satellite internet constellation [Guowang](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/chinas-mega-constellations-mega-article#§guowang). Without those initial set of planetary and human spaceflight missions, the Long March 5 would not have been operational at the scale and cadence it is now. India’s Chandrayaan 4 lunar sample return mission has many parallels and opportunities to what China did with Chang’e 5 as its first such mission in 2020. ## Parallels between Chang’e 5 and Chandrayaan 4 ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/05/chang-e-5-lander-and-sample.jpg) ****Top:** A panorama of the Moon’s surface shot by the Chang’e 5 lander, which shows its robotic sampling arm and marks made in lunar soil by its scoop; ****Bottom:** A close look at a Chang’e 5 lunar sample, labelled CE5C0000YJYX03501GP. Images: [CLEP](https://x.com/SegerYu/status/1798688466026594539) / [CNSA](https://moon.bao.ac.cn/moonSampleMode/infoDetail.html?sampleId=CE5C0000YJYX03501GP) | Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) The progress China made because of Chang’e 5 specifically can be grouped in four distinct ways: - *Science:* As only the third nation to bring lunar samples, Chang’e 5 brought scientific prestige & value for China. Published studies of Chang’e 5 samples have [changed our understanding](https://doi.org/10.11728/cjss2024.04.2024-yg10) of the Moon’s [evolution](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). Recognizing the unique geological value of the Chang’e 5 samples, China [also shared samples internationally](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-223/), which has seen interest from universities worldwide and improved China’s global reputation in science. - *Lunar governance:* Having demonstrated that China can fetch samples from the Moon, a fact reinforced in 2024 with [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-233/), the country now has a potent voice on the space resources table. Paired with its sharing of samples and its upcoming lunar polar missions like [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-248/) and [Chang’e 8](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/#prepare-for-crew-and-double-down-with-mission-eight), China can substantially shape the legal and formal norms and behaviors expected of future missions, which will converge and operate at the lunar south pole as they vie for finite resources. - *Rockets:* The mission helped catalyze the Long March 5’s existence and its operationalization, lending China a reliable heavy-lift rocket that has been serving the country’s multiple needs and desires in space. - *Human spaceflight:* Chang’e 5 involved a [complex orchestration](https://www.eoportal.org/satellite-missions/chang-e-5#return-and-continuation) of four large spacecraft modules, including unprecedented remote undocking & docking of modules around the Moon. The series of steps and events involved allowed China to practice the same ahead of executing [crewed Moon missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-237/), which will utilize a scaled up version of the same baseline architecture. With Chandrayaan 4 aiming to bring two kilograms of [scooped plus drilled](https://www.isro.gov.in/UnionCabinetApprovesIndiasMission.html) lunar polar samples, India stands on the precipice of gaining exactly the same kinds of international leverage and scientific & technological capabilities. However, ensuring the same depends on the nature and timing of execution, where challenges confront India as discussed below. ## Chandrayaan 4’s unique scientific value and role in lunar governance ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/05/lunar-south-pole-illumination-map-lro-perspective-view-labeled.jpg) Aggregated solar illumination map of the Moon’s south pole made from stacked observations by NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, shown in perspective view. The brightest spots are topographic highs that are maximally sunlit whereas the pitch black areas are [permanently shadowed](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/)—within which water ice deposits are thought to exist. [Image: NASA](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/271) NASA’s Apollo missions helped scientists confirm that our celestial companion [had a fiery origin](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/) tied to Earth. On the other hand, its contemporary Soviet Luna missions were the [world’s first robotic sample return missions](https://airandspace.si.edu/stories/editorial/revisiting-soviet-lunar-sample-return-missions), establishing the modern approach that fetching planetary material to Earth generates scientific results for decades. Samples fetched by China’s Chang’e 5 confirmed that the Moon was [volcanically active and thermally complex](https://doi.org/10.11728/cjss2024.04.2024-yg10) geologically recently. And Chang’e 6 [transformed our understanding of how our Moon evolved](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-233/) thanks to the first ever samples from the [mysterious lunar farside](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). As I wrote in the article ‘[Why explore our Moon](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/)’, for us to continue piecing together the complex and nuanced origin and evolution of the Earth-Moon system, we need to continue fetching distinct geological material so that our world’s lunar samples represent more of the Moon—a trend started by Chang’e missions. We currently don’t have any samples from the lunar poles, including potential water ice mixed with regolith in there. It’s important to understand this [water’s sources](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/#the-search-for-lunar-water-deepens), [its abundance](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-196/), and how it is related or unrelated to [Earth’s water](https://www.planetary.org/articles/how-did-earth-get-its-water). Said knowledge is equally crucial in helping us plan sustained lunar exploration and build future [Moonbases](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/), including through sample-derived lunar soil simulants necessary for high-fidelity hardware & rover testing. When Chandrayaan 4 brings unique lunar polar samples to Earth, it will help humanity make its first tactile advances into these fundamental open questions about our Moon, Earth, Solar System, and future in space. For a nation that began planetary exploration only this century with [Chandrayaan 1](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/), a sample return mission is a giant leap in ambition. To ensure tapping into its full scientific potential though, preparations will be needed to have the samples be studied as widely as possible nationally and internationally. ISRO has started off with [national level preparations](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-241/#prepping-for-chandrayaan-4-science), including meets of a few dozen scientists, brief workshops for students, and planning of a sample curation facility. But these are only starting points. Indian scientists haven’t been applying to study Chang’e 5 samples during international proposal rounds. If Indian researchers and mission planners went through the logistical process of proposing Chang’e sample studies and then getting & storing them, it would provide India with a good programmatic sense of things it would also need to do to share Chandrayaan 4 samples when its time comes. Even if indirect, this experience would still span a good sense of [China’s storage facilities](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-201/), the initial characterization and cataloging of samples, its transport systems, and so on. Sure, India could also pick up such things from how NASA manages Apollo samples but that system is utterly expensive and distinct, having been forged during a different era of budgetary freedom during the Cold War. Russia’s Luna sample facilities are also not as relevant for today’s era while asteroid samples lack the same scale and applicability. In contrast, the scale and scope of China’s [lunar sample facilities](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-201/) are more in reach for India to replicate while being modern. Creating a similar system is non-optional if India wishes to maximize the scientific output of Chandrayaan 4\. And yet even in the [second round of international proposals](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465652/n6465653/c10742455/content.html) for Chang’e 5 sample studies opened up last year, no Indian application was sent in from any institution, ISRO or otherwise. Neither were any Indian national scientists present at the [International Lunar Sample Research Symposium](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-252/) hosted by China at the University of Hong Kong last November. Doing any or both of these things could’ve been an enabler for even more valuable scientific exchanges with the Chinese, such as a literal sample exchange, a mechanism known to [work very well in the past](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/leag2021/pdf/5045.pdf) and [present](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3218138/chinas-lunar-sample-gifts-france-russia-have-scientists-over-moon) worldwide, like the recent [asteroid sample swap](https://cosmos.isas.jaxa.jp/comparing-pieces-of-our-past-grains-from-asteroid-bennu-arrive-from-nasa/) between the US and Japan. With Chandrayaan 4 lunar samples in hand, ISRO should not only open up the samples and its findings for worldwide access, it should also initiate a sample exchange program with China as well as the US, swapping Chang’e and Artemis samples respectively for Chandrayaan 4 materials. With such a program, all three nations will benefit in terms of their scientific outputs, geopolitical gains, and international relations. A win-win for all, and for humanity. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/05/ilsrs-2025-talk-1.jpeg) Professor Fuyuan Wu at the [International Lunar Sample Research Symposium](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-252/) speaking about how Chang’e 6 samples helped determine the age of the Moon’s massive South Pole-Aitken basin. Image: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) / [ILSRS](https://www.bagevent.com/event/9078832) Chandrayaan 4 will lend India a seat at the space resources table by its possession of unique lunar polar samples of global interest. But failing to even aim to achieve Chandrayaan 4’s peak scientific potential as discussed above would ironically also reduce India’s ability to leverage that hard-earned seat meant to improve lunar governance. The ground truth of the science and associated technical data from Chandrayaan 4—and from its complementary Indo-Japanese surface mission [Chandrayaan 5](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/)—will be valuable to feed into the planning and execution of future robotic and crewed missions exploring the lunar poles. For middle space powers like India and Japan, using their capabilities and partnerships to play targeted swing roles and intentionally shape space governance norms is the best global impact they can make. India needs to not only gain this leverage but ensure that it is exercised in ways that maximally meets its space exploration goals while producing and strengthening positively influential relationships with international partners. What aggravates the need to act aptly on gaining Chandrayaan 4’s peak scientific and diplomatic benefits is that the window to do so is closing swiftly while launch vehicle delays mount as we see below. ## Chandrayaan 4’s launch situation, relevance to human spaceflight, and the ticking timer ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/05/lvm3-shar-launchpad-1.jpg) The LVM3, India’s most powerful rocket to date, mounted on its launchpad in Sriharikota. Image: ISRO The Chandrayaan 4 mission consists of five spacecraft modules: - the lander (descender module) - the propulsion module - the ascender module - the sample transfer module - and the Earth reentry capsule module. ISRO plans to launch these modules in two stacks, each currently weighing about [4600-4800 kilograms](https://old.reddit.com/r/ISRO/comments/1kgfu6x/dos%5Fpress%5Fconference%5Ffew%5Fextra%5Fdetails%5Fon%5Fspadex/). However, each stack’s mass still lies beyond the reach of India’s current most powerful rocket, the [Launch Vehicle Mark III](https://www.isro.gov.in/GSLVmk3%5FCON.html) (LVM3)—the same vehicle which [launched](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) Chandrayaan 3\. To enable the launch of Chandrayaan 4, ISRO plans to [upgrade LVM3’s core stage](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-33/#a-shortfall-of-performance-and-timing) with the SE-2000 [semi-cryogenic kerolox engine](https://www.isro.gov.in/ISRO%5Fachieves%5Fbreakthrough%5Fin%5FSemicryo%5Fengine%5Fdevelopment%5FMar%5F2025%5FFinal.html). This would increase LVM3’s [lift capacity to GTO orbit](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-18/#increasing-mass-to-orbit-and-a-spaceplane) from about 4400 kilograms to almost 5000, allowing an LVM3 each to launch a Chandrayaan 4 stack to such an orbit while also leaving some margin for mass changes during development. For the mission, each spacecraft stack needs to be launched roughly within a month of each other to ensure correct Earth-Sun-Moon geometries needed to execute the mission. Because of the way India’s launch infrastructure is built, the LVM3 [can only launch from the Second Launch Pad](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-35/) (SLP) at Sriharikota. While ISRO demonstrated a pad and launch turnaround time of [about 50 days](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%5Fof%5FLVM3%5Flaunches#Launch%5Fhistory) last year, that was with one of the LVM3s being prebuilt earlier in the year expecting an earlier launch. With Chandrayaan 4, the launch turnaround time will have to be about 30 days. This swift cadence will also be necessary for when ISRO launches [human spaceflight missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/#upcoming-gaganyaan-missions) later this decade, wherein it will have to maintain an LVM3 vehicle on emergency standby. Just late last year, China [successfully demonstrated such an emergency launch](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/emergency-response-shenzhou-22-successfully) to ensure astronaut safety at its space station, a grateful verification of working redundancy measures. Moreover for India, even ISRO’s [plans for eventual crewed Moon missions](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-33/#the-next-decade-and-nglv) relies on a scaled up version of the docking-based architecture that Chandrayaan 4 will employ. The mission experience is thus important for long-term human spaceflight as well when India’s [Chandrayaan and Gaganyaan programs converge](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/). Unfortunately, LVM3’s semi-cryogenic upgrade has been [delayed for a decade](https://web.archive.org/web/20150306173135/http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/thiruvananthapuram/Semi-cryogenic-Engine-ISRO-Charting-a-Revised-Plan/2015/03/02/article2693939.ece) already at this point. The existing LVM3’s first launch as a complete vehicle in 2017 was itself years late. Since then, the LVM3 has lifted off of Earth only [seven times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%5Fof%5FLVM3%5Flaunches#Statistics). Its low production capacity and launch readiness—though acknowledged and [stated to be increased](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-16/#preparing-for-human-spaceflight)—previously [delayed Chandrayaan 3’s launch](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-100/#chandrayaan-3-slowed-down-by-one-web-of-perplexing-priorities) as well as postponed India’s upcoming, scientifically important [Venus orbiter mission](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-20/) by five years. With indigenous efforts to launch a semi-cryogenic LVM3 stalling despite ISRO’s claims of making “[breakthroughs](https://www.isro.gov.in/ISRO%5Fachieves%5Fbreakthrough%5Fin%5FSemicryo%5Fengine%5Fdevelopment%5FMar%5F2025%5FFinal.html)”, India is now looking to [procure semi-cryogenic](https://sansad.in/getFile/rsnew/Committee%5Fsite/Committee%5FFile/ReportFile/19/217/410%5F2026%5F3%5F12.pdf?source=rajyasabha) engines from Russia for initial missions. However, the expected manifestation timeline for the same looks to be 2029, which would delay Chandrayaan 4 by at least a year. If it turns out the semi-cryogenic LVM3 isn’t ready for Chandrayaan 4 at all, the mission will have to be reworked to reduce mass across the board enough such that the existing LVM3 can launch the mission. This would substantially reduce both the quantity and quality of sampled lunar material, in turn also reducing the expected scientific returns and associated diplomatic leverage. Moreover, the majority of India’s upcoming [space station](https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2055978®=48&lang=2) modules also rely on the semi-cryogenic LVM3 to be available, especially because an operational heavier sovereign rocket is [not planned until the 2030s](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-33/#the-next-decade-and-nglv). While the [initial two modules](https://old.reddit.com/r/ISRO/comments/1eug4sq/talk%5Fby%5Fdr%5Fv%5Fnarayanan%5Fdirector%5Flpsc%5Fat%5Fbits/) might go on regular LVM3, the masses are too close to maximum capacity to keep sufficient redundancy in rocket performance. As such, Chandrayaan 4’s launch delay is simultaneously a delay in initiating the country’s space station as well as lofting any other such mass-heavy mission. Much like how Chang’e 5 launching on a Long March 5 was the prelude to influential capabilities and missions to come from China, realizing Chandrayaan 4, and so in time, would be that signifier for India we can’t afford to lapse on. A delay of more than a couple of years in launching Chandrayaan 4 would mean both the US and China can be in a position to plan and execute a robotic lunar polar sample return mission faster themselves. \[Artemis and China’s crewed missions will [target non-polar landing sites](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-267/) initially for safety and [relative simplicity](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-268/).\] The moment any of them bring lunar polar samples before Chandrayaan 4, India would lose a substantial chunk of the scientific, technical, and diplomatic value & leverage it could have had. The fourth Chandrayaan mission is also the one with quadruple incentives. But the launch window to leverage the whole quadrant has come with a ticking timer. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/05/lvm3-chandrayaan-3-launch-clouded-and-emerging-dheeraj-k.jpeg) The LVM3 captured emerging out of the clouds during its launch of Chandrayaan 3\. [Images: Dheeraj Khandelwal](https://www.dheerajkhandelwal.com/chandrayaan) ## This was part 4 of India’s space launch crisis This article is part 4 of my ongoing series on India’s launch vehicle crisis. A space program can only move as swiftly as its orbital rockets, and India right now is amid a grinding halt. As such, I’m focusing my [Indian Space Progress](https://jatan.space/tag/indian-space/) blog & newsletter on fully exploring this situation before resuming coverage of national space activities at large. - *Part 1* of the article series [reviewed the state of India’s orbital launch vehicles](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-33/), revealing a bleak picture of ambitious goals sliding to the right—in stark contrast to the incessant chest thumping about efficiency. - *Part 2* [analyzed the intricacies of ISRO’s launchpad infrastructure](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-35/), showing how every PSLV rocket failure cascades effects to all Indian rockets in direct or indirect ways. - *Part 3* assessed and concluded that [India’s rockets will not be able to meet its civil space and strategic launch manifest](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-37/) even at peak performance. - *Part 4*, which is this article, shows how Chandrayaan 4 is deeply tied to India’s launch vehicle and human spaceflight programs, and how the specific rocket it needs is also the catalyst required to better manage India’s launch crisis. --- **Many thanks to* [***Takshashila Institution**](https://takshashila.org.in)**,* [***Catalyx Space**](https://catalyx.space/)**,* [***PierSight**](https://piersight.space) *and* [***Gurbir Singh**](https://gurbir.co.uk) *for sponsoring Indian Space Progress. If you too appreciate my efforts to capture nuanced trajectories of India in space, provided to space communities worldwide for free and without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support my writing 🚀 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### Articles on future Chandrayaan missions URL: https://jatan.space/india-future-chandrayaan-articles/ Last updated: 2026-05-04T16:25:20.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/05/chandrayaan-4-spacecraft-stacks-two-lvm3-rockets.jpg) Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) | Individual images of the LVM3 rocket, the two Chandrayaan 4 spacecraft stacks, and the Moon’s south pole: [ISRO](https://www.lpsc.gov.in/newProjects.html) / [NASA / GSFC / Timothy McClanahan / LOLA](https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/moon/nasas-lro-lunar-ice-deposits-are-widespread/) - [**Chandrayaan 4 will bring unique Moon materials—and maybe a giant scientific leap for India**](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-241/) - [The case for India and China to exchange lunar samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-241/#the-case-for-india-to-study-and-exchange-chang%E2%80%99e-lunar-samples) - [Why India needs to launch Chandrayaan 4 in time to ensure maximum national and international benefits](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-273/) - [Chandrayaan 5 LUPEX mission will drill for water on the Moon and aid Artemis](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/) - [ISRO’s Chandrayaan and Gaganyaan programs will converge at Luna](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/) - [ISRO revealed an NGLV-based architecture for eventual crewed Moon missions](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-33/#the-next-decade-and-nglv) --- **Related:** - [Articles: From a crashing Chandrayaan 2 to an upright Chandrayaan 3 lander on the Moon](https://jatan.space/india-from-chandrayaan-2-to-3-articles/) - [Articles: Science from Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/india-chandrayaan-3-science-articles/) --- Like my efforts to provide free resources for space communities worldwide? Kindly sponsor my work to support independent writing: [Support my writing 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### Articles: Science from Chandrayaan 3 URL: https://jatan.space/india-chandrayaan-3-science-articles/ Last updated: 2026-06-08T09:52:32.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/05/ch3-rover-apxs-measurements-of-lunar-crust.jpg) ****Top left:** The Chandrayaan 3 rover rolling out of the lander’s ramp during pre-launch testing; ****Bottom left:** The co-added spectrum from all 23 lunar surface soil and rock measurements by the rover’s X-ray spectrometer; ****Right:** An artist’s concept of our Moon shortly after its formation, with a magma ocean and a newly forming rocky crust. Images: [ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan3%5Fcurtainraiser%5Fvideo.html) / [Santosh Vadawale, et al.](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07870-7.epdf?sharing%5Ftoken=4ZQFD5zK9GT9acs31FeVNNRgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0MR1M6jsWV0QR20SmA7k7Hvrkyl3GgMk99HFFb15nD09447WpwTLcpEaBgvj9C4YhThW7GJgQ7WgMAckZYS0fZ6FTf8RdEwv0eX%5FN4HvzLxBwhFq2fqKCzi0YsrWI%5FcfAQ%3D) / [NASA Goddard](https://www.dlr.de/content/en/articles/news/2020/03/20200710%5Fa-slightly-younger-moon.html) - [**An overview of all Chandrayaan 3 science results**](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-275/) - [How Chandrayaan 3 contributed insights on our Moon’s origin and evolution](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-190/) - [Results from Chandrayaan 3 thermal experiment benefit future missions eyeing lunar water](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-219/) - [Chandrayaan 3 rover may (or may not) have stumbled upon the Moon’s mantle material](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-224/) - [Chandrayaan 3 orbiter observed Earth like an exoplanet](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-22/#observing-earth-as-an-exoplanet) --- **Related:** - [Articles on Chandrayaan 2, the orbiter to remember](https://jatan.space/india-chandrayaan-2-orbiter-articles/) - [Articles: From a crashing Chandrayaan 2 to an upright Chandrayaan 3 lander on the Moon](https://jatan.space/india-from-chandrayaan-2-to-3-articles/) --- Like my efforts to provide free resources for space communities worldwide? Kindly sponsor my work to support independent writing: [Support my writing 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### Articles: From a crashing Chandrayaan 2 to an upright Chandrayaan 3 on the Moon URL: https://jatan.space/india-from-chandrayaan-2-to-3-articles/ Last updated: 2026-06-08T09:54:34.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/04/chandrayaan-2-crash-and-chandrayaan-3-moon-landing.jpeg) ****Left:** An artist’s depiction of the Chandrayaan 2 lander in lunar descent: ****Left inset:** The Chandrayaan 2 crash site on the Moon; ****Right:** The Chandrayaan 3 lander on the Moon imaged by the mission’s rover Pragyan. Images: [ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/chandrayaan3%5Fgallery.html) / [NASA LRO](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/1131) - [**On Chandrayaan 2’s landing attempt failure**](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-landing-failure-and-the-road-ahead/) - [Overview of Chandrayaan 2, India’s first Moon landing attempt](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-2-moon-landing-mission/) - [Watching Chandrayaan 2 launch](https://jatan.space/i-saw-a-rocket-launch/) - [Explainer: Why did it take so long to find the Chandrayaan 2 lander?](https://jatan.space/finding-the-chandrayaan-2-lander/) - [Chandrayaan 2, the orbiter to remember](https://jatan.space/india-chandrayaan-2-orbiter-articles/) - [**India aims for the Moon again with launch of Chandrayaan 3**](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) - [Feeling the Chandrayaan 3 launch](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-06/#feeling-the-chandrayaan-3-launch) - [Russia’s Luna 25 was not racing against Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-140/) - [**How Chandrayaan 3 made its historic touchdown on our Moon**](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) - [Chandrayaan 3 was not a south polar landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-142/) - [Chandrayaan 3 hopped on the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-143/) - [Over 200 million Indian school students to learn about Chandrayaan 3, mixed with mythology](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-10/) - [The engineer who played a key role in Chandrayaan 3’s triumphant touchdown](https://jatan.space/kalpana-kalahasti-chandrayaan-3-nature/) - [India signs the US-led Artemis Accords](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-133/) - [On (not) celebrating Chandrayaan 3’s Moon landing](https://jatan.space/on-celebrating-moon-landings/) --- Like my efforts to provide free resources for space communities worldwide? Kindly sponsor my work to support independent writing: [Support my writing 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### Poem: Don’t screw up the Moon URL: https://jatan.space/dont-screw-up-the-moon/ Last updated: 2026-05-04T13:31:07.000Z *Let’s explore* *explore our Moon* *and its archival boon* *of Earth’s midnight and afternoon* *Let’s* [*return*](https://jatan.space/back-to-the-moon/) *return to the gray blemishes* *for its* [*scientific promises*](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) *and its technological wishes* *Let’s also preserve* *preserve Luna’s natural dents* *its phases and cultural crescents* *and the* [*serene sights*](https://jatan.space/lunasights/) *Selene presents* *Let’s not screw up* *not screw up our cosmic Moon* *nor blow up its geologic tune* *by letting exploitation balloon* *It’s always too soon* *too soon to have no Lune* *in our star-wiped skies of Dune* *dawning past afternoon.* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/04/artemis-ii-lunar-flyby-moon-earth-orion-1.jpg) Our Moon and Earth captured by the Artemis II Orion spacecraft. [Image: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/gallery/lunar-flyby/) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/04/dont-screw-up-the-moon-painting.jpeg) I picked up a paint brush after two decades and painted this. --- **Notes:** This poem is written as part of the [Global Poetry Writing Month](https://www.napowrimo.net/about/). It’s shared to emphasize that scientific and technological exploration of our Moon does not have to involve its exploitation as well, the latter a common theme in human history. The Moon’s lasting value to Earth and humanity lies beyond short term economic gains. --- *If you liked this space poetry of mine, read* [***Seven uni-verses***](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/)*, my globally published poetry pamphlet.* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/share-seven-universes-poetry-qr-3.jpeg) #### Seven uni-verses (booklet) By [****Jatan Mehta**](https://jatan.space/about). Poetry on all that space evokes. [About & Read →](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/) ### With Artemis II done, challenges confront NASA to send astronauts on Artemis III and IV | Moon Monday #272 URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-272/ Last updated: 2026-04-27T13:23:17.000Z Last week I argued how [NASA’s Artemis II mission wasn’t a “science” mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-271/) even if its communications and majority media coverage have been getting people worldwide to believe so. Since then, [my inbox](https://jatan.space/connect/) has been flowing with emails from planetary scientists in support, who variably noted also its broader value in having certain distinctions and nuances when it comes to talking about space exploration and its terms. It’s so good to know that so many of my readers care about this issue. This is a good time to remind my dear readers that my [Moon Monday](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) blog+newsletter as well as [my space writing](https://jatan.space/about) at large is absolutely free to access by everyone. I display zero ads, and neither show signup walls nor paywalls. My work is purely supported by [readers and organizations](https://jatan.space/support), and so if you find value in my writing and my curated community resources on global lunar exploration, kindly sponsor my independent writing and journalism to keep it going: [Support Moon Monday 🌙](https://jatan.space/support) ## Challenges ahead for crewed Artemis Moon missions ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/04/orion-artemis-ii-moon-solar-eclipse.jpg) The Moon backlit by the Sun during a solar eclipse on April 6, 2026, photographed by one of the cameras at the tips of the Artemis II Orion spacecraft’s solar arrays. [Image: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/gallery/lunar-flyby/) - While the crewed [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii/) lunar [flyby](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-270/) mission’s [technical performance](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-269/#artemis-ii-checkpoints) was largely smooth, the [Orion](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) spacecraft’s [Europe-provided service module](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Orion/European%5FService%5FModule) was launched with an [internal leak of helium gas](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/04/nasa-homes-in-on-likely-redesign-to-fix-orion-spacecrafts-leaky-valves/), The gas is used to pressurize the module’s oxidizer tanks for propulsion. NASA [launched](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-269/) Artemis II anyway because the mission engineers characterized the leak as minor. The leak grew by 10 times by the time the astronauts were swinging around the Moon. NASA says this wasn’t a concern for the basic propulsion needs of Artemis II but added that the affected system will need to be re-reviewed and redesigned for the more demanding lunar orbit and [landing missions in the future](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-264/). This issue thus adds another constraint for the US to land humans on the Moon this decade, other than [delays with its crewed landing systems](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-268/) and the [spacesuit](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-198/) (more on that below). - NASA is targeting an H2 2027 launch for the next mission, [Artemis III](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-264/), which will see at least one prototype lunar lander approach close to Orion in Earth orbit for potential docking. While there will be no Moon landing for Artemis III, the mission will still have its challenges, given the [lack of readiness](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-268/) of crewed landers being made [by SpaceX](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) and [Blue Origin](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/). Eric Berger has [reported](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/04/the-artemis-ii-mission-has-ended-where-does-nasa-go-from-here/) on a key challenge in realizing Artemis III: > SpaceX and Blue Origin must go through NASA’s extensive “human rating” process for their Starship and Blue Moon vehicles, respectively, before they can approach and dock with Orion. Also, it is non-trivial for SpaceX and Blue Origin to integrate with Orion, which has fairly strict limits for thermal management and other issues. Even ensuring roughly equivalent cabin pressures between two vehicles is a significant task. Completing all of this within the next 12 to 18 months will be a difficult hill to climb. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/04/revised-artemis-ii-and-iii-infographic-2026.jpg) Illustration showing the Artemis II and III missions, following in the footsteps of Apollo 8 and 9\. [Image: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2026/02/27/nasa-adds-mission-to-artemis-lunar-program-updates-architecture/) - In [other preparations](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/nasa-on-track-for-future-missions-with-initial-artemis-ii-assessments/) feeding into Artemis III, NASA will closely inspect and scan Orion’s heat shield from Artemis II to analyze its performance [compared to Artemis I and its post-mission modeling work](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-260/#the-heat-shield) so as to ensure astronaut safety. Technicians will also remove reusable components from Orion—such as avionics, seats, stowage containers, etc.—for use on a future mission. - NASA’s Office of Inspector General (OIG), which formally functions as an agency watchdog, [released an assessment report](https://oig.nasa.gov/audits/nasas-acquisition-of-next-generation-spacesuit-services/) on April 20 about the readiness of [Artemis spacesuits](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-198/) to be provided to NASA by Axiom Space. The report analyzes past progress and pending milestones, concluding that the suits likely won’t be ready by the end of the decade. This would add an additional delay to the already delayed delivery of the suits. Marcia Smith [highlights the key challenges](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-ig-raises-more-questions-about-readiness-for-human-lunar-landings/) identified by OIG: > On February 12, Axiom [announced](https://axiomspace.com/release/axiom-space-secures-350m-financing-to-accelerate-space-station-spacesuit-development) it had obtained $350 million in financing for the Axiom Extravehicular Activity Unit, or AxEMU, spacesuits. At the same time NASA [said](https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/nasa-moon-mission-spacesuit-nears-milestone/) Axiom passed a contractor-led technical review and NASA would begin evaluating its readiness. Today’s OIG report notes the new plan, but remains cautious. Axiom is “proactively mitigating” supply chain risks and leveraging data from prior NASA efforts, but additional delays are likely “given the developmental nature of the spacesuits and the significant amount of testing and certification remaining.” The OIG identified three other companies — Genesis Engineering Solutions, ILC Dover, and SpaceX — NASA could turn to, but said the agency doesn’t think bringing someone new on at this point would accelerate the timeline. - Last month, the long-planned and repeatedly delayed NASA-led [Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) lunar orbital habitat was [effectively canceled](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-268/) as part of an Artemis rejig led by the agency administrator Jared Isaacman [in favor of a surface Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-268/). The agency told at the time that it plans to repurpose Gateway’s modules for the lunar surface in any way they can. But that prospect too might face delays, as Eric Berger recently [reported and confirmed](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/04/well-this-is-embarrassing-the-lunar-gateways-primary-modules-are-corroded/) that both the habitable modules of the Gateway have rusted due to a manufacturing issue at the source contractor Thales Alenia Space. ***Aside:*** Chinese space reporting specialist ⁨Jack Congram⁩ posted a [representative roundup](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/following-americas-artemis-2-moon) of how Chinese media viewed and covered the Artemis II mission. It really helps to have a different perspective even for simple things we otherwise assume. For example: > ⁠No reports recognized the US’ perception of a so-called new space race, which China doesn’t care about. As far as I can tell, there are no mentions in these reports of Artemis II having gone for all humanity either. If something really is being touted as for all humanity, I’d expect others part of that humanity to feel and say the same. ## Key developments to watch out for this year ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/04/china-lanyue-crewed-lander-mockup-propulsion-gnc-test-2.jpeg) Shots from the control systems test of China’s Lanyue lander module for crewed Moon missions. The full-scale lander mockup is seen next to humans in the inset image at the bottom right. Images: [CASC](https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/xywWynVaOQrTpWbKtHfveg) / [CMSA](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LKNt3dCUvjU) | Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) As China [aims to land humans on the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-237/) by the end of this decade, and the US aims to “beat” the nation through a [self-imposed](https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/President-Trumps-Fiscal-Year-2026-Discretionary-Funding-Request-Overview.pdf) “race”, here are all the related key developments to look out for this year on both sides. - Things NASA has not yet shared about the [Artemis rejig](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-264/) but has said it would later on, at unspecified times in the future: - Details on the revised Artemis III mission and its exact objectives, and who its astronauts will be. - What the [accelerated proposals](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/bolden-bridenstine-share-their-views-on-artemis/) for crewed lunar landers being made by SpaceX and Blue Origin actually look like, especially in the case of Starship where a [sea of key milestones remain untouched](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-240/). - [Tests China will conduct this year](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-258/) in prep towards landing humans on Luna—with one major [capsule escape test already complete](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-262/). - Launch of China’s [Chang’e 7 mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-248/) to the Moon’s south pole in the second half of this year to directly study [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other volatile resources as a world first. - The pace at which SpaceX achieves Starship milestones since the company and founder Elon Musk have now [prioritized the Moon](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/musk-embraces-the-moon/), following China, the US, and Blue Origin in that regard. - Two things about the [first lunar landing attempt](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-226/) by Blue Origin: - Blue’s [successful launch](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/blue-origins-new-glenn-reaches-orbit/) of its New Glenn rocket last January followed by [another in November](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-blue-origin-launch-two-spacecraft-to-study-mars-solar-wind/) finally opened up a second line of pursuit for NASA to send lunar astronauts vis-à-vis [Blue Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/). Amid NASA’s plans to accelerate the realization of Artemis crewed lunar landings, Blue Origin decided to [pause the company’s other internal projects](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/01/heres-why-blue-origin-just-ended-its-suborbital-space-tourism-program/) and focus most of its resources and efforts on the Moon. After a year’s delay, the company aimed to launch [its first robotic Blue Moon ‘Mark I’ lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-226/) by the end of this year to test and validate key design decisions and systems ahead of their use in crewed flights. However, the [failure of the third New Glenn rocket](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/04/errant-upper-stage-spoils-blue-origins-success-in-reusing-new-glenn-booster/) this month could delay Mark I’s launch further. Even as NASA and Blue aim to accelerate things, they need this mission to be a success to set things on the right path for Artemis crewed landings. How quickly Blue brings the New Glenn to flight again is something to watch out for. - Based on the first Mark I lander’s expected performance, NASA has [tentatively chosen](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-243/) the second Mark I’s 2027 flight to carry the agency’s [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/)—whose mission to study polar [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) has been [critical](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-221/) yet [deprioritized](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/#viper-rover-delivery-by-astrobotic). Any kind of [modified crewed Blue Moon lander](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/02/why-is-bezos-trolling-musk-on-x-with-turtle-pics-because-he-has-a-new-moon-plan/) will still depend on the two Mark I flights succeeding, and soon. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/04/blue-moon-mk1-and-mk-ii-lunar-landers-compared-to-apollo-lander.jpg) The Apollo lunar lander size compared to Blue Moon Mark I and Mark II landers. [Image: Blue Origin](https://www.leonarddavid.com/blue-origin-lunar-plans-detailed/) Despite NASA’s efforts to fast track Artemis crewed lunar landings, the short timeline and still-present complexity even in Blue’s landing system, which involves at least four launches compared to China’s focused [two-launch approach](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-263/#choosing-the-long-march-10), means that the US will likely not meet its [self-imposed goal](https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/President-Trumps-Fiscal-Year-2026-Discretionary-Funding-Request-Overview.pdf) of “beating China” to the Moon. As noted before, China does not see this as a race. It might win anyway. Either way, it’ll be amazing to have a second nation from Earth land humans on Luna. We should be happy that we now have two distinct efforts to sustain crewed and robotic [exploration of our Moon](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/). It gives humanity a better chance to do so since a dichotomic political system is apparently only able to do better under a competitive mindset driven by [fear-mongering](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/08/after-recent-tests-china-appears-likely-to-beat-the-united-states-back-to-the-moon/) rather than [through collaboration](https://jatan.space/pitfalls-in-lunar-exploration/). ***Related dive:** [**China surfaces details of spacecraft to land humans on Luna by 2030*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-267/) 🌖 --- **Many thanks to* [***Dany Waller**](https://danywaller.github.io/) *and* [***Nathan Price**](https://www.countdowntothemoon.org/went) *for sponsoring Moon Monday. If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support Moon Monday 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### Articles on Chandrayaan 2, the orbiter to remember URL: https://jatan.space/india-chandrayaan-2-orbiter-articles/ Last updated: 2026-06-08T09:51:29.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/04/ch-2-orbiter-cover.jpg) Illustration of the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter. Image: ISRO - [**ISRO’s Chandrayaan 2 orbiter has been creating the highest resolution map of the Moon**](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) - [Lunar science results from Chandrayaan 2](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-220/#lunar-science-galore-from-chandrayaan-2) - [The sharpest lunar imager](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-237/#more-moon) - [How the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter is a Sun watcher at the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-247/) - [The search for lunar water deepens](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/#the-search-for-lunar-water-deepens) --- - **International collaboration and outlook:** - [ISRO has been aiding NASA in Artemis crewed Moon landing site selections](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/#isro-aids-artemis) - NASA, ISRO, and KARI are [coordinating lunar traffic for their orbiters](https://jatan.space/a-registry-of-moon-missions/) - [ISRO’s Chandrayaan 2 orbiter helped Japan nail SLIM’s Moon landing](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/) - [A giant leap in orbital imagery is what we need to realize advanced Moon missions](https://jatan.space/we-need-a-giant-leap-in-lunar-orbital-imagery/) --- Like my efforts to provide free resources for space communities worldwide? Kindly sponsor my work to support independent writing: [Support my writing 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### Articles on Chandrayaan 1, India’s first Moon mission URL: https://jatan.space/india-chandrayaan-1-articles/ Last updated: 2026-04-23T14:57:29.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/04/chandrayaan-1-cover.jpg) Chandrayaan 1 spacecraft illustration. Image: TeamIndus - [**Looking back at Chandrayaan 1 and forward to Artemis**](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/) - [**How NASA and India discovered water on our Moon**](https://jatan.space/how-nasa-and-chandrayaan-discovered-water-on-the-moon/) - [**Interviewing Chandrayaan 1’s Mission Director**](https://jatan.space/interviewing-isro-chandrayaan-1-mission-director/) --- - [How Chandrayaan 1 viewed a solar eclipse from the Moon](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-22/) - Tangent: [Kids in South Korea and a Moon mission](https://jatan.space/moon-moment-for-south-korea/) --- Like my efforts to provide free resources for space communities worldwide? Kindly sponsor my work to support independent writing: [Support my writing 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### Did NASA’s Artemis II mission really do lunar science or go to the Moon for all humanity? URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-271/ Last updated: 2026-05-07T04:27:22.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/04/artemis-ii-lunar-flyby-moon-earth-orion.jpg) Our Moon and Earth captured by the Artemis II Orion spacecraft using a camera at the tip of one of its solar panels. [Image: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/gallery/lunar-flyby/) There’s an unsaid rule in the space industry: the more popular a mission or a program, the more inaccurate its broader coverage and public discussions, especially by people who aren’t thinking about space everyday. NASA’s [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii/) mission and its [four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/our-artemis-crew/) flying [around the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-270/) naturally had its share of whimsical coverage and social media fluff too. But what stands out here is that NASA itself has unfortunately been a source of misinformation. The US government’s revered space agency has touted the mission to have done substantial lunar science during the flyby, and the US government at large has [framed the mission](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-welcomes-record-setting-artemis-ii-moonfarers-back-to-earth/) as one going “[for all humanity](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasas-artemis-ii-crew-eclipses-record-for-farthest-human-spaceflight/)”. Before you get your pitchforks out, especially if you aren’t a regular reader, kindly consider that I’m not an outsider to the space industry who is arguing in bad faith with no understanding of spaceflight or space science. I’ve spent the last 7+ years [extensively promoting the exploration of our Moon and space](https://jatan.space/about) by countries and organizations worldwide. I love and cheer all civil lunar missions, whether they be robotic, crewed, or from any country. However, being a journalist and science communicator means I can’t be on cheering mode all the time. And being a writer and human means I can’t ignore humanity. Artemis II was an amazing [technology demonstrator mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-269/#artemis-ii-checkpoints) but cheering for it does not mean we also have to cheer for what the mission did not do, as we’ll see below. Remember that scientists and engineers are humans too. In peak emotional moments, of which Artemis II gave us many, we humans tend to lose objectivity at what seems like the speed of light. That’s alright during a moment but not when we stretch it well beyond. I’ll be glad to receive responses and rebuttals to my article because the goal is to improve our collective communications of the Artemis II mission. And if NASA itself provides more detailed explanations on its website which patch what all their existing statements don’t, that would be perfect. With that disclaimer and context, let’s begin the unfortunate breakdown. ## The hoax of Artemis II selecting landing sites The Artemis II mission has been officially portrayed as helping select landing sites for future [crewed Artemis lunar surface missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-264/). NASA said it multiple times amid [Artemis II livestreams](https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL2aBZuCeDwlQvNtHhNJtarm9OewQwVntv), and [so did](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2026/pdf/1602.pdf) its mission scientists, with many media outlets [playing along](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/04/the-moon-is-already-on-google-maps-did-artemis-ii-really-tell-us-anything-new/). Here’s a representative note from a [NASA release](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2025/06/13/nasas-artemis-science-team-inaugurates-flight-control-room/): > Artemis II astronauts will observe the Moon during their 10-day mission around the Moon and back, taking photographs and verbally recording what they see. Their observations will support science objectives and provide data for potential landing sites for future Moon missions. Let’s start with the fact that Artemis II did not even orbit the Moon. The four astronauts inside the [Orion](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/meet-nasas-orion-spacecraft/) capsule flew [about 6500–7000 kilometers from Luna](https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/5536/) at their closest approach. The flyby lasted less than seven hours, with the actual duration of the closest observations being even shorter due to nighttime passage and other visibility factors. That’s not enough time to do new lunar science for the most well studied planetary body after Earth, much less select any landing sites. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/04/artemis-ii-lunar-flyby-flight-plan.jpg) Artemis II lunar flyby flight plan. [Image: NASA / Artemis II Lunar Science Team](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2026/pdf/1681.pdf) For contrast, consider NASA’s own robotic [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lro/) (LRO) launched in 2009\. Since over 15 years now, LRO has been flying in polar and near-polar orbits within 100 kilometers of the lunar surface. Not only is LRO about 100 times closer to the lunar surface than was Artemis II, its orbit is the kind required for any systematic mapping. LRO has provided us [global coverage of the Moon](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lro/science-and-data/), across varying seasons and lighting conditions. Artemis II flew past the Moon for mere hours, not years, and saw [only 20%](https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-026-01103-9) of its farside—from about 100 times the distance of LRO. As for the Moon’s nearside, not only has it been better studied by robotic orbiters like LRO but also observed by Apollo astronauts from low lunar orbit in more detail than Artemis II astronauts could even theoretically see from long approach distances. The planning of all 21st century Moon landing missions has been possible in part thanks to the [over 1.6 petabytes of data](https://assets.science.nasa.gov/content/dam/science/psd/resources/senior-review/2025/PMSR25%5FFinal%5FReport%5FPackage%5FJune9%5F2025.pdf) from LRO. Even Artemis II’s own flyby leveraged LRO’s Moon mapping. For the process of [selecting landing sites](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-provides-update-on-artemis-iii-moon-landing-regions/) for crewed Artemis landing missions, NASA has been using LRO’s imaging and topographic observations to assess scientific value and engineering feasibility of various places. The agency has also been [getting aid](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/#isro-aids-artemis) from India’s [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) to leverage its superior imagery and radar system than LRO for filtering among the candidate sites. LRO’s best case imagery with its [Narrow Angle Camera](https://lroc.im-ldi.com/about/specs) (NAC) is pretty sharp at 0.5 meters/pixel but the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter’s high-resolution camera peaks at 0.25 meters/pixel, the sharpest in the world. These orbiters tout sub-meter imagery because scientists and engineers involved in any surface mission planning require the same to match the physical scale of landers and rover trying to safely reach and explore the surface. By comparison, the naked eye resolutions of Artemis II astronauts viewing the Moon during their flyby was about 1,000 times less at its best. Even when paired with the 400mm lens on one of the Nikon cameras onboard Artemis II, the resolution still fares [over 100 times worse](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/04/the-moon-is-already-on-google-maps-did-artemis-ii-really-tell-us-anything-new/) than LRO and Chandrayaan 2\. And Artemis II did not provide the kind of topographic data the orbiters do. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/04/lroc-stereo-diagram.jpg) Illustration of NASA’s LRO spacecraft mapping a section of the Moon at different angles over consecutive orbits to create a 3D topographic image. [Image: NASA / LROC](https://jatan.space/the-moon-in-3d/) Moreover, never mind the fact that even the “closely” visible locations during the Artemis II flyby didn’t include [the south polar candidate sites](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-provides-update-on-artemis-iii-moon-landing-regions/) of the future [Artemis IV](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-264/) landing mission. Nor could the astronauts see [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) because of their very definition—but which is where global interest is converging due to its potential for [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other [resources](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-153/) being harvested for lunar [construction](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-244/). Obviously, LRO and Chandrayaan 2 being polar orbiters study these regions for real. And so can South Korea’s [KPLO orbiter](https://jatan.space/kplo/), including NASA’s [ShadowCam](https://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/about) instrument onboard which has been capturing [unique](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-moon-camera-mosaic-sheds-light-on-lunar-south-pole) [observations](http://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/images/1288) of permanently shadowed regions to [help plan](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-110/) future surface resource prospecting missions. But according to official sources, we are supposed to believe that a few hours worth of Artemis II observations of a handful of lunar sections from several thousands of kilometers away will help select landing sites? If Artemis II was to really fly around the Moon to do lunar science, NASA would’ve at least timed the flyby such that more of the lunar farside is sunlit for astronauts. As Alexandra Witze [reported](https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-026-01103-9) on *Nature*: > The Moon and Sun are in a geometry such that only 20% of the lunar farside will be illuminated by sunlight when the astronauts fly by it, according to NASA. That’s a bit of a disappointment because many parts of the lunar far side have never been seen in sunlight by human eyes before, and scientists were hoping for a wider swathe to be visible. And thus if science was anywhere near a priority for Artemis II, NASA would’ve [launched the SLS rocket](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-269/) towards the end of its [April 1st week launch window](https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2026/01/artemis-ii-mission-availability.pdf) at a minimum so that more of the Moon’s farside would’ve been visible to astronauts and their cameras. The reality is that, as usual, scientists simply tried to get what they can amid constraints of someone else driving the car and dictating the destination. Any lunar science generated from Artemis II was transient and basic at best based on what is essentially a random flyby compared to the systematic mapping carried out by actual planetary science missions. This also applies to the observations of [impact flashes](https://skyandtelescope.org/astronomy-news/what-were-the-flashes-that-artemis-2-astronauts-saw/) by astronauts during the 40 minutes of their nighttime flyby. These transient observations of meteorite impacts are exciting but in no way statistically significant. To truly characterize the flux of such impacts is only possible through [seismometers](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-199/) and dedicated optical observers over long durations, measuring in months and years not a random hour. Upcoming missions dedicated to optically observing and characterizing lunar impact flashes for real are ESA’s [LUMIO satellite](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FEngineering%5FTechnology/Shaping%5Fthe%5FFuture/LUMIO%5FNew%5FCubeSat%5FIlluminating%5FLunar%5FImpacts) and China’s [Lunar Flash orbiter](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-252/). ## Humans seeing hues vs. the entire electromagnetic spectrum With Artemis II’s public communications, NASA and its scientists repeatedly [highlighted color and hue variations](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2026/pdf/1602.pdf) on the lunar surface as indicators of geologic interest, with these being purportedly better visible to astronauts than robotic eyes. “Right away, they \[the astronauts\] started describing the green around Aristarchus plateau and different brown hues, and these colors really help tell us nuances about the chemistry of lunar material,” [said](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/04/the-moon-is-already-on-google-maps-did-artemis-ii-really-tell-us-anything-new/) Kelsey Young, the lead scientist for the Artemis II flyby. While that may be true, it’s not an unknown fact by any means, known in better detail in fact due to orbital observations like that from LRO, which helped guide the Artemis II astronauts and scientists in what to look for to begin with. Media reports have [stated](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/04/the-moon-is-already-on-google-maps-did-artemis-ii-really-tell-us-anything-new/), with unspecified numbers, that with the 400mm camera lens the Artemis II astronauts could see the Moon at resolutions “theoretically” comparable to LRO’s [low-resolution color camera](https://lroc.im-ldi.com/about/specs) called the Wide Angle Camera (WAC). Even if really comparable, comparing also the Artemis II flyby’s ultrashort time duration and limited area coverage to the *global coverage* of LRO WAC under varying lightning conditions *over 15 years* is an unsubstantiated—or at least unspecified—giant leap to take, bothersome for any scientific mind. Because we’re talking about science, consider also what human eyes can’t see. We can’t see in ultraviolet, infrared, X-rays, or gamma rays, among other wavelengths of light. Orbiters, however, have been observing the Moon across these wavelengths because humans know how to build such instruments. For example, the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter [maps elements on the lunar surface](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-220/) based on their X-ray emissions. [Chandrayaan 1](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/)’s NASA-provided infrared spectrometer [discovered water on the Moon](https://jatan.space/how-nasa-and-chandrayaan-discovered-water-on-the-moon/), which has been an integral factor to the birth of the Artemis program itself. More such instruments have revealed way more about the Moon’s physics, chemistry, minerology, and geology at large than a few human eyes can from short period optical hue observations at large distances. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/04/lunar-elemental-abundances-from-class-x-ray-spectrometer-chandrayaan-2-orbiter.jpg) High resolution surface elemental abundance maps of various regions on the Moon, based on X-ray detections by the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter’s CLASS spectrometer; Clockwise from the left: Abundances of Magnesium and Iron, Aluminum, and Iron respectively. Images: ISRO / [S. Narendranath](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/pdf/2191.pdf), [Thejas Suresh](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/2496.pdf), et al. Also never mind the fact that humans are not reliable narrators. Here’s an aspect of Artemis II observations from Alexandra Witze’s [behind-the-scenes story](https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-026-01138-y) who was present in the science room part of the overall mission control: > The researchers had a precious 20 minutes to ask the Artemis II crew follow-up questions about their lunar observations, before the astronauts’ memories faded. “This is going to be tightly choreographed,” said Jacob Richardson, NASA’s deputy lunar-science lead who was now in charge. Moreover, if human eyes were so valuable in a scientific mapping context, we would be seeing way more active usage of human observations of Earth from the International Space Station and of Apollo astronauts’ low lunar orbital imagery for calibration purposes. In fact, NASA itself [launched the Arcstone satellite](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-232/#more-moon) last year to Earth orbit with the express goal of calibrating imagery of our planet captured by hundreds of Earth observation satellites based on Arcstone’s accurate measurements of lunar reflectance. For all the talk of [astronauts spotting albedo variations](https://www.npr.org/2026/04/06/nx-s1-5775639/artemis-astronauts-moon-observation-nasa-human-eye), human observations of the Moon or Earth are not being used to calibrate scientific observations even in the optical wavelength. Furthermore, planetary robotic spacecraft often [calibrate their radar systems](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-235/#a-moon-catalyzed-jupiter-update) based on prior robotic radar observations of the Moon because it’s such a well studied planetary body compared to others. Human eyes definitely can’t do that. How does one fathom and seriously take momentary glimpses of our Moon by astronauts from large distances as being competitive with orbiters who have provided us with comprehensive global coverage, invisible-to-us detail, and systematic streaks of observations to specific ends? To portray Artemis II lunar observations as doing lunar science and helping select landing sites in any serious capacity is to simultaneously mock and downplay the work and efforts of real planetary science missions and their scientists, including NASA’s own. ## Defining what Artemis II really did matters *Countering common counter-arguments.* Planetary scientists outside of NASA thankfully seem to have not portrayed Artemis II as being a “science mission”—but they also haven’t voiced against it. That practicing scientists both outside and inside NASA haven’t been able to voice against the obvious fluffiness of Artemis II’s “lunar science mission” portrayal is concerning. It follows a trend of [communications shortfalls from NASA](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-265/), an agency that once proudly pioneered effective science and technical communications to the public for decades, elevating understanding of space exploration worldwide. If scientists can’t even voice out against something obvious to them in non-political scenarios, like Artemis II not being a science mission, then how will they speak up amid [serious geopolitical issues](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-229/#a-problem-with-western-media-narratives-of-chinese-space) at the Moon’s south pole in the future where science can be and will be weaponized? To see scientific minds praise Artemis II for lunar science while NASA’s [entire science division is being gutted](https://www.planetary.org/articles/82-nasa-missions-at-risk-under-new-proposal) with [massive budget cut proposals](https://www.planetary.org/articles/analyzing-the-fy-2027-nasa-budget-request) yet again is disappointing. It can be argued that last year’s proposed budget cuts for NASA science [did not pass through the US Congress](https://www.planetary.org/articles/advocacy-success-fy2026-nasa-budget), and so maybe this time around the outcome would be similar. Even if so, what it doesn’t consider is that the US White House [stalled those budget releases](https://web.archive.org/web/20260303224316/https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-026-00601-0) despite Congressional approval, that NASA [prematurely implemented proposed budget cuts](https://democrats-science.house.gov/news/press-releases/science-committee-democratic-staff-report-reveals-details-on-nasas-illegal-implementation-of-trumps-fy2026-budget-request-without-congressional-approval) without them getting enacted, and that NASA has also [lost or let go of thousands of people](https://www.planetary.org/articles/4000-gone-inside-nasas-brain-drain) since the Trump administration’s term began last year while. This includes [closing the Office of NASA’s Chief Scientist](https://www.planetary.org/articles/promoted-on-sunday-fired-on-monday-inside-a-nasa-offices-sudden-closure). Moreover, when the NASA administrator itself [supports the budget cuts](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/trump-fy2027-budget-supports-moon-missions-but-cuts-everything-else/), we cannot let hope alone define our views. ### Operations and scientific intentions Now, there is a nuanced element to Artemis II’s lunar observations. All Artemis II activities are certainly useful *operationally* to enhance [coordinating the science team](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2026/pdf/1681.pdf) with mission control as well as astronauts for [future crewed lunar missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-264/). The [geology training of astronauts](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2026/pdf/1547.pdf) is also useful in that context of streamlining operations of future surface missions. During the [Artemis II lunar flyby livestream](https://www.youtube.com/live/z-j1uxBmis0), it was enjoyable to hear the coordination between teams, and see that excitement about the pure act of planetary observation. However, these general benefits of training and operational aspects were always there. That’s not the same thing as science *from the mission* specifically. And it doesn’t make science a mission objective. There are also limits to what such operational coordination can teach us about surface missions when astronauts are this far from the Moon. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/04/Screenshot-2026-04-07-at-1.39.15---AM.jpg) Mission screens during the Artemis II lunar flyby on April 6\. [Image: NASA / Artemis II](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z-j1uxBmis0) Artemis II was a pure [technology demonstrator mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-269/#artemis-ii-checkpoints) for the US to operationalize two of three key elements required to [land humans on the Moon again](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-264/). It did well at that. Whenever NASA called Artemis II a test mission during its coverage, that’s the time when the agency was portraying Artemis II accurately without any fluff. Other times, not so much. Of course, just like how Apollo missions [transformed our understanding of the Moon and Earth](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/), future Artemis surface missions are expected to unlock a host of planetary science insights. Without success on Artemis II, combined with the successes of [upcoming landers](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-268/), there can’t be US lunar surface exploration with Artemis IV and beyond. That doesn’t make Artemis II a science mission in itself though. Otherwise, taken to its logical conclusion, the same argument can make nearly any space technology mission a science one. If we count transient and basic, emergent science from a random enough flyby as a science mission, we will end up classifying pretty much every mission as a science mission. Then what do you call planetary missions which produce specific kinds of papers [numbering in the hundreds](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/search/fq=%7B!type%3Daqp%20v%3D%24fq%5Fdatabase%7D&fq%5Fdatabase=%28database%3Aastronomy%20OR%20database%3Aphysics%29&q=%28%28%28MAVEN%20spacecraft%29%20AND%20year%3A2012-2025%29%20full%3A%22mars%22%29&sort=date%20desc%2C%20bibcode%20desc&p%5F=0) on niche scientific areas it intentionally targeted? Super duper hyper science missions? If Artemis II is a science mission, so would be India’s Mangalyaan Mars orbiter [against all evidence](https://jatan.space/missing-science-from-mangalyaan/). Any such spacecraft that happens to produce a few scientific papers without specific enough science goals is not a science mission. Otherwise we will be left with no good indictors of scientific output and intent to distinguish between missions. ### Public perception Since Artemis II garnered broader public interest in space than typical spaceflight activities, it’s also prudent to think about what we teach the public during such times. The Artemis II [launch livestream](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tf%5FUjBMIzNo) seems to have had about [10.4 million concurrent viewers](https://escharts.com/tournaments/other/nasas-artemis-ii-crew-launches-moon), a record high for any stream on YouTube. ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 3 landing](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) was previously the most watched YouTube stream, [peaking at 8 million](https://www.dexerto.com/entertainment/livestream-viewership-records-all-time-peak-viewers-twitch-youtube-1493241/). Now, one can argue that both of these numbers are not quite big enough to be denoted as world events. That’s absolutely correct. Even so, this public interest is at least far higher than seen during typical spaceflight events, and so the vast majority of Artemis II viewers were likely not from the space industry. When such people are introduced to Artemis II as a science mission, it sets lower and wrong expectations of what planetary science is. It also embeds wrong notions of what NASA’s science division as a whole does. I do think Artemis II was a very good opportunity to introduce people to lunar geology, starting with the features astronauts saw, and to the impressive work of LRO in advancing lunar exploration. That’s why I highlighted the same in [Moon Monday #270](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-270/). But that’s intentionally not the same thing as calling Artemis II a science mission in itself. The point is to leverage public interest due to presence of crew to funnel them to more substantial observations, which is what I had hoped NASA would do. There are also geopolitical biases to tackle when the power to shape public narratives is concerned. For example, why is China’s [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) lunar sample return mission with its [immense science output](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-233/) portrayed [more as a strategic mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#is-china-landing-in-the-apollo-crater-to-signal-the-us-of-a-race) with ulterior motives but Artemis II, a US technology demonstration mission, is framed as pristine and pure by “[going for all humanity](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/04/rockets-and-spaceships-are-cool-but-the-humanity-of-artemis-ii-resonated-most/)” and a beacon of lunar science? Of course, the [beautiful views of our Moon and Earth](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-270/) from Artemis II did positively impact people’s minds, building on the beauty of the [Apollo 8 Earthrise](https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/apollo-8-astronaut-bill-anders-captures-earthrise/). As such, Artemis II carries a lot of emotional value; just not much of a scientific one. Neither is the Artemis program not strategic in nature, especially when the US government and NASA itself position its near future goals [as competing with](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-264/) the [faster-paced China](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-237/) to “beat it”. As a global space industry and collections of communities, let’s make sure we represent our space missions and ambitions more fairly. As lifelong admirers of NASA, let’s continue holding the agency to a high standard. It’s possible for everyone to celebrate a mission for its engineering capabilities and emotional value while not muddying the waters in the name of science. Acknowledging that Artemis II didn’t go to the Moon for lunar science wouldn’t rob it or you of the mission’s value. But not doing so will rob us of integrity. ## Did Artemis II go to the Moon for all humanity? Artemis II was certainly inspiring. But going from there to peddling that the mission went to the Moon “for all humanity” against the backdrop of crimes against humanity on Earth is an unfathomable giant leap. Instead of responding to this emotionally embedded question with surgical words, here’s an emotionally charged poetry to match. ### Back to the Moon.. For me not thee, but still for humanity.. > *We’re going back* > *back to the Apollo era* > *back to human eyes at Luna* > *back to views of our blue marble* > *and back to bombing its civilians* > > *Back to the horrors of Vietnam* > *in the schools of Iran* > *while lunar astronauts look back* > *“for all humanity”* > > *We’re going back* > *with a translunar injection burn* > *while leveling buildings in Lebanon* > *in that same duration* > > *We’re going back* > *back to taking pains* > *for ensuring lunar crew safety* > *but not the missile precision* > *that avoids civilian casualty* > > *We’re going back* > *for all humanity, they say* > *back for cosmic aspiration* > *not the million displaced children;* > *isolate them, they may* > *for it inspires them not thee anyway* > > *Are we going back* > *for that overview effect* > *or the elite overlook defect?* > *For the children who weep Earth’s blue* > *remain unresolved in that 4K overview* > > *We’re so going back* > *back to little sense of humility* > *back to preserve the future of hypocrisy* > *where local diversity trumps international adversity* > *back to this lunacy bundled as humanity* > > *We’re so going back* > *back to placing life on dead terrain* > *while the non-barren see bombs rain* > *amid dangling threats from a president* > *of nuking one’s civilization in an instant* > > *This whole disgrace* > *is not the promise of space* > *Let’s go back—nay—forward* > *to a* [*crescent embrace*](https://jatan.space/selene-smashed-not-shattered/) > *but only from our better place.* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/04/artemis-ii-lunar-flyby-moon-earth-impact-craters.jpg) ****What and whom do we really see when we see this?** | [Image: NASA / Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/gallery/lunar-flyby/) **Poem notes:** Even as NASA finally launched humans to the Moon for the first time in over five decades, its juxtaposition with the in-parallel US and Israeli military strikes [killing and displacing children in Iran and the Middle East](https://www.unicef.org/press-releases/humanitarian-crisis-children-deepens-after-one-month-war-middle-east) does not reinforce the mission’s propagated claim of going to the Moon “for all humanity”. Artemis II would’ve been way more exciting and one with integrity if it also didn’t overlap with a million children weeping. --- **Many thanks to* [***The Orbital Index**](https://orbitalindex.com) *and* [***Catalyx Space**](https://catalyx.space) *for sponsoring Moon Monday. If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support Moon Monday 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### Poem: Back to the Moon.. URL: https://jatan.space/back-to-the-moon/ Last updated: 2026-04-22T10:21:14.000Z *We’re going back* *back to the Apollo era* *back to human eyes at Luna* *back to views of our blue marble* *and back to bombing its civilians* *Back to the horrors of Vietnam* *in the schools of Iran* *while lunar astronauts look back* *“for all humanity”* *We’re going back* *with a translunar injection burn* *while leveling buildings in Lebanon* *in that same duration* *We’re going back* *back to taking pains* *for ensuring lunar crew safety* *but not the missile precision* *that avoids civilian casualty* *We’re going back* *for all humanity, they say* *back for cosmic aspiration* *not the million displaced children;* *isolate them, they may* *for it inspires them not thee anyway* *Are we going back* *for that overview effect* *or the elite overlook defect?* *For the children who weep Earth’s blue* *remain unresolved in that 4K overview* *We’re so going back* *back to little sense of humility* *back to preserve the future of hypocrisy* *where local diversity trumps international adversity* *back to this lunacy bundled as humanity* *We’re so going back* *back to placing life on dead terrain* *while the non-barren see bombs rain* *amid dangling threats from a president* *of nuking one’s civilization in an instant* *This whole disgrace* *is not the promise of space* *Let’s go back—nay—forward* *to a* [*crescent embrace*](https://jatan.space/selene-smashed-not-shattered/) *but only from our better place.* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/04/artemis-ii-lunar-flyby-moon-earth-impact-craters-closeup-1.jpg) ****What and whom do we really see when we see this?** | Image: [NASA / Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/gallery/lunar-flyby/) --- **Notes:** Even as NASA finally [launched humans to the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-270/) for the first time in over five decades, its juxtaposition with the in-parallel US and Israeli military strikes [killing and displacing children in Iran and the Middle East](https://www.unicef.org/press-releases/humanitarian-crisis-children-deepens-after-one-month-war-middle-east) does [not reinforce](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-271/) the mission’s propagated claim of going to the Moon “for all humanity”. Artemis II would’ve been way more exciting and one with integrity if it also didn’t overlap with a million children weeping. Artemis II was certainly inspiring. But going from there to peddling that the mission went to the Moon “for all humanity” against the backdrop of crimes against humanity on Earth is an unfathomable giant leap. --- *If you liked this space poetry of mine, read* [***Seven uni-verses***](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/)*, my globally published poetry pamphlet.* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/share-seven-universes-poetry-qr-3.jpeg) #### Seven uni-verses (booklet) By [****Jatan Mehta**](https://jatan.space/about). Poetry on all that space evokes. [About & Read →](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/) ### Poem: Selene, smashed not shattered URL: https://jatan.space/selene-smashed-not-shattered/ Last updated: 2026-04-14T06:22:04.000Z *Tucked in a tiny timed capsule* *against its wonky, worldly windows* *mesmerized the momentary Moonfarers* *at sweeping sights of Selene* *Creased by craters and crowning peaks* *melts and mountains molded in weeks* *amid barrages of ballistically laid beads* *lingered the landscape of Luna* *What the world could view* *is impact not as distant* *through the capsule crew* *For a world bent and battered* *showed that it wasn’t shattered* *that it was weathered, not withered* *trembled, not tamed or tattered* *Just like the proud people* *on our pretty planet* *defending their dignity* *with greater gravity* *What the world could view* *is impact not as distant too.* *When will that brew?* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/04/artemis-ii-lunar-flyby-moon-earth-impact-craters-closeup.jpg) Our Moon and Earth as seen by [Artemis II](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-269/) astronauts during their April 6 lunar flyby. Image: [NASA / Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/gallery/lunar-flyby/) --- **Notes:** This poem is for Days [13](https://www.napowrimo.net/day-thirteen-12/) and [14](https://www.napowrimo.net/day-fourteen-13/) of the [Global Poetry Writing Month](https://www.napowrimo.net/about/). I wrote it to capture and metaphorically reflect on the [striking, geologically rich landscape](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-270/) we all could see through the eyes of NASA’s Artemis II astronauts as they flew by the Moon. --- *If you liked this space poetry of mine, read* [***Seven uni-verses***](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/)*, my globally published poetry pamphlet.* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/share-seven-universes-poetry-qr-3.jpeg) #### Seven uni-verses (booklet) By [****Jatan Mehta**](https://jatan.space/about). Poetry on all that space evokes. [About & Read →](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/) ### Artemis II astronauts gazed at our Moon with joy, curiosity, and reverence. Through finer robotic orbital views, so can you. URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-270/ Last updated: 2026-04-14T05:55:05.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/04/artemis-ii-astronauts-return-to-earth-after-lunar-flyby-1.jpeg) The Orion spacecraft with Artemis II astronauts returned to Earth on April 10 after their flyby around the Moon on April 6\. ****Bottom left:** The lunar flight crew from left to right: Mission Specialists [Christina Koch](https://www.nasa.gov/astronauts/biographies/christina-h-koch) & [Jeremy Hansen](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronauts/canadian/active/bio-jeremy-hansen.asp), Pilot [Victor Glover](https://www.nasa.gov/astronauts/biographies/victor-j-glover), and Commander [Reid Wiseman](https://www.nasa.gov/astronauts/biographies/reid-g-wiseman). [Images: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-ii-multimedia/) After five decades of human absence at [our Moon](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/), the [four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/our-artemis-crew/) of [Artemis II](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-269/) marveled at a stark lunar landscape on April 6 as their [Orion](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/meet-nasas-orion-spacecraft/) spacecraft swung them around our cosmic companion. This was followed by a return journey of about four days, after which the Orion capsule slammed into Earth’s atmosphere at [nearly 40,000 kilometers per hour](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/04/four-astronauts-are-back-home-after-a-daring-ride-around-the-moon/) to go through a [fiery but orchestrated reentry](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2026/04/10/artemis-ii-flight-day-10-re-entry-live-updates/). The [steep reentry profile](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/01/nasa-chief-reviews-orion-heat-shield-expresses-full-confidence-in-it-for-artemis-ii/) made the astronauts briefly experience peak gravitational loads of four times of what you and I feel on Earth’s surface. 14 minutes after first hitting Earth’s atmosphere, the capsule [splashed down on sea](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-welcomes-record-setting-artemis-ii-moonfarers-back-to-earth/) under parachutes, bringing the astronauts safely back home. The mission’s technical performance has been largely great. Other than the [toilet clogging up](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/04/artemis-ii-is-going-so-well-that-were-left-to-talk-about-frozen-urine/) and a [minor helium leak](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/04/nasa-homes-in-on-likely-redesign-to-fix-orion-spacecrafts-leaky-valves/), Artemis II achieved [major technical milestones](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-269/#artemis-ii-checkpoints) in the US’ lead up to eventually [landing humans on the Moon again](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-264/). In the process, Artemis II also made “why haven’t humans gone back to the Moon?” [no longer a valid question](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-269/). ***Related:** [**How NASA planned to keep Artemis II astronauts safe throughout their Moon mission*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-260/) 🛟 When swinging around our Moon, the astronauts saw a cratered and mountainous section of the [lunar farside](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) previously well studied through robotic orbiters but largely [not seen directly](https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-026-00989-9#:~:text=We’ve%20put%20together%20a%20graphic%20to%20answer%20this%20one) by human eyes during Apollo missions. The beautiful lunar views were seen to [rejoice and intrigue astronauts & mission scientists](https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-026-01138-y). Like choco-chips and cream on cupcake, the [serene selene views](https://www.nasa.gov/gallery/lunar-flyby/) were elevated by sights of Earthset, Earthrise, and a [by-chance](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/04/astronauts-set-distance-record-revealing-the-moon-as-a-place-to-be-explored/) solar eclipse from the vantage point of the astronauts. During the flyby, the astronauts noted an array of geological features from Orion’s windows, particularly the massive 930-kilometer [Orientale basin](https://jatan.space/outstanding-orientale-multi-ring-basin-on-the-moon/) with its volcanic plains and crowning mountain rings. The crew also saw many large craters with central peaks popping on the farside. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/04/artemis-ii-lunar-flyby-orientale-1.jpg) Our Moon’s nearside (top) and farside (bottom) as viewed during the April 6 lunar flyby of the Artemis II Orion spacecraft carrying crew. Seen prominently is the Orientale basin with its dark, volcanic center and raised mountainous ring. [Image: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/image-detail/amf-art002e009276/) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/04/vavilov-crater-farside-artemis-ii-lunar-flyby.jpg) The \~100-kilometer wide Vavilov crater with its central mountains on the Moon’s farside. [Image: NASA / Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/gallery/lunar-flyby/) Fun fact: Unlike mountains on Earth, most lunar mountains are formed near instantaneously—geologically speaking—from large impacts. Linked below is my article exploring how the shapes of the Moon’s craters and their mountains morph with increasing impact size, and how it helps us better understand planets at large. 🌖 [**Exploring the marvel that are mountains on the Moon*](https://jatan.space/exploring-moon-mountains/) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/04/moon-mountains.jpg)](https://jatan.space/exploring-moon-mountains/) Changing morphology of mountains and craters on the Moon with increasing crater sizes. Image credits: NASA LRO, Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) In [one of the most shared pictures](https://www.nasa.gov/image-detail/amf-art002e009287/) of our Moon and Earth from Artemis II, you can also spot many bead-like [crater chains](https://jatan.space/outstanding-crater-chains-of-orientale/) radially emanating out of Orientale. Created from huge blocks of falling material thrown across the Moon during Orientale’s energetic formation, many of the numerous craters forming the chains span around 5–15 kilometers each. I’ve annotated said Artemis II image below to highlight two crater chains and thus the massive scale of Orientale’s impact. That you can view these on the scale of the lunar globe is mind blowing. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/04/artemis-ii-lunar-flyby-moon-earth-impact-craters-annotated-1.jpeg) Our Moon and Earth as seen by Artemis II astronauts during their April 6 lunar flyby. The dashed-yellow lines show two chains of craters emanating from Orientale. Some other prominent craters in the region are labeled alongside the scale of one of them. Image: [NASA / Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/gallery/lunar-flyby/) / Annotations: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) You can [browse this same view on an interactive Moon map](https://quickmap.lroc.im-ldi.com/?camera=-3293833.0181%2C-1519339.7234%2C-488793.6893%2C0.9784%2C0.1639%2C0.1258%2C0.1708%2C-0.9842%2C-0.0464%2C60&stack=3314%2C3113&proj=22&defs=N4IgzAjBYgXKB7ADgQwMYEsAuBPOEBfAGnEgBY5FVNd8CCg) thanks to NASA’s robotic mission called the [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lro/) (LRO), whose imagery and data was extensively used to plan Artemis II’s lunar flyby. ## Selene, smashed not shattered My poetry on the Moon which I [shared again last week](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-269/) after 2022 has been featured on [Nature’s newsletter](https://mailchi.mp/nature/daily-briefing-13896088) 🌙. Today, I bring you another poem to capture and metaphorically reflect on the striking, geologically rich lunar landscape we all could see through the eyes of the Artemis II astronauts. > *Tucked in a tiny timed capsule* > *against its wonky, worldly windows* > *mesmerized the momentary Moonfarers* > *at sweeping sights of Selene* > > *Creased by craters and crowning peaks* > *melts and mountains molded in weeks* > *amid barrages of ballistically laid beads* > *lingered the landscape of Luna* > > *What the world could view* > *is impact not as distant* > *through the capsule crew* > > *For a world bent and battered* > *showed that it wasn’t shattered* > *that it was weathered, not withered* > *trembled, not tamed or tattered* > > *Just like the proud people* > *on our pretty planet* > *defending their dignity* > *with greater gravity* > > *What the world could view* > *is impact not as distant too.* > *When will that brew?* ## Savor splendid sights of Selene We can’t all launch ourselves to the Moon to admire its beauty and depth up close. Most of us can’t see an imposing Luna in the sky through our vehicle’s windows to reflect on its resilience. But we can do it all virtually, thanks to robotic missions like LRO which have captured our Moon’s places in over 100 times more incredible detail than the Artemis II flyby. I’ve curated a set of such mesmerizing lunar images to showcase its striking geology. Partly inspired by NASA’s [Astronomy Picture of the Day](https://apod.nasa.gov/apod/astropix.html) (APOD), here’s a tour of such pretty planetary sights hosted and preserved by our airless Moon. Each image within each gallery links to a post explaining the geological importance of said lunar feature and the value of exploring it. ****Note:** Click the images to explore each gallery. \[Since this is a visual browsing section, image credits are provided in the links.\] [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/hell-q-lro.jpg)](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-lunar-craters/) [****Gallery: Our Moon’s captivating craters**](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-lunar-craters/) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/tycho-mountain-lro.jpg)](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-moon-mountains/) [****Gallery: Our Moon's marvelous mountains**](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-moon-mountains/) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/rima-ariadaeus.jpg)](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-lunar-lava-channels/) [****Gallery: Our Moon's lovely lava channels**](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-lunar-lava-channels/) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/ina-nasa-lro.jpg)](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-weird-lunar-features/) [****Gallery: Just some weird yet wonderful features on our Moon**](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-weird-lunar-features/) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f40277168-3330-4834-a3bb-2d3b9fdd376c_600x600.png)](https://jatan.space/the-moon-in-3d/) [****Watch our Moon in 3D**](https://jatan.space/the-moon-in-3d/) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/lroc-quickmap-logo-1-1.png)](https://quickmap.lroc.im-ldi.com/?camera=6927789.7942%2C-3117614.2693%2C-1267855.6982%2C-0.8988%2C0.4046%2C0.1686%2C0.1672%2C-0.039%2C0.9852%2C60&stack=3314%2C3113&proj=22&defs=N4IgzAjBYgXKB7ADgQwMYEsAuBPOEBfAGnEgBY5FVNd8CCg) ****Explore our Moon like Google maps with** [****LROC QuickMap**](https://quickmap.lroc.im-ldi.com/?camera=6927789.7942%2C-3117614.2693%2C-1267855.6982%2C-0.8988%2C0.4046%2C0.1686%2C0.1672%2C-0.039%2C0.9852%2C60&stack=3314%2C3113&proj=22&defs=N4IgzAjBYgXKB7ADgQwMYEsAuBPOEBfAGnEgBY5FVNd8CCg) **| Browse the** [****fantastic LROC Blog**](https://lroc.im-ldi.com/images) **full of high-resolution images** ## More mission updates - Jack Congram [reports](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/change-7-moon-mission-arrives-in) that all the major elements of China’s Chang’e 7 Moon mission have arrived at the Wenchang launch site for pre-launch integration and final tests prior to launching on a Long March 5 rocket potentially as early as August. Chang’e 7 will be [the first mission to study water ice](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-248/) from the surface of the Moon’s south pole, and will do so in a systematic, comprehensive manner with a range of spacecraft elements and instruments for years. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/04/change-7-lander-orbiter-illustration.jpg) A render of the Chang’e 7 lander and orbiter going around the Moon. [Image: CMG](https://news.cgtn.com/news/2023-06-05/China-sets-record-in-sixth-rocket-engine-trial-of-crewed-lunar-mission-1knNhdQYU6I/index.html) - South Korea’s first lunar rover, from a private company called UEL, [will fly on ispace Japan’s third Moon landing mission](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=8798) targeted for launch in [2028](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-268/#in-the-company-of). - Firefly [announced](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-aerospace-enables-on-orbit-processing-for-moon-imaging-service-with-nvidia-jetson/) that for its upcoming [Ocula lunar imaging service](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-230/#the-silver-ocula-to-fill-some-gaps-for-nasa), the company is partnering with NVIDIA to improve and speed up onboard processing of imagery captured by its orbiters. ***Related:** [**A giant leap in orbital imagery is what we need to realize advanced Moon missions*](https://jatan.space/we-need-a-giant-leap-in-lunar-orbital-imagery/) 🛰️ - TASS [reports](https://tass.com/science/2110105) that on April 1, the Russian Academy of Sciences approved the concept of the Russian segment to be part of the China-led [International Lunar Research Station](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/) (ILRS). One of the expected key contributions from Russia to the ILRS Moonbase is a [5 kilowatt nuclear power plant](https://tass.com/science/2113099) lead by Roscosmos. Currently targeted to be deployed in the [early 2030s](https://tass.com/science/2112813), the plant modules are being planned to be launched in [three parts](https://tass.com/science/2113811). --- **Sponsored job listing:** Open Lunar Foundation is [hiring a Project and Partnership Lead](https://www.openlunar.org/ledgerlead) to advance the [Lunar Ledger](https://www.lunarledger.space), which [aims to be a collaborative database](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-246/#more-moon) of global lunar missions and their objects & activities. Six companies have [signed up](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/ledger-launch-press-release) for the Ledger so far: ispace, Firefly, Astrolab (a Moon Monday sponsor), JAOPS, Dymon, and SpaceData. --- **Many thanks to* [***Astrolab**](https://astrolab.space/)**,* [***Olivier Lamarre**](https://www.olamarre.com/)**,* ***Christian Stock** *and* [***Narayan Prasad**](https://www.narayanprasad.com/) *for sponsoring Moon Monday. If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support Moon Monday 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### Why haven’t humans gone back to the Moon no longer a valid question thanks to NASA Artemis II lunar flyby URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-269/ Last updated: 2026-04-07T10:42:36.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/04/artemis-ii-astronauts-launch-orion-earth-view.jpeg) The Artemis II launch, its four astronauts prior to liftoff, people cheering the launch, and the crew’s Orion spacecraft and its beautiful view of a crescent Earth. The flight crew from left to right: Mission Specialist [Jeremy Hansen](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronauts/canadian/active/bio-jeremy-hansen.asp), Pilot [Victor Glover](https://www.nasa.gov/astronauts/biographies/victor-j-glover), Mission Specialist [Christina Koch](https://www.nasa.gov/astronauts/biographies/christina-h-koch), and Commander [Reid Wiseman](https://www.nasa.gov/astronauts/biographies/reid-g-wiseman). [Images: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-ii-multimedia/) At long last, that moment is here. Humans have visited [our Moon](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) again, ending a five-decade absence since Apollo. [Four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/our-artemis-crew/) launched by NASA [on April 1](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/liftoff-nasa-launches-astronauts-on-historic-artemis-moon-mission/) swung by the Moon and around [its farside](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) on April 6\. For space nerds around the world, this [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii/) mission’s successful flight around Earth’s silvery cosmic companion finally puts an end to the question of “why haven’t we sent astronauts to the Moon again?”, which is often paired with “were the Apollo Moon landings fake?” The April Fools’ Day launch of Artemis II can perhaps be seen as tongue-in-cheek to that end but in all seriousness we gladly no longer have to counter as many Moon landing deniers and their hand-wavy rejections of the wavy-looking American flag on the Moon. Nor do we have to show pictures of Apollo landers [captured by non-US orbiters](https://www.backyardastronomyguy.com/apollo-isro) as unequivocal proof as many times, or bother explaining how [retroreflectors](https://web.archive.org/web/20160727220755/https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/apollo/apollo%5F15/experiments/lrr) work nearly as much. The staunch deniers will still deny, especially since a [crewed lunar landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-267/) is yet to happen in this century to follow Artemis II. But denying should only become harder as time passes. NASA’s launch has lifted a significant weight off of all our shoulders while giving a vast majority of the world’s population crewed lunar views they were too young to have seen during Apollo missions. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/04/artemis-ii-lunar-flyby-orientale.jpg) Our Moon’s nearside (top) and farside (bottom) as viewed during the April 6 lunar flyby of the Artemis II Orion spacecraft carrying crew. [Image: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/image-detail/amf-art002e009276/) Seen prominently in the above view with its dark, volcanic center and raised mountainous ring is the massive 930-kilometer [Orientale basin](https://jatan.space/outstanding-orientale-multi-ring-basin-on-the-moon/). You can also spot [crater chains](https://jatan.space/outstanding-crater-chains-of-orientale/) radially emanating out of Orientale, which were created from huge blocks of falling material thrown across the Moon during Orientale’s energetic formation. Here’s a closer look at crater chains northwest of Orientale in prior robotic imagery captured by NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lro/) (LRO) to help you spot them. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/04/orientale-crater-chains.jpeg) View of Orientale crater chains, with a zoomed version below. Remarkably, in the chain marked with the approximate 100-kilometer scale (red), each crater spans more than 10 kilometers across. [Image: NASA LROC Quickmap](https://quickmap.lroc.im-ldi.com/?camera=-904355.6256%2C-2539969.3227%2C101225.7311%2C0.3352%2C0.9414%2C-0.0375%2C0.0126%2C0.0353%2C0.9993%2C60&stack=64%2C3113&proj=22&defs=N4IgbALCBcoPYAcCGBjAlgFwJ4wIwF8AaEAZl1xJnmXWz33yA) Alexandra Witze (*Nature*) has provided fantastic [curated and contextualized live coverage](https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-026-00989-9) of the roughly [seven-hour Artemis II lunar flyby](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2026/04/05/artemis-ii-flight-day-5-correction-burn-complete/) from NASA’s Mission Control building in Houston. From her coverage: > Astronaut and pilot Victor Glover is describing some challenges in looking from his dim laptop to the bright Moon and back down again, all while juggling logistics to capture the grandeur of the moment. \[...\] The astronauts have reported seeing green and brown colors in the Aristarchus region of the Moon’s near side. That’s a part of the Moon that astronomers can see from Earth, but the report of color variations caused an excited murmur in the room. The scientists are keen to have any color reports like this from up close at the lunar surface. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/04/artemis-ii-lunar-flyby-screens.jpeg) Mission screens (left) and simulated views (right) related to the Artemis II Orion spacecraft’s lunar flyby on April 6\. Images: NASA Artemis II [Livestream](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z-j1uxBmis0), [Gallery](https://www.nasa.gov/gallery/artemis-ii-mission-science/) and [Tracker](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis-ii/arow/) ## Artemis II checkpoints The Artemis II mission’s technical performance seems to have been faring remarkably well, with only minor issues faced along the way considering the complexities of human spaceflight. Below is a list of all major milestones achieved by Artemis II. - The [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/reference/space-launch-system/) launched the astronaut-hosting [Orion](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/meet-nasas-orion-spacecraft/) spacecraft to elliptical Earth orbit [perfectly as intended](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasas-artemis-ii-mission-leaves-earth-orbit-for-flight-around-moon/). - The [European Service Module](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Orion/European%5FService%5FModule) (ESM), which [powers and propels](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/European%5FService%5FModule%5Fengines%5Fpowering%5FArtemis%5FII) the Orion spacecraft, [flew the astronauts to the Moon](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2026/04/02/artemis-ii-flight-day-2-orion-completes-tli-burn-crew-begins-journey-to-the-moon/) even better than expected. NASA [did not](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2026/04/03/artemis-ii-flight-day-3-outbound-trajectory-correction-burn-update/) [need](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2026/04/04/artemis-ii-flight-day-4-deep-space-flying-lunar-flyby-prep/) to conduct two out of [three](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2026/04/05/artemis-ii-flight-day-5-correction-burn-complete/) planned trajectory correction engine burns. NASA doesn’t explicitly formally mention the ESM much and bundles it with Orion but this mission continued the module’s [extra-reliable performance seen on Artemis I](https://blogs.esa.int/orion/2022/12/01/artemis-i-flight-day-15-go-for-leaving-moon-orbit/). And that’s despite astronauts moving around onboard the attached Orion capsule as well as the mission’s human waste venting activities as opposed to the uncrewed Artemis I flight. ESA has shared good details about the [decision making for engine firings](https://blogs.esa.int/orion/2026/04/02/how-to-go-to-the-moon/) of ESM. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/04/artemis-ii-european-service-module.jpg) The European Service Module provides propulsion, power, and life support to the crew-hosting Orion capsule. [Image: ESA](https://esamultimedia.esa.int/docs/HRE/Moon%5FMedia%5FKit.pdf) - The [manual handling of Orion](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2026/04/04/artemis-ii-flight-day-4-crew-completes-manual-piloting-demonstration/) by all astronauts to test its [coarse and fine maneuvering](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2026/04/01/artemis-ii-flight-update-apogee-raise-burn-complete-crew-looks-ahead-to-proximity-operations/) and [docking abilities](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2026/04/01/artemis-ii-flight-update-proximity-operations-complete-perigee-raise-burn-up-next/) also went [as planned](https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/key-test-drive-of-orion-on-nasas-artemis-ii-to-aid-future-missions/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/04/artemis-ii-piloting-demo-test-illustration.jpg) Illustration of phases of the manual piloting test of the Orion spacecraft conducted in Earth orbit during Artemis II. [Image: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/key-test-drive-of-orion-on-nasas-artemis-ii-to-aid-future-missions/) - Other than the [toilet clogging up](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/04/artemis-ii-is-going-so-well-that-were-left-to-talk-about-frozen-urine/), the life support systems onboard Orion [seem to be functioning fine too](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/04/four-astronauts-are-now-inexorably-bound-for-the-moon/) in keeping the crew [alive and well](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2026/04/02/artemis-ii-flight-day-2-orion-completes-tli-burn-crew-begins-journey-to-the-moon/). - Communications with Orion has been maintained throughout the mission so far [across multiple networks](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-260/#communicating-with-orion), with only minor disruptions here and there. Even the test of the [high-bandwidth, laser-based communications system](https://esc.gsfc.nasa.gov/news/Lasers%5FLight%5Fthe%5FWay%5Ffor%5FArtemis%5FII%5FMoon%5FMission), as an alternative to traditional radio transmissions, [worked well](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2026/04/04/artemis-ii-flight-day-4-deep-space-flying-lunar-flyby-prep/). - NASA and ESA report the crew’s health monitoring related [equipments](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/European%5Feyes%5Fon%5FArtemis) and [experiments](https://www.nasa.gov/general/artemis-ii-crew-both-subjects-and-scientists-in-nasa-deep-space-research/) to be functioning fine too. - A test of the astronauts wearing their [Orion Crew Survival System](https://newspaceeconomy.ca/2025/11/27/what-is-the-artemis-orion-crew-survival-system/) (OCSS) suits [progressed through most of its objectives](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2026/04/05/artemis-ii-flight-day-5-correction-burn-complete/) as well, although NASA deferred Orion’s cabin depressurization test meant to be also conducted during that time. Overall, the Artemis II mission has helped characterize Orion’s [true in-space nature](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-moon-landers/), proving that the spacecraft can carry astronauts to the Moon with reliability. The flights of Orion on Artemis I and II will help NASA and ESA make the ship operational for [future Artemis missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-264/), wherein Orion has to [dock with landers in space](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-268/) which will then carry astronauts to the Moon’s surface for the US. ***Related:** [**How NASA planned to keep Artemis II astronauts safe throughout their Moon mission*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-260/) 🛟 Through Artemis II, NASA has also successfully flown the first woman astronaut ([Christina Koch](https://www.nasa.gov/astronauts/biographies/christina-h-koch)), the first black person ([Victor Glover](https://www.nasa.gov/astronauts/biographies/victor-j-glover)), and the first Canadian/non-American ([Jeremy Hansen](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronauts/canadian/active/bio-jeremy-hansen.asp)) to the Moon in a great show of diversity compared to past missions. This should help inspire more students and people globally who can better relate to these astronauts. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/04/artemis-ii-astronauts-christina-koch-earth-moon-1.jpeg) ****Top left:** The Artemis II astronauts inside Orion; ****Bottom left:** Christina Koch gazes out at Earth from one of Orion’s main cabin windows; ****Right:** [Our Earth](https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/hello-world/) and [Moon](https://www.nasa.gov/image-detail/amf-art002e009212/) as captured from Orion. [Images: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-ii-multimedia/) ## Poem: An ode to our Moon The [success](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-107/) of NASA’s [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-i/) robotic Moon mission, and its link to enabling the crewed Artemis II, had inspired me to write a poetic view of our exploration of the Moon. *A blaze aloft at night* *sent a glimmer of hope* *flying past the desolation* *It ignites around Moonshine,* *so we can all dazzle* *at the suspended blue marble* *It twinkles again across the void* *for a blistering comeback,* *and a tactful splash* *Let’s keep the path glowing* *for these engines of progress,* *so we can ferociously return* *To our cosmic companion,* *like never before.* ![The white, elongated Artemis I Orion spacecraft sporting various thrusters and NASA & ESA logos captured a view of our Moon and Earth in 2022 from a little distance away from the Moon such that our natural satellite appears larger than our planet due to apparent size differences.](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/10/orion-space-earth-moon-us.jpg) The Orion spacecraft, part of NASA’s Artemis I mission, captured this view of our Moon and Earth in November 2022\. This vantage point in its lunar orbit lies roughly 70,000 and 430,000 kilometers away from the Moon and Earth respectively. [Image: NASA](https://images.nasa.gov/details-art001e000678) Poem part of [**Seven uni-verses**](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/), my globally published poetry pamphlet. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/share-seven-universes-poetry-qr-3.jpeg) #### Seven uni-verses (booklet) By [****Jatan Mehta**](https://jatan.space/about). Poetry on all that space evokes. [About & Read →](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/) --- **Many thanks to* [***Open Lunar Foundation**](https://www.openlunar.org)**,* [***Gurbir Singh**](https://linkedin.com/in/gurbirsinghinfosec)**,* [***Henry Throop**](https://www.linkedin.com/in/henry-throop-a47a6a7) *and* [***Gordon Roesler**](https://www.linkedin.com/in/gordon-roesler-687a0426) *for being Moon Monday sponsors. If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support Moon Monday 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### Poem: Antariksh ki pyaas / अंतरिक्ष की प्यास / The thirst for space URL: https://jatan.space/antariksh-ki-pyaas/ Last updated: 2026-04-29T10:59:25.000Z Original in [Hindustani](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindustani%5Flanguage), as English transliteration and in देवनागरी, followed by its English translation (though not as lyrical): ## Antariksh ki pyaas *Woh bachpan ki kitaabe* *jisne dikhaye sitaare* *aaj bhi yaad se nihaare* *Durbin ki drishṭi me jagmag falak* *aur yaano ki gati se graho ki jalak* *Kalpana se Chaand par chalna* *aur brahmand ke brahmaṇ me ḍubnā* *Aise lafzon se janmi thi antariksh ki pyaas* *Jiski miṭin nahi aaj bhi aas* *Ek pal socho toh sahi* *Ki ek pustakalay ne likhi* *mere zindagibhar ki likhayi* --- ## अंतरिक्ष की प्यास *वह बचपन की किताबें* *जिसने दिखाए सितारे* *आज भी याद से निहारे* *दूरबीन की दृष्टि में जगमग फ़लक* *और यानों की गति से ग्रहों की झलक* *कल्पना से चाँद पर चलना* *और ब्रह्मांड के ब्रह्मण में डूबना* *ऐसे लफ़्ज़ों से जन्मी थी अंतरिक्ष की प्यास* *जिसकी मिटिन नहीं आज भी आस* *एक पल सोचो तो सही* *कि एक पुस्तकालय ने लिखी* *मेरे ज़िंदगीभर की लिखाई* --- ## The thirst for space *Those books from childhood* *which showed the stars* *I reminisce even today* *A telescope’s view of the starry sky* *and glimpses of planets as spacecraft swing by* *Imagining walking on the Moon* *and immersing in cosmic curiosity* *Such words birthed the thirst for space* *whose hope remains unquenched* *Mark for a moment* *how one library wrote* *the lifetime of my writing* --- **Notes:** I wrote this poem for the [Day 2 prompt](https://www.napowrimo.net/day-two-13/) of the [Global Poetry Writing Month](https://www.napowrimo.net/about/): > Today, we’d like to challenge you to write your own poem in which you recount a childhood memory. Try to incorporate a sense of how that experience indicated to you, even then, something about the person you’d grow up to be. In those school days of discovering space through books, I knew it would shape who I want to be and what I want to do. Space is all-encompassing, and encompass my mind it did. Fast forward to today and I’m a [space writer](https://jatan.space/about). I dedicate this poem and integral childhood memory to my Dad, who got me a library subscription at a time when we couldn’t even afford that much. 💛 --- *If you liked this space poetry of mine, read* [***Seven uni-verses***](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/)*, my globally published poetry pamphlet.* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/share-seven-universes-poetry-qr-3.jpeg) #### Seven uni-verses (booklet) By [****Jatan Mehta**](https://jatan.space/about). Poetry on all that space evokes. [About & Read →](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/) ### India’s rockets will not meet its civil space and strategic launch manifest even at peak performance URL: https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-37/ Last updated: 2026-04-01T18:33:11.000Z *Before we begin, I’m glad to note that my* [*Indian Space Progress*](https://jatan.space/tag/indian-space/) *reports completed three years last month, and have crossed 10,000 globally spread readers. Thank you very much for reading and* [*supporting*](https://jatan.space/support) *the only such overarching coverage of India’s space activities over and above my flagship* [*Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) *writing.* 🚀 ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/03/lvm3-chandrayaan-3-launch-cloud-dheeraj-k-1.jpeg) The LVM3 rocket behind the clouds during the launch of Chandrayaan 3\. [Image: Dheeraj Khandelwal](https://www.dheerajkhandelwal.com/chandrayaan) This article is part 3 of my ongoing series on India’s launch vehicle crisis. A space program can only move as swiftly as its orbital rockets, and India right now is amid a grinding halt. As such, I’m focusing my [Indian Space Progress](https://jatan.space/tag/indian-space/) blog & newsletter on fully exploring this situation before resuming coverage of national space activities at large. There’s a common misconception among the public at large that ISRO’s rockets are among the best in the world. As great as that would feel, it’s unfortunately not the truth. Part 1 of the article series [reviewed the state of India’s orbital launch vehicles](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-33/), revealing a bleak picture of ambitious goals sliding to the right—in stark contrast to the incessant chest thumping about efficiency. Part 2 [analyzed the intricacies of ISRO’s launchpad infrastructure](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-35/), showing how every PSLV rocket failure cascades effects to all Indian rockets in direct or indirect ways. All this while, ISRO’s responses to India’s space access shortcomings has maintained the usual fare of dangling upcoming upgrades to existing launch vehicles as the all-in-one solution. And so for Part 3, I assess if India can meet its planned payload manifest by 2030 while assuming the best case scenario where every Indian orbital rocket gets its touted upgrade on time. The short answer is an unfortunate no. Let’s start by establishing India’s present launch rate and capacity, and enhancements to the same expected in the near future. ## Present launch rate and capacity Here are India’s orbital launch stats during the last 10 years (2016 to 2025) by year and launch vehicle respectively. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/03/india-space-launch-rate-2016-2025.jpg) **Launches per vehicle:** - [PSLV = 31](https://www.isro.gov.in/PSLV%5FLaunchers.html) (India’s space workhorse) - [Launch Vehicle Mark III (LVM3) = 8](https://www.isro.gov.in/LVM3%5FLaunchers.html) (India’s most powerful rocket) - [GSLV Mk II = 9](https://www.isro.gov.in/GSLV%5FLaunchers.html) - [SSLV = 3](https://www.isro.gov.in/SSLV%5FLaunchers.html) That’s a total of **51 launches**, including four failures. India has thus launched around **5 times a year** across the last 10 years. ## Placing India’s launch output in context I charted the time it takes the top three space powers of the world—China, the US, and Russia—to do the same 50 launches India did over 10 years. Because the [exceptional launch rate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%5Fof%5FFalcon%5F9%5Fand%5FFalcon%5FHeavy%5Flaunches#Rocket%5Fconfigurations) of the SpaceX [Falcon 9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon%5F9) would skew every other number, I also include the US’ average decadal-scale yearly launch rate before the Falcon 9. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/03/time-to-50-launches-by-country.jpeg) Data manually compiled from [publicly available lists](https://spacestatsonline.com/launches/country) of space launches by each rocket and country. [Chart: Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) Russia [takes only 3 years to match](https://spacestatsonline.com/launches/country/rus) India’s decadal launch count of 50 despite an overall decline of their space program amid politically driven restructuring. The US launches the most globally right now thanks to the Falcon 9 but even if we discount this majority driver as an industry anomaly or primarily a case of self-demand through Starlink satellites, US launch vehicles [still took only 3 years](https://spacestatsonline.com/launches/country/usa) to launch 50 times before the Falcon 9’s ramp-up. Notably, this cadence was despite the US facing its lowest launch rate in decades. India’s launch output today matches China’s from the 2000s, which is when the latter was pursuing human spaceflight, something India is [also doing this decade](https://www.isro.gov.in/Gaganyaan.html). Today, China launches [far more frequently](https://spacestatsonline.com/launches/country/chn). In the last five years alone, China has launched at least 50 times or far more every single year, outperforming India by 10–20 times. In the last few years, [state-catalyzed](https://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4498944/content.html) operational [commercial launchers](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/chinas-launch-sites-and-rockets#§commercially-operated-launch-vehicles) have also entered the turf, successfully [supplementing](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/china-national-space-administration) the country’s launch capacity and frequency. In fact, space launch statistics [from 2024](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024%5Fin%5Fspaceflight#By%5Ffamily) and [2025](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2025%5Fin%5Fspaceflight#By%5Ffamily) show that these non-national Sino orbital rockets alone have launched more times than India could manage across its entire ISRO and private fleet during that period. Claims by Indian private rockets companies [like from Skyroot](https://ddnews.gov.in/en/newly-unveiled-vikram-1-rocket-set-to-transform-indias-space-economy-in-2024-2/) and [Agnikul](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-16/) about their orbital launch readiness have sadly been in [Elon Musk times](https://elontime.io). Both companies [missed the year 2025](https://www.deccanherald.com/science/space/major-milestone-agnikul-carries-out-successful-sub-orbital-launch-of-agnibaan-indias-second-privately-built-rocket-3044272) as well for their first orbital launch attempts against their own revised projections. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/03/orbital-launches-2024-2026-india-china-private.jpeg) Data manually compiled from [publicly available lists](https://spacestatsonline.com/launches/country) of space launches of relevant rockets. [Chart: Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) Comparing India’s launch output to China, the US, and Russia is necessary because these are also the only nations in the world with independent human spaceflight capability, one India has said it aims to build and master to the point of announcing an [ultimate goal of landing humans on the Moon](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-33/#to-the-moon). The following graph of yearly launches per country illustrates how the orbital launch gaps between India and the human spaceflight powers has grown, which India needs to close or manage effectively. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/03/human-spaceflight-powers-yearly-launches-vs-india-2016-2025.jpeg) Data manually compiled from publicly available lists of space launches by each [rocket](https://spacestatsonline.com/rockets) and [country](https://spacestatsonline.com/launches/country). [Chart: Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) There’s more bad news since the real gap is even more pronounced. The US, China, and Russia all tout heavy-lift launch vehicles, something India lacks. As such, the space access gap *widens by two to three orders of magnitude* when accounting for deployed ‘mass to orbit’ numbers. Complex or enduring space missions require more mass as a starting point. The following table from Jonathan McDowell’s [Space Activities (2025)](https://planet4589.org/space/papers/space25.pdf) report lists delivered ‘mass to orbit’ per country/region during that year, showing a stark gap for India. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/03/mass-to-orbit-by-country-or-region-2025.jpg) Mass to orbit (metric tons) by country/region in 2025\. [Table: Jonathan McDowell, Space Activities in 2025](https://planet4589.org/space/papers/space25.pdf) When a nation aims to execute multiple [big ticket](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-241/) [space projects](https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2055978) at once while wanting to maintain [lapsing space infrastructure](https://adithyapani.substack.com/p/the-space-pnt-report-1), taking a giant leap in mass to orbit performance is [just as important](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-33/#a-launch-trifecta) as improving launch frequency. India has no plans to have a heavy-lift rocket operating this decade since [the NGLV](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-33/#the-next-decade-and-nglv) isn’t coming online until the 2030s. In fact, even the [planned payload capacity upgrade](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-33/#a-shortfall-of-performance-and-timing) to the LVM3 as a transition phase to heavy-lift capabilities has seen [delays of over 10 years](https://web.archive.org/web/20150306173135/http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/thiruvananthapuram/Semi-cryogenic-Engine-ISRO-Charting-a-Revised-Plan/2015/03/02/article2693939.ece) at this point. ## Maximum launch rate by 2030 First, let’s see what India’s peak space launch potential is right now in 2026 across each rocket. - [LVM3 = 2](https://www.nsilindia.co.in/sites/default/files/Executive%20Summary%20-%20RFQ%20for%20ISRO%27s%20Heavy%20Lift%20Launcher%2C%20LVM3%20Production%20under%20a%20PPP%20with%20NSIL.pdf) - GSLV Mk II = 1 - [PSLV = 6](https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2009320®=3&lang=2) - SSLV = 6 While this shows ISRO has a current peak launch capacity of 15 per year in theory, in practice the capacity should be considered to be around **10 per year** until that ceiling breaks. This practical capacity number includes accounting for payload delays, pad refurbishments post-launches, safety considerations, and other such mission execution factors. Now let us review the maximum launch rate India can achieve by 2030 based on all [announced plans](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-33/) to upgrade its launch vehicles or their pads and production in various ways, optimistically assuming all the enhancements manifest. - [LVM3 = 4](https://www.nsilindia.co.in/sites/default/files/Executive%20Summary%20-%20RFQ%20for%20ISRO%27s%20Heavy%20Lift%20Launcher%2C%20LVM3%20Production%20under%20a%20PPP%20with%20NSIL.pdf) - GSLV Mk II = None; will retire in favor of LVM3 - [PSLV = 12](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/working-towards-50-launches-a-year-by-2029-says-isro-chief/articleshow/124934033.cms) - SSLV = 12 - Private = 2 (assuming full success for [private small launch vehicles](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-35/#no-place-is-building-a-pslv-replacement) in India) That gives us a peak launch capacity of around 30 per year. Like in the previous case, the practical capacity will be closer to around **20 per year**, especially because of [sharing of the First Launch Pad](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-35/). It’s also worth noting that there have already been [delays in increasing the launches](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-33/#small-yet-not-nimble) of the PSLV and SSLV rockets as promised. Now let’s review the launch manifest India needs to clear through during the same period to meet all its national space goals. ## Launch manifest 2026-2030 The following table estimates the minimum number of launches India requires for every major space segment, spanning satellite programs, space science missions, human spaceflight, and so on. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/03/india-space-launch-manifest-2026-2030.jpg) [Table: Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) India thus needs to conduct at least 128 space launches by 2030 to achieve all of these national goals. That’s **25+ launches/year** from this year onwards. In other words, it’s five times greater than the nation’s current launch rate averaging at 5, two and a half times more than the current maximum potential, and 25% higher than the peak capacity by 2030\. Even when we include ISRO’s [occasional use of foreign launch vehicles](https://www.nsilindia.co.in/sites/default/files/GSAT-N2%20Launched%20successfully.pdf) to meet some of India’s pressing civil space needs, this gap does not close in any significant way. Now yes, some small satellites and payloads can be launched as rideshares but note that on the other hand, a major chunk of the launch frequency increase by 2030 is attributed to the [SSLV rocket](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-19/), which cannot lift anything other than small satellites. Moreover, commonalities with the PSLV [affects SSLV’s flight rate](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-35/). The operationalization of the [dedicated launchpad](https://www.isro.gov.in/Foundation%5FStone%5FLaid%5Ffor%5FLaunch%5FPad%5Fat%5FSSLV%5FLaunch%5FComplex.html) for the SSLV, and other such small launch vehicles, has also seen delays, from 2025 to [at least 2028](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/working-towards-50-launches-a-year-by-2029-says-isro-chief/articleshow/124934033.cms). Private sector contributions to India’s launch capacity in the near term through Skyroot et al. [will only be on the small lift side](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-35/#no-place-is-building-a-pslv-replacement). In any case, the reality is India’s launch manifest leans squarely on the mass-heavy side for most of its national goals, leaving the need for small rockets largely on the margins. Indian private sector satellites launching on foreign rockets like the Falcon 9 do not account for the majority of launches by volume or mass right now. For strategic launches, the private sector too has to utilize Indian governmental or private rockets anyway so we’re back to square one. No country can claim to be a space power while relying on foreign rockets. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/03/india-space-launch-manifest-vs-launch-rates-2026-2030.jpeg) [Chart: Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) ## Slow to rebound Another issue is that following orbital launch failures, India’s return-to-flight times for its rockets are slower than the global rate, even if we *don’t normalize* for factors like heavier lift capacities or first flights of foreign rockets. The chart below illustrates the gap India needs to close. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/03/orbital-rockets-return-to-flight-times.jpeg) Data manually compiled from publicly available lists of space launches by each [rocket](https://spacestatsonline.com/rockets). [Chart: Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) Moreover, the failure of India’s one rocket [stalls or can stall launches](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-35/) of its other vehicles too, like the case of the recent PSLV failures due to its modules and component designs also being utilized by other ISRO rockets. --- There’s a worrying chasm between the planning and execution of India’s space missions even when considering best case scenarios. Any more delays or shortfalls, generally expected in spaceflight, will only deepen this fissure further. India is in a launch vehicle crisis, which extends beyond the PSLV failures. --- **Many thanks to* [***Takshashila Institution**](https://takshashila.org.in)**,* [***PierSight**](https://piersight.space) *and* [***Gurbir Singh**](https://gurbir.co.uk) *for being sponsors of Indian Space Progress. If you too appreciate my efforts to capture nuanced trajectories of India in space, provided to space communities worldwide for free and without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support my writing 🚀 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### Last three Indian Space Progress reports - [A space program can only move as swiftly as its rockets. It’s India’s time to act on that.](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-33/) - [ISRO and India had a mixed year in space in 2025](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-34/) - [When ISRO loses a PSLV rocket, India loses a launchpad in the present and the future](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-35/) ### Ignition, not yet liftoff, of NASA’s ambitious Artemis Moonbase plan | Moon Monday #268 URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-268/ Last updated: 2026-05-11T08:11:53.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/03/nasa-artemis-moonbase-illustration-3.jpeg) Illustrations of various elements of NASA’s new vision for an Artemis Moon Base. Images: NASA ([1](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-unveils-initiatives-to-achieve-americas-national-space-policy/), [2](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2026/02/27/nasa-adds-mission-to-artemis-lunar-program-updates-architecture/)) Through an event named [*Ignition*](https://www.nasa.gov/ignition/), last week NASA [announced](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-unveils-initiatives-to-achieve-americas-national-space-policy/) several details and more intentions on top of its recent [Artemis restructuring](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-264/) meant to accelerate landing US astronauts on the Moon by unveiling revised plans for building a $30 billion+, [multi-element Moonbase](https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2026/03/2-building-the-moon-base.pdf) within a decade similar to what China is planning with its upcoming [International Lunar Research Station](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/) (ILRS). Here’s a one-stop explainer and list of all known announcements and statements, or non-statements, along with [linked citations as always](https://jatan.space/i-write-for-you/). For full context, I’m also roping in related updates from this month by some companies and NASA. ## Nuking the Gateway - The NASA-led [Gateway orbital habitat](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) program is now on “pause”. Albeit NASA also said that Gateway’s [power and propulsion module](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-artemis-contract-for-lunar-gateway-power-propulsion) will be [repurposed to be sent to Mars](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/03/here-is-nasas-plan-for-nuking-gateway-and-sending-it-to-mars/). This new mission, called Space Reactor-1 (SR-1) Freedom, will demonstrate NASA’s nuclear-electric propulsion engine in space. The agency is targeting the Earth-Mars launch window of late 2028 for SR-1\. As such, SR-1 effectively kills the Gateway as originally planned. After SR-1, NASA’s next nuclear themed launch will a fission reactor heading to the Moon called Lunar Reactor-1 (LR-1). NASA hopes to operate LR-1 by 2030 as an alternative to solar power to tackle the [extreme lighting conditions](https://www.nasa.gov/ames/feature/the-dark-side-of-the-crater-how-light-looks-different-on-the-moon-and-what-nasa-is-doing) on the lunar south pole. - This move comes after NASA [un-nuked its decision to not use nuclear power](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-238/) on the Moon last year. Relatedly, Zeno Power [raised $50 million](https://spacenews.com/nuclear-battery-startup-zeno-power-raises-50-million-to-expand-in-space-and-at-sea/) last year, a major chunk of which it said will go towards developing and demonstrating the company’s [nuclear electric power system](https://spacenews.com/nasa-selects-companies-to-advance-lunar-power-and-other-technologies) on the Moon for NASA [by 2027](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-138/). Expect the company to position itself as a provider. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/03/zeno-nuclear-powered-rover-concept.jpeg) Concept image showing Zeno’s nuclear electrical power system being used on a lunar rover. [Image: Zeno Power](https://www.zenopower.com/news/nasa-selects-zeno-to-lead-team-to-develop-radioisotope-power-system-for-lunar-applications) ## Removing external blockers for crewed landers - The Gateway being gone removes the requirement for in-development crewed Artemis landers being made [by SpaceX](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) and [Blue Origin](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/) to orbit the Moon in Gateway’s [specific NRHO orbit](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/johnson/lunar-near-rectilinear-halo-orbit-gateway/), allowing them to dock with the crew-hosting [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) in other [potentially feasible shared orbits](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/03/nasa-has-shuffled-its-artemis-rockets-but-what-of-the-lunar-landers/). Relatedly, Marcia Smith [reported](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/kshatriya-hints-nasa-may-reconsider-south-pole-for-initial-artemis-landings/) that to avoid additional delays, NASA is considering the first Artemis landing to not be amid the [treacherous terrain](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/SPole%5FSRidgemap%5FLOLA-Slope5m%5Fv20190515.pdf) of the Moon’s south pole and be more equator-ward. These two updates aimed at removing blockers for the lander providers are a follow-up to NASA’s recently announced [Artemis rejig](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-264/) to accelerate landing Artemis astronauts on the Moon as the US aims to beat China is a [self-defined](https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/President-Trumps-Fiscal-Year-2026-Discretionary-Funding-Request-Overview.pdf) race. The changes ease a few things. For example, targeting a non-polar landing improves safety from a terrain perspective while also enhancing communications and power availability. - However, the relaxation of these few requirements by themselves don’t solve the majority of the challenges and delays faced by SpaceX and Blue Origin. The bulk of the work still rests on the two companies to independently tackle and solve, including cracking the code for [fast enough in-space refueling](https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/11/what-nasa-wants-to-see-from-spacexs-second-starship-test-flight) needed to achieve their respective crewed landings. NASA’s Office of Inspector General (OIG), which formally functions as an agency watchdog, [released a scathing report](https://oig.nasa.gov/office-of-inspector-general-oig/audit-reports/nasas-management-of-the-human-landing-system-contracts/) on March 10 pointing out the [various shortcomings and risks](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-ig-applauds-nasa-contracting-for-artemis-hls-raises-concerns-about-crew-safety/) in the crewed lunar landing systems. Notably, both companies are targeting insufficient robotic landing demonstrations prior to carrying crew. The OIG pointed out that neither of them simulate the full-scale mission profile of the crewed flights, and so even if NASA has successful robotic missions on both fronts, that would still not cover the full envelopes of the first SpaceX and Blue lunar landings with astronauts. According to the OIG, Lunar Starship in particular also enhances crew risks with the lack of sufficient manual control options, the stability of its large body during touchdown, and its high elevator. Another formal NASA review body, the Aerospace Safety Advisory Panel (ASAP), also noted the following in its [2025 report](https://www.nasa.gov/asap-reports/): > The development and test progress necessary for a version of Starship that has not yet flown in time to support a human lunar landing mission within the next few years appears daunting and, to the Panel, probably not achievable. Beyond this, the physics of landing a six-to-one height-to-width ratio vehicle on the uneven, poorly lit polar lunar surface seems questionable at best. - Interestingly, NASA also said during *Ignition* that it intends to have more than two crewed lunar landing providers in the future, going beyond the existing selection of SpaceX and Blue Origin, with the eventual aim of collectively having a Moon landing every six months one way or another. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/03/artemis-landers-blue-moon-lunar-starship-vs-apollo.jpg) Illustration of the SpaceX Lunar Starship and Blue Origin Blue Moon crewed landers on the Moon. NASA’s Apollo lander is added for comparison. [Image: NASA / OIG](https://oig.nasa.gov/office-of-inspector-general-oig/audit-reports/nasas-management-of-the-human-landing-system-contracts/) ## A new Moonbase plan - The people who have been working on Gateway at NASA are [being pivoted](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/03/we-got-an-audience-with-the-lunar-viceroy-to-talk-how-nasa-will-build-a-moon-base/) to focus on building a base on the Moon’s surface wherever possible. Starting in 2027, NASA wants to [accelerate](https://sam.gov/workspace/contract/opp/952ef3887980411aacd9dee70a370dd9/view) the [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) and have 10 lunar landing attempts every year, with the aim of using the program to establish and aggregate various base infrastructure elements on the Moon. So far there have been only four CLPS landing attempts since the program’s inception over seven years ago. The mission outcomes have been a mixed bag, with only [one from Firefly](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-218/#firefly-deserves-an-unusual-kudos) being wholly successful. These CLPS craft were small sized with limited cargo capacities but NASA wants the sizes and masses to grow rapidly over the next 5–10 years. In the 2030s, NASA wants to be able to leverage large cargo craft which can help sustain long duration crewed or crew-robotic missions at the Artemis Moonbase by delivering the high mass and volume of necessary hardware. The bulk of the surface mobility required to build and maintain complex infrastructure using this hardware is [being planned to be carried through](https://sam.gov/workspace/contract/opp/4a7c73f7f9f946bc90037f1849ae07f8/view) large rovers like the [Artemis Lunar Terrain Vehicle](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-171/) (LTV) and the in-development [advanced pressurized rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-172/) to be provided by JAXA. - At its peak, NASA plans for its Moonbase to support four astronauts for a month long stay. It will also have some capabilities to utilize local lunar resources [extracted from lunar soil](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-153/) such as [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/), and undertake basic [local construction](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-244/). This is something China already aims to start demonstrating with the upcoming [Chang’e 8](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/#prepare-for-crew-and-double-down-with-mission-eight) Moon landing mission in 2028, and then advance and feed it into the [ILRS Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/) through 2030–35. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/03/china-led-ilrs-moonbase-1.jpg) An artist’s concept showing initial plans for the Sino-led scientific Moonbase on the Moon’s south pole. [Image: CNSA / Roscosmos](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l2P5kFTBuOs) ## Community - Not specified in NASA’s flurry of announcements was the effect of Gateway’s effective killing on international space agency partners like ESA, CSA, and JAXA who have put [significant](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/canadarm3/about.asp) [investments](https://liquifer.com/gateway-i-hab) in the Gateway, [trading them for astronaut seats](https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-55906695) on Artemis missions. Not all of these investments can translate to a surface base, certainly not without added money and schedule costs. In any case, NASA did not specify either the Gateway effects on international partners or their new roles beyond [already previously agreed upon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-172/) surface hardware missions. It’s another example of the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords) having practically no bearing on the real nature of international lunar partnerships in the Artemis program. Marcia Smith [captured the dynamic](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-rolls-out-new-moon-plan/) of the non-announcement well: > \[NASA Administrator\] Isaacman said he has a “no surprises” philosophy and has had many discussions with \[the US\] industry and Congress in the three months he’s been in office. Less clear is how much notice the international partners had. ESA Director General Josef Aschbacher said last Thursday that he hadn’t been briefed on the plans at that point. ESA posted a new Gateway “blueprint” just last week. Isaacman and others stressed the importance of international partners in NASA missions, but exactly what role they will play in this new lunar vision is unclear. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/03/internationa-gateway-concept-1.jpeg) The international Gateway lunar orbital habitat concept that will now remain a concept. [Image: ESA](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2019/03/The%5FGateway%5Fconcept) - NASA also wants to have two navigation and communications (navcom) satellite constellations at the Moon instead of [one](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-selects-lunar-relay-contractor-for-near-space-network-services/) so as to better support the increased pace and scale of crewed and robotic missions. Through navcom service providers, the agency would first attempt to replicate China’s capabilities in this space, which has [already demonstrated all major elements](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-229/) of a lunar navcom network and is well along the process of [making a full scale network](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-185/) by 2035. - NASA [selected 10 more participating scientists](https://science.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/nasa-names-scientists-to-support-lunar-south-pole-science/) to complement the existing teams handling Artemis lunar [surface science](https://www.nasa.gov/solar-system/nasa-appoints-lunar-science-leads-for-artemis-iii-artemis-iv-missions/), [geology studies](https://www.nasa.gov/general/nasa-selects-geology-team-for-the-first-crewed-artemis-lunar-landing/), [instruments](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-170/), and the overall scientific operations. This move will further optimize the scientific survey, characterization, and picking up of samples during the Artemis IV and V surface missions, and the resulting processes will be fed into future missions as well as Moonbase operations. - NASA [released a new Request for Information](https://nspires.nasaprs.com/external/solicitations/summary!init.do?solId=%7b8DE683EB-80FF-3BC7-70A8-58DC829D83E4%7d&path=open) (RFI) primarily aimed at academia and industry for them to propose payloads that could be sent on any of the missions building up to the Artemis Moonbase. The payload proposals should be in line with the agency’s Moon to Mars [objectives](https://www.nasa.gov/moontomarsarchitecture-strategyandobjectives/) or [technology & data gaps](https://www.nasa.gov/moontomarsarchitecture-architecturedefinitiondocuments/), or [civil space technology shortfalls](https://www.nasa.gov/spacetechpriorities/) at large. There’s an interesting note in the RFI regarding global data sharing of planned lunar activities (emphasis mine): > *This RFI requests potential payload details that can be provided to NASA as well as potentially shared globally via an opt-in approach to a *public Lunar Payload Database*, to encourage broader interconnections in the growing lunar economy, connecting payload teams, funders, and CLPS delivery providers, among others. Payloads purchasing slots for delivery from the Moon directly from CLPS companies is strongly encouraged.* - This is a good start. However, it would be even better if entities [share technical and scientific information](https://jatan.space/a-registry-of-moon-missions/) from active missions both [on the surface](https://jatan.space/pitfalls-in-lunar-exploration/) and [in orbit](https://jatan.space/we-need-a-giant-leap-in-lunar-orbital-imagery/) so that mission outcomes can be compounded. Increased competition for contracts to deliver and manage elements of the Artemis Moonbase could instead mean more walled off approaches, which [don’t carry the momentum forward](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-228/) into the ecosystem as effectively unlike China’s case where all lunar mission information is shared nationally. ## In the company of - NASA also awarded Intuitive Machines a [$180.4 million contract](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/clps/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-to-deliver-artemis-science-tech-to-moon/) to deliver seven payloads to the Moon’s south pole at Mons Malapert in 2030\. This includes Australia’s first lunar rover called [Roo-ver](https://www.space.gov.au/meet-roo-ver) as part of a [US-Aussie partnership](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-97/). This CLPS Moon landing contract is Intuitive’s fifth. Unlike the first four missions which have been attempted or will be attempted by the company’s small-sized lander ‘Nova-C’, the fifth mission will use the larger cargo lander ‘[Nova-D](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/intuitive-machines-expands-lunar-surface-operations-with-180-4-million-nasa-clps-award)’. However, the aforementioned payloads weigh only 75 kilograms, something even Nova-C could carry. As such, Intuitive will have to fill up the rest of the large lander payload space by finding more customers. I assume this flight will include at least one lunar navcom orbiter from the company itself as it tries to build its service around the capability. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/03/medium-class-cargo-lunar-landers-intuitive-machines-and-ispace.jpeg) Medium cargo-class lunar lander illustrations. Images: [Intuitive Machines](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/clps/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-to-deliver-artemis-science-tech-to-moon/) / [ispace](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=8718) - ispace Japan’s US subsidiary’s [first NASA CLPS mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-184/) through Draper Technologies has been [delayed from 2027 to 2030](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=8718). ispace said the company is fusing the development of the two large cargo landers its US and Japanese units were mostly developing mostly separately into a single lander called ULTRA. ispace intends to have yearly flights of this lander from 2028, with the lunar farside landing for the CLPS mission coming in 2030 to prioritize robustness. Unlike the small-sized Hakuto-R lander ispace attempted two Moon landings with in [2023](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-125/) and [2025](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-228/) respectively, the ULTRA lander is medium-lift, the same class as the aforementioned Nova-D by Intuitive Machines. - ispace and US-based Argo Corp [announced](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=8731) that the duo aim to deploy at least five lunar satellites by 2030 to provide lunar communications, navigation, and imaging as a service. These satellites will in part rely on Japan-based ground station provider KDDI’s terrestrial communications network. The first satellite is aimed to be launched in 2027. ## The tough road ahead China, which [clinched yet another timely milestone](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-262/) last month in its quest to [land humans on Luna](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-237/) by 2030, and [shared detailed papers](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-267/) of its architecture, is the key catalyst for these lofty Artemis goals and renewed focus of NASA on the Moon. Not only has China had more [advances at Luna](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-255/#china) recently but it also touts a faster execution of its own crewed landing goal. NASA Administrator Jared Isaacman had [said](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-adds-mission-to-artemis-lunar-program-updates-architecture/) the following during the Artemis rejig: > With credible competition from our greatest geopolitical adversary increasing by the day, we need to move faster, eliminate delays, and achieve our objectives. This theme recurred during *Ignition*. As noted by Isaacman in an [email letter sent to NASA employees](https://xcancel.com/NASAAdmin/status/2036428252693078055), the aim of the flurry of announcements is also to signal this desire for high mission cadence and large scale activity as demands to the US space industry so that the latter can reorganize, invest, and operate accordingly. Isaacman stressed repeatedly that NASA will embed its talent and expertise across the US space industry to increase the chances of successes for these dozens of upcoming lunar missions and goals. From Isaacman’s said letter: > Few disagree with the direction we are taking, but many question the achievability. There is a belief among some that NASA has drifted so far from its best days that we can no longer undertake big, bold endeavors and deliver on them. That is why we must take ownership of the outcomes. We will not sit on our hands and hope industry saves the day. NASA will assign subject matter experts to every program supporting the National Space Policy, from returning to the Moon to building a lunar base. We will work alongside every vendor, attached to every component on the critical path and down to the subcontractor level. There is also an extended tone of high expectation of returns to this approach, which Eric Berger has [captured](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/03/nasa-kills-lunar-space-station-to-focus-on-ambitious-moon-base/) in his report: > The space agency is prepared to do everything it can to help its contractors succeed, from embedding subject matter experts to relaxing requirements. But the time for excuses is coming to an end, he \[Isaacman\] said. “We are not going to sit idly by while schedules slip or budgets are exceeded,” he said. “Expect uncomfortable action if that is what it takes. Because the public has invested $100 billion and has been very patient with America’s return to the Moon. Expectations are rightfully very high. Taxpayers and their representatives in Congress should demand accountability from every leader and every CEO if those expectations are not met.” It will be interesting to see if this demanding hand manifests for SpaceX’s Lunar Starship in particular if the company [continues to lapse](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-240/) on its promised development timelines. Over and above the aforementioned issues with the Artemis crewed landers, we still don’t know what the accelerated Lunar Starship proposal actually looks like. Neither NASA nor SpaceX & Blue Origin have shared firm launch targets for their uncrewed lunar landing demonstrations. Without such a demonstration, the respective landers cannot safely carry Artemis astronauts. This information would be more important to have instead of a deluge of futuristic sounding plans. Overall, the boost to Artemis and renewed focus on the Moon is great to see. The more nations that commit to orchestrating concerted efforts to sustain lunar exploration, the merrier. But announcements and elaborate plans alone cannot be a cause for pedaling and parroting optimism. I should know, as someone who has planned almost a dozen extra blogs over the years that sounded great in theory but never worked in practice. Except this blog, which has worked because of doing the hard work of writing with diligence. And so, what truly matters is how NASA drives the execution of the Artemis Moonbase in reality. And if it starts attaching and sharing firm timelines to key milestones, leading up to complete public transparency that NASA can be best known for. I truly hope that this decade sees both China and the US land humans on the Moon, inspiring more people across the globe in a way that only one of them would never be able to. The [promise of our Moon](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) awaits. ***Continue this thread:** [**Key developments to watch out this year*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-264/#key-developments-to-watch-out-for-this-year) *as China and the US work towards crewed Moon landings* 🌗 ## All eyes on Artemis II ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/03/sls-rocket-artemis-ii-launchpad-moon-bg.jpg) The Artemis II SLS rocket at its launchpad at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida, with our Moon providing the ultimate backdrop. [Image: NASA / Ben Smegelsky](https://images.nasa.gov/details/KSC-20260201-PH-JBS01%5F0097) While the long-term Artemis updates are great, the imminent [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-ii-press-kit/) mission to fly [four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/our-artemis-crew/) around the Moon and back is where all eyes will rightly be this April. On March 20, NASA [transported](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2026/03/20/nasas-artemis-ii-rocket-arrives-at-launch-pad-39b/) the mission’s [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/reference/space-launch-system/) to its launchpad at the agency’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida after finishing pre-launch [preparatory work](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-266/). NASA is targeting the launch in the [first week of April](https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2026/01/artemis-ii-mission-availability.pdf), starting from April 1\. The five-hour launch window for that day opens at 6:24pm ET. The astronauts entered [quarantine](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-259/) on March 18 to reduce their exposure to pathogens in the days leading up to launch. They traveled from NASA’s Johnson Space Center to the Kennedy Space Center [on March 27](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/u-s-canadian-astronaut-crew-ready-for-flight-around-the-moon/) while maintaining quarantine protocols. NASA has published a detailed [Artemis II launch countdown timeline](https://www.nasa.gov/general/nasa-releases-artemis-ii-moon-mission-launch-countdown/) on its website. You can watch Artemis II launch live on [](https://www.youtube.com/@NASA/streams)[NASA+](https://plus.nasa.gov/scheduled-video/nasas-artemis-ii-crew-launches-to-the-moon-official-broadcast/) or [YouTube](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tf%5FUjBMIzNo), and follow formal mission updates on the official [Artemis blog](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/artemis/). ***Related:** [**How NASA has planned to keep Artemis II astronauts safe throughout their Moon mission*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-260/) 🛟 --- **Many thanks to* [***Astrolab**](https://astrolab.space)**,* [***Louis-Jérôme Burtz**](https://www.linkedin.com/in/ljburtz)**,* [***Vidyasagar Mundroy**](https://www.instagram.com/mvsagar) *and* [***Sean Gulick**](https://www.jsg.utexas.edu/researcher/sean%5Fgulick/) *for being Moon Monday sponsors. If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support Moon Monday 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ****Meta** (the good kind): This Moon Monday edition was published from the beautiful and green hill station of [Coorg, India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodagu%5Fdistrict) while sipping on its special [Bella filter coffee](http://www.acookeryyearincoorg.com/?p=1575). See the list of [places I’ve published Moon Mondays from](https://thoughts.jatan.space/posts/places-ive-published-moon-monday-editions-from). ### China surfaces details of spacecraft to land humans on Luna by 2030 | Moon Monday #267 URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-267/ Last updated: 2026-04-24T07:36:44.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/03/lanyue-lander-modules-and-propulsion-1.jpeg) ****Left:** Model of the ‘Lanyue’ lunar lander stacked on top of its propulsion module; ****Right:** Diagram of the propulsion system of the lander. Images: [Shujianyang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chinese%5Fcrewed%5Flunar%5Flander%5Fmockup%5F01%5F-%5FNMC.jpg) / [SAST / CASC](https://journal26.magtechjournal.com/kjkxjs/CN/10.16708/j.cnki.1000-758X.2026.0028#) The Chinese-language research journal “Chinese Space Science and Technology” has [published a special issue](http://zgkj.cast.cn) on the development of various [elements of China’s crewed Moon missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-237/) with 14 ‘open access’ papers. This includes [details](https://journal26.magtechjournal.com/kjkxjs/CN/10.16708/j.cnki.1000-758X.2026.0025) of the \~26,000-kilogram crewed lunar landing system called ‘Lanyue’, which means ‘embracing the Moon’ in Chinese. Lanyue comprises a crewed lander and an attached heavy propulsion module. It’s the latter which will initiate lunar surface descent from orbit and shave off the bulk of the combined craft’s orbital velocity. When the crew reaches a few kilometers above the Moon’s surface, the propulsion module will jettison from the lander, thereby lightening the load for the final landing and touchdown of the astronauts—or more accurately, taikonauts. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/03/china-crewed-landing-trajectory.jpeg) China’s crewed lunar landing trajectory design. [Images: BICE / SAST / CASC](https://journal26.magtechjournal.com/kjkxjs/CN/10.16708/j.cnki.1000-758X.2026.0025) | Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) The special issue of papers also has one which [details various redundancy measures](https://journal26.magtechjournal.com/kjkxjs/CN/10.16708/j.cnki.1000-758X.2026.0021) China is planning for to ensure the safety of taikonauts throughout various phases of Moon missions should any key hardware element fail. From Jack Congram’s [coverage of the papers](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/mengzhou-abort-plans-lanyue-lander): > Should the propulsion module’s engine fail \[before beginning descent\], the Lanyue lander remains in orbit and aborts landing attempts. If a YF-36 engine fails on the lunar landing module, the engine opposite also shuts down to retain symmetrical thrust, resulting in an abort to orbit, delayed touchdown, or longer than planned flight back into orbit. \[...\] Some mission abort scenarios [won’t require a return to Earth](https://journal26.magtechjournal.com/kjkxjs/CN/10.16708/j.cnki.1000-758X.2026.0021), depending on what fails. For example, should Lanyue have an issue arise prior to descent orbit insertion, a longer lunar orbit mission conducting experiments and observing the Moon’s surface can take place using crew supplies intended for surface exploration. Below is a high-level diagram of the nominal mission profile and architecture China is employing for its crewed Moon landing missions, followed by some key abort and adaption scenarios to handle emergencies stemming from hardware failures. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/03/china-crewed-moon-mission-profile.jpeg) High-level diagram of the nominal mission profile and architecture China is employing for its crewed Moon landing missions. [Image: Kaynouky](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:China%5Fcrewed%5Fmoon%5Fmission%5Fprofile.svg) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/03/china-crewed-moon-missions-hardware-failure-abort-and-emergency-scenarios.jpeg) Some key abort and adaption scenarios for China’s crewed Moon missions to handle emergencies stemming from hardware failures. Images: [CMSA / CMSEO](https://journal26.magtechjournal.com/kjkxjs/CN/10.16708/j.cnki.1000-758X.2026.0021) / [Kaynouky](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:China%5Fcrewed%5Fmoon%5Fmission%5Fprofile.svg) (icons) A [paper](https://journal26.magtechjournal.com/kjkxjs/CN/10.16708/j.cnki.1000-758X.2026.0025) also reveals that Chinese taikonauts have been training for various landing scenarios in a Lanyue lander simulator, which has manual control options to override autonomous touchdown. This training in itself is helping engineers iterate on the lander’s development. In contrast, the lack of sufficient manual control in SpaceX’s in-development [Lunar Starship lander](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) for NASA is [one of the major issues](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-ig-applauds-nasa-contracting-for-artemis-hls-raises-concerns-about-crew-safety/) flagged by the agency’s Office of Inspector General (OIG) in a [recent report](https://oig.nasa.gov/office-of-inspector-general-oig/audit-reports/nasas-management-of-the-human-landing-system-contracts/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/03/lanyue-lunar-lander-and-landing-simulator-1.jpeg) ****Left:** The Lanyue lander simulator for taikonaut training; ****Right:** View of the Moon’s surface inside the simulator as taikonauts approach touchdown. [Images: BICE / SAST / CASC](https://journal26.magtechjournal.com/kjkxjs/CN/10.16708/j.cnki.1000-758X.2026.0025) Moreover, in August 2025, China [successfully conducted](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/lanyue-lunar-lander-conducts-simulated) a terrestrially simulated autonomous lunar landing and takeoff test using a full-scale mockup of Lanyue. For this control systems test, the China Manned Space Agency (CMSA) used the same [exogravity simulation system](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LKNt3dCUvjU) in Huailai County outside Beijing as it did for previous tests part of past robotic Moon and Mars landing missions. The system involves giant tethered towers to simulate lunar gravity and an artificially cratered, rugged terrain on the ground to mimc the Moon’s surface. The test seemed to show apt coordination between the lander’s main engines and fine-control thrusters as orchestrated by Lanyue’s guidance, navigation, and control system by engaging all sensors and imagers. As Ling Xin [had noted](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3321150/china-completes-key-lander-test-preparation-crewed-moon-mission-2030) at the time, this test did not involve the propulsion module. China is likely to test the propulsion module among the [battery of tests this year](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-258/) as the nation targets the first crewed landing by 2030. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/03/china-lanyue-crewed-lander-mockup-propulsion-gnc-test-2.jpeg) Shots from the control systems test of China’s Lanyue lander module for crewed Moon missions. The full-scale lander mockup is seen next to humans in the inset image at the bottom right. Images: [CASC](https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/xywWynVaOQrTpWbKtHfveg) / [CMSA](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LKNt3dCUvjU) | Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) In late 2024, China [created a test stand](http://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4193399/content.html?ref=jatan.space) in the northwestern Shaanxi province, which can simulate the kind of high-altitude and vacuum conditions that the Lanyue landing system will experience during its lunar descent and touchdown. The stand allows the landing system’s engines to be tested for burn durations of beyond 20 minutes, more time than they would need to be lit during the lunar descent and touchdown. Apparently this specialized test stand took only eight months to complete, [according to Li Guanghui of CAST](https://news.cgtn.com/news/2024-09-12/Asia-s-largest-high-altitude-test-stand-for-space-engines-put-into-use-1wPlSsnIOZy/p.html?ref=jatan.space) who was involved in the project. China is considering equatorial and near-equatorial sites to land humans on Luna. One of the 14 priority sites being considered based on engineering feasibility and scientific value is the [volcanic landscape of Rimae Bode](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-026-02790-0.epdf?sharing%5Ftoken=xBJ15U-eVWdiBXAUL4vVx9RgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0MBpJEbzegfeD7AHlNSomj5KFLgQdXpMh833eXxMUPPCMfaV5jCD3qsvlHnxyvYvx1VmT3Kw9sj-ohnZDKDlOUsTk0gE4YOMGxP%5FzEYAAUvhnQk1SOnlUlxuI70-9OYSMNs1RrB%5FB7II0XMnEONOKNEHmkEtALEgKPwuoXZ9k6TNhOBEwVZhFBYBv5voCDnwLE%3D). Relatedly, early last year the China Manned Space Engineering Office (CMSEO) announced a [call for Chinese organizations](https://www.cmse.gov.cn/xwzx/202502/t20250214%5F56299.html) to bid for developing and operating a [lunar mapping satellite](https://spacenews.com/china-invites-bids-for-lunar-satellite-to-support-crewed-moon-landing-missions/) by 2028 in support of crewed Moon missions. The satellite’s mandate is to obtain high-precision mineral, topographic, and geomorphic data of the Moon’s low-latitude regions to aid planning of surface missions. [CAST won](https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/vMbPlbiOPjKOOjqIHohd5Q) the bid. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/03/china-crewed-moon-landing-site-candidate-rimae-bode.jpeg) Rimae Bode, one of the priority landing sites for China’s crewed Moon missions. Images: [Jun Huang et al.](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-026-02790-0.epdf?sharing%5Ftoken=xBJ15U-eVWdiBXAUL4vVx9RgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0MBpJEbzegfeD7AHlNSomj5KFLgQdXpMh833eXxMUPPCMfaV5jCD3qsvlHnxyvYvx1VmT3Kw9sj-ohnZDKDlOUsTk0gE4YOMGxP%5FzEYAAUvhnQk1SOnlUlxuI70-9OYSMNs1RrB%5FB7II0XMnEONOKNEHmkEtALEgKPwuoXZ9k6TNhOBEwVZhFBYBv5voCDnwLE%3D) / [CMSA / CCTV](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UUH5YyRPPXE) Last but not the least, Lanyue [will be capable of](https://journal26.magtechjournal.com/kjkxjs/CN/10.16708/j.cnki.1000-758X.2026.0025) performing [precision landings](https://jatan.space/precision-moon-landings-and-the-future/) on the Moon, something especially necessary to safely touchdown astronauts when targeting the [treacherous south polar terrain](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/SPole%5FSRidgemap%5FLOLA-Slope5m%5Fv20190515.pdf) in later missions. China’s upcoming [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-248/) and [Chang’e 8](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/#prepare-for-crew-and-double-down-with-mission-eight) robotic Moon landing missions, targeted for launch later this year and in 2028 respectively, will demonstrate precision landings as well as the ability to explore the lunar south pole for [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other resources. Both of these capabilities will be valuable for China’s plan to create the nation-led crew-plus-robotic [ILRS Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/) in the 2030s, which will follow the string of initial crewed Moon missions. Relatedly, Jack Congram [reported](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/shanghai-academy-exploring-methane) that China’s SAST is building what they claim is a lower-cost lunar lander program for future cargo deliveries to the ILRS Moonbase, and to various lunar location for any international customers. ***Related:** [**Tests China will conduct this year in prep towards landing humans on Luna*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-258/) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/03/cgi-concept-of-china-crewed-moon-landing-mission.jpg) CGI concept of China’s first crewed Moon landing mission. [Image: PhilLeafSpace](https://m.weibo.cn/detail/4922740148013011?ref=jatan.space) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/03/china-led-ilrs-moonbase.jpg) An artist’s concept showing initial plans for the Sino-led scientific Moonbase on the Moon’s south pole. [Image: CNSA / Roscosmos](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l2P5kFTBuOs) --- **Many thanks to* [***Open Lunar Foundation**](https://www.openlunar.org)**,* [***Henry Throop**](https://www.linkedin.com/in/henry-throop-a47a6a7), [***Louis-Jérôme Burtz**](https://www.linkedin.com/in/ljburtz) *and* [***Vidyasagar Mundroy**](https://www.instagram.com/mvsagar) *for sponsoring Moon Monday. If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support Moon Monday 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### Moon Monday #266: Future governance questions and current mission updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-266/ Last updated: 2026-07-05T08:52:36.000Z ## We can build cities on the Moon—but who will govern them? *Amid a global lunar rush, will we land peaceful norms alongside our spacecraft?* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/03/starship-takeoff-the-moon.jpg) Illustration of a SpaceX Lunar Starship taking off from a Moonbase. Image: SpaceX Last month SpaceX and its founder Elon Musk flipped their stance on the Moon [from treating it as a distraction](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/01/elon-musk-were-going-straight-to-mars-the-moon-is-a-distraction/) to positioning it as [central to their idea](https://x.com/elonmusk/status/2020640004628742577) of preserving our civilization—after more than two decades of emphasizing Mars as the primary destination. The stated rationale for change and the catalyst involves building a Moonbase and a self-growing city within 10 years that can power lunar factories and launch orbital AI data centers, the latter part being the backdrop to SpaceX’s [acquisition of xAI](https://arstechnica.com/ai/2026/02/spacex-acquires-xai-plans-1-million-satellite-constellation-to-power-it/). Even though elements of these visions remain speculative, such ambitious announcements carry real repercussions on lunar governance and global policy. SpaceX’s move is neither self-driven nor made in isolation. Last year when the US saw China’s [steady strides](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-237/) towards landing humans on the Moon by 2030, the American government sought to accelerate its [delayed Artemis efforts](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-240/) in hopes to land astronauts before China. NASA [reopened](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-248/#nasa-reopens-artemis-iii-human-landing-contract) the Artemis III landing contract to accelerate it. Jeff Bezos-owned Blue Origin bid for it and also decided to [pause the company’s other internal projects](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/01/heres-why-blue-origin-just-ended-its-suborbital-space-tourism-program/) to focus most resources and efforts on the Moon. Industry momentum toward the Moon is part of a broader global trajectory, and is now being accelerated. The last ten years have seen a [global interest](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-255/) in lunar exploration, with multiple countries sending diverse missions. Many more are in the pipeline, with the majority of them [converging at the water-hosting lunar south pole](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/as-moon-missions-mount-globally-we-need-to-preserve-future-exploration-and-science) and in [low lunar polar orbit](https://jatan.space/a-registry-of-moon-missions/). Continued [mission successes](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-255/#china) by China and renewed focus from the US & its partners will likely accelerate activity further. The economic and scientific implications of any sustained lunar infrastructure could be immense. Regardless of the near-term feasibility, just the fact that public commitments of large scale lunar development are being made by players with theoretical capacities to reach the Moon in substantial forms is enough to affect and alter international policy and regulatory landscapes on Earth. Amid such heated competition and accelerating timelines of humanity’s future, early precedents—such as how actors share information, access resources, understand land usage and rights, and regulate infrastructure—could shape global lunar activity for decades to come. These practices could either enable broad participation or gate future access. It could also gravely [affect fundamental lunar science](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-239/#science-does-not-exist-in-a-lunar-vacuum) in the process, which is also [tied to](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) understanding the Solar System itself. How do we manage such activity? To counter the many consequences of unilaterally-led large-scale lunar activities by any party, peaceful governance norms and practical coordination mechanisms must develop alongside technological progress. The US has historically favored de facto practices over multilateral agreement in space. Norms set by the US or its partners through the [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords) but not via other, more international means thus would not apply to non-signatories like China. Vice versa is also true. In such low-trust environments, it’s critical that operating parties share [minimum viable information](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-232/#information-sharing-enables-cutting-edge-lunar-exploration) and coordinate their activities [through the UN](https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/copuos/index.html) and [complementary neutral platforms](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/ledger-launch-press-release) to avoid operational overlaps and disputes over lunar areas and its resources. Middle space powers including India and Japan can play crucial swing roles by intentionally shaping norms through their capabilities and partnerships. Two such upcoming missions have exactly such potential: India’s [Chandrayaan 4](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-241/) sample return and the joint ISRO-JAXA [LUPEX rover](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/), both heading to the lunar south pole. In such ways, we can begin to place mutually beneficial governance frameworks early enough, gradually building trust through transparency for a peaceful future in our skies. The Moon is an object of hope for cultures all around the world. Retaining that shared meaning requires that lunar governance evolves alongside technological progress. *This section was originally published on* [*The Space Review*](https://www.thespacereview.com/article/5164/1)*, authored by* [*myself*](https://jatan.space/about) *and* [*Rachel Williams*](https://www.openlunar.org/rachel) *of the* [*Open Lunar Foundation*](https://www.openlunar.org)*, a Moon Monday sponsor.* --- ## Mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/03/sls-rocket-artemis-ii-launchpad-moon-bg-with-mission-crew-patch.jpeg) The top of the Artemis II SLS rocket at its launchpad at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida, with our Moon providing the ultimate backdrop. Bottom left: Artemis II mission crew patch. Images: [NASA / Sam Lott](https://images.nasa.gov/details/Artemis%20II%20at%20the%20pad%20Full%20Snow%20Moon%2002012026%5F4) / [Greg Manchess](https://images.nasa.gov/details/jsc2025e034457) - On February 25, NASA [rolled back](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2026/02/25/nasa-artemis-ii-rocket-returns-for-repairs/) the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/reference/space-launch-system/) and its attached [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) from the vehicle’s launchpad at the agency’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida to its assembly building about seven kilometers away. Technicians then [replaced a dislodged seal](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2026/03/03/nasa-repairs-upper-stage-helium-flow-preps-continue-ahead-of-rollout/) in a fueling interface of the rocket’s [upper stage](https://www.ulalaunch.com/interim-cryogenic-propulsion-stage-%28icps%29) to fix the helium flow issue [encountered last month](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-263/). Ahead of the impending launch of the [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-ii-press-kit/) mission to fly [four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/our-artemis-crew/) around the Moon and back, teams were to also replace batteries across the vehicle, service its flight termination system, and replace a seal on the rocket’s core stage liquid oxygen line feed system. On March 12, NASA [completed the Artemis II Flight Readiness Review](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2026/03/12/artemis-ii-flight-readiness-polls-go-to-proceed-toward-april-launch/), which polled positive to target launching the mission in the [first week of April](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-now-targeting-april-1-for-artemis-ii-launch-around-the-moon/). NASA is targeting March 19 to roll the SLS to its launchpad. - NASA’s plans to [fully rejig Artemis](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-264/), including canceling the SLS rocket’s [upper stage upgrade & new pad](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/esdmd/nasa-strengthens-artemis-adds-mission-refines-overall-architecture/), is getting [support from the US Senate](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/03/the-us-senate-empowers-nasa-to-fully-engage-in-lunar-space-race/). If the US House agrees, [such a bill can pass](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/senate-committee-clears-new-nasa-authorization-bill-calls-for-moon-base/) and make the rejig fully formal. Moreover, a [notice on sam.gov](https://sam.gov/workspace/contract/opp/9a93c52c2eba4f5abed0305b3fb4512a/view) published on March 6 states that the new standardized upper stage for the SLS rocket, to replace the previously planned upgraded one, will be based on the potent [Centaur V](https://www.flickr.com/photos/ulalaunch/49720321573/in/album-72157690220351103/) stage used on ULA’s [Vulcan](https://www.ulalaunch.com/rockets/vulcan-centaur) rocket. From the notice: > NASA/MSFC intends to issue a sole source contract to acquire next-generation upper stages for use in Space Launch System (SLS) Artemis IV and Artemis V from United Launch Alliance (ULA) in accordance with FAR 6.103-1(c), Only One Responsible Source and No Other Supplies or Services Will Satisfy Agency Requirements due to the highly specialized nature of this requirement. A determination by the Government not to compete this acquisition on a full and open competition basis is solely within the discretion of the Government. - In the meanwhile, NASA’s Office of Inspector General (OIG), which formally functions as an agency watchdog, [released a scathing report](https://oig.nasa.gov/office-of-inspector-general-oig/audit-reports/nasas-management-of-the-human-landing-system-contracts/) on March 10 pointing out the various shortcomings and risks in the crewed lunar landing systems being developed [by SpaceX](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) and [Blue Origin](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/) for NASA Artemis. Marcia Smith has [provided the best rundown](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-ig-applauds-nasa-contracting-for-artemis-hls-raises-concerns-about-crew-safety/) of the report which captures all major issues, from both landers facing developmental delays and targeting insufficient robotic landing demonstrations prior to carrying crew to Lunar Starship’s crew risks with autonomous navigation, stability during touchdown, and its elevator. This was the first time any such low-level details about the in-development Artemis landers were made public. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/03/mengzhou-in-flight-abort-test-plus-long-march-10a-flight.jpeg) The background image shows the Mengzhou capsule escaping from the Long March 10A booster, which itself kept flying towards space on February 11\. Inset images show the respective guided splashdowns of the capsule and booster as well as their mission patches. Images: [CMSA / CMSEO](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/china-successfully-conducts-mengzhou) / [CALT](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/long-march-10a-test-booster-flew) | Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) - Jack Congram [reported](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/mengzhou-capsule-undergoing-further) that following China’s [in-flight abort test](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-262/) of its next-generation astronaut capsule last month, CASC has [revealed](https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/N12X-F7-F4TeBzlv%5F8KrFg) that the capsule used for that flight was the same one used in the prior [launchpad escape](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-230/) and [air drop](https://x.com/WLR%5F2678/status/1914868706594959601?s=20) tests. In fact, the capsule will continue to be further tested in the sea, such as examining how it floats in an unassisted manner, which is an indicator of how well it can protect future lunar taikonauts awaiting to be rescued post splashdown on Earth. Congram also [reports](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/reusable-rockets-deep-space-exploration) that lunar taikonauts will be [chosen from among those with prior experience](https://www.peopleapp.com/column/30051612379-500007388299) at China’s Tiangong Space Station. - Adithya Kothandhapani’s article “[Mars gets a network, the Moon gets a market](https://adithyapani.substack.com/p/mars-gets-a-network-moon-gets-a-market)” notes how the patchwork of political solutions by the US in planning [lunar communications and navigation](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-185/) infrastructure at the Moon contrasts against the necessity-first, engineering-driven approach NASA adopted at Mars—and which China [has taken at Luna](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-229/) too. --- **Many thanks to* [***Henry Throop**](https://www.linkedin.com/in/henry-throop-a47a6a7)**,* [***Kris Zacny**](https://www.linkedin.com/in/kris-zacny-8a71ba1), [***Louis-Jérôme Burtz**](https://www.linkedin.com/in/ljburtz) *and* [***Yuqi Qian**](https://yuqiqian.com/) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday. If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support Moon Monday 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### NASA falters in communications yet again with Lunar Trailblazer failure | Moon Monday #265 URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-265/ Last updated: 2026-07-05T08:48:57.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/03/lunar-trailblazer-poster.jpg) Concept image showing how Lunar Trailblazer’s remote sensing data was to distinguish between lunar water in the form of ice crystals versus mineral-bound states. [Image: Jasper Miura / Lockheed Martin](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/gallery.html) Joe Palca of NPR has [reported](https://www.npr.org/2026/02/26/nx-s1-5727622/nasa-lunar-trailblazer-moon-new-report-what-went-wrong) that the NASA-funded [Lunar Trailblazer](https://jatan.space/nasa-lunar-trailblazer/) spacecraft, which was [lost](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/small-satellite-missions/lunar-trailblazer/nasas-lunar-trailblazer-moon-mission-ends/) shortly after its [February 2025 launch](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-215/#intuitive-machines-launches-second-moon-lander), failed because its solar panels were pointing perfectly away from the Sun. This chiefly happened because a) the spacecraft vendor Lockheed Martin did not properly test the craft’s pointing software pre-launch and b) the 180° pointing couldn’t be corrected by Trailblazer’s computer due to a host of distinct onboard software issues in managing faults. These resulted in loss of power and permanent communications loss. The [failure analysis report](https://jatan.space/nasa-lunar-trailblazer-failure-report-pdf/) also highlights issues with the lunar orbiter’s mission planning and operations design as considerable contributors to the failure. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/03/lunar-trailblazer-sequence-of-post-launch-faults.jpg) Screenshot from the [failure analysis report](https://jatan.space/nasa-lunar-trailblazer-failure-report-pdf/) about the sequence of post-launch issues faced by Lunar Trailblazer The $72 million Trailblazer spacecraft was [supposed to provide](https://jatan.space/nasa-lunar-trailblazer/) scientists with unprecedented, high-resolution global orbital maps of the amount, distribution, and state of [lunar water](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). Having this geologic context is necessary to effectively plan, conduct, and interpret future lunar water studies from the surface. Understanding lunar water so as to access it is a key goal of the Artemis program, which [the US has been repeatedly failing to achieve](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-221/). Now one must consider that Trailblazer was designed as part of NASA’s [SIMPLEx](https://www.nasa.gov/solar-system/nasa-confirms-new-simplex-mission-small-satellite-to-blaze-trails-studying-lunar-surface/) program, which specifically funds missions to advance the agency’s planetary science goals on low budgets, thereby accepting greater risks than typical NASA missions. Having said that, Trailblazer did go through a [NASA continuation/termination review](https://spacenews.com/lunar-trailblazer-faces-nasa-review-after-cost-overruns/) during its development and cleared it. The review had gotten triggered due to engineering cost overruns by Lockheed Martin, which ended up crossing NASA’s $55 million budget cap for SIMPLEX missions. At the end, Trailblazer’s performance issues clearly persisted despite added costs for better engineering. Coupled with the mission’s outsized scientific importance, which the mission’s science & web teams [explained brilliantly](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/education.html) pre-launch, definitely file the panel pointing mistake and software oversights under [space missions lost to human errors](https://jatan.space/space-missions-lost-to-human-errors/) and [mistakes to avoid in our grand return to the Moon](https://jatan.space/past-lunar-mission-mistakes-to-avoid/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/03/water-on-the-moon-m3-chandrayaan-1.jpg) Lunar Trailblazer was supposed to follow-up on a key Indo-US discovery by the [Chandrayaan 1](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/) mission of finding water and hydroxyl laid across the Moon’s surface (shown in blue and violet respectively on this map). [Image: ISRO / NASA](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/images/pia12237-water-detected-at-high-latitudes) Disappointingly, NASA did not provide this update on the taxpayer-funded mission’s failure analysis findings through its website and associated official public & press channels. This is an oddity for the agency. Even [NASA’s Trailblazer blog](https://science.nasa.gov/blogs/lunar-trailblazer/) and mission lead Caltech’s [Trailblazer blog](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/news.html) did not provide said update. If one engages people pre-launch and expects them to cheer you on, one should also expect people to want to stay engaged post-anomalies. Instead, NASA only provided the failure analysis report to NPR when the latter filed a legal [Freedom of Information Act](https://www.foia.gov) request. It’s possible that the lack of official updates may be inadvertently stemming from the swath of operational changes at NASA last year by the new Trump administration. But it’s been over six months now since the August 26, 2025 date stamped on the [failure analysis report](https://jatan.space/nasa-lunar-trailblazer-failure-report-pdf/). And there’s also the fact of NPR [noting](https://www.npr.org/2026/02/26/nx-s1-5727622/nasa-lunar-trailblazer-moon-new-report-what-went-wrong) in its story that “neither Lockheed Martin nor NASA would provide a spokesperson” for commenting on the matter, which is February this year, and with a formal administrator, Jared Isaacman, who has repeatedly [expressed calls for transparency](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-classifies-starliner-cft-as-type-a-mishap-leadership-changes-coming/) at NASA. The situation gets disappointing further still because no one in the US or Western media seems to have pointed out these lack of official updates on the failure findings as an issue in itself. Unfortunately for fans and admirers of NASA worldwide, myself included, this is yet another area where NASA’s communications have faltered off late. Below are other such examples: - Isaacman started [calling the Artemis program “manned”](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-264/#from-crewed-artemis-to-manned-apollo) despite NASA explicitly sending a woman to the Moon on [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii). - NASA [falsely claimed](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-271/) that it could select landing sites for future Artemis missions through Artemis II. - The agency has made blanket statements about the world’s lacking lunar capabilities [which ignore China’s existing capability](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-261/#dear-nasa-chinese-space-missions-exist-too) and plans. - NASA has [called unsuccessful missions like Intuitive Machines’ IM-1 as successful](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-208/), and hasn’t changed that stance even after acknowledging the [practically identical outcome of IM-2](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-216/#tipped-intuitive-mooncraft-dies-with-none-of-the-net-130-million-worth-of-payloads-deployed) as not being a success. Like many, I have grown up being immensely inspired by NASA. I hold great admiration for the many pioneering aspects of the agency, including its general high communications standard. I’m often found urging ISRO officials to follow NASA’s global lead in effectively communicating the science and technology of its civil space missions \[pre-launch Trailblazer [qualifies](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/education.html)\]. But with NASA dropping the ball on communications lately, this ideal reference falters. NASA’s aforementioned strays are concerning in the long run. Basing on [ISRO’s stints to such opaque ends](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-35/) in dealing with mission failures, as but one example, there’s enough precedence in spaceflight history to show that it doesn’t take too much from hereon to set less-transparent tones as the new default expectation for updates on taxpayer-funded missions. Like people, every space agency has its issues. But NASA’s technical and science communications have demonstrated the highest bar for long periods. We should hold them to that standard. It’s also how other space agencies, companies, and organizations can see a live example to match, and even aspire to outperform later on. ## Open access NASA, the best ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/03/apollo-17-frozen-sample.jpg) A frozen Apollo 17 sample being processed inside a nitrogen-purged glove box at NASA’s Johnson Space Center in Houston 50 years after it was sampled. [Image: NASA / Robert Markowitz](https://www.nasa.gov/solar-system/nasa-goddard-scientists-begin-studying-50-year-old-frozen-apollo-17-samples/) - When NASA brought [lunar samples from Apollo missions](https://curator.jsc.nasa.gov/lunar/lsc), the agency knew that scientists will be able to study them better in the future in new ways to answer new questions as technology advances. And so the agency kept some core sample tubes sealed and frozen for decades. In 2018, NASA formed the [Apollo Next Generation Sample Analysis Program](https://sservi.nasa.gov/articles/apollo-next-generation-sample-analysis-program) (ANGSA) initiative to examine these specially stored samples, particularly [ones](https://curator.jsc.nasa.gov/lunar/samplecatalog/sampleinfo.cfm?sample=73001) [from](https://curator.jsc.nasa.gov/lunar/samplecatalog/sampleinfo.cfm?sample=71036) [Apollo 17](https://curator.jsc.nasa.gov/lunar/samplecatalog/sampleinfo.cfm?sample=73002). In 2022, a team of 90 scientists and engineers at ANGSA [began the meticulous, months-long process](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-studies-new-50-year-old-lunar-sample-to-prep-for-return-to-moon) of opening and studying such sample tubes one by one. Now the JGR Planets journal has [published a special collection of papers](https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/toc/10.1002/%28ISSN%292169-9100.ANGSA) on ANGSA-studied lunar samples. Many of these papers are published as “open access”. To pair, NASA has also made available laboratory-analysis datasets of ANGSA samples [on a dedicated site](https://www.astromat.org/collections/angsa). - The Planetary Science Journal has also [published a special paper collection](https://iopscience.iop.org/collections/psj-250327-01), this one as “open access” research works on NASA’s [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/)’s science and engineering planning in the mission’s quest to study [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s south pole. - NASA has made [more new datasets](https://shadowcam.im-ldi.com/news/1472) available from its ultra-sensitive [ShadowCam](https://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/about) imager aboard South Korea’s first lunar orbiter [KPLO](https://jatan.space/kplo/), bringing the latest observations available publicly to Q1 2025\. ShadowCam has been capturing [unique](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-moon-camera-mosaic-sheds-light-on-lunar-south-pole) [observations](http://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/images/1288) of [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s poles to [help scientists & engineers plan](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-110/) future surface resource prospecting missions. A cool [ASU web portal](https://data.im-ldi.com/lunaserv.html?MDS%5FSEARCH=%7B%22datasets%22%3A%5B%22luna%5Fshadowcam%5Ffi%22%2C%22luna%5Fshadowcam%5Fpds%22%2C%22luna%5Fshadowcam%5Fderived%5Fpublished%22%5D%2C%22query%22%3A%7B%7D%2C%22map%22%3A%7B%22center%22%3A%5B-12.355876688542597%2C-2.3889773738525824%5D%2C%22zoom%22%3A4.59%2C%22projection%22%3A%22IAU2000%3A30166%2C9001%2C0%2C0%22%7D%7D) also lets you browse and search all public ShadowCam datasets in full-resolution. - Relatedly, NASA has partnered with DLR for a project which is progressing through the [development of an automated pipeline](https://lroc.im-ldi.com/images/1470) for generating high-resolution 3D terrain models of lunar sites imaged by NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lro/). Once ready, this will accelerate mission planning and advanced geology studies. ***Related:** *Learn* [**how 3D lunar images are made*](https://jatan.space/the-moon-in-3d/) --- **Many thanks to* [***Catalyx Space**](https://catalyx.space)**,* [***Gurbir Singh**](https://gurbir.co.uk)**,* [***Tanya Harrison**](https://www.tanyaharrison.com) *and* [***Louis-Jérôme Burtz**](https://www.linkedin.com/in/ljburtz) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday. If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support Moon Monday 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### Everything you should know and track about NASA’s Apollo-style Artemis rejig in its chase of China to the Moon URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-264/ Last updated: 2026-03-09T11:40:02.000Z **Before you read up on what’s happening at the cutting edge of humanity, please observe a moment of silence for the* [**100+ school girls killed*](https://news.un.org/en/story/2026/03/1167063) *by the US and Israeli strikes on Iran. Regardless of your politics, I sincerely hope that we can all voice against anyone killing civilians, especially children. Doing so is not mutually exclusive with condemning any such attacks by Iran or any other country on anyone else.* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/03/revised-artemis-ii-and-iii-infographic-2026-1.jpg) Illustration showing the revised Artemis II and III missions, following in the footsteps of Apollo 8 and 9\. [Image: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2026/02/27/nasa-adds-mission-to-artemis-lunar-program-updates-architecture/) After years of the [US government](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-221/), American [space companies](https://www.spacex.com/humanspaceflight/moon) & [industry](https://gregautry.substack.com/p/artemis-no-bucks-no-buck-rogers), [NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon/), and associated [media](https://payloadspace.com/payload-research-chinas-2024-space-day-updates/) raving about how the country’s Artemis program will be a sustained return of humans to the Moon by [explicitly not being](https://arstechnica.com/space/2024/06/china-lands-on-the-moon-again-taking-another-step-toward-human-missions/) Apollo-style, and having repeatedly called China’s crewed lunar ambitions only [Apollo-esque](https://arstechnica.com/space/2024/05/china-just-launched-another-ambitious-lunar-mission-is-nasa-falling-behind/), NASA on February 27 [announced](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-adds-mission-to-artemis-lunar-program-updates-architecture/) an Artemis rejig which touts and takes an Apollo style approach to land humans on the Moon again. The changes are as follows: - [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/) will no longer be a crewed Moon landing mission. Instead, the [SLS](https://www.nasa.gov/reference/space-launch-system/) & [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) will fly astronauts to Low Earth Orbit in 2027\. There separately launched prototype lunar landing systems from [SpaceX](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) and/or [Blue Origin](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/) will test docking with Orion, Apollo 9 style. Astronauts will then transfer over to the lander(s) to check life support systems. If possible, NASA would also like to test the Axiom Space provided [lunar spacesuits](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-198/) onboard, including conducting a spacewalk if feasible. The delayed suit development is still undergoing [critical design review](https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/nasa-moon-mission-spacesuit-nears-milestone/) as we speak. - [Artemis IV](https://www.nasa.gov/general/nasas-artemis-iv-building-first-lunar-space-station/) is now the earliest targeted crewed Moon landing, with NASA hoping for an early 2028 lunar touchdown. The next landing with [Artemis V](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/) is being moved ahead with hope from 2030 to late 2028\. The Artemis IV and V landers will be based on unspecified [accelerated proposals](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/bolden-bridenstine-share-their-views-on-artemis/) from SpaceX and Blue Origin (or Blue and SpaceX). The companies provided these fast-tracked proposals after NASA [reopened the Artemis III landing contract](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-248/#nasa-reopens-artemis-iii-human-landing-contract) last year due to [SpaceX’s slow progress](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-240/) with Lunar Starship as well as [China’s faster pace](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-237/) in its own crewed landing goal. - The SLS rocket’s [upper stage](https://www.ulalaunch.com/interim-cryogenic-propulsion-stage-%28icps%29)’s planned [upgrade](https://www.nasa.gov/reference/space-launch-system-exploration-upper-stage-eus/) targeted for use Artemis IV onward will get canceled. Said upgrade requires a new mobile launch pad for SLS, which has seen [inflating costs and timelines due to poor management](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-191/#cost-plus-plus). It will get cancelled too. NASA wants to simplify the Artemis mission architecture on the SLS side by having a “standardized” upper stage for the rocket that performs [similarly to the current one](https://www.nasa.gov/image-detail/rocket-moon-what-exploration-upper-stage/). With this move, NASA also hopes to improve the SLS’ launch rate from one every three years to yearly. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/03/spacex-artemis-human-landing-system-new-illustration.jpg) An illustration of SpaceX’s Lunar Starship showing it having landed Artemis astronauts on the Moon for NASA. [Image: SpaceX](https://www.spacex.com/updates#moon-and-beyond) China, which [clinched yet another timely milestone](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-262/) last month in its quest to [land humans on Luna](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-237/) by 2030, is the key catalyst for these changes. NASA Administrator Jared Isaacman [said](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-adds-mission-to-artemis-lunar-program-updates-architecture/) during the Artemis rejig: > With credible competition from our greatest geopolitical adversary increasing by the day, we need to move faster, eliminate delays, and achieve our objectives. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/03/long-march-2f-moon-bg-shenzhou-21-launch.jpeg) A beautiful image of the Long March 2F/G rocket silhouetted against the backdrop of our Moon. The rocket launched the Shenzhou 21 crew towards China’s Tiangong space station. [Image: CMG / CCTV / CNSA](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JLlSFq08CD8) ## The layers below What’s notable but missed in most of the coverage is that NASA has effectively expanded the scope of the [reopened Artemis III landing contract](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-248/#nasa-reopens-artemis-iii-human-landing-contract) over to the revised Artemis III, IV, and V missions. Isaacman and NASA’s Associate Administrator Amit Kshatriya have thus incentivized both SpaceX and Blue Origin to compete even more fiercely for landing Artemis astronauts on the Moon this decade. Remarkably, the agency leadership duo also seem to have managed to align the US Congress and NASA’s traditional prime contractors like Boeing in this new plan to fast-track the SLS rocket’s availability and streamline its operations. Isaacman [says](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8VwRdui50FY&t=471s) that for NASA to achieve this goal, it aims to hire the majority of its thousands of related contractors as agency employees instead. To fund these SLS improvements, NASA hopes to chiefly source the money from the [supplementary \~$4 billion funding](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/trump-megabill-includes-billions-for-artemis-iss-moving-a-space-shuttle-to-texas-and-more/) for SLS which the US Congress passed last year. These funds are separate from NASA’s annual budgets. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/03/sls-rocket-icps-compared-to-eus.jpg) Performance comparison of the SLS rocket’s current upper stage to the originally planned upgrade. [Image: NASA / Kevin O’Brein](https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/rocket-moon-what-exploration-upper-stage/) All that being said, here are things NASA has not yet shared but said in the [announcement event](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eCbQtyUopOM) it would later on, at unspecified times in the future: - Details on the revised Artemis III mission and its exact objectives, and who its astronauts will be. - What the accelerated crewed lunar lander proposals from SpaceX and Blue Origin actually look like, especially in the case of Starship where a [sea of key milestones remain untouched](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-240/). - Specifics of the new, standardized SLS rocket upper stage, and how it will affect the planning, deployment, or existence of the upcoming US-led [Gateway orbital habitat](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway), which as originally planned needs the now-canceled SLS upper stage upgrade. Add to this the aspect left unspecified at the event that we don’t even have firm launch targets for the uncrewed lunar landing demonstrations by either SpaceX or Blue Origin. Without such a demonstration, the respective lander cannot safely carry Artemis astronauts. Still, the overall development is welcome and long overdue. Simplifying mission objectives and the Artemis architecture as a whole is also exactly in line with what the Aerospace Safety Advisory Panel (ASAP) recommended NASA in its [2025 report](https://www.nasa.gov/asap/) released just two days before the Artemis changes were announced. ASAP formally advises NASA and the US Congress on spaceflight safety. Marcia Smith [captured the crux](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-safety-panel-warns-of-high-risk-for-artemis-iii/) of ASAP’s 2025 report well: > Among other things, ASAP is concerned about the number of “firsts” needed for the mission to succeed. That includes the first operational use of the HLS \[Human Landing System\] version of SpaceX’s Starship, which requires in-space refueling, another first; first use of Axiom Space’s \[lunar\] spacesuits; first lunar landing since 1972 and the first ever at the lunar South Pole; first lunar ascent \[for the US\] since 1972 and the first on SpaceX’s HLS; first docking of the Orion spacecraft and SpaceX’s HLS in lunar orbit; and more. ASAP found this “stacking of firsts” a problem because it “elevates mission risk and reduces margin.” It wants to ensure “schedule pressure does not override prudent risk reduction—particularly for the HLS development, spacesuit readiness, and cryogenic propellant transfer capabilities.” But it doesn’t see that in the existing architecture. The report also doubts Starship’s ability to land humans on the Moon this decade: > The development and test progress necessary for a version of Starship that has not yet flown in time to support a human lunar landing mission within the next few years appears daunting and, to the Panel, probably not achievable. Beyond this, the physics of landing a six-to-one height-to-width ratio vehicle on the uneven, poorly lit polar lunar surface seems questionable at best. ## Key developments to watch out for this year - [Tests China will conduct in prep towards landing humans on Luna](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-258/) - Launch of China’s [Chang’e 7 mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-248/) to the Moon’s south pole in the second half of this year to study [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other volatile resources. - The pace at which SpaceX achieves Starship milestones since the company and founder Elon Musk have now [prioritized the Moon](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/musk-embraces-the-moon/) following China, the US, and Blue Origin. - The [first lunar landing attempt](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-226/) by Blue Origin: - Blue Origin’s [successful launch](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/blue-origins-new-glenn-reaches-orbit/) of its New Glenn rocket last January followed by [another in November](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-blue-origin-launch-two-spacecraft-to-study-mars-solar-wind/) finally opened up a second line of pursuit for NASA to send lunar astronauts vis-à-vis [Blue Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/). Blue aims to launch [its first robotic Blue Moon ‘Mark I’ lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-226/) by the end of this year to test and validate key design decisions and systems ahead of use in crewed flights. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/03/blue-moon-mk1-and-mk-ii-lunar-landers-compared-to-apollo-lander.jpg) The Apollo lunar lander size compared to Blue Moon Mark I and Mark II landers. [Image: Blue Origin](https://www.leonarddavid.com/blue-origin-lunar-plans-detailed/) - Based on the first Mark I’s expected performance, NASA has [tentatively chosen](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-243/) the second Mark I’s 2027 flight to carry the agency’s [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/)—whose mission to study polar water ice has been [critical](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-221/) yet [deprioritized](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/#viper-rover-delivery-by-astrobotic). Any kind of [crewed Blue Moon lander](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/02/why-is-bezos-trolling-musk-on-x-with-turtle-pics-because-he-has-a-new-moon-plan/) will depend on the Mark I succeeding, and swiftly so. Between NASA’s new focus on accelerating Artemis and the opportunity to sidestep Musk-owned SpaceX in landing US astronauts on the Moon, Jeff Bezos-owned Blue decided to [pause its other internal projects](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/01/heres-why-blue-origin-just-ended-its-suborbital-space-tourism-program/) to focus the company’s resources and efforts on Luna. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/03/blue-moon-nasa-sustainable-lander-2-labeled.jpg) A labeled illustration of the crewed Blue Moon lander. Image: [Blue Origin](https://www.blueorigin.com/news/nasa-selects-blue-origin-for-mission-to-moon) / Labels: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) Despite Blue’s fast-tracked efforts and simplified architecture compared to SpaceX, the short timeline and still-present complexity comprising at least four launches compared to China’s focused [two-launch approach](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-263/#choosing-the-long-march-10) means the US will likely not meet its [self-imposed goal](https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/President-Trumps-Fiscal-Year-2026-Discretionary-Funding-Request-Overview.pdf) of “beating China” to the Moon. Either way, it’ll be amazing to have a second nation from Earth land humans on Luna. We should be happy that we now have two distinct efforts to sustain crewed and robotic [exploration of our Moon](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/). It gives humanity a better chance to do so since a dichotomic political system is apparently only able to do better under a competitive mindset driven by [fear-mongering](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/08/after-recent-tests-china-appears-likely-to-beat-the-united-states-back-to-the-moon/) rather than [collaboration](https://jatan.space/pitfalls-in-lunar-exploration/). ***Related reads:** - [**Western media narratives misrepresent Chinese space*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-229/#a-problem-with-western-media-narratives-of-chinese-space)**, which reduces trust and deters cooperation and collaboration* - **Jack Congram:* [**China is not racing to the Moon*](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/china-is-not-racing-to-the-moon) - **Erika Nesvold on the US* [**not having presented a coherent argument*](https://makingnewworlds.substack.com/p/the-missing-argument-for-the-lunar) *for the imposing need to win the new lunar “Space Race” against China* ## From crewed Artemis to manned Apollo Adopting an Apollo style approach to Artemis seems to have gone beyond the technical planning. NASA Administrator Jared Isaacman, who has previously flown to space alongside woman astronauts on [both his private space missions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jared%5FIsaacman#Private%5Fspaceflight), used the words “[mankind](https://xcancel.com/NASAAdmin/status/2027045826053243335)” and “[manned](https://xcancel.com/NASAAdmin/status/2027121182743429583#m)” in recent tweets evangelizing the Trump-created Artemis program while the same program is trying to send the female astronaut [Christina Koch](https://www.nasa.gov/astronauts/biographies/christina-h-koch) to the Moon on [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii) in a matter of weeks. Just as importantly, the Artemis program from its inception itself has touted landing the first woman on the Moon with Artemis III, with [the word *Artemis*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artemis) itself being chosen to allude to that ambition. That social advancement now no longer explicitly matters to NASA while [fluffy communications](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-261/) take greater charge. In fact, last year NASA deleted the following prominently presented language from the [Artemis landing page](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis/) on its website: > With the Artemis campaign, NASA will land the first woman and first person of color on the Moon, using innovative technologies to explore more of the lunar surface than ever before. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/03/nasa-artemis-landing-page-language-change-2024-2025.jpg) NASA [Artemis webpage](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis/) screenshots from last year [before](https://web.archive.org/web/20241203222819/https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis/) and after the language change. Eric Berger [had then reported](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/03/trump-white-house-drops-diversity-plan-for-moon-landing-it-created-back-in-2019/) NASA’s response to the change as conveyed via an agency spokesperson: > In keeping with the President’s Executive Order, we’re updating our language regarding plans to send crew to the lunar surface as part of NASA’s Artemis campaign. We look forward to learning more from about the Trump Administration’s plans for our agency and expanding exploration at the Moon and Mars for the benefit of all. Many inferred and reported this development as a change of mission crew plans but that’s not the case—not yet anyway. The reasonably diverse [Artemis astronaut corps of 18 people](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-names-artemis-team-of-astronauts-eligible-for-early-moon-missions/) hasn’t changed. It incudes women and people of color. Of course, the selection criteria for Artemis IV and V could very well change going ahead or be selectively interpreted given the US-wide [inclusion purge](https://archive.is/fxNQP) since last year. In any case, when you have a female astronaut going to the Moon on Artemis II, and when NASA’s [6 out of 10 latest astronaut candidates](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-selects-all-american-2025-class-of-astronaut-candidates/) for future missions are women, it should not be hard to simply use the words *crewed* or *human* instead of *manned*. In the meanwhile, China’s CASC is [using the phrase](https://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4549581/content.html) “crewed lunar landing” and “crewed lunar exploration” despite the country’s human spaceflight agency itself being named the China Manned Space Agency (CMSA) by its original English translators. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/03/china-lanyue-crewed-lander-mockup-propulsion-gnc-test.jpeg) Shots from the control systems test of China’s Lanyue lander design for crewed Moon missions. The full-scale lander mockup is seen next to humans in the inset image at the bottom right. Images: [CASC](https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/xywWynVaOQrTpWbKtHfveg) / [CMSA](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LKNt3dCUvjU) | Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) --- **Many thanks to* [***The Orbital Index**](https://orbitalindex.com/)**,* [***Louis-Jérôme Burtz**](https://www.linkedin.com/in/ljburtz)**,* [***Gordon Roesler**](https://www.linkedin.com/in/gordon-roesler-687a0426) *and* [***Sonia Tikoo**](https://profiles.stanford.edu/sonia-tikoo-schantz) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday. If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support Moon Monday 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) --- **P.S.* Thank you to all who have so creatively and kindly signed my blog’s* [*public guestbook*](https://thoughts.jatan.space/guestbook)*. 🌝* ### Moon Monday #263: Artemis II, a Canadian capcom, Chandrayaan, and Long March 10 URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-263/ Last updated: 2026-02-23T12:06:28.000Z ## Artemis II launch delayed again On February 19, NASA successfully [fully fueled](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2026/02/19/nasa-begins-artemis-ii-launch-pad-ops-after-successful-fuel-test/) the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/reference/space-launch-system/) and performed a practice countdown test ahead of the upcoming launch of the [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-ii-press-kit/) mission to fly [four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/our-artemis-crew/) around the Moon and back. This was a repeat of the February 2 test which [hadn’t gone as planned](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-261/) due to excessive hydrogen leaks. This time around the leaks remained under NASA’s [deemed allowable limits](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/02/nasa-chief-vows-to-solve-sls-rocket-fueling-issues-before-artemis-iii/) thanks to new seals installed after the first test. All seemed set for Artemis II to attempt a March launch but on February 21 teams [observed issues](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2026/02/21/nasa-troubleshooting-artemis-ii-rocket-upper-stage-issue-preparing-to-roll-back/) with a nominal flow of helium into the SLS rocket’s [upper stage](https://www.ulalaunch.com/interim-cryogenic-propulsion-stage-%28icps%29). The inert gas is used to pressurize the propellant tanks. For technicians to access the upper stage to diagnose the issue and fix it, NASA has to [roll back](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2026/02/22/nasa-to-rollback-artemis-ii-rocket-spacecraft/) the rocket to its assembly building now, which lies almost seven kilometers away. This process rules out the March launch windows for Artemis II, making [April first week](https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2026/01/artemis-ii-mission-availability.pdf) the earliest possible attempt now. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/02/sls-icps-graphic.jpg) The ULA-provided upper stage of the SLS rocket. [Graphic: ULA](https://www.ulalaunch.com/interim-cryogenic-propulsion-stage-%28icps%29) ## A Canadian capcom on Artemis II ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/02/jenni-gibbons.jpg) Jenni Gibbons. [Image: CSA / ASC](https://www.cbc.ca/radio/quirks/how-fire-scientist-jenni-sidey-gibbons-became-canada-s-youngest-astronaut-1.5446314) Astronaut [Jenni Gibbons](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronauts/canadian/active/bio-jenni-gibbons.asp) was selected as Canada’s backup of [Jeremy Hansen](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronauts/canadian/active/bio-jeremy-hansen.asp), one of the two Artemis II Mission Specialists. Even though the backup role is not needed at the moment for the mission, Gibbons has many other key tasks in the Artemis program. She is a [lunar capcom](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronauts/about-the-job/capcom.asp), whose job is to be an efficient communications bridge between mission control and in-flight astronauts. Gibbons has also helped define and validate astronaut training methods for future lunar missions. In a nice [CSA article](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/news/articles/2026/2026-02-12-artemis-ii-flavour-of-canada.asp) about Canada’s contributions to Artemis II, the agency outlines two key ones led by Gibbons: > She will be on console at NASA's Mission Control Center for several shifts during the mission, including the lunar flyby. \[And\] Just before launch, a closeout crew will be responsible for preparing Orion, securing the Artemis II astronauts in Orion and closing its hatches. Jenni is part of the extended closeout team. As such, she will perform voice checks from inside the capsule to make sure the astronauts can communicate with the ground as well as cabin set-up tasks and verifications. ## Chandrayaan 4 landing site in sight ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/02/chandrayaan-4-spacecraft-stacks-two-lvm3-rockets.jpg) Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) | Individual images of the LVM3 rocket, the two Chandrayaan 4 spacecraft stacks, and the Moon’s south pole: [ISRO](https://www.lpsc.gov.in/newProjects.html) / [NASA / GSFC / Timothy McClanahan / LOLA](https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/moon/nasas-lro-lunar-ice-deposits-are-widespread/) ISRO has narrowed down [areas in Mons Mouton](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2026/pdf/1198.pdf) (84-85° S) as good candidate landing sites for the [Chandrayaan 4](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-241/) sample return mission, which aims to bring the first lunar polar samples to Earth in 2028\. ISRO is using data from its own [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) for the finer site selection process, thanks to the orbiter’s [advanced reconnaissance capabilities](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/). The following criteria is being used for the final landing site selection: - Slopes in the region < 10°. - A 1 x 1 kilometer patch with low crater and boulder density, with boulders being smaller than 32 centimeters. - The site should be sunlit for at least 11 days, with local terrain not shadowing the lander or its critical parts for long. Chandrayaan 4 samples are expected to bring immense scientific value. NASA’s Apollo missions helped scientists confirm that our celestial companion [had a fiery origin](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/) tied to Earth. On the other hand, the Soviet Luna missions were the [world’s first robotic sample return missions](https://airandspace.si.edu/stories/editorial/revisiting-soviet-lunar-sample-return-missions), establishing the modern approach that fetching planetary material to Earth generates scientific results for decades. Samples fetched by China’s robotic Chang’e 5 mission confirmed that the Moon was [volcanically active and thermally complex](https://doi.org/10.11728/cjss2024.04.2024-yg10) geologically recently. And Chang’e 6 [transformed our understanding of how our Moon evolved](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-233/) thanks to the first ever samples from the [mysterious lunar farside](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). As I wrote in my article ‘[Why explore our Moon](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/)’, continuing to fetch diversely sourced and distinct geological material will help scientists piece together the complex origin and evolution of the Earth-Moon system. We currently don’t have any samples from the lunar poles, including potential [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) or water-mixed regolith from there. It’s important to understand this [water’s sources](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/#the-search-for-lunar-water-deepens), [its abundance](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-196/), and how its relation or lack of it to [Earth’s water](https://www.planetary.org/articles/how-did-earth-get-its-water). Said knowledge is equally crucial in helping us plan sustained lunar exploration and build future [Moonbases](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/). As such, when Chandrayaan 4 brings unique lunar polar samples to Earth, it will help humanity make tactile leaps into these fundamental open questions about our Moon, Earth, Solar System, and future in space. ***Related:** [**The case for India and China to exchange lunar samples*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-241/#the-case-for-india-to-study-and-exchange-chang%E2%80%99e-lunar-samples)**. 🌜<>🌛* ## Chandrayaan 5 / LUPEX update ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/02/chandrayaan-5lupex-rover-instruments.jpg) Multi-agency instruments planned to be on the LUPEX rover. [Image: JAXA / M. Ohtake, et al.](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/1918.pdf) For the upcoming joint Indo-Japanese [Chandrayaan 5 / LUPEX](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/) mission to drill and analyze [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s south pole, JAXA and Mitsubishi have [continued validating](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2026/pdf/1377.pdf) and refining the LUPEX rover and instruments designs through a series of tests using qualification and engineering models. The sophisticated rover, whose mass has increased from 350 kilograms to 420, will be delivered to the Moon by a lander being made by ISRO. The lander will be launched on the heavy-lift Japanese H3 rocket. The rover will feature [instruments from both Japan and India](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/1918.pdf), with a contribution each from NASA and ESA. The joint mission targeting launch by end of decade will bring a giant leap in lunar capabilities for both ISRO and JAXA, and can provide NASA with data critical for Artemis planning currently [missing from US missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-221/). An [abstract](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2026/pdf/1377.pdf) co-authored by various mission team members describes specific milestones achieved or in progress for each LUPEX instrument. ## Choosing the Long March 10 ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/02/long-march-10-moon-background.jpeg) The CALT-proposed Long March 10 rocket; uncrewed and crewed versions. Image: CNSA / CMSA / CALT Jack Congram has an [interesting article](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/other-plans-to-launch-chinas-crewed) on how China selected CALT’s competitive proposal for the Long March 10 rocket to be used for the country’s [crewed Moon missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-237/) over other two contenders. An illustrative excerpt: > *So why did the CALT’s designs win out over those from SAST and CASIC? Comparing the designs and considering the hardware needed for development, CALT’s proposal needed fewer newer parts while being more uniform overall, with all of its stages and two boosters utilizing a 5-meter diameter, requiring less structural reinforcements, and utilizing improved designs of existing hardware. CASIC’s designs would have required developing some massive solid rocket motors, while SAST’s has a sizable diameter change atop of a central booster, which would have four others hanging off the side of it, requiring a significant amount of structural reinforcement. Alongside that, SAST was looking to develop three rockets for what CALT and CASIC could do with two.* --- **Many thanks to* [***Astrolab**](https://astrolab.space)**,* [***Louis-Jérôme Burtz**](https://www.linkedin.com/in/ljburtz) *and* [***Henry Throop**](https://www.linkedin.com/in/henry-throop-a47a6a7) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday. Thanks also to* ***Deepika Jeyakodi** *, who kindly wishes me to link to the cause of* [***PARI**](https://ruralindiaonline.org) *instead.* **If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support Moon Monday 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ## Fun new guestbook! My blogs have a [guestbook](https://thoughts.jatan.space/guestbook) now. You can drop a public note if you’ve liked visiting my words on space and our Moon. Or draw using your hand or cursor! I love how people are being creative with it, like this stellar message from reader and friend [Shreya Santra](https://www.linkedin.com/in/shreya-santra/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/02/shreya-santra-guestbook-signing-moon-earth.jpeg) The Moon [Sign my guestbook 🌙](https://thoughts.jatan.space/guestbook) ### China conducts a multi-element test unlike any other nation in firm march to Luna | Moon Monday #262 URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-262/ Last updated: 2026-02-16T11:10:57.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/02/mengzhou-in-flight-abort-test-plus-long-march-10a-flight-1.jpeg) The background image shows the Mengzhou capsule escaping from the Long March 10A booster, which itself keeps flying towards space. Inset images show the respective guided splashdowns of the capsule and booster as well as their mission patches. Images: [CMSA / CMSEO](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/china-successfully-conducts-mengzhou) / [CALT](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/long-march-10a-test-booster-flew) | Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) On February 11, China [successfully conducted](https://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4544041/content.html) an emergency escape test of its next-generation [Mengzhou capsule](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mengzhou%5F%28spacecraft%29), variants of which will fly astronauts to Earth orbit and [the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-237/). The uncrewed capsule flew atop a [Long March 10A](https://english.www.gov.cn/news/202508/15/content%5FWS689eec3dc6d0868f4e8f4dcb.html) booster, and escaped the rocket while the combined vehicle was experiencing maximum aerodynamic pressure. This phase is the most literally stressful one for a vehicle ascending to space, and so Mengzhou [demonstrating a safe escape](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/china-successfully-conducts-mengzhou) when it did provides confidence that the craft can keep astronauts safe during emergencies. Post-escape, the capsule guided itself to a safe, parachuted splashdown in the South China sea. The Long March 10A booster, itself on its first test flight as well, rose just past the Karman line and peaked at [105 kilometers](https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/7QJrY-vs25gOCMcsCJUAHA). It then successfully performed a guided oceanic splashdown as well, marking the [first booster stage recovery](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/long-march-10a-test-booster-flew) for China. This test follows Mengzhou’s [previous launchpad escape test](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-230/) last year, also successful. Notably, Chinese engineers have designed the emergency escape to be handled by the Mengzhou craft itself instead of the rocket. This makes the solution somewhat launch vehicle agnostic, giving China flexibility to scale its [crewed Moon mission plans](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-237/) in the run up to the China-led [ILRS Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/) ambitions. It’s to this end that the China Manned Space Agency (CMSA) previously [noted](https://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4363881/content.html) these tests as laying “an important technical foundation for the subsequent manned lunar exploration missions.” The latest test demonstrated the working of yet another element of its crewed lunar program. The test was a first launch from the brand new [301 launch complex](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/tianwen-2-probe-near-launch-new-life) in Wenchang which China will continue developing to use for crewed Moon missions. Jack Congram [previously noted](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/mengzhou-soars-for-zero-altitude) the following key point related to the Wenchang launch site in his coverage of last year’s launchpad escape test: > A few days ahead of this test, [China Central Television released a report](https://news.cctv.com/2025/06/13/ARTIUl89Ayirn03zkOZ1x5Gz250613.shtml) regarding launch escape systems for crewed spacecraft, which briefly touched on Mengzhou’s launch system. That report notes that due to the density of launch infrastructure at Wenchang, Mengzhou’s escape system boasts a higher thrust-to-weight ratio, compared to Shenzhou, to pull the spacecraft out toward the ocean quickly. Additionally, the report stated that should a launch abort be triggered late into flight, Mengzhou’s propulsion systems on the service module can propel the spacecraft a safe distance away or into orbit. In a single test, China has multi-laterally advanced in preparing many of its next-generation building blocks to fly astronauts to Earth orbit later this year, a key step before scaling the system to the Moon. No other country preparing for human spaceflight has tested all such elements at once. ***Read for broader context** 🌗 - ***2025:** [**China’s advances across multiples elements of its crewed Moon mission*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-237/) - ***2026:** [**Tests China will conduct in prep towards landing humans on Luna*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-258/) ## Artemis updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/02/moon-to-mars-artemis.jpg) [Image: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/nasa-australia-sign-agreement-to-add-rover-to-future-moon-mission/) NASA teams [tried partially fueling](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2026/02/13/following-confidence-test-nasa-continues-artemis-ii-data-review/) the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/reference/space-launch-system/) core stage’s liquid hydrogen tank to assess the newly replaced seals, hoping to counter leaks observed during the full-fueling test on February 2 which [didn’t go as planned](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-261/) and therefore delayed the launch of the [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-ii-press-kit/) mission to fly [four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/our-artemis-crew/) around the Moon and back to no earlier than [March](https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2026/01/artemis-ii-mission-availability.pdf). But during the latest partial fueling test, teams noticed a reduced propellent flow, a new problem now being inspected. In the meanwhile, Stephen Clark has [reported](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/02/nasa-chief-vows-to-solve-sls-rocket-fueling-issues-before-artemis-iii/) how NASA relaxed its fueling safety limit vis-à-vis hydrogen leaks by four times in the period between Artemis I and II: > During the first Wet Dress Rehearsal earlier this month, hydrogen gas concentrations in the area around the fueling connection spiked higher than 16 percent, NASA’s safety limit. This spike was higher than any of the leak rates observed during the Artemis I launch campaign in 2022\. Since then, NASA reassessed their safety limit and raised it from 4 percent—a conservative rule NASA held over from the Space Shuttle program—to 16 percent. - Seeing China’s [steady strides](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-237/) towards landing humans on the Moon by 2030, the US and NASA decided to [focus](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-257/) on accelerating their Artemis efforts and [reopened](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-248/#nasa-reopens-artemis-iii-human-landing-contract) the [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/) landing contract last year due to [SpaceX Starship delays](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-240/). Jeff Bezos-owned Blue Origin bid for it, and also decided to [pause its other internal projects](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/01/heres-why-blue-origin-just-ended-its-suborbital-space-tourism-program/) to focus the company’s resources and efforts on Luna. Ergo, SpaceX and founder Elon Musk have now [prioritized the Moon](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/musk-embraces-the-moon/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/02/artemis-axiom-lunar-suit-under-water-testing.jpg) Artemis astronauts practice emergency rescue drills to test the mobility of Axiom-developed lunar spacesuits in the Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory at the agency’s Johnson Space Center. [Image: NASA / Axiom Space](https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/nasa-moon-mission-spacesuit-nears-milestone/) - NASA [provided an update](https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/nasa-moon-mission-spacesuit-nears-milestone/) on the development of [Artemis III lunar spacesuits](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-198/), contracted to Axiom Space. > NASA and Axiom Space have conducted over 850 hours of pressurized testing with a person inside the AxEMU. Leading up to the review, teams conducted underwater and simulated lunar gravity tests of the AxEMU in facilities at NASA Johnson that demonstrate how the spacesuit’s capabilities will offer increased mobility as astronauts explore the Moon’s surface. > > Agency and Axiom Space teams recently finished the first series of test runs in the Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory at NASA Johnson. While in the 40-foot-deep \[12-meter\] pool, they weighted the AxEMU to match lunar gravity and assessed functionality and ease of movement. - NASA will now conduct a critical design review to evaluate and confirm the development status of the suits against Axiom’s own assessment. Stephen Clark recently reported on the [many operational and safety challenges](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/01/former-astronaut-on-lunar-spacesuits-i-dont-think-theyre-great-right-now/) in the suit’s development. After SpaceX Lunar Starship, the Axiom-provided lunar suits remain the second biggest pacing item for flying and landing [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/) astronauts on the Moon. ## More Moon - Sierra Space’s [carbothermal reactor](https://techport.nasa.gov/projects/116298), funded and aided by NASA, successfully [extracted oxygen](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/johnson/sunlight-extracts-oxygen-from-regolith-using-solar-chemistry/) from simulated lunar soil on Earth using concentrated solar energy. Being built at a gradual pace as part of NASA’s [Game Changing Development program](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/game%5Fchanging%5Fdevelopment/index.html), the agency ultimately intends to demonstrate the system on the Moon on a future [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) mission. Such future systems on the Moon could provide breathable oxygen for astronauts and fuel for spacecraft without having to rely on only the supplies lugged from [Earth’s gruesome gravity well](https://jatan.space/the-moon-as-a-rocket-platform/). Here’s a note on the collaborative nature of the test setup from the NASA release: > The integrated prototype brought together a carbothermal oxygen production reactor developed by Sierra Space, a solar concentrator designed by NASA’s Glenn Research Center in Cleveland, precision mirrors produced by Composite Mirror Applications, and avionics, software, and gas analysis systems from NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida. - Relatedly, in the [FY2026 Presidential Budget Request](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-227/), NASA did not even request funds for its [LIFT-1 mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-153/) to extract oxygen from lunar soil. Previously, NASA had said it would fund [$200-250 million](https://nspires.nasaprs.com/external/viewrepositorydocument/cmdocumentid=967421/solicitationId=%7B23D0FE0E-099D-77A8-3E06-2C516D900762%7D/viewSolicitationDocument=1/LIFT-1%20RFI%20STMD%20Rvw%20v7.0.pdf) in total for the mission but later pivoted to stating in the budget request that the agency will “prioritize ground-based high-fidelity systems testing” instead. --- **Many thanks to* [***Catalyx Space**](https://catalyx.space/)**,* [***Henry Throop**](https://www.linkedin.com/in/henry-throop-a47a6a7)**, and* ***Deepika Jeyakodi** *(who kindly wishes me to link to the cause of* [***PARI**](https://ruralindiaonline.org) *instead) for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday. If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support Moon Monday 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) Related tangent to my space writing: [****My writing goals and methods this year**](https://journal.jatan.space/writing-goals-2026/) 🌱 ### When ISRO loses a PSLV rocket, India loses a launchpad in the present and the future URL: https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-35/ Last updated: 2026-02-15T15:48:50.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/01/pslv-rocket-night-shot-and-fairing.jpeg) A PSLV rocket, and its fairing being prepared pre-launch. One human on the bottom right of the left image for scale. [Images: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/Mission%5FPSLV%5FC62%5FGallery.html) The January 12 launch of India’s PSLV rocket failed due to the third stage’s mysteriously anomalous performance, the resulting tumbling of which was visible even on [telemetry screens](https://www.youtube.com/live/GgYh2Vv87ik?si=NxgdZED4VXvRNFSv&t=2384) in the mission control and livestream. [16 spacecraft](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/PSLVC62/PSLV%5FC62%5FBrochure090125.pdf) were lost to the air and sea, spanning a key [national hyperspectral satellite](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EOS-N1), seven private Indian ones, five from Brazil, and one each from the UK, Nepal, and Europe. The European one, called KID, [briefly survived](https://payloadspace.com/exclusive-orbital-paradigm-emerges-as-the-lone-survivor-of-failed-pslv-launch/) and transmitted some information despite experiencing loads up to 30g. This was the [64th flight](https://www.isro.gov.in/Mission%5FPSLV%5FC62.html) of a [PSLV](https://www.isro.gov.in/PSLV%5FCON.html), a vehicle which has served India for [three decades](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%5Fof%5FPSLV%5Flaunches#Launch%5Fhistory) and is supposed to be the country’s workhorse in space. The flight being PSLV’s second consecutive failure, following the one [in May 2025](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-28/), has invited heightened public criticism and scrutiny, three of which I feel are notable to link and summarize below: - Mukunth called for [transparency in the failure investigation](https://rootprivileges.net/2026/01/17/normalising-deviance/) and [timely public communications](https://web.archive.org/web/20260112173904/https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/what-do-two-pslv-mission-failures-in-a-row-mean-for-isro-analysis/article70500376.ece) so as to avoid a culture of deviance and complacency, [the kind NASA suffered](https://arstechnica.com/science/2023/02/two-decades-after-the-columbia-disaster-is-nasas-safety-culture-fixed/) from during the Space Shuttle era. - Bosky Khanna [wrote](https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/2026/Jan/14/none-of-indian-private-space-firms-insured-satellites-on-pslv) for The New Indian Express how none of the private Indian company satellites aboard had taken insurance due to cost concerns that exist more so for small satellites than large ones. - Sidharth MP [noted](https://www.wionews.com/india-news/india-may-need-2-3-years-to-replace-3-strategic-satellites-lost-in-12-months-1768914607847) how three national satellite losses over just one year will now cost India several years to replace. This also means India’s dependency on foreign satellite data buys will increase, not decrease. Now let’s discuss several more key aspects that I haven’t seen talked about so far to understand how it’s non-optional for India to fly the aging PSLV nominally again even as the country expands its launch vehicle options and capabilities—an endeavor in itself [throttled](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-33/). We will also illustrate how the safety of our astronauts on Gaganyaan missions is ultimately linked to the PSLV failure and its misleading communications. ## The launchpads of India ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/02/sdsc-shah-birds-eye-view.jpeg) A birds-eye panoramic view of India’s orbital launch complex in Sriharikota captured in 2023\. A PSLV rocket is at the first launch pad while the second pad lies in the distance. [Image: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/PSLVC55%5Fgallery.html) India’s only active orbital spaceport is the [Satish Dhawan Space Centre](https://www.shar.gov.in/sdscshar/index.jsp) in Sriharikota on the country’s south-eastern coast, a low-latitude location ([13.7°N](https://www.openstreetmap.org/?mlat=13.666302&mlon=80.227149#map=19/13.666302/80.227149)) suitable for many kinds of launches. The port primarily houses two launchpads, and their many associated facilities. The two pads are literally called the **First Launch Pad** (FLP) and the **Second Launch Pad** (SLP) respectively. India built the FLP in the early 1990s for ISRO to launch the then-new PSLV rocket. Today, the pad also supports launches of the new [SSLV rocket](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-19/), a PSLV-derived but much smaller vehicle dedicated for lofting small satellites. As for the SLP, it can also host PSLV launches but does so less frequently as ISRO built that pad in 2005 to primarily launch the heavier rockets [GSLV Mk II](https://www.isro.gov.in/GSLV%5FCON.html) and [LVM3](https://www.isro.gov.in/GSLVmk3%5FCON.html). While these vehicles share some aspects like the [liquid Vikas engine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikas%5F%28rocket%5Fengine%29) with the PSLV, their biggest differentiator lies in their cryogenic upper stages which deliver enhanced performance. However, the same stages make the FLP [unable to launch](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/isro-to-build-3rd-launch-pad-new-gen-rocket-could-also-land-on-sea/articleshow/114027181.cms) the Mk II or the LVM3\. The increased preparatory requirements for these cryogenic stages are hard to retrospectively fit on a launchpad that predates them. Given these launchpad availability dynamics, it becomes clear that when a PSLV rocket fails, India effectively loses the value of its First Launch Pad. The SSLV exists but is not a sufficiently distinct rocket. Its second stage motor is derived straight from the PSLV’s [third stage one](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar%5FSatellite%5FLaunch%5FVehicle#Third%5Fstage%5F%28PS3%29)—precisely the stage that has now failed twice in a row. As such, the PSLV getting grounded has been pulling down the SSLV along with it. Similarly, the PSLV and the GSLV Mk II share their core stage [S139 solid rocket booster](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S139%5FBooster). When the PSLV was flying reliably like a workhorse all these years, ISRO rightly considered the modular reuse from it for the SSLV or other vehicles to be an advantage. Now, however, that has become a restraint. Even when the SSLV gets [its own launchpad](https://www.isro.gov.in/Foundation%5FStone%5FLaid%5Ffor%5FLaunch%5FPad%5Fat%5FSSLV%5FLaunch%5FComplex.html), planned for later this decade, the issue of potential two-way technological dependency of one vehicle on the other would remain. ## No place is building a PSLV replacement ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/02/pslv-rocket-assembly.jpeg) The PSLV rocket in various stages of its assembly. Technicians for scale. Images: ISRO ([1](https://www.isro.gov.in/PSLVC55%5Fgallery.html), [2](https://www.isro.gov.in/Mission%5FPSLV%5FC62%5FGallery.html)) People have expressed hope that upcoming private Indian launch vehicles will resolve India’s [launch bottlenecks](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-33/) soon, particularly the PSLV. It’s hard to reconcile this hope [with reality](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-33/#small-yet-not-nimble). Of all the launch vehicle companies in India, the only one that [might launch this year](https://ddnews.gov.in/en/newly-unveiled-vikram-1-rocket-set-to-transform-indias-space-economy-in-2024-2/) for real is [Skyroot](https://www.skyroot.in/). Their rocket, named [Vikram-I](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikram%5F%28rocket%5Ffamily%29#Vikram-I), though falls in the same category as the SSLV in terms of lift capacity, both lifting six to seven times lower mass than the PSLV for equivalent orbits. In fact, Vikram-I is designed by many ex-ISRO people who were associated with the PSLV or the SSLV, and possibly may be using many common contractors. It’s therefore not a strictly distinct vehicle. Even if Vikram-I is successful in its very first orbital launch attempt, a tall order for any new vehicle, its lift capacity is simply not enough to replace the PSLV. Even its eventual upgrade, Vikram-II, does not come close to the PSLV’s prowess as the latter will still be able to lift about three times more mass to space at once. Another Indian rocket company hoping to launch later this decade, [Agnikul](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-16/), has an even smaller lift capacity to offer than Vikram-I. There’s also the aspect that the SSLV and Vikram rockets all utilize, or will utilize, the FLP to launch. Even when flying successfully, using the same pad means they will effectively keep blocking PSLV’s FLP launches due to pre-launch planning and post-launch refurbishments while not putting enough mass in orbit by themselves. It’s a tradeoff between the PSLV’s greater lift capacity and the swiftness but low capacity of small rockets. Now, yes, to improve the SSLV’s own launch rate and [lift capacity](https://sansad.in/getFile/loksabhaquestions/annex/185/AU4554%5F5zwFTD.pdf?source=pqals), ISRO is making a [dedicated launchpad](https://www.isro.gov.in/Foundation%5FStone%5FLaid%5Ffor%5FLaunch%5FPad%5Fat%5FSSLV%5FLaunch%5FComplex.html) optimized for polar orbits. The agency is also aiming to [production-ize](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/science/its-official-hal-signs-agreement-for-sslv-tech-transfer/articleshow/123829418.cms) the SSLV through a [technology transfer contract](https://www.isro.gov.in/Technology%5FTransfer%5FAgreement%5FSSLV.html) with Indian aerospace industry giant HAL. Skyroot’s Vikram rockets will use this new pad as well. But the fruits of these efforts are not expected to begin until [at least 2028](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/working-towards-50-launches-a-year-by-2029-says-isro-chief/articleshow/124934033.cms), which is when the new launchpad is supposed to host its first orbital launch. And that’s assuming no further delays for the pad that’s already slipped past an originally intended 2025 debut. If India leans on the SSLV and private Indian rocket companies in their current state for small-to-medium-lift space launches this decade, the country will end up launching far less useful mass to orbit than through PSLVs. There is simply no place in India building a PSLV replacement. ## The ambitious transitions ahead ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/02/pslv-transporter.jpg) The PSLV rocket being transported in India’s launch complex at Sriharikota. Image: ISRO The SLP is the pad India will use to [launch its astronauts](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/#upcoming-gaganyaan-missions) in the near future using the human-rated variant of the LVM3 rocket. As such, the SLP will further deprioritize PSLV launches to cater to human spaceflight over and above heavier launches. The PSLV will thus increasingly launch from the FLP as years go by. The dedicated [PSLV Integration Facility](https://theprint.in/science/how-isros-pslv-integration-facility-launch-at-sriharikota-will-help-indias-space-ecosystem/1985181/) which ISRO built to [double the rate](https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2009320®=3&lang=2) of PSLV launches is also at and for the FLP. Moreover, the government’s intent of [productionizing the PSLV](https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/indl-goods/svs/engineering/hal-lt-to-build-five-pslv-rockets-bags-rs-860-crore-deal-from-nsil-for-the-project/articleshow/93980649.cms) this decade through the industry also depends on these same existing facilities for the foreseeable future. The PSLV and FLP are two sides of the same coin. In its early days, the PSLV was a humble rocket that allowed India to place modest satellites in orbit to meet the country’s most basic space applications needs. ISRO then evolved the PSLV with [variants](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar%5FSatellite%5FLaunch%5FVehicle#Variants) to increase and optimize the vehicle’s overall performance and payload capacity. Through continuous refinements, ISRO has been able to use a PSLV in some form to successfully launch a [lunar orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/), a [Mars orbiter](https://jatan.space/reviewing-mission-mangalyaan/), a [space telescope](https://academic.oup.com/astrogeo/article/63/4/4.27/6646766), a [solar observatory](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-08/) to the Earth-Sun L1 point, a record [104 satellites](https://www.isro.gov.in/mission%5FPSLV%5FC37.html) in one flight, and also important missions for other space agencies such as the recent [launch of the Proba-3 Sun-studying craft](https://www.isro.gov.in/PSLV%5FC59%5FPROBA-3%5FMission.html) for ESA. This is what people mean when they say India takes pride in the PSLV. As India’s space ambitions have risen this century, and [this decade in particular](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-23/), the PSLV has reached its ceiling of novelty at last. The next set of complex space missions executed by ISRO involved much heavier launch vehicles to get the job done. To [launch Chandrayaan 2 and 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/), ISRO required its LVM3 rocket to enter operations. India also needed the LVM3 to loft [satellite constellations](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-03/) and [heavy commercial craft](https://www.isro.gov.in/LVM3%5FM6%5FBlueBird%5FBlock2%5FMission.html). A [Venus orbiter](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-20/) will also await a ride at the end of the decade. Even more complex missions India has announced to fly soon enough include the [Chandrayaan 4](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-241/) sample return, [Gaganyaan human spaceflight missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/#upcoming-gaganyaan-missions), the first module of the [Bharatiya Anthariksh Station](https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2055978) (BAS) astronaut habitat in Earth orbit, and indigenously launched heavy geostationary satellites. But for all of these to work, the LVM3 core stage needs to be upgraded with a semi-cryogenic engine, a project that has been [delayed for years](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-33/#a-shortfall-of-performance-and-timing) now. In the meanwhile, the Indian Government has [approved the building of a third launch pad](https://www.isro.gov.in/CabinetapprovesThirdLaunchPad.html) (TLP) in Sriharikota for $460 million, which will support launches of ISRO’s upcoming heavy-lift [NGLV rocket](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-33/#the-next-decade-and-nglv) starting next decade. The TLP will also act as a secondary pad for robotic LVM3 launches, and be a standby for human spaceflight ones to handle contingencies and emergencies. The TLP can support launching the GSLV Mk II as well but ISRO is planning to phase out the vehicle itself since the LVM3 is superior to it in performance, price, and reliability beyond bespoke launches. It’s important to note that just like how the LVM3 and Mk II can’t launch from the FLP, the upcoming NGLV rocket won’t be able to lift off from the SLP. From a technical standpoint, this is obvious. But it’s interesting that the same dynamic that ties the PSLV with the FLP also ties the LVM3 and SLP. This means India cannot afford to lose an LVM3 even more so than a PSLV. And that’s why ISRO’s culture and communications being authentic matter even more today than it did in the past. ## Our astronauts on the line ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/02/gaganyaan-astronauts-visual.jpg) The first four Gaganyaan astronauts. [Image: ISRO](https://twitter.com/IAF%5FMCC/status/1762391875275669631) While India can manage a PSLV failure or two, the LVM3 failing would be far more disastrous. The PSLV and LVM3 do share the [liquid Vikas engine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikas%5F%28rocket%5Fengine%29) for the foreseeable future, visibly tying technological reliability of one vehicle to the other. Thankfully, the LVM3 has never failed in its [eight orbital flights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%5Fof%5FLVM3%5Flaunches#Launch%5Fhistory) so far. But then so didn’t the PSLV for 18 years, or a SpaceX Falcon 9 for almost a decade, NASA’s Space Shuttle until its 25th flight, and so on and so forth. We are talking about rockets after all. With LVM3 selected to launch astronauts in the near future, we simply cannot afford it to fail. It’s important to look at any aspect that we can inspect. This is why it’s prudent to note ISRO’s lack of transparency vis-à-vis the PSLV as a sign of the organization’s culture issues. In 2022 when the SSLV failed on its inaugural flight, we [got some decent details](https://www.isro.gov.in/mission%5FSSLV%5FD1%5Fsummary%5FD2.html) like “Cause of anomaly” and “Recommendations & Correction actions”, as probed and implemented by ISRO with the involvement of the failure analysis committee. But for the PSLV rocket which [failed in May 2025](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-28/), we did not get any such details. And that’s despite the fact that the failure triggered multiple mission delays since the launch vehicle’s modules and component designs are also utilized by other ISRO rockets. Even the second PSLV failure last month has still not prompted the taxpayer-funded space organization to release the failure analysis report of the first one, much less its key findings along with a list of corrective measures ISRO took as with the SSLV failure. You typically expect companies, not tax-funded organizations, to be reserved and [even deflective](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-166/) when dealing with failures. Yet even among those there have been companies which lead with transparency. ispace Japan faced two out of two failures of its Moon landers in [2023](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-125/) and [2025](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-228/#tenaciously-transparent) respectively. Yet, despite being a publicly traded company, it [showed remarkable transparency](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-228/) by not only immediately accepting the outcomes in plain words but also by sharing [detailed findings](https://ispace-inc.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/M2-Technical-Cause-Analysis-Materials.pdf) of what went wrong within weeks. Shouldn’t our taxpayer-funded agencies be at least as transparent as a good faith space company? What we have instead are not only no details but outright false statements on ISRO’s website. The [mission page](https://www.isro.gov.in/Mission%5FPSLV%5FC62.html) for the last PSLV mission, which ISRO published before the launch and its failure, states the following \[emphasis mine\]: > PSLV is the workhorse launch vehicle of ISRO that has **completed 63 flights** including notable missions like Chandrayaan-1, Mars Orbiter Mission, Aditya-L1 and Astrosat Mission. In 2017, PSLV set a world record by launching 104 satellites in a single mission. Except that the 63rd flight of 2025 itself [failed](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-28/). And so did [three others](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%5Fof%5FPSLV%5Flaunches#Failures) in the past. It’s deceiving to call all PSLV flights *completed*. In the aftermath of the two PSLV failures, India’s Union Minister of Science & Technology and Space, Jitendra Singh, [said the following](https://theprint.in/science/the-two-pslv-failures-were-not-related-failure-assessment-committees-have-been-set-up/2843704/) as reported by Soumya Pillai for The Print: > The success rate of our launches is still pretty high compared to any other country around the world. We have been riding high on success, and yes, these failures have come as a disappointment, but we are working to rectify them and be back in the game. The spirit of the statement resonates but to say that the success rate of our rockets is still pretty high *compared to any other country* is obviously incorrect when you contrast India’s launch statistics with any major rockets from the US, China, Russia, or even Europe. The PSLV’s success rate may be high but it’s not high enough, and certainly not among the best. That India again had a [mixed year in space in 2025](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-34/) continues to show there’s much more work to do. There’s no doubt that engineers at ISRO take failures seriously internally. But those efforts also need to be communicated by the agency with honest clarity and effectiveness to retain trust. If an LVM3 fails on a robotic mission, what if ISRO’s opaqueness continues despite the lives of our astronauts being linked to essentially the same vehicle? The world lost astronauts on two human spaceflight disasters with the Space Shuttle [due to NASA’s cultural complacency](https://arstechnica.com/science/2023/02/two-decades-after-the-columbia-disaster-is-nasas-safety-culture-fixed/). ISRO would be wise to not repeat history. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/02/pslv-c56-ds-sar-launch.jpg) The PSLV and Indian space await a new dawn. [Image: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/PSLVC56%5Fgallery.html) The PSLV has a unique place in India’s space program and launch complex. It has to return to flight. But it’s not enough to merely fly the rocket again successfully. The PSLV and ISRO itself need to be made more robust, fixing fundamentals issues and mistakes instead of taping over them, just as ISRO [methodically achieved](https://jatan.space/kalpana-kalahasti-chandrayaan-3-nature/) Chandrayaan 3’s [triumphant touchdown](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) on the Moon after Chandrayaan 2’s landing failure by carefully planning and testing a more robust and realistically redundant spacecraft. ***Related read:** [**A review of the state of ISRO’s orbital launch vehicles*](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-33/) --- **Many thanks to* [***Takshashila Institution**](https://takshashila.org.in)**,* [***PierSight**](https://piersight.space)**,* [***Gurbir Singh**](https://gurbir.co.uk) *and* [***Catalyx Space**](https://catalyx.space) *for sponsoring Indian Space Progress. Thanks also to* ***Deepika Jeyakodi** *, who kindly wishes me to link to the cause of* [***PARI**](https://ruralindiaonline.org) *instead.* **If you too appreciate my efforts to capture nuanced trajectories of India in space, provided to space communities worldwide for free and without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support my writing 🚀 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### Moon Monday #261: A shortfall in Artemis II testing and NASA’s communications URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-261/ Last updated: 2026-02-15T15:48:15.000Z ***A tribute before we begin:** *I’m saddened to share that we have lost a pioneering international lunar collaboration diplomat in* ***Steve Durst** **\[1943-2026\]. As the lead & founder of the US-based non-profit International Lunar Observatory Association (*[**ILOA*](https://iloa.org)**) and* [**Space Age Publishing*](https://www.spaceagepub.com/)**, Steve forged unique relationships across and between the US, China, India, Europe, and Canada against many odds. Perhaps as a fitting tribute to Steve, ILOA’s* [**ILO-C telescope*](https://iloa.org/ilo-c-instrument-for-change-7-lunar-lander-launching-net-november-2026/) *is slated to be onboard China’s* [**Chang’e 7*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-248/) *Moon lander later this year to capture inspiring images of our galactic center from Luna. Personally, I’m thankful for his work to unite people across space organizations, and that my paths crossed with him before it was too late. It’s because of Steve and ILOA that I could bring you all first hand lunar coverage* [**from Wenchang*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-205/)**,* [**Hong Kong*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-252/)**, and* [**IAF-ISRO GLEX*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-225/)**. I know how much Steve cared about diverse representation of our species at the Moon. Even in his 80s, Steve worked tirelessly to advance all of these goals for humanity. May we all imbibe his spirit. Aloha Steve.* 🌔 🔭 ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/02/glex-2025-global-lunar-exploration-panel-photo.jpg) Sharing an international panel with Steve Durst at IAF-ISRO GLEX 2025. ## Launch of Artemis II astronauts delayed ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/02/sls-rocket-artemis-ii-launchpad-moon-bg.jpg) The Artemis II SLS rocket at its launchpad at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida, with our Moon providing the ultimate backdrop. [Image: NASA / Ben Smegelsky](https://images.nasa.gov/details/KSC-20260201-PH-JBS01%5F0097) NASA’s fueling test of the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/reference/space-launch-system/) on February 2 in preparation to launch the [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-ii-press-kit/) mission to fly [four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/our-artemis-crew/) around the Moon and back did not go as planned. There were repeat [hydrogen leaks](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2026/02/03/nasa-conducts-artemis-ii-fuel-test-eyes-march-for-launch-opportunity/) beyond acceptable thresholds at multiple points despite trying gentle liquid hydrogen flows and all such related techniques NASA tried during Artemis I, which itself needed [seven fueling attempts across months](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/02/nasa-finally-acknowledges-the-elephant-in-the-room-with-the-sls-rocket/) to then finally have the rocket fly. The core leak area this time was the same that nagged Artemis I, the [tail service mast umbilical](https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/ml%5Fumbilicals20160523.pdf?emrc=69898208e0840) at the bottom of the SLS rocket’s mobile launcher used for fueling. Stephen Clark [noted](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/02/unable-to-tame-hydrogen-leaks-nasa-delays-launch-of-artemis-ii-until-march/) how the core objectives of the test at the end of the launch countdown couldn’t be met: > The objective was to stop the countdown clock 33 seconds prior to launch, about the same time the rocket would take control of the countdown during a real launch attempt. Instead, the clock stopped at T-minus 5 minutes and 15 seconds. NASA said the countdown terminated “due to a spike in the liquid hydrogen leak rate.” The countdown ended before the rocket switched to internal power and fully pressurized its four propellant tanks. The test also concluded before the rocket activated its auxiliary power units to run the core stage’s four main engines through a preflight steering check, all milestones engineers hoped to cross off their checklist. NASA did achieve two other aspects of the test: 1) a specialized team went up the launcher and [closed the Orion spacecraft’s hatches](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2026/02/02/artemis-ii-wet-dress-rehearsal-launch-abort-system-hatch-closed/) as they would on launch day for astronauts inside the capsule, and 2) safe defueling of the SLS rocket. Teams then began reviewing the test data to form [mitigation plans](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2026/02/08/nasa-conducts-repairs-analysis-ahead-of-next-artemis-ii-fueling-test/), and will return for a fueling test at some point before setting an official target launch date, which now [can be March](https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2026/01/artemis-ii-mission-availability.pdf) at the earliest. ***Related:** [**How NASA has planned to keep Artemis II astronauts safe throughout their Moon mission*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-260/) 🛟 ## Dear NASA, Chinese space missions exist too NASA recently [published a post](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/networks-keeping-nasas-artemis-ii-mission-connected/) on how the agency will track the Artemis II mission using a network of ground stations. In the release, NASA included the following statement \[emphasis mine\]: > Orion will experience a planned communications blackout lasting approximately 41 minutes. The blackout will occur as the spacecraft passes behind the Moon, blocking radio frequency signals to and from Earth. Similar blackouts occurred during the Apollo-era missions and are expected when using an Earth-based network infrastructure. When Orion reemerges from behind the Moon, the Deep Space Network will quickly reacquire Orion’s signal and restore communications with mission control. **These planned blackouts remain an aspect of all missions operating on or around the Moon’s far side.** *All missions*? These kinds of blackouts have been solved by China, who have had two relay satellites, [Queqiao 1](https://www.planetary.org/articles/0519-change-4-relay-satellite) and [Queqiao 2](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-169/), for communicating with its [Chang’e 4](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/change-4) and [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) landers respectively on the lunar farside. As such, NASA saying that the blackouts remain an aspect of *all farside missions* is incorrect. The statement needs to be qualified by noting that the issue stands for *all US missions*. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/02/queqiao-orbit.jpg) Relative locations between the Earth, the Moon and the Queqiao 1 relay satellite, which communicates with the Chang’e 4 lander on the farside. Not to scale. [Image: CNSA LESEC](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/queqiao-relay) This isn’t the first time NASA has made statements about global missions while discarding what China does or aims to. In 2024, when the US [agreed](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-japan-advance-space-cooperation-sign-agreement-for-lunar-rover/) to land Japanese astronauts on the Moon in return for Japan providing an [advanced pressurized crewed rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-172/) for the Artemis program, the announcement called “a Japanese national to be the first non-American astronaut to land on the Moon”, conveniently ignoring [China’s plans to land astronauts](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-237/) on Luna end of decade. ## What science will Artemis II do? Zilch? ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/02/simulating-artemis-ii-lunar-flyby-view.jpg) A simulated view of what the Artemis II astronauts might see during their flyby around the Moon. [Image: NASA SVS / Ernie Wright](https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/5536/) NASA has proudly pioneered effective science and technical communications with the public for decades, elevating understanding of space exploration worldwide. But the agency’s communications over the last few years haven’t been as eloquent, with fluffy narratives taking the driver’s seat even in aspects that aren’t politically charged. This is the case with Artemis II as well. When inaugurating the Artemis Science Team Flight Control Room in June 2025, NASA wrote the following in [a release](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2025/06/13/nasas-artemis-science-team-inaugurates-flight-control-room/) on its website: > Artemis II astronauts will observe the Moon during their 10-day mission around the Moon and back, taking photographs and verbally recording what they see. Their observations will support science objectives and provide data for potential landing sites for future Moon missions. Now, [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii) is not even an orbiter mission. The [four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) inside the [Orion](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) capsule will be flying [more than 7000 kilometers from the Moon](https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/5536/) at their closest approach. What science can they even do from such large distances? And so in less than 10 days? Certainly no landing sites will be selected. For selecting actual landing sites, NASA has used *over a decade* worth of observations from its [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lro/) (LRO) which flies within 100 kilometers of the Moon’s surface. NASA is also [getting aid from India’s Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/#isro-aids-artemis) to leverage its superior imagery and radar system for filtering Artemis landing site candidates. Are we now supposed to believe that a few days worth of Artemis II observations several thousands of kilometers from the Moon will help NASA select landing sites? This fluffy communications ultimately disrespects NASA’s own LRO efforts. There is a nuanced element to the Artemis II observations. All Artemis II activities will certainly be useful *operationally* to feed forward into coordinating the science team with astronauts on [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/) and missions beyond. But doing science as an objective in itself is a different ballgame altogether. There are also limits to what a few days of coordination can teach us when astronauts are this far from the Moon. The work that the science team is doing is important but not for the fluffy reasons being conveyed by NASA around this topic. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/02/orion-space-earth-moon-us.jpg) The Orion spacecraft, part of NASA’s Artemis I mission, captured this view of our Moon and Earth in November 2022\. This vantage point in its lunar orbit lies roughly 70,000 and 430,000 kilometers away from the Moon and Earth respectively. [Image: NASA](https://images.nasa.gov/details-art001e000678) Of course, like the [beautiful images from Artemis I](https://images.nasa.gov/album/Artemis%5FI), views of the Moon and our Earth from near Luna can have great impact on people’s minds. With Artemis II, we have an opportunity again to [view our Moon and Earth](https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/5536/) through the eyes of astronauts, and [their iPhones](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/02/nasa-will-finally-allow-astronauts-to-bring-their-iphones-to-space/), building on the beauty of the [Apollo 8 Earthrise](https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/apollo-8-astronaut-bill-anders-captures-earthrise/). As such, Artemis II’s [lunar observation campaign](https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/14938/#media%5Fgroup%5F379313) has a lot of emotional value. It just doesn’t have a scientific one, especially when the same agency does real science missions. Now, every space agency does PR pieces. But NASA’s science communications have had the highest bar. We should hold them to that high standard while pushing other agencies to match. ***Related:** [**What makes a lunar landing mission “successful”?*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-208/) --- **Many thanks to* [***The Orbital Index**](https://orbitalindex.com) *and* ***Deepika Jeyakodi** *(who kindly wishes me to link to the cause of* [***PARI**](https://ruralindiaonline.org) *instead) for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* **If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support Moon Monday 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### How NASA has planned to keep Artemis II astronauts safe throughout their Moon mission URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-260/ Last updated: 2026-02-12T07:31:32.000Z ***Announcement:** *Before we begin the article, I’m thrilled to share that apart from running my flagship* [**Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) *blog+newsletter, I’m* [**continuing*](https://jatan.space/openlunararticles) *with the* [**Open Lunar Foundation*](https://www.openlunar.org/) *and its* [**nice team*](https://www.openlunar.org/team) *for another year to help communicate the non-profit’s* [**research work*](https://www.openlunar.org/work) *of forging technical and policy building blocks for cooperative and peaceful lunar exploration globally. It’s a mission that aligns extremely well with the ethos of Moon Monday. 🌙* ***Disclaimer for transparency:** *Open Lunar has been one of* [**the sponsors*](https://jatan.space/about/#sponsors-and-supporters) *of Moon Monday for about five years now. As such, my public* [**Editorial Independence Policy*](https://jatan.space/ethics) *has applied to my coverage of Open Lunar too, and will continue to. This includes continuing to disclaim about them being a sponsor of any kind every single time I mention their work just as I’ve been* [**doing*](https://jatan.space/a-registry-of-moon-missions/) [**all year*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-246/#more-moon) [**last year*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-239/#science-does-not-exist-in-a-lunar-vacuum)**.* --- ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/02/sls-rocket-artemis-ii-launchpad-moon-bg-with-mission-crew-patch.jpeg) The top of the Artemis II SLS rocket at its launchpad at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida, with our Moon providing the ultimate backdrop. Bottom left: Artemis II mission crew patch. Images: [NASA / Sam Lott](https://images.nasa.gov/details/Artemis%20II%20at%20the%20pad%20Full%20Snow%20Moon%2002012026%5F4) / [Greg Manchess](https://images.nasa.gov/details/jsc2025e034457) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/02/artemis-ii-astronauts-enter-orion-capsule-to-practice-operations-and-procedures.jpg) The Artemis II flight crew (in their mission suits) and the mission closeout crew (in clean room apparel) at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida prior to test operations of the Orion lunar capsule. The flight crew from left to right: Mission Specialists [Jeremy Hansen](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronauts/canadian/active/bio-jeremy-hansen.asp) and [Christina Koch](https://www.nasa.gov/astronauts/biographies/christina-h-koch), Pilot [Victor Glover](https://www.nasa.gov/astronauts/biographies/victor-j-glover), and Commander [Reid Wiseman](https://www.nasa.gov/astronauts/biographies/reid-g-wiseman). [Image: NASA / Rad Sinyak](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-2/nasas-artemis-crew-trains-in-moonbound-orion-ahead-of-mission/) On February 1, NASA [powered up](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2026/02/01/wet-dress-rehearsal-countdown-progressing-for-artemis-ii/) the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/reference/space-launch-system/)’s core stage at its launchpad at the agency’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Today, February 2, the agency [began](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2026/02/02/artemis-ii-wet-dress-rehearsal-update/) [preparing](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2026/02/02/artemis-ii-wet-dress-rehearsal-go-for-tanking/) for a fueling, launch countdown, and defueling [test suite](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2026/01/31/countdown-begins-for-artemis-ii-wet-dress-rehearsal/). If this “wet dress rehearsal” with cryogenic propellants is successful, the agency is clear to launch the [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-ii-press-kit/) mission to fly [four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/our-artemis-crew/) around the Moon and back, knowing that the launch procedures are working as expected. The earliest possible launch dates for the astronauts are [February 8, 10, and 11](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-2/final-steps-underway-for-nasas-first-crewed-artemis-moon-mission/), each having five-hour windows. If the wet dress rehearsal finds issues to be fixed, the next available launch dates are [in March and April](https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2026/01/artemis-ii-mission-availability.pdf). In the meanwhile, astronauts [remain in quarantine](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-259/) to keep them safe against exposure to pathogens. To ensure the astronauts are safe and keeping well during the entire mission, NASA has planned to guard many aspects at once. Other than having global-standard safety measures like an [emergency rocket escape system](https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/nasas-orion-spacecraft-secures-critical-abort-system-hardware-for-artemis-ii/) for the [Orion crew capsule](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) and an [urgent launchpad egress system](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-2/artemis-emergency-egress-system-emphasizes-crew-safety/) for astronauts, NASA has also developed systems to have real time monitoring of the Artemis II mission and its crew so as to tweak things as needs arise. This applies to pre-launch preparations too. The SLS rocket’s aforementioned fueling test was delayed to stick to [the mission’s weather criteria](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-ii-weather-criteria/) amid cold conditions and avoid potentially unwarranted effects on the mission hardware while also ensuring testing in conditions similar enough to actual launch. NASA also noted the following in an [update on January 26](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2026/01/26/nasa-moves-steps-closer-to-artemis-ii-fueling-test-ahead-of-launch/): > During an evaluation of the [emergency egress system](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-2/artemis-emergency-egress-system-emphasizes-crew-safety/), the baskets used to transport the crew and other pad personnel from the mobile launcher in an emergency stopped short of the terminus area located inside the pad perimeter. Since then, the brakes of the system have been adjusted to ensure the baskets fully descend. The astronauts have also [been trained](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2025/08/14/artemis-ii-crew-train-for-night-launch-scenarios-at-kennedy-space-center/) to handle various permutations of such escape scenarios. Teams at NASA also work to ensure the crew’s Orion spacecraft and its life support systems keep functioning nominally, as noted in the same release: > In the coming days, technicians also will take additional samples of Orion’s potable water system to ensure the crew’s water is drinkable. Initial samples showed higher levels of total organic carbon than expected. This brings us into the next aspect, monitoring the health of the astronauts themselves during the mission. To that end, NASA includes a [wristband](https://www.nasa.gov/reference/archer/) and multiple [advanced tools](https://www.nasa.gov/general/artemis-ii-crew-both-subjects-and-scientists-in-nasa-deep-space-research/) for astronauts to check their physiological patterns. Since space and payload mass aboard Orion is limited, many of these experiment packages are miniaturized versions of those [previously flown on the International Space Station](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/station/iss-research/space-station-research-contributes-to-artemis-ii/). Some of them will report metrics and outputs in real time for NASA to monitor while others will be analyzed post-flight. ## Radiation protection Given the scarcity of data on human health in lunar and deep space environments, Orion will carry even more radiation sensors [than on Artemis I](https://jatan.space/science-on-artemis-i/#studying-deep-space-radiation-like-never-before) to review post-mission. A notable upgrade comes from a partnership with the German Space Agency (DLR): > NASA has again partnered the German Space Agency DLR for an updated model of their M-42 sensor—an M-42 EXT—for Artemis II. The new version offers six times more resolution to distinguish between different types of energy, compared to the Artemis I version. This will allow it to accurately measure the radiation exposure from heavy ions which are thought to be particularly hazardous for radiation risk. Artemis II will carry four of the monitors, affixed at points around the cabin by the crew. This collaboration builds on results from Artemis I [whose radiation data was evaluated](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-1/artemis-i-radiation-measurements-validate-orion-safety-for-astronauts/) by NASA, ESA, and DLR scientists last year. They found that radiation exposure to future astronauts will vary not only based on time spent at locations within the capsule but also on Orion’s orientation in space. For example, [the paper says](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07927-7) when Orion’s orientation was altered during an engine burn, exposure levels dropped nearly in half due to the highly directional nature of the radiation in the Van Allen belt. NASA will continue to study lunar and deep space radiation environments with [scientific payloads on the upcoming NASA-led Gateway orbital habitat](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-162/#a-gist-of-gateway-science). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/02/artemis-1-radiation-experiements.jpg) The Artemis I Orion spacecraft carried multiple radiation experiments onboard, including anatomically accurate female torsos and various radiation sensors. [Images: Stuart George, at al. / NASA / Lockheed Martin / DLR](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07927-7/figures/1) From August 4 through 7 in 1972, the Sun blurted [several bursts of flares](http://spaceweatherlivinghistory.org/timeline/31) and [associated energetic particles](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) between the Apollo 16 and 17 missions to the Moon. Had the astronauts been in lunar orbit or on the surface, they could’ve faced damaging levels of radiation. This could, in turn, lead to increased cancer risk. Likewise, radiation particles from such strong solar events can reach Artemis II astronauts within hours. Since we are around the peak of solar activity in this cycle, teams will be monitoring bursts from the Sun that might pass through Orion in its flight paths. Sensors onboard Orion will also provide warnings when radiation influx crosses a certain threshold. For such events, NASA’s strategy is for the crew to increase their radiation protection [by repositioning items](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/orion/scientists-and-engineers-evaluate-orion-radiation-protection-plan/) inside Orion: > To protect themselves, astronauts will position themselves in the central part of the crew module largely reserved for storing items they’ll need during flight and create a shelter using the stowage bags on board. The method protects the crew by increasing mass directly surrounding them, and therefore making a denser environment that solar particles would have to travel through, while not adding mass to the crew module itself. If the warning were to sound, the crew would create the shelter within an hour and in some cases would need to stay inside for as long as 24 hours. ***Related article:** [**A Sun watcher at the Moon*](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-22/#a-sun-watcher-at-the-moon) 🛰️ ## Mission monitoring In terms of real-time monitoring of the mission, there are specific aspects too. For example, in Eric Berger’s [interview](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/10/in-their-own-words-the-artemis-ii-crew-on-the-frenetic-first-hours-of-their-flight/) of the Artemis II astronauts last year, which provided a good rundown of the mission’s timeline and key checkpoints & fallbacks post launch, the Mission Pilot Victor Glover shared an interesting detail: > The first workout \[for astronauts\] is a checkout of that exercise hardware, but it's also a checkout of the environmental control system. Because I'm going to be breathing, I'm going to be sweating, making more humidity and more CO2 for the life support system to scrub out. And then if that's good, that's another check that means we can go to the Moon. Back to a broader scale, NASA built a new Orion “[Mission Evaluation Room](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/orion/inside-nasas-new-orion-mission-evaluation-room-for-artemis-ii/)” (MER) at the agency’s Johnson Space Center which didn’t exist for Artemis I. NASA built MER last year to complement flight control teams during the mission. The MER team comprises about 48 engineers from across NASA, ESA, Lockheed Martin, and Airbus with deep knowledge of Orion’s subsystems. They will analyze technical data as the mission unfolds, assisting flight control with optimizations as well as any anomalies. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/02/nasa-artemis-orion-mission-evaluation-room.jpg) The Orion Mission Evaluation Room inside the Mission Control Center at NASA’s Johnson Space Center in Houston. [Image: NASA / Rad Sinyak](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/orion/inside-nasas-new-orion-mission-evaluation-room-for-artemis-ii/) Complementary to MER is NASA having [trained](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/johnson/preparing-for-artemis-ii-training-for-a-mission-around-the-moon/) the astronauts to fly Orion in a realistic emulator: > Inside the Orion Mission Simulator at Johnson, the crew \[has\] rehearsed every phase of the mission, from routine operations to emergency responses. Simulations are designed to teach astronauts how to diagnose failures, manage competing priorities, and make decisions with delayed communication from Earth. For the most happening events during the mission, like the tumultuous launch and the fiery atmospheric reentry, NASA has developed the [Orion Crew Survival System](https://newspaceeconomy.ca/2025/11/27/what-is-the-artemis-orion-crew-survival-system/) (OCSS). It’s a specialized spacesuit with a flame-resistant outer layer which astronauts will wear during such mission phases to protect themselves against potential anomalies. Astronauts would also wear OCSS if other high risk events occur during the mission since the suit is their lifeboat if and when critical systems in Orion fail. It may seem like an extended feature but it’s quite central to astronaut safety. From a [2019 NASA release](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/orion-suit-equipped-to-expect-the-unexpected-on-artemis-missions/): > Even though it’s primarily designed for launch and reentry, the Orion suit can keep astronauts alive if Orion were to lose cabin pressure during the journey \[...\]. Astronauts could survive inside the suit for up to six days as they make their way back to Earth. This pairs well with another safety aspect of the mission. NASA has designed a [free return trajectory](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-ii-press-kit/#milestones) for Orion’s flight around the Moon such that if the spacecraft’s engines stopped working for some reason, Orion will be pulled back towards Earth due to the net result of the natural gravitational forces acting on the craft. The OCSS can keep astronauts alive amid several such anomalies near the Moon. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/02/artemis-ii-mission-trajectory-and-milestones.jpg) Artemis II mission trajectory and milestones. [Image: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/artemis-ii-map-2/) The OCSS suit can also help the astronauts after splashdown on Earth. [From NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/orion-suit-equipped-to-expect-the-unexpected-on-artemis-missions/): > The suits are also equipped with a suite of survival gear in the event they have to exit Orion after splashdown before recovery personnel arrive. Each suit will carry its own life preserver that contains a personal locator beacon, a rescue knife, and a signaling kit with a mirror, strobe light, flashlight, whistle, and light sticks. Should there be some issue or delay for the [recovery teams and their vessels](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/nasa-trains-for-orion-water-recovery-ahead-of-artemis-ii-launch/) to arrive post-splashdown, the astronauts have been [trained](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/johnson/preparing-for-artemis-ii-training-for-a-mission-around-the-moon/) to stabilize the capsule if necessary, exit it, and board a raft on their own and then use the OCSS survival kit as necessary. Their suits are also bright orange to make them easier to spot amid ocean waters. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/02/orion-crew-survival-system-astronaut-suit-features.jpeg) [Image: NASA](https://newspaceeconomy.ca/2025/11/27/what-is-the-artemis-orion-crew-survival-system/) ## Communicating with Orion Getting back to the mission-wide systems, NASA will track the Orion spacecraft near-continuously and ensure safety of the astronauts by having multiple communications channels. Chiefly, NASA will use a combination of its [Near Space Network](https://www.nasa.gov/communicating-with-missions/nsn) (NSN) and [Deep Space Network](https://www.nasa.gov/communicating-with-missions/dsn/) (DSN) to track the mission. Managed by the agency’s Goddard and JPL centers respectively, these networks have antennae spread worldwide so that Orion can be in reach despite facing any part of Earth. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/02/nasa-nsn-antennae-new-mexico.jpg) Near Space Network antennas at NASA’s White Sands Complex in New Mexico. These will play a key role in getting data from the Artemis II Orion spacecraft during various mission phases, from launch and Earth orbit to reentry and splashdown. [Image: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2026/01/a2-reference-guide-012825.pdf?emrc=979554) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/02/artemis-ii-commnav-milestones-web.jpg) Use of NSN and DSN networks during Artemis II. [Image: NASA / Dave Ryan](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/networks-keeping-nasas-artemis-ii-mission-connected/) Orion will also carry a NASA-MIT-developed optical laser communications terminal called [O2O](https://esc.gsfc.nasa.gov/news/Lasers%5FLight%5Fthe%5FWay%5Ffor%5FArtemis%5FII%5FMoon%5FMission) to send some mission data independently, albeit it’s primarily intended to be a test. O2O aims to demonstrate sending more data with lower size, weight, and power requirements compared to traditional radio systems. During the mission, NASA hopes to beam 4K HD videos and pictures during minimal cloud coverage over to likewise two suitably located ground stations. This demonstration is part of the agency’s [Space Communications and Navigation (SCaN)](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/heo/scan/index.html) program’s [optical infusion](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2022/the-future-of-laser-communications) effort, which has been demonstrating laser communications on multiple missions. However, the [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/) Moon landing mission will not have a laser communications unit from NASA. ## The heat shield ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/02/artemis-i-orion-heat-shield-issues.jpg) The Artemis I Orion spacecraft lost big chunks of its heat shield material in several places during atmospheric reentry on Earth. Some of its bolts also melted and eroded. [Image: NASA / OIG](https://oig.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/ig-24-011.pdf) And now we come to the final major aspect, the one that’s been contended publicly: the Orion capsule’s heat shield. [Two independent investigations](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-identifies-root-cause-of-orion-heat-shield-char-loss/) by NASA circa 2024 analyzed the unexpected damage caused to Orion’s shield during reentry in 2022 for the uncrewed [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-i/) Moon mission. The agency concluded that the heat shield’s ablative Avcoat material [was not porous enough](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/nasa-identifies-cause-of-artemis-i-orion-heat-shield-char-loss/) to vent and dissipate hot gas buildup during its bounced atmospheric reentry, which led to cracks and loss of entire chunks. NASA then decided to change Orion’s reentry profile for Artemis II to manage the heat buildup, deeming it a safe measure for astronauts. Jared Isaacman’s first priority after [becoming the NASA administrator](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-welcomes-15th-administrator-jared-isaacman/) in December 2025 was to review Orion’s heat shield and its effectiveness in saving the lives of Artemis II astronauts during atmospheric reentry. NASA decided that the altered reentry profile proposal would work. Eric Berger, one of the two reporters with (preferential?) access to the review meeting, [noted the worst case scenario](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/01/nasa-chief-reviews-orion-heat-shield-expresses-full-confidence-in-it-for-artemis-ii/) as follows: > The NASA engineers wanted to understand what would happen if large chunks of the heat shield were stripped away entirely from the composite base of Orion. So they subjected this base material to high energies for periods of 10 seconds up to 10 minutes, which is longer than the period of heating Artemis II will experience during reentry. What they found is that, in the event of such a failure, the structure of Orion would remain solid, the crew would be safe within, and the vehicle could still land in a water-tight manner in the Pacific Ocean. Not all experts seated in the meeting were convinced, with one publicly [citing limitations](https://www.linkedin.com/posts/charlescamarda%5Fnasa-artemisheatshield-orionheatshield-activity-7415490596121067520-ZtzE) of the tools used for said analyses. Here’s hoping the Artemis II astronauts fly and get back to Earth safely. On the other hand, there’s poignant irony in unequivocally debating so much about saving the lives of astronauts but not of those on the ground too, including not only having protective measures for launch teams but also looking out for the [safety of passengers in flight](https://www.propublica.org/article/spacex-faa-launch-airlines-safety-explosions-florida-caribbean) against rocket debris, [engineers on ground](https://jatan.space/a-worrisome-report-on-safety-issues-at-spacex/) testing hardware, and simply caring about lives of people at large. The pursuit of space does not place us above human life. --- **Many thanks to* [***Open Lunar Foundation**](https://www.openlunar.org)**,* [***Gurbir Singh**](https://gurbir.co.uk) *and* [***Henry Throop**](https://www.linkedin.com/in/henry-throop-a47a6a7) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support Moon Monday 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### Moon Monday #259: Lunarbound astronauts enter quarantine as Artemis II launch approaches URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-259/ Last updated: 2026-01-26T10:25:07.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/01/artemis-ii-astronauts-orion-simulator.jpg) The Artemis II astronauts pose in front of an Orion spacecraft simulator at NASA’s Johnson Space Center in Houston on January 23\. [Image: NASA / Robert Markowitz](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2026/01/23/artemis-ii-crew-enters-quarantine-ahead-of-journey-around-moon/) As NASA targets a [Q1 launch](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-2/final-steps-underway-for-nasas-first-crewed-artemis-moon-mission/) for the [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-ii-press-kit/) mission flying humans around the Moon and back, the [four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/our-artemis-crew/) set to be aboard [entered quarantine](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2026/01/23/artemis-ii-crew-enters-quarantine-ahead-of-journey-around-moon/) on January 23 to reduce their exposure to pathogens. This period typically starts 14 days before launch, although other hardware tests remain for NASA as the agency aims to verify cryogenic fueling and de-fueling operations as well as launch countdown procedures with the crew’s [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/reference/space-launch-system/) by February 2\. More quarantine details from the NASA release: > The crew begin quarantine in Houston, and if testing continues to go well and activities progress toward a possible launch next month, they will fly to NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida about six days ahead of launch. There, the Artemis II crew will live in the astronaut crew quarters inside the Neil A. Armstrong Operations and Checkout Building, before launch day. During quarantine, the crew can continue regular contact with friends, family, and colleagues who are able to observe quarantine guidelines, and will avoid public places, wear masks, and maintain distance from others they come into contact with as they continue their final training activities. Those training activities will continue in the days ahead with mission simulations and medical checkouts. An interesting, related tangent to this is the article ‘[Defending against hypothetical moon life during Apollo 11](https://eukaryotewritesblog.com/2024/01/06/defending-against-hypothetical-moon-life-during-apollo-11/)’, where Georgia Ray lays down the story of how concerns about two-way biological contamination between Earth and space objects vis-à-vis the Apollo missions led to the birth of planetary protection as a field and set of norms. > From 1959, concern over back contamination risk was extremely niche. By 1966, mitigation of back contamination risk had become a requirement for the entire moon landing mission. How did this happen? In 1957, Sputnik launched, and the USA became very aware that it was losing the space race. Also in 1957, an American biology professor named Joshua Lederberg was talking with a British biologist, J. B. S. Haldane about the possibility of the USSR setting off a nuclear weapon on the moon as a show of force. While this would be bad for US morale, it would also be terrible for future research on the moon–would there be life up there? A nuke would disturb moon dust and scatter radioactive isotopes all over the moon. It would be impossible to study the moon in its untouched state and might interfere with finding [delicate chemical structures](https://doi.org/10.1126/science.127.3313.1473) that could even relate to the origin of life. Shortly after, Lederberg began pushing the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) to avoid taking actions in space that would [permanently close off aspects of research](https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/101584906X13253). In the meanwhile, NASA [selected 34 volunteers](https://www.nasa.gov/technology/space-comms/nasa-selects-participants-to-track-artemis-ii-mission/) from across 14 countries to track the crew’s [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft)’s signals during the mission, an increase from 10 volunteers who tracked Artemis I. The Artemis II trackers comprise space agencies, companies, universities, communities, and even individuals. Notably, the Canadian and German space agencies are on the list, as is Intuitive Machines which hopes to build its [own lunar communications network](https://payloadspace.com/intuitive-machines-will-build-a-lunar-communications-network/). NASA will evaluate the tracking data shared by these volunteers against the canonical data to validate their abilities for potential use in future missions. From the release: > These volunteers will submit their data to NASA for analysis, helping the agency better assess the broader aerospace community’s tracking capabilities and identify ways to augment future Moon and Mars mission support. There are no funds exchanged as a part of this collaborative effort. This initiative builds on a previous effort in which 10 volunteers successfully tracked the Orion spacecraft during Artemis I in 2022\. That campaign produced valuable data and lessons learned, including implementation, formatting, and data quality variations for Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems, which develops communications and data standards for spaceflight. To address these findings, SCaN now requires that all tracking data submitted for Artemis II comply with its data system standards. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/01/ranger-7-8-9-craft.jpg) A diagram showing major elements of the Ranger spacecraft. [Image: NASA](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ranger%5F6789.png) NASA also announced that the Artemis II Orion spacecraft will carry [several mementos](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-2/nasas-artemis-ii-mission-to-fly-legacy-keepsakes-with-astronaut-crew/), two of which stood out to me: > Orion also will carry a copy of a 4-by-5-inch negative of a photo from the [Ranger 7](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/ranger-7/) mission, the first US mission to successfully make contact with the lunar surface. NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in California managed the Ranger series of spacecraft, built to help identify safe Moon landing sites for Apollo astronauts. ***Related:** [**The time NASA figured out that our Moon is cratered all the way down*](https://jatan.space/its-craters-all-the-way-down/) 🐢 > On Artemis I, a variety of tree seeds flew and were distributed to educational organizations and teachers after the mission, following in the footsteps of tree seeds flown aboard the Apollo 14 mission sprouted into “Moon Trees” after being returned to Earth. The seeds have since taken root at 236 locations across the US to become their own Artemis I Moon Trees. Soil samples collected from the base of established Artemis I Moon Trees planted at NASA’s 10 centers will fly aboard Artemis II, representing the full cycle of exploration: launch, flight, growth, and return to space again. The CSA (Canadian Space Agency) will fly various tree seeds in the kit with the intention of distributing them after the mission. ## More Moon - As part of a broader move within the planetary science arm of NASA, the agency [announced](https://science.nasa.gov/planetary-science/resources/psd-director-letter-to-the-community/) that it will cease funding and support for the Lunar Exploration Analysis Group ([LEAG](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag)) starting May alongside other such formal community planetary science groups spread US-wide. LEAG [helped](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag/reports/) NASA forge and shape its Moon exploration objectives with scientific, technical, commercial, and operational analysis. - As expected, Blue Origin’s [first robotic Moon lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-226/) called Mark I will [not launch this quarter](https://www.blueorigin.com/news/new-glenn-3-to-launch-ast-spacemobile-bluebird-satellite). The company [announced](https://x.com/blueorigin/status/2014043028445364229) last week that it completed the spacecraft assembly, and has dispatched the Moonbound vehicle over sea to NASA’s Johnson Space Center where it will undergo space environmental tests. Considering that Mark I aims to land on the Moon’s south pole, the launch will take place only later this year when the landing site will have access to maximum sunlight. ***Related:** [**How engineers test Moon landers on Earth*](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-moon-landers/) - NASA has [selected three scientific payloads](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/new-nasa-artemis-payloads-to-study-moons-terrain-radiation-history/) to be delivered to the Moon on as-yet-unselected [CLPS landers](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) during 2028 or later. These payload suites, intended to study the nature of the Moon’s regolith, interior, and radiation environment respectively, are agnostic to specific locations and therefore can be sent on any lander that is otherwise compatible in terms of mass, volume, power, and other operational requirements. - NASA replaced a faulty oxidizer valve actuator on an RS-25 engine—which was removed from the Artemis II SLS rocket—and [retested and qualified it on January 22](https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/hot-fire-of-rs25-engine/) to power the SLS rocket for the future Artemis IV mission. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/01/rs-25-engine-repaired-and-tested-artemis-ii-to-iv.jpg) Hot fire test of an RS-25 engine at NASA’s Stennis Space Center in Mississippi on January 22\. [Image: NASA / Chris Russell](https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/hot-fire-of-rs25-engine/) --- **Many thanks to* [***Astrolab**](https://astrolab.space) *and* [***Subha Comandur**](https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/author/37085804361) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support Moon Monday 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### Publicly sharing my poetry booklet’s downloads & sales stats URL: https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry-initial-stats/ Last updated: 2026-01-22T17:48:56.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/01/seven-uni-verses-reader-3-1.jpeg) One of my kind readers sent this picture after getting a copy of my poetry pamphlet ^\_^ It’s been two months since I released [**Seven uni-verses**](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/) as a [celebratory](https://jatan.space/presenting-seven-uni-verses-poetry/) poetry booklet on humanity’s exploration of space. Some friends and readers have been curious about how it has fared, especially considering my unusual [open access](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/#values) approach that also [rejects traditional publishing](https://jatan.space/presenting-seven-uni-verses-poetry/#merging-the-worlds-of-blogs-and-books) norms. And so for public curiosity as well as for transparency on this experiment, I share below how many times my booklet has been downloaded and/or ordered as of January 20\. Note that these numbers represent the lower limit since tracking every single copy of a [globally available](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry-read/) multi-format and multi-platform book is impossible. - My own website: 1206 - Ebook platforms: 172 - Paperback: 61 - Audiobook: 89 - Internet Archive & Libraries: 54 So that’s about **1600** copies in total. I don’t know how you’d interpret these numbers but personally I’m happy with it, especially when considering my no-nonsense approach to publishing as an indie author: - The booklet is self-published, meaning there were no external publisher payments or promotions. Tools-wise, I used a combination of [Apple Pages](https://www.apple.com/apps/#pages), [isbn.gov.in](https://isbn.gov.in), [IngramSpark](https://www.ingramspark.com/), [Draft2Digital](https://draft2digital.com/), [Pothi](https://pothi.com/), [Google Play Books](https://play.google.com/books/publish/), [Internet Archive](https://archive.org/), and several more services. These turned out to be the right ones for me only after trying too many services. You’re welcome. - I did not do any paid ads or sponsored placements anywhere. - There were only a couple of announcements on my blog & newsletter, which gladly drove most of the downloads & sales as intended—a good sign for future booklets I want to publish. - I did do a few social media posts (ugh) but which very gladly did not bear much fruit. Instead, sharing the news directly with many friends I thought might be interested worked better and led to interesting conversations as well. I like this because it’s not as much promoting as it’s sharing and answering the curiosities of people about the publishing process. - I vehemently avoided exclusive distribution of my booklet on any platform, especially Amazon, even if it meant lower visibility. I care more about diverse global access and my long-term independence as a writer. Among other issues, going Amazon-exclusive would’ve meant I wouldn’t be able to provide my booklet digitally for free at all. - I did not ask any media outlet, journalist, or creator to talk about my booklet, especially out of [editorial ethical considerations](https://jatan.space/ethics/). Obviously, I did not approach any stupid influencers either; this one doesn’t need any considerations. - Marketing departments of some publishing platforms I used either reached out or emailed lengthy ads to ask me to promote my booklet in various paid ways, so as to upsell, all of which I rejected. I’d be more interested if they simply did organic shares of some sort for all authors using their platform by default. - Lastly, I did not promote the booklet at any bookstore with an author event or such. Although this isn’t an inorganic method, and so I’d actually love to engage with real readers at some point if a store is genuinely interested. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/01/seven-uni-verses-reader-2-1.jpeg) Of all the pictures readers have sent of my poetry booklet, my personal favorite is people reading my verses on e-paper devices like the Kindle. 🤓 If you’re one of the people who has read my verses, thank you. I’d certainly like it if you wished to share your organic thoughts about the poems [on any book platform](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/#bookmark-and-review), like [this review](https://www.goodreads.com/review/show/8078463424) on Goodreads. Or best, blog about it. If you’ve not yet picked up a copy of my space poetry, you can get one here: [Get Seven uni-verses ✨](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry-read/) It’s free digitally and priced minimally in print because I wanted my verses to be globally accessible. As such, I don’t make money from any sales directly and instead rely on [reader donations](https://jatan.space/support) to support all my [space writing](https://jatan.space/about). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/01/suckbucks-vs-my-poetry-booklet.jpeg) Meme: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) ## What’s next? Figuring out how to independently publish my poetry on platforms globally in multiple formats with non-exclusive open access has laid a solid logistical foundation for me to publish future booklets & books for public good. These numbers will now help me streamline my publishing process. I’m very excited for this next phase of my career: [Merge the worlds of blogs & books](https://jatan.space/presenting-seven-uni-verses-poetry/#merging-the-worlds-of-blogs-and-books) to bring affordable and accessible writing on important but undercovered space exploration themes to people all around the world. I aim to publish at least one booklet later this year for which you can get notified [via Email](https://jatan.space/subscribe) or [RSS](https://jatan.space/feeds). If you value my open access approach to globally publishing my poetry, articles, and future booklets, kindly directly support independent writing & journalism as a reader: [Support my work 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### The next 10 years in space URL: https://jatan.space/the-next-10-years-in-space-orbital-index/ Last updated: 2026-01-20T13:36:10.000Z On January 7, The Orbital Index (a [Moon Monday](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) sponsor) published a [sweeping overview](https://orbitalindex.com/archive/2026-01-07-Issue-350/) of what to expect and track over the next 10 years in space globally. The last section aptly captures the point that our pursuit of space should not and cannot be mutually exclusive with caring for Earth: > **Space and Earth: the decade ahead**. The next decade is vanishingly small on the timescale of planets, but it is likely to be a critical one for humanity, with space playing its own crucial role. And while the current US administration is pushing to cut Earth Science programs, personnel, and missions (both in development and operational; c.f. recent [NCAR shutdown news](https://news.ucar.edu/133054/ucar-statement-reports-nsf-ncar-could-be-dismantled)), that doesn’t change the fact that modern climate science emerged in part from the truly global vantage point provided by our ability to put people, cameras, and sensors in orbit. While budgets are under fire at NASA/NOAA/USGS/etc, much of the rest of the world seems to understand that this work remains existential. ESA has more Earth Science missions in development and operation than ever before (we’re particularly excited for [FORUM](https://www.esa.int/Applications/Observing%5Fthe%5FEarth/FutureEO/FORUM), [Copernicus CO2M](http://www.eumetsat.int/co2m), and [FLEX](https://earth.esa.int/eogateway/missions/flex)), JAXA is staying the course on its own small set of missions (ISS-hosted [MOLI](https://www.kenkai.jaxa.jp/eng/research/moli/moli-index.html) and [PMM](https://www.eoportal.org/satellite-missions/aos-pmm)), China is beginning to add its version of Earth Science missions ([TanSat-2](https://amt.copernicus.org/articles/18/3647/2025/) and [DQ-2](https://space.oscar.wmo.int/satellites/view/dq%5F2)), and multiple smaller nations have missions in progress (Canada’s [WildFireSat](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/satellites/wildfiresat/), Norway’s [AOS-P](https://spacenorway.com/supporting-the-arctic-ocean-surveillance-programme/), and South Korea’s recently launched [KOMPSAT-7](https://acktar.com/kompsat-7/)). These missions and the data they’ll produce are critical, as [humanity is blowing past its +1.5 ºC warming limit](https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2025/oct/28/change-course-now-humanity-has-missed-15c-climate-target-says-un-head) after a decade of record average global temperatures and mounting climate-induced disasters. These realities firmly place us in uncharted territory; we don’t know how quickly or how drastically climate patterns will shift as a result, particularly given our limited understanding of [climate tipping points](https://www.esa.int/Applications/Observing%5Fthe%5FEarth/Space%5Ffor%5Four%5Fclimate/Understanding%5Fclimate%5Ftipping%5Fpoints) that will likely accelerate warming (if you like board games, [Daybreak](https://boardgamegeek.com/boardgame/334986/daybreak) is *fun* and our favorite that includes tipping points). Our ability to mitigate atmospheric methane and its sources (leaks, flaring, etc.); understand cloud behavior at particle, single-cloud, and weather system scale; measure carbon cycle components like biomass; and, monitor resilience metrics like surface temperature, moisture levels, and wildfires will only grow in importance as humanity comes face-to-face with its most daunting self-inflicted problem to date (AI may very well be next). As we’ve shared before (c.f. [Issue № 48](https://orbitalindex.com/archive/2020-01-23-Issue-48/)), here at Orbital Index we’re unabashedly in support of treating climate change as the massive problem *and* opportunity that it is and of focusing humanity’s substantial ability to produce, problem-solve, and build on securing a livable and pleasant future—one where we can turn our focus toward the stars without ignoring existential threats at home. Edition #350 was also The Orbital Index’s last one. Some of my readers know that [Moon Monday](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) was partly inspired by The Orbital Index, a fact I’m proud of because the Index has been a unique resource to track global space activities and not just US ones. In a world where neither traditional media nor social media channels tend to provide [linked citations](https://jatan.space/i-write-for-you/)—much less external or even canonical ones—the Index being link-heavy made it one of the few of such [archival value](https://orbitalindex.com/archive/). And, to produce the lengthy editions for seven whole years is remarkable. I know firsthand how hard it is to consistently show up every Monday with something useful and thoughtful for thousands in the industry. Kudos and thank you to [Andrew Cantino⁩](https://andrewcantino.com) and [⁨Ben Lachman⁩](https://blach.space)—as well as contributors like [Sarajane](https://www.linkedin.com/in/sarajane-crawford/)—for pulling it off all this while to provide a quality, free resource to Earth. Even as their last edition links to several space sources to follow, it’s a fact that the specific value provided by the Index is now a vacuum. ### Moon Monday #258: Tests China will conduct this year in prep towards landing humans on Luna URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-258/ Last updated: 2026-04-27T10:16:37.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/01/long-march-2f-moon-bg-shenzhou-21-launch.jpeg) A beautiful image of the Long March 2F/G rocket silhouetted against the backdrop of our Moon. The rocket launched the Shenzhou 21 crew towards China’s Tiangong space station. [Image: CMG / CCTV / CNSA](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JLlSFq08CD8) In 2025, China [progressed on many elements](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-237/) which will help the country land humans on the Moon [by 2030](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/), notably including successful tests of the [launchpad escape system](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-230/), [lander propulsion](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-237/), and the [rocket booster core stage](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-242/#a-long-march-10-booster-roars-thrice-with-luna-in-sight). This year, China aims to complete testing several more aspects, as [outlined](https://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4470621/content.html) by the China Manned Space Agency (CMSA): - Perform integrated testing of the [Lanyue](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lanyue) lunar lander systems. - Note: This would very likely include tests of the propulsion module. As Ling Xin [previously reported](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3321150/china-completes-key-lander-test-preparation-crewed-moon-mission-2030), Lanyue comprises a crewed lander and an attached heavy propulsion module. It’s the latter which will initiate lunar descent and shave off the bulk of the combined craft’s orbital velocity. When the crew reaches a few kilometers above the lunar surface, the propulsion module will jettison from the lander, thereby lightening the load for the final landing and touchdown of the crew. - Conduct another abort test of China’s next-generation [Mengzhou crew capsule](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mengzhou%5F%28spacecraft%29), this time to verify successful working of safety mechanisms during the period of maximum aerodynamic pressure on the craft. - Note: Mengzhou flights aim to carry all future taikonauts to Earth orbit starting later this year, replacing the now old design of Shenzhou. A lunar variant of Mengzhou called ‘Mengzhou Y’ will carry astronauts to lunar orbit and dock with the Lanyue lander system so Lanyue can then land crew. - Launch low-altitude flights of the [Long March 10A](https://english.www.gov.cn/news/202508/15/content%5FWS689eec3dc6d0868f4e8f4dcb.html) rocket, clearing the way for lofting an orbital robotic flight as well as an [uncrewed flight](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/mengzhou-1-pakistani-visitor-to-tiangong) of Mengzhou to China’s Tiangong space station so as to prove the readiness of the new rocket and capsule. - Note: The lunar Mengzhou Y will incorporate lessons and tweaks from these tests and mission before its first uncrewed flight sometime by 2029. - Complete ground infrastructure for launch, tracking, and landing of Long March 10A boosters. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/01/china-crewed-moon-mission-profile.jpeg) High-level diagram of the typical architecture to be employed for China’s crewed Moon landing missions. [Image: Kaynouky](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:China%5Fcrewed%5Fmoon%5Fmission%5Fprofile.svg) Moreover, as Jack Congram [reported](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/yang-liwei-provides-progress-update) recently, work on [lunar spacesuits](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-195/#a-sino-suit-for-luna) called Wangyu will progress as well: - CMSA aims to conduct comprehensive testing of the Wangyu lunar spacesuit design, including verifying its structural integrity and functioning—like that of thermal control and electrical systems—inside Moon-simulating facilities. Engineers then hope to arrive at the final suit prototype by the end of this year. At some unspecified point, there are also tests expected of other crewed lunar elements: - A prototype fairing separation test of the lunar Long March 10 rocket. - Verification of payload development schedules, and subsequent selection of payloads for the first crewed Moon landing mission based on the [previously sought proposals](https://web.archive.org/web/20230717135506/http://www.cmse.gov.cn/gfgg/202307/t20230717%5F54065.html). Of course, there will be many more tests across various aspects but these are all the specific ones we know of. It would be interesting to see how many of these milestones China accomplishes by the end of this year as the country takes on a very ambitious and fast-paced schedule for landing humans on the Moon by 2030\. In any case, China’s lapses would not be [as long as that of Artemis](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-240/) barring an unexpected major failure or technical holdup. It will be great to watch a second nation from Earth land humans on Luna. 🌙 ## Please tell me your Moon time ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/01/china-queqiao-lunar-navcom-constellation-concept.jpg) A three-stage concept of developing a cislunar navigation and communications constellation proposed by Chinese researchers. [Image: SCMP](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3270910/chinese-scientists-propose-information-superhighway-between-earth-and-moon) In 2025, China [cemented and further advanced](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-229/) its lead in building a [lunar communications and navigation network](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-185/), including demonstrating [automated navigation](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-222/) at the Moon, and [achieving](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-225/) the first ever daytime Earth-Moon laser distance measurements with a retroreflector on a lunar orbiter.As lunar activity increases globally as well as from China itself towards its [Moonbase plans](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/), it’s becoming [increasingly important](https://jatan.space/a-registry-of-moon-missions/) to [coordinate time differences](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/timekeeping-blog) between lunar spacecraft and Earth to operate not just safely but synergistically. To that end, Chinese researchers have [released](https://github.com/xlucn/LTE440) a first-of-its-kind software package to enable engineers to coordinate Moon and Earth times for multiple lunar missions in an integrated manner. The authors consider the timing accuracy of this initial work to be sufficient for coordinating spacecraft over the next decade, and note that improvements will follow. What’s commendable is that the software is public on [GitHub](https://github.com/xlucn/LTE440), the paper describing the work and methodology [open access](https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202557345), and the project is being funded by the Chinese government institutions of [CAS](https://english.cas.cn/) and [NSFC](https://www.nsfc.gov.cn/english/site%5F1/index.html). ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/01/sls-rocket-artemis-ii-rollout.jpg) NASA’s Artemis II SLS rocket and integrated Orion spacecraft at Launch Complex 39B in Florida, with a truck nearby for scale. [Image: NASA / Keegan Barber](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2026/01/17/nasas-moonbound-artemis-ii-rocket-reaches-launch-pad/) - As NASA targets a [Q1 launch](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-2/final-steps-underway-for-nasas-first-crewed-artemis-moon-mission/) for the [Artemis II](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-257/) mission to fly four astronauts around the Moon and back, on January 17 the agency [transported](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2026/01/17/nasas-moonbound-artemis-ii-rocket-reaches-launch-pad/) the mission’s mammoth [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/reference/space-launch-system/) from the Vehicle Assembly Building at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida to the complex’s Launchpad 39B. The \~6.5-kilometer journey took almost 12 hours. Next in the series of the final set of pre-launch tests, NASA aims to verify cryogenic fueling and de-fueling operations as well as launch countdown procedures for the rocket by February 2\. If all goes well, we would then see crew put on their spacesuits and [enter Orion](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-2/artemis-ii-flight-crew-teams-conduct-demonstration-ahead-of-launch/) on the pad for a countdown demonstration test in tandem with ground teams to verify mission procedures. - In the meanwhile, NASA has released the [Artemis II press kit](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-ii-press-kit/). CSA’s [Artemis II page](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/missions/artemis-ii/) is also pretty good. - ESA [led a realistic communications test](https://luna-analog-facility.de/en/successful-communication-test-luna-envihab/) at their Moon-simulating [LUNA facility](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-198/) in Germany, emulating messages between an astronaut, various lunar elements, and mission control to lay the groundwork for planning future missions. In the meanwhile, Italian researchers [have identified](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtadv.2025.100678) the country’s Mount Etna’s volcanic material to be remarkably similar to Apollo 14 samples, making the place a good training ground for future astronauts and payload tests. ***Related:** [**How we are prepping to live on the Moon via analogs on Earth*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-251/) 🪨 - On January 11, Portugal [became the 30th European country](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-welcomes-portugal-as-60th-artemis-accords-signatory/) to sign the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords) for cooperative lunar exploration. - JAXA has [tentatively selected](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=8438) ispace Japan to demonstrate a precision landing on the Moon’s south pole later this decade with aid from communications relay satellites in lunar orbit. This development is interesting because JAXA has [already achieved a precision robotic landing](https://jatan.space/precision-moon-landings-and-the-future/) with the SLIM mission in 2024 without needing any external spacecraft. The move therefore denotes other considerations such as cost and abstracting out the advanced capability to a persistent infrastructure layer at the Moon so every lander can utilize it. ## Articles on Japan’s Moon missions ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/01/jaxa-slim-lunar-lander-1.jpg) Flight model of the SLIM Moon lander at the Spacecraft and Fairing Assembly Building at Japan’s Tanegashima launch complex. [Image: JAXA](https://jda.jaxa.jp/search.php?lang=e&page=1&keyword=SLIM&library=1&category1=&category2=&category3=&category4=&page%5Fpics=20) - [**The joint Indo-Japanese Chandrayaan 5 LUPEX mission will drill for water on the Moon**](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/) - [**JAXA welcomed us into the era of precision Moon landings**](https://jatan.space/precision-moon-landings-and-the-future/) - [How ISRO aided this feat](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/) - [**Japan’s road to landing astronauts on the Moon**](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-172/) - [The need for resilience in private Moon landing missions through expansive and collaborative testing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-228/) - [On the intersection of ispace, NASA CLPS, funding, and science](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-184/) - [On ispace’s failed Moon landing attempt and related tangents for NASA CLPS](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-125/) --- **Many thanks to* [***Catalyx Space**](https://catalyx.space) *and* [***Adithya Kothandhapani**](https://adithyapani.bio.link) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support Moon Monday 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### Moon Monday #257: NASA preps to send astronauts to Luna URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-257/ Last updated: 2026-01-12T12:38:48.000Z ## Artemis updates galore ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/01/artemis-ii-astronauts-launch-countdown-prep-test.jpg) Three of four Artemis II astronauts are seen here practicing entering their Orion spacecraft for a pre-launch countdown test on December 20, 2025\. [Image: NASA / Joel Kowsky](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-2/artemis-ii-flight-crew-teams-conduct-demonstration-ahead-of-launch/) - The US Senate [voted](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/isaacman-confirmed-as-15th-nasa-administrator/) and [confirmed Jared Isaacman](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-welcomes-15th-administrator-jared-isaacman/) as NASA’s administrator on December 17, 2025, closing a [long drawn process](https://www.thespacereview.com/article/5098/1) of having the entrepreneur, pilot, astronaut, and Trump’s original [but later withdrawn](https://spacenews.com/white-house-to-withdraw-isaacman-nomination-to-lead-nasa/) nominee be the person leading NASA. - In parallel, the US White House [issued an Executive Order](https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/12/ensuring-american-space-superiority/), effectively *yet another* national policy directive from the country, to try landing humans on the Moon before China. In 2025, due to [three](https://spacenews.com/starship-breaks-up-on-reentry-after-loss-of-attitude-control/) [back-to-back](https://spacenews.com/starship-upper-stage-lost-on-seventh-test-flight/) [failures](https://arstechnica.com/science/2025/03/the-starship-program-hits-another-speed-bump-with-second-consecutive-failure/) of SpaceX Starship, an [explosion during testing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-230/#another-blowup-for-artemis), and [another booster lost](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/11/newest-starship-booster-is-significantly-damaged-during-testing-early-friday/), NASA’s long road to putting humans on the Moon significantly [slowed down](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-240/), making Lunar Starship *the pacing item*. As such, the executive order formally pushes the [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/) crewed lunar landing target from 2027 to 2028, hoping that the [reopening of the mission’s contract](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-248/#nasa-reopens-artemis-iii-human-landing-contract) for accelerated proposals—which was done last year by Isaacman’s predecessor Sean Duffy as Acting Administrator—would help the US achieve the feat before the next Presidential elections more so than before China lands humans on Luna. The optimistic executive order also calls for the US to work towards a “permanent lunar outpost by 2030”, and continues the decision to [reinvest in nuclear power](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-238/) on the Moon. - NASA is targeting a [Q1 launch](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-2/final-steps-underway-for-nasas-first-crewed-artemis-moon-mission/) this year to fly four [Artemis II](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-242/) astronauts around the Moon and back. The agency is executing the final string of tests only after the successes of which can it safely liftoff the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/reference/space-launch-system/) carrying the crew’s [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft). The latest of these tests involved the crew donning their spacesuits and [entering Orion](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-2/artemis-ii-flight-crew-teams-conduct-demonstration-ahead-of-launch/) as a pre-launch countdown demonstration test in tandem with ground teams to verify mission procedures. Next up, NASA is preparing to roll out the SLS rocket from the Vehicle Assembly Building at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida to the complex’s Launchpad 39B no earlier than January 17\. The agency also identified and fixed some problems in the process: > During final checkouts before rollout, technicians found a cable involved in the flight termination system was bent out of specifications. Teams are replacing it and will test the new cable over the weekend. Additionally, a valve associated with Orion’s hatch pressurization exhibited issues leading up to a Dec. 20 [countdown demonstration test](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-2/artemis-ii-flight-crew-teams-conduct-demonstration-ahead-of-launch/). On Jan. 5, the team successfully replaced and tested it. Engineers also worked to resolve leaky ground support hardware required to load gaseous oxygen into Orion for breathing air. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/01/artemis-i-orion-heat-shield-issues.jpg) The Artemis I Orion spacecraft lost big chunks of its heat shield material in several places during atmospheric reentry on Earth. Some of its bolts also melted and eroded. [Image: NASA / OIG](https://oig.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/ig-24-011.pdf) - In the meanwhile, Isaacman’s first priority after becoming the NASA administrator has been to review the Orion capsule’s heat shield and its effectiveness in saving the lives of Artemis II astronauts during atmospheric reentry on Earth at the end of the mission. Previously, [two independent investigations](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-identifies-root-cause-of-orion-heat-shield-char-loss/) by NASA analyzed the unexpected damage caused to Orion’s shield during reentry in 2022 for the uncrewed [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-i/) Moon mission. The agency concluded that the heat shield’s ablative Avcoat material [was not porous enough](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/nasa-identifies-cause-of-artemis-i-orion-heat-shield-char-loss/) to vent and dissipate hot gas buildup during its bounced atmospheric reentry, which led to cracks and loss of entire chunks. NASA then decided to change Orion’s reentry profile for Artemis II to manage the heat buildup, deeming it a safe measure for astronauts. Following the latest shield review led by Isaacman, wherein two specific reporters were (preferentially?) allowed to attend, NASA has decided to continue with the changed reentry profile proposal. Eric Berger, one of the two reporters with access to the meeting, [noted the worst case scenario](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/01/nasa-chief-reviews-orion-heat-shield-expresses-full-confidence-in-it-for-artemis-ii/) as follows: > The NASA engineers wanted to understand what would happen if large chunks of the heat shield were stripped away entirely from the composite base of Orion. So they subjected this base material to high energies for periods of 10 seconds up to 10 minutes, which is longer than the period of heating Artemis II will experience during reentry. What they found is that, in the event of such a failure, the structure of Orion would remain solid, the crew would be safe within, and the vehicle could still land in a water-tight manner in the Pacific Ocean. Not all experts seated in the meeting are convinced, with one publicly [citing limitations](https://www.linkedin.com/posts/charlescamarda%5Fnasa-artemisheatshield-orionheatshield-activity-7415490596121067520-ZtzE) of the tools used for said analyses. Here’s hoping the Artemis II astronauts fly and get back to Earth safely. On the other hand, there’s poignant irony in unequivocally debating so much about saving the lives of astronauts but not of those on the ground too, including not only ensuring protective measures for launch teams but also looking out for the [safety of passengers in flight](https://www.propublica.org/article/spacex-faa-launch-airlines-safety-explosions-florida-caribbean) against rocket debris, [engineers on ground](https://jatan.space/a-worrisome-report-on-safety-issues-at-spacex/) testing hardware, and simply caring about lives of people at large. The pursuit of space does not place us above human life. ## More mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/01/firefly-blue-ghost-2-structural-model-at-nasa-jpl.jpg) Structural models of Firefly’s Blue Ghost 2 lander and orbiter stacked at JPL. [Image: NASA / JPL-Caltech / Firefly](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/jpl/nasa-jpl-shakes-things-up-testing-future-commercial-lunar-spacecraft/) - US-based Firefly Aerospace has [tested and qualified](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/jpl/nasa-jpl-shakes-things-up-testing-future-commercial-lunar-spacecraft/) through NASA a structural model of its upcoming [second Blue Ghost CLPS Mooncraft](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-226/#firefly-to-carry-second-uae-lunar-rover-and-more) for launch vibrations and acoustic stress at JPL’s Environmental Test Laboratory. > A structural qualification model of the full stack was clamped to a “shaker table” inside a clean room at JPL and repeatedly rattled in three directions while hundreds of sensors monitored the rapid movement. Then, inside a separate acoustic testing chamber, giant horns blared at it from openings built into the room’s 16-inch-thick (41-centimeter-thick) concrete walls. The horns use compressed nitrogen gas to pummel spacecraft with up to 153 decibels, noise loud enough to cause permanent hearing loss in a human. - Relatedly, the company [announced recently](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-aerospace-adds-voltas-wireless-power-receiver-to-blue-ghost-mission-on-far-side-of-the-moon/) that the mission’s lander will host Volta Space’s [CSA-funded](https://www.voltaspace.co/fireflypr) wireless power receiver aboard. It’s a technology demonstrator ahead of building receivers for a planned lunar power network and service called LightGrid. It’s unclear when will Firefly launch in 2026 since the spacecraft stack’s flight model hasn’t been built yet. - Slow but some progress continues on the upcoming NASA-led [Gateway lunar orbital habitat](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/gateway) as the agency [has shared](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/glenn/nasa-starts-up-gateways-power-system-for-first-time/) that it successfully tested powering on the station’s critical Power and Propulsion Element at some unspecified time last year. This element’s solar-electric propulsion system will not only maneuver and attitude-control the Gateway but also provide power and communications for astronauts aboard the station. Gateway’s initiating launch is targeted [around 2028](https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-24-106878). - Jack Congram [reports](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/taikonauts-prepare-for-lunar-missions) that the China Manned Space Agency (CMSA) trained 28 taikonauts in cave training exercises in Wulong, Chongqing last month to mentally prepare them for [upcoming crewed missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-237/), which are aimed to begin from the end of this decade. Wu Bin, the deputy chief designer of astronaut systems at the China Astronautic Scientific Research and Training Center (CARTC), stated the training’s rationale as follows for an [official state release](http://english.scio.gov.cn/chinavoices/2026-01/06/content%5F118263993.html): > The training was designed to sharpen astronauts’ capabilities in hazard response, autonomous operation, teamwork, emergency decision making and scientific survey, as well as to improve physical endurance and mental toughness in extreme environments. It was also a comprehensive evaluation of them. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/01/taikonauts-cave-training.jpg) Taikonauts coordinating to carry a scientific sample upward through the cave. [Image: CNSA / CMSA / CARTC](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/n6758823/n6758838/c10724762/content.html) ## More Moon - US-based Intuitive Machines and Europe-based Leonardo & Telespazio have [agreed to have interoperability](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/leonardo-telespazio-and-intuitive-machines-sign-a-strategic-agreement-for-lunar-communication-and) between their future communications and navigation orbiters, a welcome move since Moon missions can be cheaper, safer, and better if more countries [share navigation](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/the-road-to-a-moonbase-goes-through-advanced-navigation-based-on-open-standards) and [timing infrastructure](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/timekeeping-blog). - NASA is soliciting [industry-wide feedback](https://sam.gov/workspace/contract/opp/212106522c424ac3bf4bc746277ba6a7/view) for considering a v2 of its [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). - Open Lunar Foundation (a Moon Monday sponsor) is [hiring a Development Director](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/join-the-open-lunar-team-as-development-director) to support the non-profit’s building of policy infrastructure blocks, like the [Lunar Ledger](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-246/#more-moon), for peaceful and cooperative global exploration of the Moon. --- **Many thanks to* [***Open Lunar Foundation**](https://www.openlunar.org) *and* [***Adithya Kothandhapani**](https://adithyapani.bio.link) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support Moon Monday 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### Coverage of India’s exploration of Mars URL: https://jatan.space/india-mars-articles/ Last updated: 2026-05-08T07:19:14.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/01/mars-globe-view-by-mangalyaan.jpg) Global view of Mars from the Mangalyaan spacecraft, captured on October 4, 2014\. [Image: ISRO / Emily Lakdawalla](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/global-view-of-mars-from-mom-tharsis) - [**Reviewing Mangalyaan, India’s first Mars mission**](https://jatan.space/reviewing-mission-mangalyaan/) - [**India’s Mars orbiter completes six years at the red planet, but where is the science?**](https://jatan.space/missing-science-from-mangalyaan/) - [Debate: Mangalyaan’s low science output still reflects on ISRO](https://jatan.space/debate-missing-science-from-mangalyaan-still-reflects-on-isro/) - [Mangalyaan spacecraft terminated—it was never a science mission](https://jatan.space/how-to-honor-mangalyaan/) - [**My article on Mangalyaan was rejected 8 times but I published it anyway**](https://jatan.space/story-behind-that-mangalyaan-article/) - [Views of Mars from India's Mangalyaan orbiter](https://jatan.space/views-of-mars-from-mangalyaan/) - [Book review: Those magnificent women and their stories that must be told](https://jatan.space/book-review-those-magnificent-women-and-their-stories/) --- **Related:** [*Articles on Venus*](https://jatan.space/venus-articles/) --- Like my efforts to provide free resources for space communities worldwide? Kindly sponsor my work to support independent writing: [Support my writing 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### All the rovers heading to the Moon over the next 10 years | Moon Monday #256 URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-256/ Last updated: 2026-08-05T08:18:34.000Z As lunar exploration [ramps up worldwide](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-255/), our celestial companion is slated to be explored by increasingly advanced rovers of all sorts over the next 10 years. Not all of them will be successful, and so the reason for this post is not just to garner excitement about the possibilities of near future lunar exploration but also to archive in one place the promises being made so we can assess them in the future instead of only reporting, sharing, and amplifying grand plans. The same rationale is why I do a [year-end review of global lunar activities](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-255/): to see what we actually achieved and what we did not. Alright, with that in mind, here’s a comprehensive and contextualized list of upcoming lunar rovers & mobile robots from around the world, categorized as small, sophisticated, and astronaut-supporting. To learn more about any rover, click its link—that’s what the Web is for. :) ## Small but mighty ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/01/firefly-blue-ghost-2-uae-rashid-rover-2-illustration.jpg) Illustration of Firefly’s Blue Ghost 2 lander and UAE’s Rashid 2 rover on the Moon’s farside. [Image: Firefly](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-aerospace-adds-uaes-rashid-2-rover-to-blue-ghost-mission-to-the-far-side-of-the-moon/) - Building on [the success of its first Moon landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-218/#firefly-deserves-an-unusual-kudos), US-based Firefly’s next three lunar landers, all part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), will carry rovers. The second Firefly lander [will carry UAE’s Rashid 2 rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-226/#firefly-to-carry-second-uae-lunar-rover-and-more) to the Moon’s farside whereas the third lander will deploy [Honeybee Robotics’ first planetary rover](https://www.honeybeerobotics.com/news-events/firefly-aerospace-selects-blue-origins-honeybee-robotics-to-provide-rover-for-lunar-mission-to-gruithuisen-domes/) on one of the two [Gruithuisen Domes](https://jatan.space/unique-volcanic-domes-of-gruithuisen/), a unique volcanic site on the lunar nearside. Firefly’s [fourth lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-236/), heading to the lunar south pole, will carry a [versatile CubeRover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-172/#astrobotic-to-fly-cuberover-on-griffin-after-all) from US-based Astrobotic called [Moonranger](https://www.astrobotic.com/lunar-delivery/rovers/our-history/). NASA has also [awarded](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-partners-with-american-companies-on-key-moon-exploration-tech) future contracts for Astrobotic CubeRovers to [demonstrate power transmission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-138/) and [lunar night survival](https://www.astrobotic.com/cuberover-funded-for-survive-the-lunar-night-mission). - Intuitive Machines’ [third Moon landing attempt](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-mission-to-reiner-gamma/) will be in the [swirl of Reiner Gamma](https://jatan.space/swirls-on-the-moon/) in 2026\. The region has a weak local magnetic field, possibly a remnant from the time the Moon [had a global magnetic field](http://advances.sciencemag.org/content/3/8/e1700207). The mission’s primary payload suite is [Lunar Vertex](https://www.jhuapl.edu/NewsStory/211018b-lunar-vertex), a collection of spectrometers and magnetometers on the lander and [a rover](https://web.archive.org/web/20230815201121/https://lunaroutpost.com/lunar-outpost-delivers-first-flight-model-rover-in-record-time/) to study the swirl’s composition and map the strength & direction of magnetic fields on the surface. This will shape our understanding of the Moon’s magnetic evolution and also help us better understand the effects of [solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) and [bombarding micrometeorites](https://jatan.space/the-tiniest-of-impact-craters/) on planetary bodies across our Solar System. The Intuitive lander will also deploy three shoebox-sized [CADRE rovers](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/game%5Fchanging%5Fdevelopment/projects/CADRE) by NASA. The rovers will autonomously navigate the landed region to demonstrate collectively better mapping it than a single rover would. The rovers will have multistatic ground penetrating radars to create 3D images of the subsurface structure up to 10 meters deep. - Later on, ispace US’ [first CLPS mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-184/) through Draper Laboratory is targeting landing on the Moon’s farside in 2027, carrying [NASA payloads](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-184/#science) onboard as well as [a rover from ispace Europe](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7495). - China’s [Chang’e 8](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/#prepare-for-crew-and-double-down-with-mission-eight) lander, targeting a 2028 launch, will deploy [Pakistan’s first rover](https://tribune.com.pk/story/2509494/suparcos-rover-to-explore-lunar-surface) and two [small mobile bots](https://spacenews.com/china-embraces-commercial-participation-in-moon-mission-for-the-first-time/) from private Chinese company STAR.VISION. The latter is being developed in collaboration with universities from China and Turkey. This would be the first payload from a Chinese company flying on a Chang’e spacecraft. - NASA has [announced](https://science.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-4/nasa-selects-2-instruments-for-artemis-iv-lunar-surface-science/) that on the future crewed [Artemis IV](https://www.nasa.gov/general/nasas-artemis-iv-building-first-lunar-space-station/) Moon landing mission, the astronauts will also deploy a rover [made by Lunar Outpost](https://www.lunaroutpost.com/post/lunar-outpost-announces-7th-mission-joining-nasa-s-artemis-iv-team-with-university-of-colorado-boul), which will study [lunar dust](https://doi.org/10.3847/PSJ/ad1ffe) and surface [plasma](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lunarsurface22/pdf/5010.pdf). - *Update from April 2026:* The Japanese government selected a [consortium](https://www.niche.tohoku.ac.jp/zzcmsw/wp-content/uploads/SSF%5FLunar%5FPioneer%5FProject%5Ffull%5Ftext.pdf) led by Tohoku university to [develop a lunar polar rover](https://www.jaops.com/events/space-strategy-fund-grant-lunar-pioneer-project) as part of the country’s 10-year, ¥1-trillion “[Space Strategy Fund](https://fund.jaxa.jp/content/uploads/Overview%5Fof%5FThe%5FSpaceStrategy%5FFund.pdf)”, which has [Moon missions as a focus area](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-274/#japan-funds-public-private-lunar-missions). Once on the surface, the rover aims to fire an electron beam to melt and solidify lunar soil, the first step ahead of [constructing lunar infrastructure](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-244/) from local materials in the future. - *Update from May 2026:* NASA JPL [awarded a $75 million contract](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-aerospace-wins-75-million-nasa-jpl-moonfall-subcontract-to-deliver-drones-to-the-moons-south-pole/) to Firefly to have its [Elytra Dark](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-230/#the-silver-ocula-to-fill-some-gaps-for-nasa) spacecraft deliver 3-4 “[Moonfall](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/moonfall/)” hopper drones to \~50-kilometer lunar orbit in 2028\. From this point on, each drone will land on the Moon by itself. At [225 kilograms](https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/05/nasa-takes-steps-toward-building-moon-base-including-discussing-a-perimeter/) each, these drones are really mini-landers. Each will carry a few instruments to study the lunar surface during hops. NASA aims to acquire lunar surface imagery with centimeter-level resolution ahead of crewed Artemis missions and to also use the drones to [establish a Moonbase “perimeter”](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-awards-initial-moon-base-rover-and-lander-contracts/). - *Update from March 2026:* Intuitive Machines’ [fifth CLPS Moon mission](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/clps/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-to-deliver-artemis-science-tech-to-moon/) targeting a landing on the Moon’s south pole by 2030 to study [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) will deploy Australia’s [first lunar rover](https://www.space.gov.au/meet-roo-ver) called Roo-ver to [explore the polar environment](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2024/pdf/1682.pdf). The mission’s lander will also deploy Honeybee Robotics’ [second lunar rover](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/clps/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-to-deliver-artemis-science-tech-to-moon/). - An [as-yet-unspecified CLPS rover](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/new-nasa-artemis-instruments-to-study-volcanic-terrain-on-the-moon/) is intended to study the unique mound-like volcanic feature of [Ina](https://jatan.space/ina-irregular-mare-patch/) on the Moon by the end of this decade as well. - South Korea’s [first Moon lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-181/) plans to deploy a rover on the Moon by 2032 though details are unavailable at the moment. The country’s interest is certainly substantial though since South Korea is transforming its former mining site of Taebaek [into a testing ground](https://pulse.mk.co.kr/news/all/11279380) for advanced mobile lunar exploration technologies, owing to the mine’s environmental resemblance to the darkness, coldness, and ruggedness of the Moon’s south pole. ## Sophisticated ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/01/chang-e-7-mobile-hopper.jpeg) A hopper will separate from the Chang’e 7 lander to directly explore permanently shadowed regions and cold traps on the Moon’s south pole which likely host water ice. Images: [CNSA](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TecH94d1TTw) / [CCTV](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3329997/china-led-moon-missions-water-probe-will-be-first-humanity-space-agency) - Launching this year, China’s [Chang’e 7 mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-248/) will have a rover sporting an intended [eight-year lifespan](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465645/n6465648/c6840870/part/6797907.pdf) and a panoramic camera, a Raman spectrometer, a ground penetrating radar, a mass spectrometer, and a magnetometer to explore the Moon’s south pole and map [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). The Chang’e 7 lander will also deploy a small hopper with shock absorbing legs. It will jump into nearby [permanently shadowed areas](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) for its onboard [Lunar Water Molecular Analyzer](https://doi.org/10.1007/s12583-024-2023-7) (LWMA) to detect water ice and other volatile resources like ammonia. Chang’e 7 will be China’s first attempt to gain such a ground truth understanding of the accessibility, movement, and storage of surface and near-surface water ice on the Moon’s poles, which is crucial to appropriately plan sustained robotic as well as crewed lunar exploration. Virtually all recent missions funded by NASA have [failed to advance on this goal](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-221/) despite it being foundational to the US Artemis program. - Two years after Chang’e 7, the Chang’e 8 lander will deploy a rover and a [dextrous mobile robot](https://hkust.edu.hk/news/research-and-innovation/hkust-leads-change-8-international-cooperation-project) to characterize with [many instruments](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/#prepare-for-crew-and-double-down-with-mission-eight) the lunar south polar geology and environment. The dextrous robot will melt lunar soil, make 3D-printed parts and bricks from it, and use those to assemble basic structures. That’s a fantastic sounding first demonstration of in-situ utilization of lunar resources. The robot will also fetch rock and soil samples for the lander’s spectrometers to determine their chemical composition, which will likely include water ice. CNSA might leave some intriguing samples on the Moon for future missions to retrieve them and bring them to Earth. - Astrobotic’s large [Griffin lander](https://www.astrobotic.com/griffin) aims to land on the Moon’s south pole as part of NASA CLPS [later this year](https://www.astrobotic.com/griffin-1-mission-update/). It will deploy the [FLIP rover](https://www.astrolab.space/flip-rover/) by Astrolab (a Moon Monday sponsor), which got [manifested last year](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-212/) after NASA [decided not to fly](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/#viper-rover-delivery-by-astrobotic) the critical [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) for studying water ice aboard Griffin. NASA has now [tentatively chosen](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-243/) Blue Origin’s second Mark I lander to *hopefully* fly VIPER in 2027. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/01/chandrayaan-5lupex-rover-instruments.jpg) The joint Indo-Japanese LUPEX lunar rover plans to carry instruments from multiple space countries. [Image: JAXA / M. Ohtake, et al.](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/1918.pdf) - The joint ISRO-JAXA [Chandrayaan 5 / LUPEX](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/) rover mission later this decade plans to drill and analyze water ice on the Moon’s south pole. The mission will bring a giant leap in lunar capabilities for both ISRO and JAXA, and it can provide NASA with [critical data that is currently missing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-221/) in Artemis planning. - As an aside, ispace’s European subsidiary led team won a \~[€2.7 million ESA contract](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7846) to collaborate with the agency on the [MAGPIE rover mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-228/#two-new-european-moon-missions) to study lunar polar water ice and other such volatiles. The mission is not official yet. *Update from June 2026:* UAE is planning a similar mission with the [Rashid 3 rover](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/leag2024/pdf/5070.pdf). ## Astronaut support ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/01/nasa-ltv-infographic-draft.jpg) Desired capabilities of the upcoming Artemis Lunar Terrain Vehicle for astronauts. [Image: NASA](https://sam.gov/api/prod/opps/v3/opportunities/resources/files/90f14b078fad4da587e2f6fbbfe60768/download?&token=) - *Update from May 2026:* NASA awarded [crew-capable rover contracts](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-provides-update-on-moon-base-rovers-landers-missions/) to Astrolab (a Moon Monday sponsor) and Lunar Outpost respectively. These \~1000-kilogram “Lunar Terrain Vehicles” (LTVs) will be [more advanced than the rover driven by Apollo astronauts](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-171/), capable of long range exploration and site scouting with many onboard instruments. - China is [progressing with prototypes](http://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4216269/content.html) of a competitively sourced [crewed rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-200/) to be used during the country’s ambitious [first human Moon landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-237/) by 2030. - JAXA will provide NASA with an [even more advanced rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-172/) next decade, which will be pressurized, enabling astronauts to spend weeks in it. In return, NASA has agreed to land two Japanese astronauts on the Moon. - CSA wants in on that strategy too. The agency has, so far, awarded [initial study contracts](https://www.canada.ca/en/space-agency/news/2025/07/canadas-new-lunar-utility-rover-will-help-astronauts-build-a-future-on-the-moon.html) totaling $10.6 million to three companies—Canadensys, MDA Space, and Mission Control—towards developing a “Lunar Utility Vehicle” (LUV). This kickstarted Canada’s [intent from 2023](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/news/articles/2023/2023-03-29-significant-investments-to-further-propel-canadian-space-exploration.asp) to invest $1.2 billion over 13 years to develop an assistance rover for future Artemis astronauts. Canada hopes that [just like how](https://www.canada.ca/en/space-agency/news/2020/12/a-canadian-astronaut-will-fly-to-the-moon.html) contributing their [Canadarm3](https://asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/canadarm3/about.asp) robotics servicing system to the upcoming NASA-led [Gateway lunar orbital habitat](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/gateway) bagged seats for their astronauts on circumlunar Artemis missions, contributing a large, durable LUV rover for Artemis surface missions will enable a Canadian to walk on the Moon. - While not a rover, Italy’s 15,000-kilogram [astronaut habitat module](https://www.thalesgroup.com/en/worldwide/space/press%5Frelease/thales-alenia-space-signs-contract-italian-space-agency-asi-develop) being made for [Artemis Basecamp](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept) usage next decade will have wheels so it can reposition itself as needed on the [dynamically lit](https://www.nasa.gov/ames/feature/the-dark-side-of-the-crater-how-light-looks-different-on-the-moon-and-what-nasa-is-doing) lunar polar surface. --- *So that was a comprehensive look at all the rovers promising to explore the Moon over the next 10 years. I wrote it* [*for you*](https://jatan.space/i-write-for-you/)*, not social media or SEO, and so if you enjoyed my coverage, please share it with other space buffs by* [*grabbing this link*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-256/)*.* **Many thanks to* [***The Orbital Index**](https://orbitalindex.com) *and* [***Gurbir Singh**](https://gurbir.co.uk) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support Moon Monday 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### Articles on Japan’s Moon missions URL: https://jatan.space/japan-moon-articles/ Last updated: 2026-01-12T11:58:43.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/01/jaxa-slim-lunar-lander.jpg) Flight model of the SLIM Moon lander at the Spacecraft and Fairing Assembly Building at Japan’s Tanegashima launch complex. [Image: JAXA](https://jda.jaxa.jp/search.php?lang=e&page=1&keyword=SLIM&library=1&category1=&category2=&category3=&category4=&page%5Fpics=20) - [**The joint Indo-Japanese Chandrayaan 5 LUPEX mission will drill for water on the Moon**](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/) - [**JAXA welcomed us into the era of precision Moon landings**](https://jatan.space/precision-moon-landings-and-the-future/) - [How ISRO aided this feat](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/) - [**Japan’s road to landing astronauts on the Moon**](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-172/) --- - [The need for resilience in private Moon landing missions through expansive and collaborative testing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-228/) - [On the intersection of ispace, NASA CLPS, funding, and science](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-184/) - [On ispace’s failed Moon landing attempt and related tangents for NASA CLPS](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-125/) --- Like my efforts to provide free resources for space communities worldwide? Kindly sponsor my work to support independent writing: [Support my writing 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### Poem: The dawn of your light URL: https://jatan.space/the-dawn-of-your-light/ Last updated: 2026-01-06T10:39:58.000Z *Like the dawn of the blaze* *of a lander over the grays* *touches your light* *and spans the open lunar sky* *A descent energetic yet graceful* *methodical and careful* *Spawned from the blue marble verse* *you bring the best in us.* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2026/01/firefly-blue-ghost-clps-lander-final-descent.jpg) Shadow of Firefly’s Blue Ghost Moon lander performing its final descent before touching down on the Moon. Our Earth adorns the sky. [Image: Blue Ghost landing video](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NpHhEybJdxg) **Poem notes:** I’ve had the privilege and pleasure of working with amazing editors, bosses, and managers over [my space writing career](https://jatan.space/about) across organizations and media publications [worldwide](https://jatan.space/published). I wrote this poem recently to appreciate someone I’ve worked with and learnt from last year. Though the gratitude in my verses is also meant for others who have shaped me and my words. :) --- *If you liked this space poetry of mine, read* [***Seven uni-verses***](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/)*, my globally published poetry pamphlet.* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/share-seven-universes-poetry-qr-3.jpeg) #### Seven uni-verses (booklet) By [****Jatan Mehta**](https://jatan.space/about). Poetry on all that space evokes. [About & Read →](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/) ### Achievements and shortfalls in global lunar exploration in 2025 URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-255/ Last updated: 2025-12-17T15:47:14.000Z Like last year’s overview of a [happening 2024 in global lunar exploration](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-206/), I present to you a comprehensive, curated, and contextualized linked rundown of lunar technology and science developments across 2025, organized by country or region. There is also a section on progressive cooperative & collaborative international efforts—because these are the gems we need more of—as well as a section discussing shortcomings in the same. Each linked article in the overview explains the importance of that development, and I’ve made a conscious effort to highlight events and trends that actually happened instead of amplifying speculative coverage of upcoming events that may or may not be as successful and/or as timely as they’re being touted and reported to be. ****Note:** [Moon Monday](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) will continue in 2026 after my usual year-end break. A warm thank you for reading and [supporting](https://jatan.space/support) my labor of lunar love through the year, and to those who read—and [reviewed](https://www.goodreads.com/review/show/8078463424)!—my [poetry booklet](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/) on humanity’s exploration of the cosmos. I [published it globally](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry-read/) in multiple formats as [open access](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/#values) to celebrate 5 years, 250 editions, and 10,000 subscribers of Moon Monday, and to lay the foundation for the next phase of my space writing: [Merge the worlds of blogs and books](https://jatan.space/presenting-seven-uni-verses-poetry/#merging-the-worlds-of-blogs-and-books) 🌙 Alright, let’s dive into our worldwide lunar tour. If someone asks you what’s happening at the Moon, say *all of this* is. When you see this global activity in one place, the scale of the world’s march to explore Luna really hits home. 🌏 ## China ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/12/china-lanyue-crewed-lander-mockup-propulsion-gnc-test.jpeg) Shots from the control systems test of China’s Lanyue lander design for crewed Moon missions. The full-scale lander mockup is seen next to humans in the inset image at the bottom right. Images: [CASC](https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/xywWynVaOQrTpWbKtHfveg) / [CMSA](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LKNt3dCUvjU) | Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) - Chinese researchers published a volcano of [novel lunar science results](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-233/) based on freshly fetched Chang’e 6 Moon samples, and [presented it at a symposium](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-252/). These findings have changed our understanding of our Moon’s origin and evolution, and have helped scientists globally identify new, specific measurements future missions should make for better outcomes. - China also [announced](https://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4320481/content.html) the first set of international organizations whose proposals were selected to [study unique lunar samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-223/) fetched to Earth by CNSA’s Chang’e 5 mission in 2020\. And the nation [displayed Chang’e samples](https://news.cgtn.com/news/2025-06-26/Lunar-soil-samples-debut-at-UN-Vienna-headquarters-1Ewmf9ERBlu/p.html) at the United Nations headquarters for the first time. - China [progressed on many elements](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-237/) which will help it land humans on the Moon by 2030, notably including successful tests of the [launchpad escape system](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-230/), [lander propulsion](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-237/), and the [rocket booster core stage](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-242/#a-long-march-10-booster-roars-thrice-with-luna-in-sight). - The country [cemented and further advanced](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-229/) its lead in building a [lunar communications and navigation network](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-185/), demonstrated [automated navigation](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-222/) at the Moon, and [achieved](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-225/) the first ever daytime Earth-Moon laser distance measurements with a retroreflector on a lunar orbiter. - China progressed well in preparations towards the launch of its [Chang’e 7 mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-248/) to the Moon’s south pole in the second half of next year as planned to study [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other volatile resources. - Building on [Chang’e 7’s international cooperation](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-248/#international-instruments-onboard), CNSA [announced more international payloads](https://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4320459/content.html) that will be onboard the [Chang’e 8 mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/#prepare-for-crew-and-double-down-with-mission-eight) to further explore the Moon’s south pole starting 2028. ## The US ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/12/firefly-blue-ghost-clps-lander-at-mare-crisium-and-on-earth.jpg) The Blue Ghost lander’s shadow standing tall on the Moon, lying under a black sky with our Earth hanging by the distance; ****Inset left:** Blue Ghost with its X-band antenna deployed; ****Inset right:** The Blue Ghost lander on Earth prior to launch. [Images: Firefly](https://www.flickr.com/photos/fireflyspace/albums/72177720313239766/with/54359866846/) - With [rigor and abundant caution](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-215/), Firefly’s Blue Ghost spacecraft part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) brought the first true soft landing for the US in the 21st century, involving operations of its [science & technology payloads](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-216/#a-busy-lunar-morning), a [precision landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-216/), the [first GPS/GNSS lock on the Moon](https://www.asi.it/en/2025/03/lugre-achieves-historic-lunar-radionavigation-milestone/), and a stunning [solar eclipse capture](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-217/). Firefly also [won its fourth CLPS Moon landing contract](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-236/), which will deliver three NASA-funded instruments as well as two rovers to the Moon’s south pole end of decade. - In March, Intuitive Machines’ [second CLPS craft](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-215/#intuitive-machines-launches-second-moon-lander) hard-landed on the Moon’s south pole and came to rest on its side, which led to [the mission being unsuccessful](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-216/#tipped-intuitive-mooncraft-dies-with-none-of-the-net-130-million-worth-of-payloads-deployed) across all of NASA’s primary goals of studying local water ice. - NASA [completed](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-2/nasa-progresses-toward-artemis-ii-moon-mission/) a [majority](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-2/integrated-testing-on-horizon-for-artemis-ii-launch-preparations/) of the [preparations](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/10/in-their-own-words-the-artemis-ii-crew-on-the-frenetic-first-hours-of-their-flight/) and [safety improvements](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/esdmd/common-exploration-systems-development-division/space-launch-system/nasa-artemis-ii-moon-rocket-ready-to-fly-crew/) planned this year to fly four [Artemis II](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-242/) astronauts around the Moon and back sometime early next year. - Due to [three](https://spacenews.com/starship-breaks-up-on-reentry-after-loss-of-attitude-control/) [back-to-back](https://spacenews.com/starship-upper-stage-lost-on-seventh-test-flight/) [failures](https://arstechnica.com/science/2025/03/the-starship-program-hits-another-speed-bump-with-second-consecutive-failure/) of SpaceX Starship, an [explosion during testing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-230/#another-blowup-for-artemis), and [another booster lost](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/11/newest-starship-booster-is-significantly-damaged-during-testing-early-friday/), NASA’s long road to putting humans on the Moon with [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/) significantly [slowed down](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-240/). This led NASA’s Acting Administrator Sean Duffy to [reopen the landing contract](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-248/#nasa-reopens-artemis-iii-human-landing-contract) for accelerated proposals. Duffy also [named](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/acting-nasa-administrator-duffy-selects-exploration-focused-associate-administrator/) Amit Kshatriya as the agency’s new Associate Administrator to accelerate Artemis III. Kshatriya previously led NASA’s [Moon to Mars Program Office](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/new-program-office-leads-nasas-path-forward-for-moon-mars/) for planning and implementing Artemis missions. - In the meanwhile, Blue Origin’s [successful launch](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/blue-origins-new-glenn-reaches-orbit/) of its New Glenn rocket in January followed by [another in November](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-blue-origin-launch-two-spacecraft-to-study-mars-solar-wind/) finally opened up a second line of pursuit for NASA to send lunar astronauts vis-à-vis [Blue Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/). Blue Origin aims to launch [its first robotic Blue Moon ‘Mark I’ lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-226/) next year as testing and design validations ahead of crewed flights. Based on that, NASA [tentatively chose](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-243/) Blue’s second Mark I lander flight to carry the agency’s [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/), whose mission to study polar water ice has been [critical](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) yet [deprioritized](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/#viper-rover-delivery-by-astrobotic). - The Trump administration’s [budget request for NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/fy-2026-budget-request/) for FY 2026 proposed a [historic \~25% cut](https://www.planetary.org/press-releases/the-planetary-society-reissues-urgent-call-to-reject-disastrous-budget-proposal-for-nasa) while the agency went a whole year [without an official Administrator](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/isaacmans-nasa-nomination-clears-senate-commerce-committee-again/). Notably, the [Moon-related proposals](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-227/) of the budget and its evaluations do nothing to address the fact that [the US has been failing to explore lunar water as the principal goal of Artemis](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-221/). - After nearly six months of trying to establish communications with the [Lunar Trailblazer](https://jatan.space/nasa-lunar-trailblazer/) spacecraft post its [February launch](https://blogs.nasa.gov/trailblazer/2025/02/26/nasas-lunar-trailblazer-spacecraft-separates-from-falcon-9-second-stage/), NASA [declared an end](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/small-satellite-missions/lunar-trailblazer/nasas-lunar-trailblazer-moon-mission-ends/) to the [rescue efforts](https://blogs.nasa.gov/trailblazer/2025/02/27/nasa-working-to-reestablish-communications-with-lunar-trailblazer/?ref=jatan.space) and the mission. The agency-funded Trailblazer was supposed to provide scientists with unprecedented, high-resolution global orbital maps of the amount, distribution, and state of lunar water. - In February, Blue Origin [simulated two minutes of lunar gravity](https://www.blueorigin.com/news/new-shepard-ns-29-mission) inside the New Shepard crew capsule. NASA [funded this project](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/armstrong/nasa-blue-origin-partner-to-bring-lunar-gravity-conditions-closer-to-earth/), and [tested 17 lunar-relevant payloads](https://www.nasa.gov/stmd-flight-opportunities/flight-summaries/lunar-gravity-simulation-via-suborbital-rocket/) onboard. As such, NASA [continues leveraging](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/kennedy/nasa-experiment-sheds-light-on-highly-charged-moon-dust) New Shepard’s suborbital flights to [help verify](https://www.blueorigin.com/news/new-shepard-mission-ns-13-launch-updates) and [refine](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/langley/nasa-tests-infuses-software-into-blue-origin-landing-tech) new lunar technologies at relatively low costs before they can be sent to the Moon. - NASA [un-nuked its decision to not use nuclear power](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-238/) on the Moon. Relatedly, Zeno Power [raised $50 million](https://spacenews.com/nuclear-battery-startup-zeno-power-raises-50-million-to-expand-in-space-and-at-sea/), a major chunk of which will go towards developing and demonstrating the company’s [nuclear electric power system](https://spacenews.com/nasa-selects-companies-to-advance-lunar-power-and-other-technologies) on the Moon for NASA [by 2027](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-138/). ## India ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/12/chandrayaan-4-spacecraft-stacks-two-lvm3-rockets-2.jpg) Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) | Individual images of the LVM3 rocket, the two Chandrayaan 4 spacecraft stacks, and the Moon’s south pole: [ISRO](https://www.lpsc.gov.in/newProjects.html) / [NASA / GSFC / Timothy McClanahan / LOLA](https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/moon/nasas-lro-lunar-ice-deposits-are-widespread/) - [Results from the thermal probe experiment](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-219/) on India’s [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) lander expanded the possible locations for finding [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) beyond the Moon’s poles, thereby benefiting future scouting missions. There are also [several notable outcomes](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-243/#chandrayaan-3-research-updates) from other instruments on the lander. - The Chandrayaan 3 rover [may or may not have stumbled upon the Moon’s mantle material](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-224/) when studying the composition of the local lunar soil using its X-ray spectrometer. - ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) helped international researchers produce a [galore of science results](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-220/#lunar-science-galore-from-chandrayaan-2), notably including continued [characterization of the lunar poles](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-250/#mission-updates) using its advanced radar to map potential water ice deposits and gauge surface roughness, densities, and porosities. The orbiter also helped scientists [better understand the Sun’s activity and how it affects the Moon’s exosphere](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-247/). - ISRO continued development and planning of the ambitious [Chandrayaan 4 mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-241/) to bring lunar polar samples—albeit at a slower pace than expected. - India finally approved the joint ISRO-JAXA [Chandrayaan 5 / LUPEX](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/) mission to drill and analyze water ice on the Moon’s south pole. The mission will bring a giant leap in lunar capabilities for both ISRO and JAXA, and it can provide NASA with data critical for Artemis planning currently [missing from US missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-221/). - ISRO revealed its eventual crewed Moon mission’s [initial architecture](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-33/#the-next-decade-and-nglv). ## More Asia-Pacific ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/12/ispace-resilience-lander-earth-from-moon.jpg) ****Left:** ispace Japan’s second Moon lander, named RESILIENCE, at JAXA’s Tsukuba Space Center pre-launch. Also seen integrated into the lander is ispace’s first rover TENACIOUS; ****Right:** Our Earth as imaged by RESILIENCE from lunar orbit. [Images: ispace](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=6120) - ispace Japan’s second Moon lander RESILIENCE [crashed on the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-228/) due to [performance issues](https://spacenews.com/laser-rangefinder-problems-blamed-for-second-ispace-lunar-lander-crash/) of the laser rangefinder. The outcome underscores the need for resilience in private lunar landing missions [through expansive and collaborative testing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-228/). ispace notably [continued its remarkable transparency](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-228/#tenaciously-transparent) from the first failed landing attempt, sharing [detailed findings](https://ispace-inc.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/M2-Technical-Cause-Analysis-Materials.pdf) of what went wrong in *mere weeks*. - In October, Japan successfully [demonstrated a cargo delivery](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/10/space-station-astronauts-eager-to-open-golden-treasure-box-from-japan/) to the International Space Station using its next-generation HTV-X spacecraft. A variant of it called HTV-X(G) will deliver astronaut supplies to the upcoming NASA-led [Gateway lunar orbital habitat](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/gateway) starting 2030. - ispace [was selected](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7317) as part of Japan’s 1-trillion yen “Space Strategy Fund” initiative to [develop, launch, and operate a lunar orbiter](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=8038) which will use a terahertz wave sensor system to locate and map water ice deposits on the Moon’s poles. Data from this orbiter will be analyzed in tandem with direct surface and subsurface measurements made by the upcoming joint Indo-Japanese [LUPEX mission](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/). - South Korea [approved plans](https://spacenews.com/south-korea-approves-strategic-plans-for-space/) made by the country’s [newly forged space agency](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-181/) KASA to build a Moon lander by 2032 as part of a broader [$500+ million annual investment](https://en.yna.co.kr/view/AEN20250122002400320?section=news) in indigenous space technologies. South Korea is also transforming the former mining site of Taebaek [into a testing ground](https://pulse.mk.co.kr/news/all/11279380) for advanced mobile lunar exploration technologies, owing to the mine’s environmental resemblance to the darkness, coldness, and ruggedness of the Moon’s south pole. - The Australian Space Agency (ASA) [continues funding local companies](https://payloadspace.com/australias-lunar-plans-are-just-getting-started/) to build lunar technologies. In February, ASA particularly [supported EntX](https://www.minister.industry.gov.au/ministers/husic/media-releases/more-aussie-tech-destined-moon) to [develop a radioisotope heater unit](https://www.space.gov.au/news-and-media/projects-in-action-aug-2024-entx) to enable future landers and rovers to survive frigid lunar nights. ## Europe ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/12/astronaut-and-a-robot-in-the-esa-dlr-luna-test-facility.jpg) An ‘astronaut’ and a robot in the Moon-simulating LUNA testbed on Earth. Image: [DLR / ESA](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2024/09/LUNA6) - ESA started testing [instruments](https://luna-analog-facility.de/en/recording-earthquakes-on-the-moon-mars-and-now-in-luna/), [mission concepts](https://www.dlr.de/en/latest/news/2024/a-swarm-of-sensors-rovers-and-astronauts-explore-the-moon), [modern astronaut tools](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2025/04/Moon%5Ftools%5Fto%5Fthe%5Ftest%5Fat%5FLUNA), and [water ice detection strategies](https://www.dlr.de/en/latest/news/2025/water-ice-on-the-moon-simulated-detection-in-the-luna-facility) at its new, versatile Moon-simulating [LUNA facility](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-195/) in Germany. A [simulated habitat module](https://www.dlr.de/en/blog/archive/2026/the-flexhab-space-habitat-moon-living-on-earth) now adjoins LUNA to better test complex mission scenarios wherein humans and robots interact in varied ways for long periods so as to plan future Moonbases. - ispace’s European subsidiary led team won a \~[€2.7 million ESA contract](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7846) to collaborate with the agency on the [MAGPIE rover mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-228/#two-new-european-moon-missions) to study lunar polar water ice and other such volatiles. - In January, ESA announced a [$882 million contract](https://www.thalesaleniaspace.com/en/press-releases/thales-alenia-space-signs-contract-esa-develop-argonaut-lunar-lander-cargo-delivery) to a European consortium led by Thales Alenia Space for [developing the Lunar Descent Element](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Argonaut%5Fa%5Ffirst%5FEuropean%5Flunar%5Flander) of the agency’s upcoming large Moon lander [Argonaut](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Exploration/Argonaut). Launching no earlier than 2031, Argonaut plans to deploy about 2,000 kilograms of infrastructure payloads or astronaut supplies on the Moon with each flight. - The Italian Space Agency (ASI) [awarded a preliminary design contract](https://www.thalesgroup.com/en/worldwide/space/press%5Frelease/thales-alenia-space-signs-contract-italian-space-agency-asi-develop) to a group led by Thales Alenia Space to develop a multi-purpose astronaut habitat module which will be [part of](https://europeanspaceflight.com/nasa-greenlights-next-phase-of-italian-lunar-habitat-project/?ref=jatan.space) NASA’s hoped for [Artemis Basecamp](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept) on the Moon next decade. The 15,000-kilogram module will have wheels so it can reposition itself as needed on the [dynamically lit](https://www.nasa.gov/ames/feature/the-dark-side-of-the-crater-how-light-looks-different-on-the-moon-and-what-nasa-is-doing) lunar polar surface. ## Collaboration and cooperation progress ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/12/zhongmin-wang-china-ilrs-international-cooperation-glex-2025.jpg) Zhongmin Wang, Director of international cooperation for China’s lunar and deep space missions, speaking at GLEX 2025 on international cooperation in the Sino-led ILRS Moonbase project. [Image: CNSA / DSEL / IAF](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EKLKugBolFE) - The US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords) for cooperative lunar exploration reached [60 signatories](https://payloadspace.com/the-artemis-accords-by-the-numbers/). - China hosted an international symposium on lunar samples [with the right intent and effort](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-252/) to enhance its planetary science cooperation. China also [formally welcomed India](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-225/) to cooperate on Moon missions and the Sino-led ILRS Moonbase project. - Relatedly, I delivered a talk at a [lunar samples symposium in Hong Kong](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-252/) on the Chandrayaan 4 sample return mission and made [the case for India and China to exchange lunar samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-241/#the-case-for-india-to-study-and-exchange-chang%E2%80%99e-lunar-samples). 🌜..<>..🌛 - [Cooperative analog astronaut missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-251/) and related training continued worldwide. - ESA and NASA progressed on [building technologies for future lunar construction](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-244/). - [An assortment of lunar papers from around the world](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-246/) - Also see: [Our Moon’s wild places and wonderful samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-234/) - Open Lunar Foundation (a Moon Monday sponsor) [launched the Lunar Ledger](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-246/#more-moon) (Registry) project. The Ledger aims to be a database of global lunar objects and activities to improve mission operator transparency [by enhancing information sharing](https://jatan.space/a-registry-of-moon-missions/) wherever possible. - A great example of asynchronous collaboration: To enable efficient exploration by small lunar rovers, which have limited resources and function under the harsh lunar environment, the Japan-based company JAOPS built a [lunar surface simulation suite](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/386223716%5FLunar%5FSurface%5FVisual%5FRendering%5FDynamics%5FSolar%5FPower%5Fand%5FThermal%5FSimulation%5Ffor%5Fthe%5FOperations%5Fof%5FLunar%5FRover%5FMissions) (here’s a [demo video](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z7fS4HvoUb8)) aided by [simulated rover camera and sensor data](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/386223557%5FRobotics%5FSimulation%5Fand%5FContinuous%5FIntegration%5FPlatform%5Ffor%5FLunar%5FSurface%5FExploration%5FRovers%5Fand%5FOn-orbit%5FServices%5FMissions) and past missions. This is helping train rover operators amid real mission control setups. Notably, much of the work is [open source on GitHub](https://github.com/jaops-space/jaops-sim/) and also [converges open source elements](https://www.linkedin.com/posts/ljburtz%5Fmissionoperations-rover-yaoki-activity-7405449347280056320-Izx1/) from actors worldwide. ## Cooperation shortfalls ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/12/earth-moon-horizon-kplo-2.jpg) Our Earth on the Moon’s horizon as imaged by South Korea’s KPLO lunar orbiter. [Image: KARI](https://www.kari.re.kr/kplo/danuri/news/newsView.do?nttId=8597&pageIndex=1&searchCnd=&searchWrd=) - [We’re building future technologies for the Moon without closing missed milestones](https://jatan.space/pitfalls-in-lunar-exploration/). 🕳️ - [Western media narratives misrepresent Chinese space](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-229/#a-problem-with-western-media-narratives-of-chinese-space), which reduces trust and deters cooperation and collaboration. Also see Jack Congram’s piece [China is not racing to the Moon](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/china-is-not-racing-to-the-moon). Moreover, Erika Nesvold made the case of the US [not having presented a coherent argument](https://makingnewworlds.substack.com/p/the-missing-argument-for-the-lunar) for the country’s self-imposed claim of defeating China in the new lunar “Space Race”. - Why [Moon missions need their own Wikipedia and beyond](https://jatan.space/a-registry-of-moon-missions/) and [improved information sharing](https://spacenews.com/all-eyes-on-the-moon-sharing-information-for-lunar-peace-safety-and-sustainability/) - Also see: [Science does not exist in a (lunar) vacuum](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-239/#science-does-not-exist-in-a-lunar-vacuum) - [A giant leap in orbital imagery is what we need to realize advanced Moon missions](https://jatan.space/we-need-a-giant-leap-in-lunar-orbital-imagery/) - Moon missions can be cheaper, safer, and better if more countries [share navigation](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/the-road-to-a-moonbase-goes-through-advanced-navigation-based-on-open-standards) and [timing infrastructure](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/timekeeping-blog). Relatedly, US-based Intuitive Machines and Europe-based Leonardo & Telespazio [agreed to have interoperability](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/leonardo-telespazio-and-intuitive-machines-sign-a-strategic-agreement-for-lunar-communication-and) between their communications and navigation orbiters. --- *So that was a comprehensive look at all the ways countries explored our Moon this year. I wrote it* [*for you*](https://jatan.space/i-write-for-you/)*, not social media or SEO. If you enjoyed my coverage, please share it with other space buffs by* [*grabbing this link*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-255/)*.* **A heartfelt thank you to* [***Open Lunar Foundation**](https://www.openlunar.org)**,* [***Astrolab**](https://astrolab.space)**,* [***The Orbital Index**](https://orbitalindex.com)**,* [***Catalyx Space**](https://catalyx.space)**,* [***Gurbir Singh**](https://gurbir.co.uk)**,* [***Kris Zacny**](https://www.linkedin.com/in/kris-zacny-8a71ba1) *and* [***many individual supporters**](https://jatan.space/support/#individuals) *for sponsoring Moon Monday editions through the year!* **If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support Moon Monday 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) --- Lastly, do not ever forget: [Why explore our Moon 🌗](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) [Our Moon is valuable even beyond itself ✨](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-239/) ### ISRO and India had a mixed year in space in 2025 URL: https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-34/ Last updated: 2025-12-12T12:01:21.000Z While 2023 was an [incredible year](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-11/) for ISRO in terms of execution of space missions and projects, and 2024 was about those successes giving the Indian government’s Department of Space (DOS) the confidence to [plan an ambitious next decade](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-23/), 2025 can be characterized more by slower progress, shortfalls, and [delayed updates](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-27/) amid [the same](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-18/) [budget](https://www.indiabudget.gov.in/doc/eb/sbe95.pdf). Below is a linked rundown contextualizing India’s developments across domains of space. Like every year’s review, I’ve made a conscious effort to highlight events and trends that actually happened instead of focusing on upcoming events that may or may not be as successful and/or as timely as they’re being touted and reported as. And so if any big news aspect seems missing, it’s likely intentional :), including discarding pure fund raising announcements by startups in the context of this coverage. ## Orbital launches and shortfalls ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/12/lvm3-chandrayaan-3-launch-clouded-and-emerging-dheeraj-k-2.jpeg) The LVM3 captured by rocket photographer [Dheeraj Khandelwal](https://www.dheerajkhandelwal.com) as it emerged out of the clouds during its launch of Chandrayaan 3\. [Images: Chandrayaan gallery by Dheeraj](https://www.dheerajkhandelwal.com/chandrayaan) - ISRO [successfully launched](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-isro-satellite-lifts-off-to-track-earths-changing-surfaces/) the cutting-edge & collaborative [NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-30/) (NISAR) satellite in July, and [initialized its Earth observation operations](https://www.isro.gov.in/NISAR%5FMission%5FScience%5FPhase.html) shortly after. - The agency also [launched a communications satellite](https://www.isro.gov.in/LVM3%5FM5%5FCMS%5F03%5FMISSION.html) in November. - India’s workhorse PSLV rocket [failed in May](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-28/), triggering multiple mission delays since the launch vehicle’s modules and component designs are also utilized by other ISRO rockets. ISRO did not share any specific findings of the PSLV’s failure analysis through the remainder year. - Considering numerous launch delays over the last 10 years, a [review of the state of ISRO’s space rockets](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-33/) reveals a bleak picture of ambitious goals sliding to the right—in stark contrast to the incessant chest thumping about efficiency. - In January, the Indian Government Union Cabinet [approved the establishment of a third launch pad](https://www.isro.gov.in/CabinetapprovesThirdLaunchPad.html) at India’s Sriharikota spaceport for $460 million. After it’s ready by end of decade, it will be used for additional launches of the LVM3 rocket as well as for the later arrival of the in-development [heavy-lift NGLV rocket](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-33/#the-next-decade-and-nglv) which requires [horizontal integration](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/science/isro-third-launch-pad-gets-cabinet-nod-to-cost-over-rs-39000000/articleshow/117299008.cms). ## Human-to-space flight ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/12/shubhanshu-shukla-iss-cupola.jpg) Axiom-4 (Ax-4) Mission Pilot Shubhanshu Shukla in the Cupola at the International Space Station. [Image: Ax-4 crew / ISRO](https://axiom.space/media/ax4) - Indian astronaut Shubhanshu Shukla [flew](https://www.isro.gov.in/Axiom04%5Fmission%5Fsuccessfully%5Fconcluded%5Freturn%5FISRO%5FGaganyatri%5FShubhanshuShukla.html) to the International Space Station—but [was it worth it for ISRO](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-29/)? \[Analysis\] - In preparation towards [indigenously launching astronauts](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-13/) to space later this decade, ISRO completed parachute deployment tests of the Gaganyaan crew module with an [intentionally delayed deployment scenario](https://www.isro.gov.in/IMAT%5F03.html) and [an abort mode](https://www.isro.gov.in/Integrated%5FAir%5FDrop%5FTest%5Ffor%5FGaganyaan%5FMissions.html) so as to qualify the system for extreme situations. - ISRO also [successfully completed](https://www.isro.gov.in/Successful%5Faccomplishment%5FSMPS%5FGaganyaan.html) development of the Gaganyaan service module’s propulsion system in July. The flight module would feature five 440-newton engines and sixteen 100-newton reaction control thrusters. Post Gaganyaan mission launches, the module will inject astronauts in the Crew Module into orbit, circularize it to a 400-kilometer altitude and maintain it, and eventually de-boost the crew module for Earth return before separating from it. ## Chandrayaan progress ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/12/chandrayaan-4-spacecraft-stacks-two-lvm3-rockets-1.jpg) Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) | Individual images of the LVM3 rocket, the two Chandrayaan 4 spacecraft stacks, and the Moon’s south pole: [ISRO](https://www.lpsc.gov.in/newProjects.html) / [NASA / GSFC / Timothy McClanahan / LOLA](https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/moon/nasas-lro-lunar-ice-deposits-are-widespread/) - [Results from the thermal probe experiment](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-219/) on India’s [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) lander expanded the possible locations for finding [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) beyond the Moon’s poles, thereby benefiting future scouting missions. There are also [several notable outcomes](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-243/#chandrayaan-3-research-updates) from other instruments on the lander. - The Chandrayaan 3 rover [may or may not have stumbled upon the Moon’s mantle material](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-224/) when studying the composition of the local lunar soil using its X-ray spectrometer. - ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) helped international researchers produce a [galore of science results](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-220/#lunar-science-galore-from-chandrayaan-2), notably including continued [characterization of the lunar poles](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-250/#mission-updates) using its advanced radar to map potential water ice deposits and also gauge surface roughness, densities, and porosities. The orbiter also helped scientists [better understand the Sun’s activity and how it affects the Moon’s exosphere](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-247/). - ISRO continued development and planning of the ambitious [Chandrayaan 4 mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-241/) to bring lunar polar samples—albeit at a slower pace than expected. - India approved the joint ISRO-JAXA [Chandrayaan 5 / LUPEX](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/) mission to drill and analyze water ice on the Moon’s south pole. The mission will bring a giant leap in lunar capabilities for both ISRO and JAXA, and it can provide NASA with data critical for Artemis planning currently [missing from US missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-221/). - ISRO revealed its eventual crewed Moon mission’s [initial architecture](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-33/#the-next-decade-and-nglv). ## Satellites up and down ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/12/navic-health-nov-2025-2.jpg) A table showing health status and orbital behavior of India’s NavIC navigation satellites. Having all seven satellites touting either a “Healthy” or “Fair” status would’ve been the minimum viable success state for the constellation. Data analysis and table credit: [Adithya K Pani, Krishi Tiwari, Aditya Jhunjhunwala](https://adithyapani.substack.com/p/the-space-pnt-report-1) - January’s unfortunate [failure of the next-generation NVS-02 satellite](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-24/#next-generation-isro-navigation-satellite-stranded-in-space) left India’s NavIC national satellite navigation system in an even more [incomplete and underperforming state](https://adithyapani.substack.com/p/the-space-pnt-report-1). ISRO did not share the findings of the NVS-02 failure analysis throughout the year. - ISRO [successfully docked](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-27/#mission-updates) and [undocked](https://www.isro.gov.in/spadex%5Fundocking%5Fsuccessful.html) its twin [SPADEX](https://www.isro.gov.in/mission%5FSpaDeX.html) (**spa**ce **d**ocking **ex**periment) satellites and [demonstrated power transfer](https://www.isro.gov.in/Spadex%5FSuccessful%5Fdemonstration%5Fof%5FSecond%5FDocking%5Fand%5FPower%5FTransfer.html) between them, achieving milestones in preparation for Chandrayaan 4 and complex multi-module coordinations required for human spaceflight. - ISRO released its internal ‘Space Situational Assessment Report’ for the year 2024, whose [public executive summary](https://www.isro.gov.in/ISSAR%5F2024.html) published in May talks about the agency continuing to dynamically dodge orbital debris, avoid congestion, and prevent collisions. - India’s newest space-based telescopes [Aditya-L1](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-08/) and [XPoSat](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-12/) continued uniquely [observing](https://www.isro.gov.in/Aditya%5FL1%5FLandmark%5Fsolar%5Fstorm%5Fstudy.html) [solar explosions](https://www.isro.gov.in/SUIT%5FAditya-L1%5FCaptures%5FSolarFlare.html) and [cosmic bursts](https://www.ursc.gov.in/xspect%5Fburst.jsp) respectively. In January, ISRO [released the first datasets](https://www.isro.gov.in/ISRO%5FNationalmeet%5FAdityaL1.html) from Aditya-L1 on the agency’s [ISSDC](https://www.issdc.gov.in/adityal1.html) and [PRADAN](https://pradan.issdc.gov.in/al1) portals. XPoSat [data](https://www.issdc.gov.in/xposat.html) became available [from October](https://www.isro.gov.in/XPoSat%5FNationalMeet%5FAO.html). ## Private and commercial space ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/12/pixxel-firefly-satellite-specs.jpeg) Pixxel Space’s Firefly satellite constellation specs. [Image: Pixxel](https://www.pixxel.space/firefly) - The SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket’s Transporter 12 launch in January [carried five payloads from private Indian companies](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-24/#pixxel-space-launches-first-batch-of-hyperspectral-satellite-constellation), including three hyperspectral satellites for Earth observation from Pixxel Space called Fireflies, Digantara’s SCOT satellite for space-based object tracking and situational awareness, and XDLINX Space Labs’ Elevation-1 satellite touting an advanced miniaturized communications payload. Pixxel [launched three more Fireflies](https://www.pixxel.space/news/pixxel-launches-three-more-fireflies-with-spacex-paving-the-way-for-planetary-scale-hyperspectral-imaging) on another Falcon 9 in August. - Skyroot progressed through [multiple](https://www.thedefensenews.com/news-details/Skyroot-Aerospace-Successfully-Test-KALAM-1200-Motor-For-Vikram--1-Launch-Vehicle/) [testing](https://twitter.com/SkyrootA/status/1773253058476036453) [milestones](https://www.linkedin.com/posts/skyroot-aerospace%5Fskyroots-vikram-1-mission-milestone-kalam-activity-7314825766267981825-ohkr) of [various](https://x.com/SkyrootA/status/1812683676871778566) [modules](https://twitter.com/SkyrootA/status/1671416833579286529) of its Vikram-I rocket, and finally seems set to attempt its first orbital launch in [Q1 2026](https://www.livemint.com/companies/start-ups/india-space-startup-skyroot-private-rocket-launch/amp-11761623312736.html) assuming no more hiccups. - **Related:** [*Challenges for small rocket companies in India*](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-33/#small-yet-not-nimble) - After [conducting their first orbital demonstration](https://www.financialexpress.com/business/defence/skyserve-leads-earth-observation-revolution-with-smartphone-moment-in-space/3490753/) of edge-computing-based smart Earth imaging last year, Bengaluru- and Cupertino-based SkyServe [tested NASA JPL’s AI models](https://spacenews.com/skyserve-tests-ai-models-with-jpl-and-d-orbit/) in space through their software platform on a partner satellite. - The Indian government through private space promoter and regulator IN-SPACe [launched](https://www.reuters.com/technology/space/indias-space-regulator-launches-58-million-fund-boost-startups-cut-reliance-2025-02-19/) a \~$57 million “[Technology Adoption Fund](https://www.inspace.gov.in/inspace?id=inspace%5Ftaf)” to encourage the private sector to develop and manufacture space components that can help India reduce its reliance on foreign imports while commercializing them. These funds will be provided on a co-investment basis. ## Cooperation and collaboration ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/12/chang-e-5-sample-hku-1.jpeg) Roughly two-billion year old lunar sample brought to Earth by Chang’e 5\. Image: CNSA / CAS / HKU - China [formally welcomed India](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-225/) to cooperate on Moon missions and the Sino-led ILRS Moonbase project. - Relatedly, I delivered a talk at a [lunar samples symposium in Hong Kong](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-252/) on the Chandrayaan 4 sample return mission and made [the case for India and China to exchange lunar samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-241/#the-case-for-india-to-study-and-exchange-chang%E2%80%99e-lunar-samples). 🌜..<>..🌛 - Since last year, ISRO, in collaboration with organizations like [Protoplanet](https://www.protoplanet.co/), formally started terrestrial testing for what living and conducting research on the Moon and Mars could be like for its astronauts via baseline analog missions [at dry and mountainous Ladakh](https://www.indiatoday.in/interactive/photo-essay/isro-hope-habitat-mars-moon-base-gaganyaan-mission-launch-300-15-08-2025), adding to [global efforts](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-251/). - ISRO [provided ground tracking support](https://jatan.space/isro-supported-ground-tracking-for-im-1-nasa-clps/) for Intuitive Machines’ [IM-2](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-216/#tipped-intuitive-mooncraft-dies-with-none-of-the-net-130-million-worth-of-payloads-deployed) Moon landing mission part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). - Former ISRO Chief K. Kasturirangan passed away in April. His [numerous contributions to India’s space program](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/ex-isro-chief-national-education-policy-architect-k-kasturirangan-dies-at-84-in-bengaluru/articleshow/120612171.cms) span astrophysics, Earth observation and communications satellites, operationalization of the PSLV rocket, the first GLSV flight test, and laying the foundations for India’s first planetary mission and space telescope as Chandrayaan 1 and AstroSat respectively. --- *So that was a sweeping look at India’s space activities in 2025\. I wrote this* [*for you*](https://jatan.space/i-write-for-you/)*, not social media or SEO. If you liked my coverage, please share it with other space buffs by* [*grabbing this link*](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-34)*.* **Many thanks to* [***Takshashila Institution**](https://takshashila.org.in)**,* [***PierSight**](https://piersight.space)**,* [***GalaxEye Space**](https://galaxeye.space)**,* [***Gurbir Singh**](https://gurbir.co.uk) *and* [***Catalyx Space**](https://catalyx.space) *for sponsoring Indian Space Progress editions through the year!* **If you too appreciate my efforts to capture nuanced trajectories of India in space, provided to space communities worldwide for free and without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support my writing 🛰️ ](https://jatan.space/support) --- **Aside:** I’m [giving a talk with Q&A](https://urbanaut.app/spot/fly-me-to-the-moon-lecture) on the history and future of lunar exploration in my hometown Mumbai on Sunday, December 21\. On popular demand from [Pint of View](https://www.instagram.com/pintofview.club/), this a repeat of the session I conducted [in Bangalore](https://journal.jatan.space/week-notes-inception/) past September. The event is offline-only to make the audience comfortable in engaging freely with their curiosities. Bring all your questions about our Moon and how we’re exploring it in India and worldwide! For my readers, the hosts have voluntarily offered a 10% discount with the coupon code “MOONMONDAY”. (Note: My honorarium for the talk is fixed regardless of the tickets sold so there are no commission incentives for me sharing this.) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/12/pov-fly-me-to-the-moon-mumbai.jpeg) I may not be a Moonwalker but I’m certainly a Moontalker. 🌝 ### Moon Monday #254: The one following last week’s embarrassing typo URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-254/ Last updated: 2025-12-08T16:51:53.000Z Last week’s [now-corrected headline & intro](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-253/) of a peak-peek at lunar samples had a peak typo (pun intended). I wish I could conveniently blame it on the very productive yet equally tiring Hong Kong trip to [cover the international lunar sample science symposium](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-252/) coupled with the excitement of having seen fresh Moon samples. Or perhaps put it on Hong Kong itself because you can’t peek at its towering structures—they peak at you. But the reality is that it was just me being sloppy while rewriting the headline to use the word peak as a quality indicator of new lunar science results. Though not factually fatal, it was still an ignorant mistake. Being an [independent writer](https://jatan.space/about/) is fun; you can’t hide behind a team or your editor. They are all you. ## Mission updates - Since US President Donald Trump renominated Jared Isaacman last month for the NASA Administrator position, after abruptly [withdrawing his first nomination](https://spacenews.com/white-house-to-withdraw-isaacman-nomination-to-lead-nasa/) earlier this year just as the US Congress was about to confirm said position, Isaacman went through his second confirmation hearing last week in the US Senate on a similar vein to [his first one](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-221/#the-moon-and-mars-in-parallel). Marcia Smith [reports](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/isaacmans-second-hearing-mostly-friendly-nomination-could-clear-senate-soon/) the full US Senate vote can be expected before December 19 to confirm Isaacman’s new job as the head of the premier US space agency. In the meanwhile, the US Congress [continued its incessant red hearings](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/getting-back-to-the-moon-before-china-no-sure-bet/) about how the US *has to* beat China in landing humans the Moon, displaying a clear lack of any other core motivation to explore our Moon for itself or “for humanity” as is often claimed. - ispace Japan has [shared a tentative schedule](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=8224) for its next set of Moon missions, including confirmed and anticipated ones through its US subsidiary which can carry [NASA CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) payloads. The next launch to watch out for is ispace US’ [first CLPS mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-184/) through US-based Draper Laboratory. It’s targeting landing on the Moon’s farside in 2027, carrying [NASA payloads](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-184/#science) onboard as well as [another rover from ispace Europe](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7495). ispace US will also provide [ground communications](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=5509) and [relay services](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=5301) for the mission. The ones after that are as follows: ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/12/ispace-upcoming-missions-dec-2025.jpeg) [Timeline graphic: ispace](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=8224) - NASA [announced](https://science.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-4/nasa-selects-2-instruments-for-artemis-iv-lunar-surface-science/) that on the future crewed [Artemis IV](https://www.nasa.gov/general/nasas-artemis-iv-building-first-lunar-space-station/) Moon landing mission, the astronauts will deploy two competitively selected scientific payloads costing $25 million each. These are: - DUSTER, comprising a [lunar dust analyzer](https://doi.org/10.3847/PSJ/ad1ffe) and [plasma monitoring instrument](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lunarsurface22/pdf/5010.pdf) duo which will be mounted on a rover [made by Lunar Outpost](https://www.lunaroutpost.com/post/lunar-outpost-announces-7th-mission-joining-nasa-s-artemis-iv-team-with-university-of-colorado-boul) - SPSS, a seismic station succeeding and exceeding [the one on Artemis III](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-170/) to [better understand Moonquakes](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-199/) and what they teach us about the lunar interior and safety of future astronauts. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/12/artemis-iv-lunar-outpost-rover-instruments.jpeg) A graphic showing the EDA dust analyzer and RESOLVE plasma monitoring instrument duo on the future Lunar Outpost provided rover for Artemis IV. [Image: LASP / CU Boulder / Lunar Outpost](https://lasp.colorado.edu/2025/12/05/lasp-instruments-target-a-trip-to-the-moon-aboard-nasas-artemis-iv-mission/) ## More Moon - Astrobotic [plans to integrate](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-developing-lunar-orbital-tracking-sensor-for-cislunar-security-and-traffic-awareness/) special imaging sensors across its future landers as well as other hardware on the Moon to track spacecraft in low lunar orbit for the US government. - NASA [awarded University of Alabama](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-awards-lunar-freezer-system-contract/) a potential $37 million contract to develop freezers for bringing Artemis lunar polar samples to Earth with a minimum high fidelity. - An interesting article by the Open Lunar Foundation (a Moon Monday sponsor): [An affordable approach to lunar timekeeping in an accelerating industry](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/timekeeping-blog) - While [this article reviewing India’s space rockets](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-33/) is written more in the Indian space context, the assessment and arguments have direct implications for India’s planning of its increasingly complex series of Chandrayaan missions leading up to the goal of sending humans to the Moon circa 2040, which is discussed in [the final sections](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-33/#the-next-decade-and-nglv) along with ISRO’s current architecture. > Make no mistake, it will be the pinnacle of India’s space program if it launches humans to the Moon circa 2040\. Imagine that future for a moment. The only country in the world after the US and China to achieve the immense feat, and one bagged within 100 years of independence from colonial claws. Had ISRO’s founder Vikram Sarabhai been alive, he’d probably tear up at the sight of this feat. He’d also know that a scalable heavy-lift rocket investment was indispensable so that India could orchestrate the increasingly complex sprawls of its space program. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/12/nglv-max-to-the-moon-2.jpeg) Render of two maxed out variants of the NGLV rocket, which will be used to launch Indian astronauts and their lander to the Moon in the future. The illustration shows two multi-module spacecraft from Chandrayaan 3 and 4 respectively at the Moon to represent many spacecraft modules of a crewed lunar mission. Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) | Images and background: [ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan3%5Fcurtainraiser%5Fvideo.html) / [LPSC](https://www.lpsc.gov.in/newProjects.html) / [Footy2000](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:NGLV%5FFamily.svg) / TeamIndus **Many thanks to* [***Astrolab**](https://astrolab.space) *and* [***Gurbir Singh**](https://gurbir.co.uk) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support Moon Monday 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### A space program can only move as swiftly as its rockets. It’s India’s time to act on that. URL: https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-33/ Last updated: 2026-06-12T13:44:38.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/12/lvm3-shar-launchpad.jpg) The Launch Vehicle Mark III (LVM3), India’s most powerful rocket to date, mounted on its launchpad in Sriharikota. [Image: ISRO](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:02%5FGSLV%5FMk%5FIII%5FD2%5Fwith%5FGSAT-29%5Fon%5FSecond%5FLaunch%5FPad%5Fof%5FSatish%5FDhawan%5FSpace%5FCentre,%5FSriharikota%5F%28SDSC%5FSHAR%29.jpg) **Before we begin, I’m very happy to welcome globally published space writer & author* [***Gurbir Singh**](https://gurbir.co.uk) *as a sponsor of both my* [**Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) *and* [**Indian Space Progress*](https://jatan.space/tag/indian-space/) *newsletters for the third year! 🚀* **Not sponsored: Among his several books,* [**India’s Forgotten Rocket Pioneer*](https://gurbir.co.uk/book/stephen-h-smith-from-pigeon-mail-to-rocket-mail-indias-forgotten-rocket-pioneer/) *is most relevant to this edition of Indian Space Progress. I also encourage you to check his in-depth* [**podcast episodes on Indian space*](https://astrotalkuk.org/?s=india) *with experts.* --- ISRO’s Chief, and [more importantly](https://www.isro.gov.in/organisation.html) simultaneously the Secretary of India’s Department of Space (DOS), recently [stated](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/working-towards-50-launches-a-year-by-2029-says-isro-chief/articleshow/124934033.cms) that India will be able to launch 50 orbital rockets every year by 2029\. As a number that sounds fantastic and is coming from the country’s topmost space official, media outlets [in India](https://www.msn.com/en-in/news/other/isro-aims-for-50-launches-in-next-five-years/ar-AA1PIXuo) and [abroad](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/10/rocket-report-chinas-moon-rocket-to-debut-soon-arcaspace-is-back-sort-of/) propagated the news. This isn’t the first time official claims have been made on growing India’s national space launch capacity. Previous official claims and targets include [almost 30 launches in two years](https://www.inspace.gov.in/sys%5Fattachment.do?sys%5Fid=19a5f4ec8798461082e163d70cbb3571) during this decade and one almost a decade ago of lofting [a rocket every month](https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/isro-at-least-1-rocket-every-month-in-2018-from-sriharikota-spaceport-andhra-pradesh-1096382-2017-11-28). Virtually every media outlet tracking space [nationally](https://www.indiatoday.in/science/story/india-to-conduct-30-space-launches-in-2024-25-50-will-be-for-private-sector-2499236-2024-02-08) and [internationally](https://spacenews.com/india-targets-a-surge-in-civil-and-commercial-launches/) covered these claims too, without checking and reporting later on if any of them were actually realized. So what’s the maximum number of successful launches ISRO has conducted in a year? [Less than 10](https://spacestatsonline.com/launches/country/ind). Likewise, ISRO’s payload lift capacity has also expanded slower than expected, meaning [continued reliance](https://www.nsilindia.co.in/sites/default/files/GSAT-N2%20Launched%20successfully.pdf) on foreign rockets to launch the nation’s heaviest satellites. It has kinked ISRO’s core mandate of achieving full self sufficiency for the country’s civil as well as strategic missions. The low launch frequency and capacity combined has also affected strategic programs such as the NavIC national satellite navigation system, which has been lingering in an [incomplete and underperforming state](https://adithyapani.substack.com/p/the-space-pnt-report-1) for years now. The unfortunate [failure of the next-generation NVS-02 satellite](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-24/#next-generation-isro-navigation-satellite-stranded-in-space) earlier this year only worsened the situation. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/12/navic-health-nov-2025-1.jpg) A table showing health status and orbital behavior of India’s NavIC navigation satellites. Having all seven satellites touting either a “Healthy” or “Fair” status would’ve been the minimum viable success state for the constellation. Data analysis and table credit: [Adithya K Pani, Krishi Tiwari, Aditya Jhunjhunwala](https://adithyapani.substack.com/p/the-space-pnt-report-1) In the meanwhile, recent big ticket successes in other domains of space such as the epitome that was [Chandrayaan 3’s landing on the Moon](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) soared India’s civil space ambitions and vision to include the [Bharatiya Anthariksh Station](https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2055978) (BAS) astronaut habitat in Earth orbit and even [humans on the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/) by the end of the next decade. \[Translations for non-Indian readers: Bharat = India and Anthariksh = Space in Hindi and several other Indian languages\]. How can India grow its space launch capabilities and performance to realize its faster expanding ambitions while ensuring its fundamental needs across civil and strategic space domains are met? ## A launch trifecta To fulfill the nation’s needs and wants in space, three conditions of launch capacity need to be *achieved* *simultaneously*: 1. **Have substantially greater lift mass**. The current maximum, by India’s most powerful rocket Launch Vehicle Mark III ([LVM3](https://www.isro.gov.in/GSLVmk3%5FCON.html)), is only \~8,000 kilograms to Low Earth Orbit (LEO) and barely above 4,000 kilograms to Geostationary Transfer Orbit (GTO). For comparison, the SpaceX [Falcon 9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon%5F9) and China’s [Long March 5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long%5FMarch%5F5) each have more than double LVM3’s lift performance. Amping up the lift capacities of India’s rockets will allow the country to launch all of its heavy satellites by itself, loft multiple sizable satellites at once, and also execute complex human spaceflight & planetary missions which require heavy spacecraft and modules to be increasingly meaningful. 2. **Increased launch cadence**, the other side of the coin to greater lift capacity. A high launch frequency is a core requirement to sustain crewed space habitats, build and maintain constellations, and—crucially—execute multiple projects in parallel. Having more number of launchpads is necessary to enable high launch frequency, especially to avoid single points of failure or choke points. 3. **Have dissimilar design redundancy** in launch vehicles so that failure of one rocket doesn’t stall launches of others, like the case of the [recent PSLV failure](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-28/) due to its modules and component designs also being utilized by other ISRO rockets. Versatile launch vehicles also automatically imply having more and flexible launchpads. It may be tempting to point to the US and its fleet of medium-lift and heavy-lift rockets as the embodiment of this launch capacity trifecta. But when you consider the last 10 years of global spaceflight, the Falcon 9’s [exceptional performance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%5Fof%5FFalcon%5F9%5Fand%5FFalcon%5FHeavy%5Flaunches#Rocket%5Fconfigurations) has been an anomaly. More so when you remove the fact that SpaceX’s Starlink satellites are what self-generate high demand for the company’s rockets. Without the Falcon 9 and its relatively sparsely used derivative Falcon Heavy, the rest of the US rocket fleet has not been as much of a spectacle. Certainly not a sustained one. Either way, India simply has neither the sheer funds nor the aerospace industrial strength of America to model the country’s launch capacity on the US rocket portfolio and program management style. However, China’s multi-faceted approach of prioritizing multi-launcher availability over per-rocket efficiency comes close enough to meeting the three conditions of ideal launch prowess. China’s [wide range of national rockets](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long%5FMarch%5F%28rocket%5Ffamily%29#Variants) spawned from internal competition and spread across [multiple launch sites](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/chinas-launch-sites-and-rockets) have allowed it to innovate from Earth orbit to the Moon & beyond in parallel. In the last few years, [state-catalyzed](https://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4498944/content.html) operational [commercial launchers](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/chinas-launch-sites-and-rockets#§commercially-operated-launch-vehicles) have also entered the turf, successfully [supplementing](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/china-national-space-administration) the country’s launch capacity and frequency. In fact, space launch statistics [from 2024](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024%5Fin%5Fspaceflight#By%5Ffamily) and [2025](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2025%5Fin%5Fspaceflight#By%5Ffamily) show that these non-national Sino orbital rockets alone have launched more times than India could manage across its entire ISRO and private fleet during that period. If we include China’s more frequent & capable national launches of its Long March rockets which support a diversity of national projects, India’s output pales in comparison. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/12/china-rocket-family-2025-and-soon-upcoming-1.jpeg) Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) | A non-exhaustive but representative view of the wide range and configurations of China’s recently operational Long March (CZ) rockets, including new ones on their way to the skies soon. Images: [Amaury67](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Comparatif%5Fdes%5FLongue%5FMarche%5Fchinoise.png) / [Shujianyang](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Shujianyang#中国运载火箭%5FChinese%5FRockets) / [NSF](https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2024/08/china-roundup-august/) / CALT / SAST Put another way, China is already doing what India wants and needs: simultaneously maintain strategic space assets, undertake ambitious civil human and planetary exploration missions, and launch commercial & private rockets. Furthermore, just last month China [successfully demonstrated an emergency launch](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/emergency-response-shenzhou-22-successfully) to ensure astronaut safety at its space station. It was a grateful verification of working redundancy measures. To reduce [the con of cost](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/what-is-the-cost-of-a-long-march) in its current approach, the country is also on [the cusp of achieving reusability](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/china-has-three-reusable-rockets) within a year with not just one but multiple rocket boosters. Instead of relying on a single flagship rocket like the Falcon 9, China’s resilient orbit access approach is more suitable and desirable for India to draw from. ## A shortfall of performance and timing In October when India indigenously launched its heaviest single satellite yet, it was celebrated as an [“efficient” implementation](https://www.indiatoday.in/science/story/lvm3-cant-launch-44-tonne-cms-03-satellite-how-isros-bahubali-will-do-it-today-2812063-2025-11-02) which “[tricked](https://orbitaltoday.com/2025/10/31/space-news-2/)” the LVM3 rocket into carrying more weight on its shoulders to GTO than it could otherwise. Of course, the laws of physics haven’t changed. The reality is that said communications satellite, CMS-03, was dropped into a [sub-GTO orbit](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/CMS-03-LVM3M5%5FBrochure.pdf). And so it had to raise its orbit to achieve the desired altitude, a forced maneuver inevitably reducing the satellite’s would-be lifespan. Had the [long-promised](https://astrotalkuk.org/episode-90-an-update-on-isros-activities-with-s-somanath-and-r-umamaheshwaran/) upgrade of the LVM3 with a semi-cryogenic core stage engine been realized on time, or even a few years late, it would have unequivocally increased CMS-03’s lifespan. More broadly and importantly, the upgraded vehicle would help India achieve its civil space [goals in human spaceflight](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-20/#human-spaceflight-plans) and [lunar exploration](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/) faster since both the [Chandrayaan 4](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-241/) lunar sample return mission and India’s [first space station module](https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2055978) explicitly rely on this yet-to-be-upgraded LVM3 to be available. Now a [new report](https://www.wionews.com/world/exclusive-india-to-buy-russia-s-rd-191-semi-cryo-rocket-engines-1764774655897) by Sidharth MP claims that India might buy semi-cryogenic engines from Russia for the LVM3 core stage upgrade, suggesting a possible change from the country’s ongoing efforts consistently projected to be [achieving “breakthroughs”](https://www.isro.gov.in/ISRO%5Fachieves%5Fbreakthrough%5Fin%5FSemicryo%5Fengine%5Fdevelopment%5FMar%5F2025%5FFinal.html). However, ISRO is yet to officially comment on this matter. Either way, a semi-cryogenic LVM3 core stage is not sitting on the near-term horizon, after a [delay of over 10 years](https://web.archive.org/web/20150306173135/http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/thiruvananthapuram/Semi-cryogenic-Engine-ISRO-Charting-a-Revised-Plan/2015/03/02/article2693939.ece) already. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/12/lvm3-payload-fairing.jpg) The LVM3 payload fairing, housing the CMS-03 spacecraft, being lifted for integration atop the rocket in an assembly bay. [Image: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/Mission%5FLVM3M5%5FCMS03%5FGallery.html) Since 2017, when it first launched as a complete vehicle, LVM3 has lifted off Earth only [seven times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%5Fof%5FLVM3%5Flaunches#Statistics). Its low production capacity and launch readiness—though acknowledged and [stated to be increased](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-16/#preparing-for-human-spaceflight)—has already led to the [delayed launch of Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-100/#chandrayaan-3-slowed-down-by-one-web-of-perplexing-priorities) as well as the postponing of India’s upcoming, scientifically important [Venus orbiter mission](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-20/) by five years. A small but important aspect the LVM3 did demonstrate during the CMS-03 mission post-satellite-deployment was to [reignite the thrust chamber](https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/science/isro-scientists-perform-vital-experiment-in-lvm3-m05-missions-cryogenic-stage/articleshow/125036745.cms) of the upper stage—but the engine did not restart. This is part of ISRO’s [ongoing effort to have multiple engine restarts](https://www.isro.gov.in/Boot%5FStrap%5FMode%5FCE20%5FCryogenic%5FEngine.html) of the upper stage for future missions. It will be a useful capability for complex orbital deployments of satellites as well as for de-orbiting the rocket stage to ensure space sustainability. But this capability too is coming later than expected, and only gradually so. ## Small yet not nimble ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/12/sslv-on-launchpad.jpg) The small-lift SSLV rocket on its launchpad in Sriharikota. [Image: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/mission%5FSSLV%5FD2%5FGallery.html) Even ISRO’s [new SSLV rocket](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-19/) dedicated to launching small satellites has [taken more time](https://www.wionews.com/india-news/3-years-after-its-debut-india-s-sslv-rocket-doesn-t-have-a-market-1754661417923) to be operationalized commercially than [projected](https://www.wionews.com/science/isros-sslv-a-rocket-that-can-be-launched-anytime-from-anywhere-says-sdsc-director-504332) while its direct global competitors like Rocket Lab and Firefly [moved ahead](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-19/). ISRO through its commercial arm NSIL had said it would launch [at least five SSLVs this year](https://www.livemint.com/companies/news/isro-arm-targets-10-commercial-sslv-launches-by-2026-11678114241233.html). It launched none. To improve the SSLV’s launch rate and [lift capacity](https://sansad.in/getFile/loksabhaquestions/annex/185/AU4554%5F5zwFTD.pdf?source=pqals), ISRO is making a [dedicated launchpad](https://www.isro.gov.in/Foundation%5FStone%5FLaid%5Ffor%5FLaunch%5FPad%5Fat%5FSSLV%5FLaunch%5FComplex.html) optimized for polar orbits and is also aiming to [production-ize](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/science/its-official-hal-signs-agreement-for-sslv-tech-transfer/articleshow/123829418.cms) the SSLV through a [technology transfer contract](https://www.isro.gov.in/Technology%5FTransfer%5FAgreement%5FSSLV.html) with Indian aerospace industry giant HAL. But the fruits of these efforts are not expected until [at least 2028](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/working-towards-50-launches-a-year-by-2029-says-isro-chief/articleshow/124934033.cms), which is when the new launchpad is supposed to host its first orbital launch. And that’s assuming no further delays for the pad that’s already slipped past an originally intended 2025 debut. By 2028, the small satellite launch market will also evolve to have fiercer competition. A [similar intent of industry-driven production](https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/indl-goods/svs/engineering/hal-lt-to-build-five-pslv-rockets-bags-rs-860-crore-deal-from-nsil-for-the-project/articleshow/93980649.cms) for ISRO’s workhorse [PSLV](https://www.isro.gov.in/PSLV%5FCON.html) rocket too hasn’t manifested yet, with the first demonstration flight slipping [by at least two years](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4hotTss0U8c&t=1083s) after initially [targeting 2024](https://web.archive.org/web/20250328130343/https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/bangalore/private-pslv-space-9576053/). There has also been no official clarity for years on the realization timeline of the upcoming [reusable spaceplane](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-14/) called Pushpak, specifically as to when it will move beyond its current terrestrial subscale landing tests by launching to orbit and subsequently becoming operational. Even though India’s workhorse PSLV rocket [failed in May](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-28/), triggering multiple mission delays since the launch vehicle’s modules and component designs are also utilized by other ISRO rockets, the agency did not share any specific findings of the PSLV’s failure analysis through the remainder year. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/12/rlv-td-lex-02-pushpak.jpg) ISRO’s Pushpak spaceplane’s subscale test vehicle autonomously landing on a runway. [Image: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/RLV%5FLanding%5FExperiment.html) Claims by private rockets companies in India [like from Skyroot](https://ddnews.gov.in/en/newly-unveiled-vikram-1-rocket-set-to-transform-indias-space-economy-in-2024-2/) and [Agnikul](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-16/) about their orbital launch readiness have sadly been in [Elon Musk times](https://elontime.io). Both companies [missed the year 2025](https://www.deccanherald.com/science/space/major-milestone-agnikul-carries-out-successful-sub-orbital-launch-of-agnibaan-indias-second-privately-built-rocket-3044272) as well for their first orbital launch attempts against their own revised projections. Now, one does need to account for the fact that India’s private orbital launch companies are fighting an [uphill battle](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-16/) in a constrained financial environment. These companies are not state-catalyzed technologically either like the Chinese launchers are, thus taking time to gestate. Skyroot finally seems set to attempt its first orbital launch in [Q1 2026](https://www.livemint.com/companies/start-ups/india-space-startup-skyroot-private-rocket-launch/amp-11761623312736.html). Even though maiden orbital launches of new rockets globally have a poor track record, I hope it achieves a successful trajectory. Even when India’s private companies eventually launch successfully and then hopefully operationalize soon, it’s doubtful if small lift launchers have a [sizable market to serve](https://web.archive.org/web/20230102031113/https://europeanspaceflight.substack.com/p/more-vehicles-than-customers-1446755) to begin with in order to be revenue positive. Instead of supplementing national capacity in the vein of Sino commercial rockets and turning Indian launches into a good export business, these might end up directly battling against ISRO’s own SSLV rocket for the small number of small launch customers. In the meanwhile, [claims about demand and expected profits](https://www.livemint.com/companies/start-ups/india-space-startup-skyroot-private-rocket-launch/amp-11761623312736.html) from these companies have kept soaring but the reality is most of them might not make it in their current forms. It would be better if ISRO instead technologically catalyzed these rocket companies to let them innovate faster and thus expand national launch offerings instead of the companies being left to reinvent wheels that may not even be round. --- **Many thanks to* [***Takshashila Institution**](https://takshashila.org.in)**,* [***PierSight**](https://piersight.space)**,* [***Gurbir Singh**](https://gurbir.co.uk) *and* [***Catalyx Space**](https://catalyx.space) *for sponsoring Indian Space Progress. If you too appreciate my efforts to capture nuanced trajectories of India in space, provided to space communities worldwide for free and without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support my writing 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) --- ## The next decade and NGLV As is evident by the trajectories of India’s rockets in the last 10 years, even though a [trickle of efficiencies](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-27/#more-rocket-tech-investments-from-isro) have come in here and there, the overall launch output has grown far slower than projected, expected, and necessary. Especially when not isolated from the global context. Mukunth captured this well when he [said in his own piece](https://web.archive.org/web/20250221212228/https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/where-is-isro-heading/article69235431.ece) on the trajectory of India’s rockets: > The fact is the Indian space programme can take great strides and still remain uncompetitive with the other countries belonging to the same elite club to which it has repeatedly claimed to belong. While the U.S. and Russia (including the erstwhile USSR) had a head start of many decades, China, Japan, and Europe for a long time enjoyed more funding, technological sophistication or both \[than India\]. To work towards a change of scale, last year the Indian Government Union Cabinet did approve ISRO’s proposal to [develop a partially reusable heavy-lift rocket](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-20/#human-spaceflight-plans) for [$982 million](https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2055979). Called the Next Generation Launch Vehicle (NGLV), the cryogenic rocket will be capable of lofting up to 30,000 kilograms to Low Earth Orbit in expendable mode, and 10,000 to 12,000 kilograms to GTO. That’s about thrice the oomph of the LVM3\. The NGLV will [also have engine restart capabilities](https://www.isro.gov.in/ISROsuccessfullycarriedoutSparkTorchIgniter.html); the booster will leverage that to return to Earth for launch reuse, and the upper stage will relight to perform complex orbital maneuvers and deployments. There are tentative plans for a version of the NGLV with powerful strap-on boosters, called NGLV-H, to further improve lift mass. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/12/isro-nglv-rocket-components-and-heavy-variant.jpeg) Renders of the NGLV rocket, its heavy variant, and key components. Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) | Images: [LPSC](https://www.lpsc.gov.in/newProjects.html) / [Footy2000](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:NGLV%5FFamily.svg) / [ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/LVM3M3%5Fgallery.html) The Indian Government has also [approved the building of a third launch pad](https://www.isro.gov.in/CabinetapprovesThirdLaunchPad.html) at Sriharikota for $460 million, which will be used for NGLV launches. It will also provide LVM3 with a second launchpad. Combined, the NGLV and the upgraded LVM3 have the potential to approach the ideal trifecta of launch characteristics and thus meet India’s needs and ambitions in space. However, ISRO is targeting the first half of the next decade to realize the NGLV and make it operational. A major part of it has to do with India’s long-constraining yearly space budget. The NGLV project’s budget allocations are distributed across many years, stretching the realization timeline beyond the fastest viable technical path. In other words, ISRO’s engineering talent will not be utilized efficiently due to fundamental budget constraints that have no viable technological design alternatives. Despite the recent government approvals of multiple ambitious national space projects, India’s [space budget for FY 2025-26](https://www.indiabudget.gov.in/doc/eb/sbe95.pdf) essentially [remains flat](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-18/) at about $1.5 billion. That’s less than a tenth of the funding enjoyed by both CNSA and NASA respectively. ## To the Moon? ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/12/chandrayaan-4-spacecraft-stacks-two-lvm3-rockets.jpg) Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) | Individual images of the LVM3 rocket, the two Chandrayaan 4 spacecraft stacks, and the Moon’s south pole: [ISRO](https://www.lpsc.gov.in/newProjects.html) / [NASA / GSFC / Timothy McClanahan / LOLA](https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/moon/nasas-lro-lunar-ice-deposits-are-widespread/) The budgetary reality hasn’t stopped India from becoming the third nation this century to [announce](https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1968368) the goal of sending humans to the Moon by itself. The official timeframe is [2040](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/). Realizing monetary constraints, ISRO’s Moonshot approach is to explicitly not make an ultra expensive, single purpose Saturn V class mega rocket. Instead, ISRO will utilize docking of multiple spacecraft elements that are launched separately on maxed-out heavy-lift rockets to then achieve the same goal. This is a scaled up version of the docking-based architecture that [Chandrayaan 4](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-241/) will employ to fetch lunar samples later this decade. With this approach, the same rocket that launches humans to the Moon can also serve other projects in India’s space program, saving costs and ensuring efficient use of taxpayer money. However, getting to repeatedly and reliably launching India’s largest rockets will still cost substantially more money by itself than is available to ISRO. Per the current but morphing plan, Moonbound Indian astronauts will blast off from Earth on a [maxed out NGLV rocket variant](https://indianexpress.com/article/india/for-lunar-missions-isro-building-its-heaviest-rocket-ever-10205892/). As will their lander in another such launch. Developing this central crewed Moon rocket in itself relies on the baseline NGLV launch vehicle coming online and becoming operational faster than its current official projections. Moreover, using a scaled up Chandrayaan 4 architecture implies having reliable back-to-back launches of the largest rocket India will have ever flown. And, redundancy for astronaut safety necessitates ensuring that an alternate launchpad is available for emergency launches and crew-cargo-supplies to Luna instead of just the one pad planned at the moment. The recent Soyuz rocket launch which [damaged Russia’s singular launchpad](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/11/russian-launch-pad-incident-raises-concerns-about-future-of-space-station/) for human spaceflight and associated cargo supplies reinforces the importance of this aspect. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/12/nglv-max-to-the-moon-1.jpeg) Render of two maxed out variants of the NGLV rocket, which will be used to launch Indian astronauts and their lander to the Moon in the future. The illustration shows two multi-module spacecraft from Chandrayaan 3 and 4 respectively at the Moon to represent many spacecraft modules of a crewed lunar mission. Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) | Images and background: [ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan3%5Fcurtainraiser%5Fvideo.html) / [LPSC](https://www.lpsc.gov.in/newProjects.html) / [Footy2000](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:NGLV%5FFamily.svg) / TeamIndus As such, even without a super heavy-lift rocket to blow money onto, the minimum viable cadence and scale of heavy-lift launches necessary for sending crew safely to the Moon and back can neither come for cheap in itself nor can it be achieved with any amount of pure efficiency attained with subpar hardware. Let’s not forget that the small robotic Chandrayaan 3 spacecraft alone filled LVM3’s payload capacity to the brim. For a crewed Moon rocket, a giant leap is an immutable requirement. Just like India bagged Chandrayaan 3’s [triumphant touchdown](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) on the Moon by cutting through the cloud of Chandrayaan 2’s failure with an approach of [expansive testing coupled with uncompromising performance](https://jatan.space/kalpana-kalahasti-chandrayaan-3-nature/), the time is here again to reinforce and scale that philosophy to the largest playground in space this century. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/12/lvm3-chandrayaan-3-launch-clouded-and-emerging-dheeraj-k-1.jpeg) The LVM3 captured by rocket photographer [****Dheeraj Khandelwal**](https://www.dheerajkhandelwal.com) as it emerged out of the clouds during its launch of Chandrayaan 3\. [Images: Chandrayaan gallery by Dheeraj](https://www.dheerajkhandelwal.com/chandrayaan) Make no mistake, it will be the pinnacle of India’s space program if it launches humans to the Moon circa 2040\. Imagine that future for a moment. The only country in the world after the US and China to achieve the immense feat, and one bagged within 100 years of independence from colonial claws. Had ISRO’s founder Vikram Sarabhai been alive, he’d probably tear up at the sight of this feat. He’d also know that a scalable heavy-lift rocket investment was indispensable so that India could orchestrate the increasingly complex sprawls of its space program. --- Like my writing and coverage? Support [my work](https://jatan.space/about) to help sustain independent writing and journalism. [Support my writing 💫 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### Moon Monday #253: A peek at new lunar samples and mission updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-253/ Last updated: 2025-12-04T07:42:17.000Z Here is a peek at some lunar samples from China’s [Chang’e 5](https://jatan.space/change-5-landing-site/) nearside landing mission as well as the [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-201/) farside one! Holding them is an incredible feeling that vividly reminds you of the immense and irreplaceable [value of exploring our Moon](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/). 🌙 ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/12/chang-e-5-sample-hku.jpeg) Roughly two-billion year old lunar sample brought to Earth by Chang’e 5\. Image: CNSA / CAS / HKU ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/12/chang-e-6-sample-hku.jpeg) Roughly 2.8-billion year old lunar sample brought to Earth by Chang’e 6\. Image: CNSA / CAS / HKU ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/12/chang-e-5-and-6-samples-hku.jpeg) Chang’e 5 and 6 samples. Image: CNSA / CAS / HKU Check my coverage of the [volcano of new science results](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-252/) presented at the University of Hong Kong last weekend about what we’ve unlocked by studying such Chang’e lunar samples. And, my [idea pitch](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-241/#the-case-for-india-to-study-and-exchange-chang%E2%80%99e-lunar-samples) there for India and China to exchange future [Chandrayaan 4 lunar polar samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-241/) with Chang’e ones has garnered some interest at CAS. Here’s hoping something comes out of it if ISRO and CNSA decide to engage. 🚀 ## Mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/egs-integrated-testing-nov-2025.jpeg) NASA has conducted 8 of 10 integrated tests in the lead up to preparations to launch the crewed Artemis II Moon mission. [Image: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-2/integrated-testing-on-horizon-for-artemis-ii-launch-preparations/) - NASA [states](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-2/nasa-progresses-toward-artemis-ii-moon-mission/) that it has completed critical communications tests between the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/reference/space-launch-system/), the [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft), and between them and the agency’s Deep Space Network ground stations in the lead up to preparations for launching four [Artemis II](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-242/) astronauts around the Moon and back next year. - SpaceX’s first Starship v3 booster stage got [damaged during early testing](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/11/newest-starship-booster-is-significantly-damaged-during-testing-early-friday/) on November 21, leading to yet another delay in SpaceX’s [slow progress](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-248/#nasa-reopens-artemis-iii-human-landing-contract) in working towards landing humans on the Moon for NASA. - [New datasets](https://shadowcam.im-ldi.com/news/1467) are available from NASA’s ultra-sensitive [ShadowCam](https://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/about) imager aboard South Korea’s first lunar orbiter [KPLO](https://jatan.space/kplo/). ShadowCam has been capturing [unique](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-moon-camera-mosaic-sheds-light-on-lunar-south-pole) [observations](http://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/images/1288) of [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s poles to [help scientists & engineers plan](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-110/) future surface resource prospecting missions. - The lifespans of the upcoming [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-248/) orbiter and lander is designed to be [at least eight years](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465645/n6465648/c6840870/part/6797907.pdf) each! Thanks to Jack Congram for [noting that](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/change-7-to-start-searching-for-lunar) in his coverage. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/12/change-7-lander-orbiter-illustration-1.jpg) A render of the Chang’e 7 lander and orbiter going around the Moon. [Image: CMG](https://news.cgtn.com/news/2023-06-05/China-sets-record-in-sixth-rocket-engine-trial-of-crewed-lunar-mission-1knNhdQYU6I/index.html) - ESA’s critical Ministerial Council meeting held last week to decide the space agency’s budget for the next three years went well as two dozen members (including Canada’s increased investment by 400%) cumulatively committed a [record budget of €22.25 billion](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/esa-member-states-pledge-record-level-of-funding/), a 17% increase over the previous 3-year budget for 2022-2025 when adjusted for inflation. However, the human and robotic exploration component of the budget is receiving only €2.98 billion, about €800 million less than was requested. As such, this will likely affect ESA’s robotic plans for lunar exploration such as [Argonaut](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Exploration/Argonaut) and [Moonlight](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-198/#moonlight-in-motion-and-contrasting-queqiao). In the best case, it will stretch their already delayed timelines further. - In related and unsurprising news, ESA’s Director General Josef Aschbacher [announced](https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20251127-europe-secures-record-space-budget-to-boost-indepedence) that the three ESA astronauts that will fly on future crewed [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/artemis/) missions will come from three biggest ESA contributors: Germany, France, and Italy. These [three seats](https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-55906695) from NASA are in return for ESA’s contributions to the Artemis [Orion](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) spacecraft’s critical [service module](https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/space/esm) and for providing major parts of the upcoming NASA-led [Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) orbital habitat like the [Lunar I-Hab](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Gateway%5FLunar%5FI-Hab), the [Lunar Link](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Gateway%5FLunar%5FLink) communications module, and the [Lunar View](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Gateway%5FLunar%5FView) refueling and cargo module. **Many thanks to* [***The Orbital Index**](https://orbitalindex.com) *and* [***Space Age Publishing**](https://www.spaceagepub.com) *(ft.* [**ILOA*](https://iloa.org)**) for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support Moon Monday 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ## More Moon - ESA [tested use of multiple instruments](https://www.dlr.de/en/latest/news/2025/water-ice-on-the-moon-simulated-detection-in-the-luna-facility) to map [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) in a mock layered lunar simulant soil setup at the agency’s [LUNA facility](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-195/) so as to optimize the detection and mapping approach of future missions going to the Moon’s poles. - NASA is [hosting a public challenge](https://www.topcoder.com/nasa-crater-detection) with prizes for solutions which will improve optical recognition of lunar craters, a [technology employed by lunar landers](https://jatan.space/precision-moon-landings-and-the-future/) to navigate with respect to identified terrain, avoid landing on hazardous craters and other such features, and land with precision. - If you too want to change the frustrating misconception about people at large calling [our Moon’s farside](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) as its “dark side”, send them [this rebuttal article](https://bigthink.com/starts-with-a-bang/dark-side-moon/) by Ethan Siegel and blame Pink Floyd and the Transformers. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/12/moon-nearside-farside.jpg) Our Moon’s nearside (left) and the not dark farside (right). [Image: NASA LRO](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/298) / [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) ### Lunar sample science updates straight from Hong Kong | Moon Monday #252 URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-252/ Last updated: 2025-11-28T11:10:32.000Z I attended the [International Lunar Sample Research Symposium](https://www.bagevent.com/event/9078832) (ILSRS) at the University of Hong Kong the past two days. It was fantastic, especially when you consider the sheer flux of novel lunar science results that researchers presented based on analysis of fresh lunar samples brought to Earth by China’s [Chang’e 5](https://jatan.space/change-5-landing-site/) and [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-201/) missions. While it’s not possible to cover everything that was presented and discussed at the packed symposium, below is my attempt to pick out all the globally relevant highlights along with links to either their published papers or their submitted & accepted abstracts as reviewed by an [international scientific organizing committee](https://www.bagevent.com/event/9078832/p/566199). I’d like to express my gratitude to [****Space Age Publishing**](https://www.spaceagepub.com) (ft. [ILOA](https://iloa.org)) and [****Mahesh Anand**](https://profiles.open.ac.uk/mahesh-anand) for helping sponsor this Moon Monday through my attendance of the symposium, thereby making it possible for me to bring you these updates first hand. It was quite the work to put all of this together in a single day. And so if you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, without ads, [****your support**](https://jatan.space/support) will definitely be appreciated. 😬 To set the stage, here is a look at Moon samples from China’s Chang’e 5 nearside landing mission as well as the Chang’e 6 farside one. 🌙 ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/chang-e-5-sample-hku.jpeg) Chang’e 5 sample. Image: CNSA / CAS / HKU ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/chang-e-6-sample-hku.jpeg) Chang’e 6 sample. Image: CNSA / CAS / HKU ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/chang-e-5-and-6-samples-hku.jpeg) Chang’e 5 and 6 samples. Image: CNSA / CAS / HKU ## The right intent ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/chang-e-5-and-6-samples.jpeg) Images: [CNSA / CLEP / CAS](https://x.com/SegerYu/status/1798688466026594539) / [Chunlai Li, Shuhui et al.](https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwae328) | Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) The ILSRS conference organizers were the [University of Hong Kong](https://www.hku.hk) (HKU) and the [Institute of Geology and Geophysics](http://english.igg.cas.cn) of the [Chinese Academy of Sciences](https://english.cas.cn) (IGG CAS). They made efforts to reach out to many scientists and people in lunar communities internationally to attend the symposium as the stated intent was to exchange lunar science findings with the global community and enhance international coordination mechanisms for planetary exploration in China. It’s precisely why the symposium was held in Hong Kong, which allows [visa-free access for 170 countries worldwide](https://www.bagevent.com/event/9078832/p/566201) (including India where I come from) as opposed to hosting one in mainland China for which a roundtrip might be more difficult, especially for US researchers. Even the symposium’s [abstract submission format](https://www.bagevent.com/event/9078832/p/566200) was identical to the popular US-based [Lunar and Planetary Science Conference](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/index.shtml#about) to make it easy for international as well as Chinese researchers to propose their findings to be evaluated for ILSRS talks and posters. [Fuyuan Wu](https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=DG9d%5FIYAAAAJ&hl=en), a leading organizer of ILSRS and a professor at IGG CAS, stressed when he said the following in his opening remarks: > There is a need for more international collaboration and information exchange in lunar exploration. [Guochun Zhao](https://www.earthsciences.hku.hk/people/academic%5Fstaff/7/), a professor at HKU and a co-organizer of ILSRS, followed up with similar introductory remarks and noted the following: > No single nation can tackle the complexity of planetary exploration alone. ## A volcano of lunar sample science findings A study at the heart of ILSRS concerns Chang’e 6 samples helping determine the age of the massive [South Pole-Aitken (SPA) basin](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2008/pdf/1626.pdf)—within which the spacecraft landed—as [4.25 billion years](https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwaf103). Spanning 2500 kilometers, the SPA basin is the Moon’s largest, deepest, and oldest impact crater. Researchers analyzed 1600 fragments from five grams of Chang’e 6 samples and found 20 relevant pieces to determine this truest age yet of the massive basin. SPA’s exact age and nature of formation has huge implications for understanding [how our Moon evolved](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/), and [our Solar System too](https://jatan.space/solar-system-history-101/). Many implications were debated at the symposium to work towards a consensus on the next set of measurements we should make globally on future missions to advance this frontier. A presentation by Huijuan Zhang et al ([abstract link](https://file.bagevent.com/resource/20251103/0926230384040586.pdf)) discussed one such aspect of structural and chemical differences between the interiors of farside and nearside lunar regions. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/IMG_3041-2.jpeg) Fuyuan Wu on Chang’e 6 sample studies helping determine the age of the Moon’s massive South Pole-Aitken basin. Image: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) / ILSRS The impact that created the SPA was so colossal that scientists think it changed the physical and chemical makeup of the Moon’s mantle down to hundreds of kilometers. And that’s exactly what Chang’e 6 sample studies presented at ILSRS have found, such as a [morphed mantle source](https://file.bagevent.com/resource/20251103/0920451044040586.pdf) for volcanism on [the Moon’s farside](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). The dominant Chang’e 6 samples are lava bits which erupted \~1.4 billion years after the SPA event, which morphed the mantle. The Chang’e 6 volcanic materials thus exhibit a unique makeup compared to other volcanic lunar samples. A [study of 16 fragments](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-09131-7) scooped up by Chang’e 6 found them severely lacking elements such as titanium and thorium. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/illustration-of-effect-of-spa-impact-on-the-deep-lunar-mantle-and-subsequent-volcanism.jpg) ****a)** An illustration showing the effect of the 4.25-billion-year old SPA impact on the Moon’s deep mantle. ****b)** The altered mantle makeup then reflects in the 2.8-billion-year aged volcanic basalts, some of which were fetched by Chang’e 6\. [See full legend](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09131-7/figures/4) | [Image: Fu-Yuan Wu et al.](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-09131-7) [James Head](https://vivo.brown.edu/display/jheadiii) of Brown University presented [puzzling findings and observations](https://file.bagevent.com/resource/20251103/0926258044040586.pdf) about young volcanic features on the Moon which are potentially only a few hundred million years old. Chang’e 5 samples have [confirmed](https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abl7957) 2-billion-year old lunar volcanism on the Moon while also finding what seem like [120-million-year young volcanic beads](https://english.cas.cn/newsroom/research%5Fnews/earth/202409/t20240904%5F684803.shtml). Collectively, these studies have [opened up](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-04107-9) more [enigmas](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-04119-5) about the Moon’s interior and [its evolution](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). Head noted that combined with new observations from orbiters around the world—including [Chandrayaan 2](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) and [KPLO](https://jatan.space/kplo/)—these studies are helping set the stage for specific measurements to be made by a [future NASA CLPS mission](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/new-nasa-artemis-instruments-to-study-volcanic-terrain-on-the-moon/) which will land in the [unique volcanic place of Ina](https://jatan.space/ina-irregular-mare-patch/) later this decade to help resolve some fundamental mysteries. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/IMG_3046-2.jpeg) James Head speaking on mysteriously young volcanic features on the Moon. Image: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) / ILSRS Quentin Parker of HKU presented about their upcoming 12U-CubeSat based [Lunar Flash orbiter](https://file.bagevent.com/resource/20251103/0926266284040586.pdf) being built in collaboration with Chinese-mainland-based ASES. Largely funded by the Hong Kong government at almost $100 million HKD, the 100-kilometer altitude polar-orbiting satellite will monitor flashes of meteorite impacts on the Moon’s farside to determine its poorly constrained sizes, rate and potential impact (pun intended) on long-term robotic and crewed exploration. Combined with more such data from other missions, it will help us understand risk from [micrometeorites](https://jatan.space/the-tiniest-of-impact-craters/) to better plan future humans, habitats, and hardware on the Moon’s south pole. Relatedly, last year ESA approved the **LU**nar **M**eteoroid **I**mpacts **O**bserver ([LUMIO](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FEngineering%5FTechnology/Shaping%5Fthe%5FFuture/LUMIO%5FNew%5FCubeSat%5FIlluminating%5FLunar%5FImpacts)) CubeSat mission with a similar purpose. ESA aims to launch LUMIO in 2027 to the second Earth-Moon Lagrangian point (EM-L2) from where it can continuously observe the Moon’s farside. The CubeSat also aims to demonstrate [autonomously determining its position](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2024/07/Eye%5Ftest%5Ffor%5Flunar%5Fimpact%5Fsurveyor) in space and navigating accordingly, independent of communications with Earth, something China [pioneered with its DRO lunar craft](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-222/) recently. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/IMG_3054-2.jpeg) Quentin Parker on the anticipated outcomes of systematically measuring meteorite impact flashes on the Moon’s farside. Image: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) / ILSRS Sen Hu of IGG CAS spoke about how the Moon’s farside mantle [contains less water](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-08870-x) than within the nearside as measured by Chang’e 6 and 5 samples respectively. These new measurements have added to [the debate on the topic](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-85/) by lending tactile credence to the hypothesis that our Moon indeed lost most of its water [during its fiery formation](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/). CASC’s previous [news release](https://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4305200/content.html) on the Chang’e 6 study had noted how [Francis McCubbin](https://ares.jsc.nasa.gov/people/bios/francis-m-mccubbin/), NASA’s Astromaterials Curator and a peer reviewer of the paper, called the work “a landmark study on the water abundance of the lunar farside.” ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/chang-e-6-farside-water-mantle-abundance.jpg) Locations of samples collected by nearside Moon missions are both farther away and geologically distinct from the Chang’e 6 landing site inside the farside SPA basin. The sizes of outer circles around location dots reflect the maximum estimated water abundance in the mantle sources beneath the sampled sites. The ****inset image** shows how measurements of farside Chang’e 6 samples indicate lower abundance than the nearside Apollo, Luna, and Chang’e 5 ones. [Images: Yangtin Lin, et al.](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-08870-x) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/IMG_3064-2.jpeg) Sen Hu discussing the possible sources of water on the Moon. Image: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) / ILSRS Qi Zhao of the Hong Kong Polytechnic University [presented](https://file.bagevent.com/resource/20251103/0943325264040586.pdf) how China is making the [largest 3D image dataset of lunar regolith particles](https://doi.org/10.1029/2024JE008787) to date. Relatedly, Ke Xu of Peking University spoke about the importance of [better modeling how volatiles diffuse](https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0284757) in lunar soil and rock structures to efficiently study and utilize [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon on future missions. This work also allows for more efficient studies of the same sample grains across multiple institutions, using what Ke Xu called the “facial recognition system for regolith particles”. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/IMG_3067-2.jpeg) Ke Xu on having better imagery of lunar regolith particles as a shared database for efficient sample studies. Image: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) / ILSRS ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/IMG_3103-2.jpeg) Qi Zhao on making the largest 3D image dataset of lunar regolith particles to date. Image: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) / ILSRS Alsabti Athem of the University College of London [proposed studying](https://file.bagevent.com/resource/20251103/0948576574040586.pdf) supernovae remnants embedded in lunar soil. This is the context of the [Moon’s regolith being a layered record](https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2019.0562) of the interstellar medium and galactic environments our Solar System passed through and has been amid over time. 🌙 ***Related:** **A whole list of how* [**our Moon is valuable beyond itself*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-239/) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/IMG_3073-2.jpeg) Alsabti Athem on studying supernovae remnants in lunar samples. Image: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) / ILSRS Sonia Tikoo of the Stanford University presented how soon after the Moon’s formation its global magnetic field deteriorated over time and how [our understanding of the same has changed too](https://file.bagevent.com/resource/20251103/0952246444040586.pdf) with new evidence, including from Chang’e samples. Tikoo noted how combined with sample studies, targeted surface-based observations from the upcoming rover on China’s [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-248/) mission as well as the [Lunar Vertex lander-rover instrument suite](https://www.jhuapl.edu/destinations/missions/lunar-vertex) flying to the [swirl of Reiner Gamma](https://jatan.space/swirls-on-the-moon/) aboard Intuitive Machines’ [third Moon mission](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-mission-to-reiner-gamma/) will help resolve key mysteries related to the Moon’s magnetic evolution, which in itself it tied to that of [the Moon’s evolution](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/IMG_3089-2.jpeg) Sonia Tikoo on the Moon’s magnetic mysteries. Image: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) / ILSRS A related study result mentioned by Tikoo is about how micrometer-sized iron grains embedded in Chang’e 6 volcanic fragments have revealed a [surprising increase in the global magnetic field strength](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-08526-2) of the Moon around 2.8 billion years ago, providing the first ground truth constraints for farside lunar magnetism. From the paper: > These results record a rebound of the field strength after its previous sharp decline of around 3.1 Ga \[billion years ago\], which attests to an active lunar dynamo at about 2.8 Ga in the mid-early stage and argues against the suggestion that the lunar dynamo may have remained in a low-energy state after 3 Ga until its demise. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/chang-e-6-volcanic-samples-magnetic-field-strength-rebound.jpg) Evolution of our Moon’s magnetic field strength over time—called paleointensity—as measured in Apollo and Chang’e samples. Chang’e 6 sample measurements show a possible rebound of the lunar dynamo starting around 3 billion years ago. [See full legend](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08526-2/figures/4) | [Image: Shuhui Cai et al.](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-08526-2) Researchers analyzing Chang’e 6 samples have also [found the first hematite crystals](https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.ady5169) (rust) on the Moon. The samples also contain the iron oxide of maghemite. The [CNSA release](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465652/n6465653/c10718462/content.html) captures the importance of the discovery as follows: > This discovery reveals a previously unknown oxidation reaction mechanism on the moon. It provides direct sample evidence supporting the origin of magnetic anomalies around the South Pole-Aitken (SPA) Basin. \[...\] The study proposes that hematite formation may be closely related to significant impact events in lunar history. Lastly, Jatan Mehta (aka me) delivered a talk on India’s upcoming [Chandrayaan 4](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-241/) sample return mission and made [the case for India and China to exchange lunar samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-241/#the-case-for-india-to-study-and-exchange-chang%E2%80%99e-lunar-samples). 🌜...<>...🌛 ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/6EB969E9-D719-430C-86CD-7C6B8D7510C8_1_201_a.jpeg) Yours truly, speaking on India’s Chandrayaan 4 sample return mission. Image: ILSRS The lunar sample science symposium concluded with the organizers explicitly seeking feedback from international attendees, a good show of intent and effort. [Wei Yang](https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=%5FKtnAOcAAAAJ&hl=en), a professor at IGG CAS and a symposium co-organizer, expressed a forward looking sentiment on behalf of the feedback received from the attendees: > I hope \[that\] in the future China and \[the\] US can exchange Moon samples. This was in the context of China’s [announcement](https://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4320481/content.html) earlier this year of the [first set of international organizations](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-223/) whose proposals were selected to study Chang’e 5 samples. International researchers, including many who attended the symposium, are already analyzing the samples and expect to publish their findings soon whereas US researchers are [facing access issues](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-223/) from the American side itself. **Note:** There were even more notable results presented at the symposium but which I’m not including here because these works are yet to be published. --- **Many thanks to* [***Space Age Publishing**](https://www.spaceagepub.com) *(ft.* [**ILOA*](https://iloa.org)**),* [***Mahesh Anand**](https://profiles.open.ac.uk/mahesh-anand) *and* [***Sonia Tikoo**](https://profiles.stanford.edu/sonia-tikoo-schantz) *for helping sponsor this week’s Moon Monday through my attendance of the lunar sample science symposium in Hong Kong!* **If you liked this special edition of Moon Monday and appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support Moon Monday 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### Moon Monday #251: Prepping to live on Luna via analogs on Earth URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-251/ Last updated: 2025-11-17T16:18:13.000Z ***A personal note before we begin:*** *Dear readers, thank you so much for your personal & wondrous responses to my globally published* [*space poetry*](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/) *in celebration of Moon Monday completing* [*5 years & 250 editions*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday/) *while crossing* [*10,000 subscribers*](https://jatan.space/presenting-seven-uni-verses-poetry/)*. Hearing early readers express curiosity and awe has meant more than questionable labels and checkmarks on social media ever will.* 💛 *Figuring out how to independently publish my poetry on* [*platforms globally*](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry-read/) *with non-exclusive* [*open access*](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/#values) *in multiple formats has laid a solid logistical foundation for me to publish future booklets & books for public good. I’m very excited for this next phase of my writing:* [*Merge the worlds of blogs & books*](https://jatan.space/presenting-seven-uni-verses-poetry/#merging-the-worlds-of-blogs-and-books) *to bring affordable and accessible booklets on important but undercovered space exploration themes to people all around the world. I’m so excited that I’ve captured it in a meme.* [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/suckbucks-vs-my-poetry-booklet.jpeg)](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/) Meme: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/get-seven-universes-poetry-worldwide-on-multiple-platforms-1.jpeg)](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry-read/) Get your free copy officially from anywhere you like: [****Read Seven uni-verses**](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry-read/) If you find value in my open access approach to publishing my writing worldwide, kindly support independent writing & journalism as a reader. [Support my work 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ## Astronauts prep to live on the Moon via analogs on Earth The harsh and frigid lunar night lasting 14 Earth days is a fundamental blocker in our ability to sustain robotic hardware as well as astronauts long term on the Moon. Recent landers like India’s [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) and Firefly’s [Blue Ghost](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-218/#firefly-deserves-an-unusual-kudos) both ended their missions at the end of their respective lunar day. Even larger scale Apollo astronauts over five decades ago returned before the onset of lunar nights. Among many challenges imposed by the lunar night, such as technical ones like keeping spacecraft electronics warm, is also a psychological one of astronauts surviving the frigid darkness in a heavily constrained environment of a small habitat while ensuring its continued operations. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/australia-lunar-night-survival-analog-astronaut-mission.jpg) A mock lunar habitat on Earth. Image: [University of Adelaide / Isaac Freeman](https://www.adelaide.edu.au/newsroom/news/list/2025/10/09/australia-on-board-global-analogue-space-mission) To help develop effective operational procedures for prolonged living off-Earth, a multi-site analog habitat mission part of the [World’s Biggest Analog](https://www.worldsbiggestanalog.com) project took place [around the world](https://oewf.org/en/wba/) this past October. One of these organized by [ICEE.Space](https://icee.space) in Australia [specifically mimicked astronauts surviving the lunar night](https://www.adelaide.edu.au/newsroom/news/list/2025/10/09/australia-on-board-global-analogue-space-mission) in an intentionally constrained habitat. \[A dear Moon Monday reader and supporter, [Louis-Jérôme Burtz](https://www.linkedin.com/in/ljburtz), participated in it.\] This is the latest in a series of expansive global efforts to use analog missions and adjacent research styles on Earth to iteratively tackle the herculean task of living and exploring the Moon and objects beyond *for months, not days*. Below is a non-exhaustive but representative summary of other such recent developments worldwide. - ESA’s [Pangaea project](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/CAVES%5Fand%5FPangaea/What%5Fis%5FPangaea) trains future astronauts from multiple space agencies in lunar geology and related new tools, such as an [assistant tablet](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2021/11/11/to-all-moonwalkers-update-your-space-tablet), to [efficiently explore](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2022.12.034) the Moon like never before. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/pangaea-astronouts-anorthosite-rock.jpg) ESA’s Andreas Mogensen (left) and NASA’s Kate Rubins (right) standing next to an exposed Moon-like anorthosite rock in Norway as part of their Pangaea astronaut training course in geology. Image: [ESA / V. Crobu](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2022/07/Bound%5Fup%5Fwith%5Fthe%5FMoon) - For [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/) and beyond, NASA is making astronauts conduct high fidelity Moonwalk simulation exercises with simulated [lunar south pole lighting](https://www.nasa.gov/ames/feature/the-dark-side-of-the-crater-how-light-looks-different-on-the-moon-and-what-nasa-is-doing), such as in last year’s analog mission in a lunar-esque volcanic field in Arizona. Science writer Alexandra Witze [covered the activities, their rationale, and importance](https://archive.is/musp1) right from the mission’s backroom. > To mimic the lighting conditions at the lunar south pole, JETT5 organizers built a ‘Sun cart’ — essentially a giant spotlight wheeled onto the landscape. To Rubins and Douglas, the light looked like the distant Sun hovering just above the horizon. The astronauts carefully navigated their way across the dim landscape, relying on a few personal lights to aid their work. \[...\] The point of JETT5 was to develop tools and procedures that will work for Artemis III astronauts on the lunar surface. > > \[...\] > > Not everything went smoothly during the night-time EVA. The flight-operations team deliberately built in some challenges, including dropping video communications with the astronauts any time they travelled too far from the lander. An artificial, 20-minute delay on downloading imagery meant that the science team often couldn’t see real-time photos of the rocks the astronauts were picking up. - In parallel, ESA is training astronauts at its versatile Moon-simulating [LUNA](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-195/) facility in Germany, with tests of [instruments](https://luna-analog-facility.de/en/recording-earthquakes-on-the-moon-mars-and-now-in-luna/), [mission concepts](https://www.dlr.de/en/latest/news/2024/a-swarm-of-sensors-rovers-and-astronauts-explore-the-moon), [modern astronaut tools](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2025/04/Moon%5Ftools%5Fto%5Fthe%5Ftest%5Fat%5FLUNA). There’s even [use of virtual reality](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/LUNA%5Fs%5Fvirtual%5Fleap%5Ftowards%5Fthe%5FMoon). A [simulated habitat module](https://www.dlr.de/en/blog/archive/2026/the-flexhab-space-habitat-moon-living-on-earth) adjoining LUNA will soon be used to better test complex mission scenarios where humans and robots interact in varied ways for long periods. - The Russian Academy of Sciences [completed](https://tass.com/science/1872341) a [year-long analog](http://sirius.imbp.ru/eng.html) on Earth late last year to study isolation effects on humans who will live for extended periods on the Moon in the future. - Chinese taikonauts (astronauts) have begun initial training for lunar missions [since late last year](https://news.cgtn.com/news/2024-10-29/Lunar-landings-planned-for-China-s-fourth-batch-of-taikonauts-1y5qZzq6hYA/p.html) across lunar transit and surface operations as part of the country’s [preparations to land humans on the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-237/). - Since last year, ISRO, in collaboration with organizations like [Protoplanet](https://www.protoplanet.co/), formally started terrestrial testing of what living and conducting research on the Moon and Mars could be like for its astronauts via baseline analog missions [at dry and mountainous Ladakh](https://www.indiatoday.in/interactive/photo-essay/isro-hope-habitat-mars-moon-base-gaganyaan-mission-launch-300-15-08-2025). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/hope-analog-habitat-ladakh-isro-protoplanet.jpg) India’s new HOPE analog astronaut habitat in Ladakh, India. Image: [Protoplanet / ISRO](https://www.protoplanet.co/hope) - NASA, ESA, and Nikon [are collaborating](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2024/10/08/moon-vision/) on an ergonomic handheld camera for Artemis III astronauts to capture good low light images in the [dark environment](https://www.nasa.gov/ames/feature/the-dark-side-of-the-crater-how-light-looks-different-on-the-moon-and-what-nasa-is-doing) of the Moon’s south pole. Called the Handheld Universal Lunar Camera ([HULC](https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20240004420)), its prototypes have been tested and refined [by ESA](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2023/10/25/next-generation-moon-camera-tested-in-europe/) and [NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/nasa-signs-agreement-with-nikon-to-develop-lunar-artemis-camera/) in several analog missions. One scenario included using the camera with a telephoto lens because [new research](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2024.07.006) based on the Apollo missions shows that astronauts’ perception of distances and slopes gets altered on the Moon’s surface. A telephoto lens would thus better guide Moonwalks. A radiation-hardened and thermally protected HULC camera is supposed to be tested on the International Space Station before using it on Artemis missions. - South Korea is transforming its former mining site of Taebaek [into a testing ground](https://pulse.mk.co.kr/news/all/11279380) for advanced mobile lunar exploration technologies, owing to the mine’s environmental resemblance to the darkness, coldness, and ruggedness of the Moon’s south pole. Having multi-site as well as concurrent analog missions worldwide also provides researchers an opportunity to conduct similar experiments in high volumes so as to gather statistically useful data about their scientific effectiveness and operating procedures. **Related tangent:** [*Past mistakes to avoid in our grand return to the Moon this decade*](https://jatan.space/past-lunar-mission-mistakes-to-avoid/) --- **Many thanks to* [***Open Lunar Foundation**](https://www.openlunar.org/)**,* [***Astrolab**](https://astrolab.space) *and* [***Karan Maindan**](https://hello.karanmaindan.com) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support Moon Monday 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) --- ## Mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/blue-origin-new-glenn-rocket-first-booster-landing-1.jpeg) The first New Glenn rocket booster to land after launch. Humans to scale. [Image: Blue Origin](https://x.com/JeffBezos/status/1989704582025679295) - On November 13, Blue Origin’s heavy-lift New Glenn rocket successfully [launched](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-blue-origin-launch-two-spacecraft-to-study-mars-solar-wind/) NASA’s ESCAPADE spacecraft pair on a trajectory ultimately headed for Mars. Crucially, Blue Origin successfully landed the rocket’s first stage booster on a sea landing platform, allowing its potential reuse to launch the company’s [first robotic Moon lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-226/) called the Mark I by early next year; hopefully in January. This company’s first Moon mission in itself is crucial for Blue’s [bet to carry NASA’s VIPER rover to the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-243/) on the second Mark I lander in 2027\. And, Mark I’s hoped for success is in turn what Blue [wants to leverage](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/11/blue-origin-will-move-heaven-and-earth-to-help-nasa-reach-the-moon-faster-ceo-says/) to land humans on the Moon for the US. - A few months after the Chandrayaan 3 lander [touched down on the Moon](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) in August 2023, ISRO had pulled the mission’s [propulsion module](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/science/chandrayaan-3-mission-150kg-fuel-left-in-propulsion-module-life-span-now-years/articleshow/102866268.cms) (PM) from lunar orbit [to Earth orbit](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-157/) against the nominal plan. At the time, ISRO [stated](https://www.isro.gov.in/Ch3%5FPropulsion%5FModule%5Fmoved%5Ffrom%5FLunar%5Forbit%5Fto%5FEarth%5Forbit.html) the move’s purpose being [space debris management](https://www.isro.gov.in/ISSAR%5F2024.html) by “avoiding uncontrolled crashing of the PM on the Moon’s surface at the end of life of PM thus meeting the requirements of no debris creation.” Two years later, the spacecraft’s high Earth orbit has not been stable and instead expanded due to the dynamic gravitational environment it’s amid. ISRO says the PM craft [made two lunar flybys](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan%5F3%5FFly%5Fby.html) on November 6 and 11 respectively. It appears from ISRO’s release that while it was able to monitor the spacecraft’s trajectory, it did not fire any engines on the spacecraft to control or direct its trajectory. This suggests that either the craft has run out of fuel or its engines may not be performing nominally. Enthusiastic spacecraft tracker Scott Tiley [surmises](https://bsky.app/profile/coastal8049.bsky.social/post/3m5kpay7iu22z) that because of this dynamic gravitational environment, the Chandrayaan 3 propulsion module could later in the decade either end up in solar orbit or crash with the Moon. - After three years of work, ESA has [completed](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/European%5FService%5FModule-4%5Fis%5Fready%5Fto%5Fsail) the fourth European Service Module which will take astronauts on the attached [Artemis IV](https://www.nasa.gov/general/nasas-artemis-iv-building-first-lunar-space-station/) Orion spacecraft to lunar orbit and back. It will also provide them with power and life support systems. ## More Moon - Marcia Smith [reports](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/longest-government-shutdown-in-history-ends-after-43-days/) that the US Congress finally managed to end the 43-day government shutdown. However, it currently only funds NASA until January 30, 2026, and so bills for its [FY 2026 budget](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-227/) need to pass before that. - US-based Star Catcher wants to [deliver power wirelessly & optically from orbit](https://www.star-catcher.com/news/record-breaking-optical-power-beaming-proves-path-to-scalable-power-grid-for-space) to hardware on the Moon. Intuitive Machines is [interested](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/star-catcher-and-intuitive-machines-successfully-demonstrate-power-beaming-for-extended-lunar-surfac) to tap into it for its upcoming rover. - Thanks to fresh lunar samples brought to Earth by [Chang’e 5](https://jatan.space/change-5-landing-site/) and [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-201/) missions, there has been a new influx of sample science results which have transformed our understanding [of lunar volcanism](https://doi.org/10.11728/cjss2024.04.2024-yg10) and [the Moon’s farside](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-233/). Scientists from around the world will [share more such results](https://www.bagevent.com/event/9078832/p/566207) from studying little bits of Luna at the [International Lunar Sample Research Symposium](http://ilsrs.org) hosted later this week by the University of Hong Kong. I’ll eagerly attend the symposium in person, and will deliver a talk on India’s [Chandrayaan 4](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-241/) sample return mission. 🌕 --- **Bonus memes for those of you who read till the end:** ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/levels-of-self-publishing.jpeg) Can’t stop, won’t stop. Level 3 [unlocked](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/). The next several years will be [interesting](https://jatan.space/presenting-seven-uni-verses-poetry/#merging-the-worlds-of-blogs-and-books). Meme: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/legal-z-library-uploads.jpeg) Meme: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) 🌝 ### Celebrating 5 years and 10,000 subscribers of Moon Monday with globally published poetry on space URL: https://jatan.space/presenting-seven-uni-verses-poetry/ Last updated: 2026-07-17T10:44:14.000Z **Dear readers,** About two months ago, my [Moon Monday](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) blog+newsletter crossed 10,000 subscribers. I did not announce it until now because I wanted to celebrate it in some way. Having readers and [supporters](https://jatan.space/support/) be truly spread around the world in various space communities is something I’m not just proud of but very grateful to be able to serve. Today, as Moon Monday also completes a unique [5-year archive](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) of 250 editions covering & contextualizing humanity’s global lunar exploration missions, I’m elated to release & share my poetry pamphlet on space worldwide in multiple formats. Presenting [**Seven uni-verses**](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/), poetry on all that space evokes. 🌙 ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/share-seven-universes-poetry-qr-4.jpeg) #### Seven uni-verses (booklet) By [****Jatan Mehta**](https://jatan.space/about). Poetry on all that space evokes. [Read for Free →](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry-read/) ***Seven uni-verses*** is a pamphlet of poems dedicated to humanity’s exploration of the universe. There’s nothing quite as bold and beautiful as committing to venturing the brutal colossal desolation that is space. Every (civil) space launch carries not just hardware but hope. The act of exploring the void makes humans special. As someone who has [dedicated his work life to space](https://jatan.space/about), I’ve written these verses over the years to attempt and capture the sheer intensity of emotions and intellectual ambition the cosmos and its exploration evokes. I love poetry, and have an innate desire to merge it with my first love—space. While my poems are intended to be read by everyone, many lines allude to technical concepts for those in the know to savor. A few key references as well as backstories are mentioned in the endnotes. ## Get your copy for free *Seven uni-verses* is available worldwide in multiple formats to support [enhanced accessibility](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/#values), which is important to make reading equitable. To that end, I’m also providing the booklet officially for free digitally and at minimal cost in print. :) Ebook, Print, Audio, Libraries, and Public Archives: [Get Seven uni-verses ✨ ](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry-read/) ## Bookmark & Review - [*Goodreads*](https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/242135025-seven-uni-verses) *|* [*Open Library*](https://openlibrary.org/books/OL60292587M/Seven%5Funi-verses) - [*Fable*](https://fable.co/book/seven-uni-verses-by-jatan-mehta-9789334418880) *|* [*StoryGraph*](https://app.thestorygraph.com/books/8193e0bd-0a1c-42c0-b530-0af9c65a2ad3) *|* [*Hardcover*](https://hardcover.app/books/seven-uni-verses) *|* [*Literal*](https://literal.club/book/jatan-mehta-seven-uni-verses-h4101) - [*Bookwyrm*](https://bookwyrm.social/book/2116170/s/seven-uni-verses) *|* [*Micro.blog*](https://micro.blog/books/9789334418880) - *Search for ISBN number *9789334418880* in book tracking apps* If you like what you read and find value in my [open access approach](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/#values) to publishing this as well as future books worldwide, kindly directly support independent writing & journalism as a reader: [Support my work 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) --- ## Merging the worlds of blogs and books Publishing [*Seven uni-verses*](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/) is also a foundational step for the next phase of my space writing: Merge the worlds of blogs and books. The last three months have been a sprawling journey of discovery and knowledge about how to publish a book worldwide across ebook, print, and audio formats and have it also be available in libraries and public archives—all while not granting exclusivity to any platform or distributor, especially not to Amazon. Getting my poetry pamphlet out in the world in an independent and [open access manner](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/#values) has helped me lay the foundation to publish my writing as books and booklets in a streamlined way in the future. Ditching traditional book publishing norms, I’m instead following the same philosophy here that has worked well for my blog so as to bring the benefits of independent web publishing to books: - Enable [free access to my writing](https://jatan.space/start/) worldwide, with zero ads, as opposed to the inaccessibility of expensive books - Avoid [publisher whims](https://jatan.space/paywalled-spacenews-and-disregard-for-archiving-in-journalism/) like retrospective paywalls and abrupt price increases - Have [extensive links](https://jatan.space/i-write-for-you/) for citations plus easy discovery in the Ebook format alongside good search - Build a highly reference-able [archive like Moon Monday](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) - Continue sustaining [independent writing](https://jatan.space/about) with [community support](https://jatan.space/support), enabled by a transparently run sponsorships program whose [terms are public](https://jatan.space/ethics/) I’m excited about this next phase of my space writing. I’ll be aiming to publish a book or booklet next year on important but undercovered global space developments. Subscribe to be notified of new books & articles I publish for free: [or use RSS →](https://jatan.space/feeds) If you find value in my open access approach to publishing my writing worldwide, kindly directly support independent writing & journalism as a reader: [Support my work 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### Moon Monday #250: One small step, mission updates, and a much needed giant leap URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-250/ Last updated: 2025-11-10T13:34:14.000Z Welcome to the 250th edition of my [Moon Monday](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) blog+newsletter! 🚀🌕 **One small step:** About two months ago, Moon Monday crossed 10,000 subscribers. I did not announce it until now because I wanted to celebrate it in some way. Having readers and [supporters](https://jatan.space/support/) be truly spread around the world in various space communities is something I’m not just proud of but very grateful to be able to serve. Today, as Moon Monday also completes a unique [5-year archive](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) of 250 editions covering & contextualizing humanity’s global lunar exploration missions, I’m elated to release & share my poetry pamphlet on space worldwide in multiple formats. Presenting [**Seven uni-verses**](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/), poetry on all that space evokes. 🌙 ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/share-seven-universes-poetry-qr-5.jpeg) #### Seven uni-verses (booklet) By [****Jatan Mehta**](https://jatan.space/about). Poetry on all that space evokes. [About & Read →](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/) Getting my poetry pamphlet out in the world in an independent manner has also helped me lay the foundation for the next phase of my space writing: [***Merge the worlds of blogs and books**](https://jatan.space/presenting-seven-uni-verses-poetry/#merging-the-worlds-of-blogs-and-books) ## Mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/chandrayaan-2-orbiter-radar-scaterring-maps-lunar-poles.jpeg) Radar scattering maps of the Moon’s north (left) and south (pole) as observed by the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter. [Image: ISRO / SAC / DFSAR](https://www.isro.gov.in/Lunar%5FPolar%5FRegion.html) ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) continues characterizing the lunar poles using its advanced [dual frequency radar](https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2104.14259) by mapping potential [water ice deposits](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and gauging surface roughness, densities, and porosities. With the agency’s new [announcement](https://www.isro.gov.in/Lunar%5FPolar%5FRegion.html) of processed [Level 3C data products](https://pradan.issdc.gov.in/ch2/protected/browse.xhtml?id=sar) from the instrument now being available, ISRO noted the following: > The Dual Frequency Synthetic Aperture Radar (DFSAR) is the first instrument that has mapped the Moon using L-band in full-polarimetric mode and in highest resolution (25m/pixel). This advanced radar mode sends and receives signals in both vertical and horizontal directions, making it ideal for studying surface properties. Studies of DFSAR’s enhanced datasets can add to the ISRO orbiter’s [ongoing trickle](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-220/) of [lunar water results](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/#the-search-for-lunar-water-deepens) while also furthering NASA’s [collaboration with ISRO](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/#isro-aids-artemis) to have the orbiter aid Artemis landing site selections by prospecting for lunar polar water, classifying hazards, and gaining [better topographic data](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/2401.pdf) about polar sites. ***Related:** [**A giant leap in orbital imagery is what we need to realize advanced Moon missions*](https://jatan.space/we-need-a-giant-leap-in-lunar-orbital-imagery/) --- ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/artemis-ii-crew-enter-orion-capsule-to-practice-operations-and-procedures.jpg) The Artemis II flight crew (in suits) and the mission closeout crew (in clean room apparel) at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida prior to test operations of the Orion lunar capsule earlier this year. The flight crew from left to right: Mission Specialists [Jeremy Hansen](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronauts/canadian/active/bio-jeremy-hansen.asp) and [Christina Koch](https://www.nasa.gov/astronauts/biographies/christina-h-koch), Pilot [Victor Glover](https://www.nasa.gov/astronauts/biographies/victor-j-glover), and Commander [Reid Wiseman](https://www.nasa.gov/astronauts/biographies/reid-g-wiseman). Image: [NASA / Rad Sinyak](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-2/nasas-artemis-crew-trains-in-moonbound-orion-ahead-of-mission/) Eric Berger [interviewed the NASA Artemis II astronauts](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/10/in-their-own-words-the-artemis-ii-crew-on-the-frenetic-first-hours-of-their-flight/) that are preparing to [fly around the Moon and back](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-242/) next year. The piece provides a good rundown of the mission’s timeline and key checkpoints & fallbacks post launch. The Mission Pilot Victor Glover shared an interesting detail to that end: > The first workout \[for astronauts\] is a checkout of that exercise hardware, but it's also a checkout of the environmental control system. Because I'm going to be breathing, I'm going to be sweating, making more humidity and more CO2 for the life support system to scrub out. And then if that's good, that's another check that means we can go to the Moon. NASA wants to target February 2026 for Artemis II’s launch although quite a few pre-launch preparations remain for [this year](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-242/) and [next](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/09/nasa-targeting-early-february-for-artemis-ii-mission-to-the-moon/). The ongoing US government shutdown is also likely to impact the schedule at some point as [contractors are not getting paid](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/10/nasa-races-to-keep-artemis-ii-on-schedule-even-when-workers-arent-being-paid/)—even though [efforts are on](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/senate-votes-60-40-to-reopen-government/) to resume nominal country operations. --- US President Donald Trump has renominated Jared Isaacman for the NASA Administrator position, after abruptly [withdrawing his first nomination](https://spacenews.com/white-house-to-withdraw-isaacman-nomination-to-lead-nasa/) earlier this year just as the US Congress was about to confirm the position. The re-nomination now has to go through the US Senate again. With the ongoing US government shutdown, there’s lack of clarity on if Isaacman will be required to pass another confirmation hearing like [the last time](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-221/#the-moon-and-mars-in-parallel). Marcia Smith [captures the overall situation](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/trump-will-re-nominate-isaacman-for-nasa-administrator/) well: > The \[US\] House has not met since September 19\. The Senate is still working with hearings taking place, nominations being approved, and votes on whether to reopen the government \[sic\] rejected 14 times. Eventually it will reopen—what it will take is being vigorously debated at the White House and on Capitol Hill—but the FY2026 appropriations bills still need to pass both chambers and be signed into law. None have so far. Eric Berger [notes](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/11/in-a-stunning-comeback-jared-isaacman-is-renominated-to-lead-nasa/) in his report on the news that “if Isaacman is not confirmed before the end of this calendar year, he must resubmit conflict-of-interest paperwork, and the process could be drawn out into next spring.” --- **Many thanks to* [***Gurbir Singh**](https://gurbir.co.uk) *and* [***Vishnu Viswanathan**](https://www.drvishnu.com) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support Moon Monday 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) --- ## A giant leap in orbital imagery is what we need to realize advanced Moon missions At over [1.6 petabytes](https://assets.science.nasa.gov/content/dam/science/psd/resources/senior-review/2025/PMSR25%5FFinal%5FReport%5FPackage%5FJune9%5F2025.pdf), NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter ([LRO](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lro/about/)) mission hosts by far the largest dataset from any planetary science spacecraft ever launched. LRO’s high-resolution lunar imagery and topographic data has been the bedrock for selecting landing sites of most Moon missions launched this century from around the world. But the 2009-launched LRO has gracefully aged now, with limited capabilities left for its [latest mission extension](https://assets.science.nasa.gov/content/dam/science/psd/resources/senior-review/2025/PMSR25%5FFinal%5FReport%5FPackage%5FJune9%5F2025.pdf) compared to before. LRO’s inertial measurement unit has [degraded](https://web.archive.org/web/0/https://science.nasa.gov/files/science-red/s3fs-public/atoms/files/PMSR22%20Final%20Report%20Package.pdf), and it can no longer maintain an orbit that can study the lunar poles from directly above them; its orbit is now inclined. NASA has not approved any LRO successor like [LExSO](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lexso/) nor does the agency’s [FY2026 Presidential budget request](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-227/) ask for any such funding. India’s [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/), touting a better radar and 2x the imaging resolution of LRO, has fulfilled a few advanced needs such as [helping](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/) JAXA’s SLIM spacecraft achieve a [precision Moon landing](https://jatan.space/precision-moon-landings-and-the-future/) and [aiding NASA](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/#isro-aids-artemis) with Artemis landing site selections. But leveraging of the orbiter’s capabilities has been limited in scope. Moreover, the orbiter is likely to end its nominal operations by the end of the decade, with no immediate replacement planned or announced by ISRO. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/im-2-athena-imaged-by-lro-and-chandrayaan-2-orbiters-1.jpeg) Images: [NASA / GSFC / ASU / LROC](https://lroc.im-ldi.com/images/1409) / [ISRO / C. Tungathurthi](https://moonandbeyond.blog/p/im-2-athena-imaged-chandrayaan-2-ohrc) | Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) Commercial companies are entering the landscape to fill some gaps in orbital imagery and mapping, like the upcoming US-based services of Firefly’s [Ocula](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-230/#the-silver-ocula-to-fill-some-gaps-for-nasa) and Blue Origin’s [Oasis](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-245/).While welcome, these are specialized and have relatively limited use cases. The expansive scope of [future missions leading up to Moonbases](https://jatan.space/pitfalls-in-lunar-exploration/) requires having the whole spectrum of orbital datasets, especially for unravelling [unknown ground truths](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-221/) about [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) on lunar poles—something [the US has been failing at](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-221/) despite it being central to Artemis. Recognizing existing constraints and anticipating future needs, a specialized team of US scientists [released a report](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag/reports/CLOC-SAT%5FReport.pdf) in 2022 formally recommending [NASA to plan replacing the LRO](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-116/) with a cooperative multi-orbiter, commercial-international approach so as to support the increasingly complex and diverse upcoming robotic [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) and crewed [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/artemis/) missions. The [Lunar Ledger](https://www.lunarledger.space/) project by the Open Lunar Foundation (a Moon Monday sponsor) aims to help catalyze acting on this advice by allowing more mission operators to [reliably share technical data](https://jatan.space/a-registry-of-moon-missions/) at mutual discretion. Six companies have [signed up](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/ledger-launch-press-release) for the Ledger at launch: [ispace](https://ispace-inc.com/), [Firefly](https://fireflyspace.com/), [Astrolab](https://www.astrolab.space/) (a Moon Monday sponsor), [JAOPS](https://www.jaops.com/), [Dymon](https://dymon.co.jp/), and [SpaceData](https://en.spacedata.jp/). Similar to how NASA, ESA, and ISRO have been planning [coordinated imaging and scientific observations of Venus](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-20/) with their respective upcoming missions, lunar orbiters from around the world could do the same to accelerate progress and improve output while saving costs. [Christine Tiballi](https://www.openlunar.org/christine), the Lunar Ledger’s Lead, is particularly excited about the possibilities. Orbital data from one entity could enable better rover missions for others, which in turn enhance the quality of orbital datasets themselves that later missions by others still can leverage. “Suddenly competition can become very lucrative cooperation,” says Tiballi. [🛰️ Read the full article →](https://jatan.space/we-need-a-giant-leap-in-lunar-orbital-imagery/) *This section was* [*originally published*](https://www.openlunar.org/newsletter) *by me on the newsletter of Open Lunar Foundation (a Moon Monday sponsor) as their* [*Science Communications Lead*](https://jatan.space/joining-open-lunar-as-their-science-communications-lead/)*. The article is republished here because of its relevance to my Moon Monday readers.* ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/esa-luna-facility-germany-vr-training-for-astronauts.jpeg) ESA astronaut Matthias Maurer uses virtual reality to train for lunar missions at ESA’s Moon-like LUNA facility in Germany. [Image: ESA](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2025/04/VR%5Ftraining%5Fin%5FLUNA) - ESA has started [conducting virtual reality training](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/LUNA%5Fs%5Fvirtual%5Fleap%5Ftowards%5Fthe%5FMoon) for astronauts at its versatile Moon-simulating [LUNA](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-195/) facility in Germany, adding to prior tests of [instruments](https://luna-analog-facility.de/en/recording-earthquakes-on-the-moon-mars-and-now-in-luna/), [mission concepts](https://www.dlr.de/en/latest/news/2024/a-swarm-of-sensors-rovers-and-astronauts-explore-the-moon), and [modern astronaut tools](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2025/04/Moon%5Ftools%5Fto%5Fthe%5Ftest%5Fat%5FLUNA). A [simulated habitat module](https://www.dlr.de/en/blog/archive/2026/the-flexhab-space-habitat-moon-living-on-earth) also adjoins LUNA to soon better test complex mission scenarios where humans and robots interact in varied ways for long periods. - The South East Asian countries of Malaysia and Philippines have [signed](https://x.com/SecDuffyNASA/status/1985419815842979969) the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords) for cooperative lunar exploration. The European country of Latvia [also signed](https://orbitaltoday.com/2025/11/03/latvia-joins-the-artemis-accords/), making the total number of Accords signees 60\. Payload Space has [neat charts and graphs](https://payloadspace.com/the-artemis-accords-by-the-numbers/). --- I’m very happy to publish this 250th edition of [Moon Monday](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday). **Thank you so much** to every single one of you who reads my labor of lunar love, to those who have provided feedback and shared editions, and to all supporters in every form. 💛 If you’d like to help sustain and flourish my one-of-a-kind globally read community resource and support independent writing in the process, kindly sponsor Moon Monday: [Support Moon Monday 🌙 ](https://jatan.space/support) ### A giant leap in orbital imagery is what we need to realize advanced Moon missions URL: https://jatan.space/we-need-a-giant-leap-in-lunar-orbital-imagery/ Last updated: 2025-11-08T13:24:59.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/lro-illustration.jpg) Illustration of the LRO spacecraft orbiting our Moon. [Image: NASA / GSFC / Chris Meaney](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/images/lithos/LRO%20litho1%5Ffinal.pdf) At over [1.6 petabytes](https://assets.science.nasa.gov/content/dam/science/psd/resources/senior-review/2025/PMSR25%5FFinal%5FReport%5FPackage%5FJune9%5F2025.pdf), NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter ([LRO](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lro/about/)) mission hosts by far the largest dataset from any planetary science spacecraft ever launched. LRO’s high-resolution lunar imagery and topographic data has been the bedrock for selecting landing sites of most Moon missions launched this century from around the world. Many of these landers though were planned as short or mid duration missions at best, whereas the next generation of landers and rovers will explore [unknown ground truths](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-221/) about [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other resources amid [unfavorable lighting conditions](https://www.nasa.gov/ames/feature/the-dark-side-of-the-crater-how-light-looks-different-on-the-moon-and-what-nasa-is-doing) at the Moon’s south pole. These will not only need more granular orbital imagery to plan [precision landings](https://jatan.space/precision-moon-landings-and-the-future/) but comprehensive environmental datasets that allow missions to last long enough. But NASA’s 2009-launched LRO has gracefully aged now. While it still has utility which led to its [latest mission extension evaluation](https://assets.science.nasa.gov/content/dam/science/psd/resources/senior-review/2025/PMSR25%5FFinal%5FReport%5FPackage%5FJune9%5F2025.pdf), the orbiter has limited capabilities left. LRO’s inertial measurement unit has [degraded](https://web.archive.org/web/0/https://science.nasa.gov/files/science-red/s3fs-public/atoms/files/PMSR22%20Final%20Report%20Package.pdf), and it can no longer maintain an orbit that can study the lunar poles from directly above them; its orbit is now inclined. Recognizing these constraints, a specialized team of US scientists [released a report](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag/reports/CLOC-SAT%5FReport.pdf) called CLOC-SAT in 2022 [urging NASA to plan replacing the LRO](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-116/) with an enhanced approach so as to support the increasingly complex and diverse upcoming robotic [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) and crewed [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/artemis/) Moon missions. Three years since, NASA has not approved any LRO successor despite the [LExSO mission](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lexso/) being proposed by members from the LRO team itself. NASA’s [FY2026 Presidential budget request](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-227/) does not ask for any funding for the same. ## What will stand on the shoulders of the giant? On the US’ side, there is NASA’s [ShadowCam](https://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/about) imager, which launched aboard South Korea’s [KPLO](https://jatan.space/kplo/) lunar orbiter in 2022\. It [images](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-110/) polar craters that are [permanently shadowed](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/). However, it has [found no reflectance differences](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2024/pdf/1622.pdf) that can be uniquely attributed to surface water ice in most of the areas it has mapped so far. To be clear, this isn’t a failure of ShadowCam, the instrument. But given that KPLO’s mission [will likely end this year](https://www.kari.re.kr/kplo/danuri/news/newsView.do?nttId=8785&pageIndex=1&searchCnd=&searchWrd=), the dull outcome highlights the pressing need for higher-resolution studies from orbit and the surface, neither of which are taking place substantially. India’s [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/), a full-fledged reconnaissance spacecraft like LRO, has fulfilled a few advanced needs. Having launched a decade later, it’s also more capable in certain areas, such as having a better radar as well as a better imaging resolution of up to 0.25 meters/pixel—twice LRO’s finest. Scientists who authored the aforementioned report for NASA recognized the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter’s capability in mission planning: > Additional imaging of the lunar surface at sub-meter scales (e.g., 30 cm) is highly desirable to facilitate identification of roughly m-scale hazards that are often relevant to finding safe landing sites. As an example, the Chandrayaan-2 Orbiter High Resolution Camera (OHRC) has a nominal pixel scale of 30 cm from a 62 km altitude orbit. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/im-2-athena-imaged-by-lro-and-chandrayaan-2-orbiters.jpeg) Images: [NASA / GSFC / ASU / LROC](https://lroc.im-ldi.com/images/1409) / [ISRO / C. Tungathurthi](https://moonandbeyond.blog/p/im-2-athena-imaged-chandrayaan-2-ohrc) | Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) Through its instruments, the ISRO orbiter has been producing [a trickle](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-220/) of this next layer of [lunar water results](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/#the-search-for-lunar-water-deepens). The orbiter also helped JAXA’s [SLIM](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/en/missions/spacecraft/current/slim.html) spacecraft achieve the most precise Moon landing ever for a robotic vehicle, touching down [only 55 meters from its targeted point](https://jatan.space/precision-moon-landings-and-the-future/). ISRO [shared Chandrayaan 2 data](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/) with JAXA for final landing site selection as well as for SLIM’s onboard last-mile navigation maps. Without the world’s sharpest lunar imager, it wouldn’t be possible for SLIM to spot and navigate to a safe touchdown point without compromising on the landing accuracy—the primary mission goal. The two agencies are now collaborating on the joint [LUPEX rover mission](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/) to study [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s south pole. Similarly, NASA [has been collaborating with ISRO](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/#isro-aids-artemis) to have the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter aid Artemis landing site selections by prospecting for [lunar polar water](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/), classifying hazards, and gaining better topographic data about polar sites. But NASA’s leveraging and ISRO’s promoting of the orbiter’s optical and radar capabilities have been limited in scope. Moreover, the orbiter is likely to end its nominal operations by the end of the decade if not before that with no immediate replacement planned or announced by ISRO. ## Commercial services coming up ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/firefly-ocula-lunar-imaging-servie-illustration.jpg) Illustration of the Ocula lunar imaging service. [Image: Firefly](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-aerospace-announces-new-lunar-imaging-service-on-its-elytra-spacecraft/) Seeing the opportunity to fill gaps in the apt planning of future, more complex Moon missions, especially in the case of NASA, commercial companies are entering the landscape of orbital imagery and mapping. US-based Firefly [announced](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-aerospace-announces-new-lunar-imaging-service-on-its-elytra-spacecraft/) a commercial lunar imaging and mineral detection service called [Ocula](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-230/#the-silver-ocula-to-fill-some-gaps-for-nasa) to hope to carry forward a part of LRO’s foundational role. The service will commence with the first [Elytra Dark](https://fireflyspace.com/elytra/) orbiter next year from low lunar orbit. The orbiter will do so after completing its services for Firefly’s upcoming [second Moon lander mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-226/#firefly-to-carry-second-uae-lunar-rover-and-more) part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). Firefly says Ocula’s best case optical imagery will tout a then-best resolution of 20 cm/pixel. Blue Origin has [announced](https://www.blueorigin.com/news/blue-origin-luxembourg-partner-on-oasis-1-mission) that it will send an “ultra-low” polar orbiter called [Oasis-1](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-245/) to the Moon to “create the most detailed high-resolution maps to date of lunar water ice, Helium-3, radionuclides, rare earth elements, precious metals, and other materials”. The mission will be in partnership with the [Luxembourg Space Agency](https://space-agency.public.lu/en.html), ESA’s space-resources-focused [ESRIC](https://www.esric.lu/) institute, and [GOMspace](https://gomspace.com/home.aspx). The company has not yet specified when Oasis-1 will launch or what its altitude range will be to enable the required outcomes. On the other side of the world, ispace [has been selected](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7317) as part of Japan’s 1-trillion yen “Space Strategy Fund” initiative to [develop, launch, and operate](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=8038) a lunar orbiter which will use a terahertz wave sensor system to locate and map [water ice deposits](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s poles. Data from this orbiter will be analyzed in tandem with direct surface and subsurface measurements made by the upcoming joint Indo-Japanese [LUPEX rover mission](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/). ## Coordinate to catalyze All of these commercially driven orbiters, while welcome, are specialized and have relatively limited use cases. The expansive scope of [future missions leading up to Moonbases](https://jatan.space/pitfalls-in-lunar-exploration/) still requires having the whole spectrum of orbital datasets, especially for helping locate and explore swaths of [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) on lunar poles—something [the US has been failing at](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-221/) despite it being central to Artemis. To that end, scientists have formally recommended NASA through the aforementioned [CLOC-SAT report](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag/reports/CLOC-SAT%5FReport.pdf) as well as other means to coordinate future lunar orbital measurements and capabilities. This, the report has argued, necessitates having a slew of interconnected lunar orbiters—both long-lived ones like LRO & Chandrayaan 2 as well as specialized ones—instead of a single successor. > Meeting these \[future mission\] goals will require multiple approaches involving several orbits and/or orbiters, but there are a large number of stakeholders in our return to the Moon, including commercial and international partners, whose resources can be shared and leveraged to meet diverse goals while minimizing cost. > \[…\] > NASA should establish a single office tasked with coordinating across space agencies and within NASA for sharing resources, such as communications networks and orbital strategies. For example, a spacecraft’s orbit altitude and orbit plane could be chosen partially based on the requirements of other orbiters. The [Lunar Ledger](https://www.lunarledger.space/) project by the Open Lunar Foundation (a [Moon Monday](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) sponsor) aims to help catalyze acting on this advice by allowing more commercial and national mission operators to [reliably share technical data](https://jatan.space/a-registry-of-moon-missions/) at mutual discretion. Six companies have [signed up](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/ledger-launch-press-release) for the Ledger at launch with an eye towards mission data sharing: [ispace](https://ispace-inc.com/), [Firefly](https://fireflyspace.com/), [Astrolab](https://www.astrolab.space/) (a Moon Monday sponsor), [JAOPS](https://www.jaops.com/), [Dymon](https://dymon.co.jp/), and [SpaceData](https://en.spacedata.jp/). Similar to how NASA, ESA, and ISRO have been planning to perform [coordinated imaging and scientific observations of Venus](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-20/) with their respective upcoming missions, lunar orbiters from across the world could coordinate and build atop their respective observations to accelerate progress and improve output for all while saving costs. [Christine Tiballi](https://www.openlunar.org/christine), the Lunar Ledger’s Lead, is particularly excited about the possibilities of orbital data enabling better rover missions, which in turn enhance quality of orbital datasets that later missions can leverage: > We've included market signals like data sharing and available payload space, so that any mission can communicate their interest as a provider or a consumer of these assets. So say an upcoming rover is to traverse projected operational coordinates of another future mission, capturing data at unprecedented resolutions. Tapping into it will not only improve calibration of public orbital datasets and significantly increase the chances of future mission successes but also signal operational orbiters to enable planning for that rover traverse in the first place. This way you have the opportunity to be the supplier and enabler as well as the customer while reducing building costs. “Suddenly competition can become very lucrative cooperation,” adds Tiballi. --- [*Originally published*](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/orbital-imagery) *by me on the blog of Open Lunar Foundation (a* [*Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) *sponsor) as their* [*Science Communications Lead*](https://jatan.space/joining-open-lunar-as-their-science-communications-lead/)*. The article is republished here on* [*my blog*](https://jatan.space/about) *because of its relevance to my Moon Monday readers as well as for archival.* ### Moon Monday #249: The one published on Sunday URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-249/ Last updated: 2025-11-02T13:50:46.000Z *This edition of Moon Monday is being published a day early on Sunday since I’m attending a* [*conference on science journalism*](https://www.sjai.in/sjai-conference-2025) *in Ahmedabad, India on Monday and Tuesday.Also see:* [*Fun with Moon exploration headlines*](https://jatan.space/fun-with-moon-exploration-headlines/) ## China and Luna ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/chang-e-5-lander-and-sample.jpg) ****Top:** A panorama of the Moon’s surface shot by the Chang’e 5 lander, which shows its robotic sampling arm and marks made in lunar soil by its scoop; ****Bottom:** A close look at a Chang’e 5 lunar sample, labelled CE5C0000YJYX03501GP. Images: [CLEP](https://x.com/SegerYu/status/1798688466026594539) / [CNSA](https://moon.bao.ac.cn/moonSampleMode/infoDetail.html?sampleId=CE5C0000YJYX03501GP) | Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) - Following on this year’s [announcement by CNSA](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-223/) of the first set of international organizations whose proposals it selected to study unique lunar samples fetched to Earth by the [Chang’e 5 mission](https://jatan.space/change-5-landing-site/) in 2020, China has now [opened up applications](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465652/n6465653/c10713167/content.html) for the second round of international research proposals. Applications can be submitted through China’s [Lunar Sample Release System](http://124.17.81.212:8081/moondataEng/) until November 30. - Following on the recent [string of successful tests](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-237/) of elements part of China’s architecture for landing humans on the Moon, the China Manned Space Agency (CMSA) has [outlined the next set of tests](https://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4470621/content.html) to be accomplished in the near future: > A series of crucial upcoming tests include – integrated testing for the Lanyue lunar lander, thermal tests and maximum dynamic pressure escape tests for the Mengzhou manned spacecraft, and low-altitude and technology verification flights for the Long March-10 carrier rocket. The release goes on to note that: > Payload designs for scientific research and applications have been finalized, and ground-based infrastructure, such as the launch site, tracking network and landing site on Earth, is under accelerated development. ## Artemis III updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/spacex-artemis-human-landing-system-new-illustration.jpg) A new illustration of SpaceX’s Lunar Starship showing it having landed Artemis astronauts on the Moon for NASA. [Image: SpaceX](https://www.spacex.com/updates#moon-and-beyond) After NASA [reopened the contract for Artemis III’s crewed Moon landing aspect](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-248/#nasa-reopens-artemis-iii-human-landing-contract), the agency now says they have received the accelerated lander development plans from SpaceX as well as Blue Origin, which involve simplified mission architectures and streamlined concept of operations. Marcia Smith [reports](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/bolden-bridenstine-share-their-views-on-artemis/) NASA’s official statement in response to a query on the next steps: > NASA has received and is evaluating plans from both SpaceX and Blue Origin for acceleration of HLS production. Following the shutdown, the agency will issue an RFI to the broader aerospace industry for their proposals. A committee of NASA subject matter experts will be assembled to evaluate each proposal and determine the best path forward to win the second space race given the urgency of adversarial threats to peace and transparency on the Moon. It would seem that reopening the Artemis III landing contract originally assigned to SpaceX has compelled the company to share the progress on Lunar Starship in public [with more detail and context](https://www.spacex.com/updates#moon-and-beyond) than ever before, including the following: > While many of SpaceX’s remaining HLS contract milestones are tied to flight tests, such as a ship-to-ship propellant transfer demonstration, SpaceX has started fabricating a flight-article Starship HLS cabin that will include functional avionics and power systems, crew systems and mechanisms, environmental control and life support systems, cabin and crew communications systems, and a cabin thermal control system. This flight-capable cabin will enable engineers to demonstrate high design maturity of the various systems required to support a human landing on the Moon, enable integrated system-level hardware testing, and provide a highly realistic training experience for future lunar explorers. SpaceX also notes that Artemis III requirements have been changing over time (presumably from NASA’s side too), and separately [points out](https://x.com/SpaceX/status/1984303647241441296) that former NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine, who made [statements against the company](https://www.thespacereview.com/article/5053/1)’s slow progress on Starship in a US Congressional hearing, [is a lobbyist](https://www.opensecrets.org/federal-lobbying/firms/reports?cycle=2025&id=F331199). --- *Many thanks to* [***The Orbital Index***](https://orbitalindex.com)*,* [***Parvathy Prem***](https://www.parvathyprem.space) *and *Planetary scientist David Blewett* for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support Moon Monday 🌙](https://jatan.space/support) --- ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/jaxa-htv-x-vehicle-approaching-lunar-gateway-illustration.jpg) Illustration of Japan’s HTV-X(G) cargo supply spacecraft approaching the NASA-led Gateway lunar orbital habitat. [Image: JAXA](https://japan-forward.com/japan-developing-spacecraft-to-deliver-supplies-to-moon-orbiting-station) - On October 29, Japan successfully [demonstrated a cargo delivery](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/10/space-station-astronauts-eager-to-open-golden-treasure-box-from-japan/) to the International Space Station using its next-generation HTV-X spacecraft. A variant of this craft called HTV-X(G) will deliver astronaut supplied to the upcoming NASA-led [Gateway lunar orbital habitat](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/gateway) starting 2030\. Between this and building an advanced [crewed, pressurized lunar rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-172/) for Artemis astronauts, Japan’s strategic collaborative approach for the Moon is to be a critical logistical supplier for NASA’s Artemis program. Previously, Japan got [an astronaut seat aboard the Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-japan-announce-gateway-contributions-space-station-extension/) in return for JAXA providing critical life support systems and infrastructure components for the station’s [Lunar I-Hab](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Gateway%5FLunar%5FI-Hab) crew habitat module. The HTV-X(G)’s cargo deliveries to the Gateway will allow the lunar orbital habitat to sustain crewed and uncrewed operations for long periods. In February 2023, JAXA [recruited two new astronaut candidates](https://www.jaxa.jp/press/2023/02/20230228-1%5Fj.html), one of which could fly to the Gateway. - Intuitive Machines has [received a $8.2 million contract](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/intuitive-machines-secures-8-2-million-afrl-contract-extension-to-advance-in-space-nuclear-power-te) from the US Air Force to develop low-power, compact nuclear fission systems that can power lunar infrastructure elements such as beacons that provide [navigation services](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-185/) to hardware at the Moon. - **Related developments:** - [ESA moonlit their lunar navcom constellation ambitions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-198/#moonlight-in-motion-and-contrasting-queqiao) - [NASA un-nukes its decision to steer away from using nuclear power on the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-238/) - Last month, Hungary [became the 57th country](https://x.com/SecDuffyNASA/status/1981084714665390198) and 23rd European nation to sign the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords) for cooperative lunar exploration. - A great photo essay: [How Lunar Photography Brought the Heavens Down to Earth](https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2025/10/24/arts/moon-photos-apollo-nasa.html) ### Moon Monday #248: The one that starts with a meme URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-248/ Last updated: 2025-10-27T13:17:47.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/10/water-on-the-moon-meme.jpg) Meme: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) 🌝 China is progressing well in preparations towards the launch of its Chang’e 7 mission to the Moon’s south pole in the second half of next year. The complex multi-month mission primarily aiming to study lunar [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) spans several elements: a lander, an orbiter, a rover, a hopper, and an existing lunar satellite [Queqiao 2](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-169/) whose previous mission was to relay communications between Earth and [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) spacecraft modules so as to fetch [farside lunar samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-233/). Each element of Chang’e 7 has [scientific instruments](https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwad329) and goals of its own. - The Chang’e 7 orbiter will sport a high-resolution stereo mapping camera, a miniature synthetic aperture radar, an infrared spectrometer, a set of high-resolution neutron and gamma ray spectrometers, and a magnetometer. - The lander will operate two cameras, a seismometer, a lunar dust & plasma analyzer, and a telescope. It will also host a retroreflector. The seismometer in particular will help scientists better understand the lunar interior as well as constrain the [rate](https://doi.org/10.3847/PSJ/ad1332) of [moonquakes](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-199/) and amount of [micrometeorite impacts](https://jatan.space/the-tiniest-of-impact-craters/) on the lunar south pole, which will help safely plan long duration crewed missions to the region in the future. - The rover will tout a panoramic camera, a Raman spectrometer, a ground penetrating radar, a mass spectrometer, and a magnetometer. - The hopper, also referred to as a mini flying probe, will have a water analyzer. - The relay satellite will conduct a radio experiment using one of its payloads, and will continue studying uncharged energetic particles and the extreme ultraviolet environment around Earth with two instruments for those tasks respectively. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/10/change-7-lander-orbiter-illustration.jpg) A render of the Chang’e 7 lander and orbiter going around the Moon. [Image: CMG](https://news.cgtn.com/news/2023-06-05/China-sets-record-in-sixth-rocket-engine-trial-of-crewed-lunar-mission-1knNhdQYU6I/index.html) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/10/change-7-landing-site-candidates.jpg) Some of the Chang’e 7 candidate landing sites on the Moon’s south pole. [Image: DSEL](https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/EGGNRR4jfK5J8978aH8ing) ### A taste of lunar water After a two month survey of [key lunar south polar locations](https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/EGGNRR4jfK5J8978aH8ing) using the orbiter’s instruments, the Chang’e 7 lander aims to perform a [precision landing](https://jatan.space/precision-moon-landings-and-the-future/) at the finally selected location by mission operators. Post touchdown, the lander will deploy the rover and activate the hopper to explore around. The surface mission’s primary goal across its three elements is to locate and study [water deposits](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) frozen inside [cold traps](https://doi.org/10.1029/2023GL105369) within [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) on the lunar south pole. Many of the instruments listed above, like the infrared & mass spectrometers and the [ground penetrating radar](https://doi.org/10.1007/s11214-025-01223-0), will directly help scientists get a tactile understanding of lunar water ice. The Chang’e 7 hopper, with its shock absorbing legs, will jump into nearby [permanently shadowed areas](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) for its onboard [Lunar Water Molecular Analyzer](https://doi.org/10.1007/s12583-024-2023-7) (LWMA) to detect water ice and other volatile resources like ammonia. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/10/chang-e-7-mobile-hopper-1.jpeg) The Chang’e 7 hopper will separate from the lander to directly explore permanently shadowed regions and cold traps hosting water ice on the Moon. Images: [CNSA](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TecH94d1TTw) / [CCTV](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3329997/china-led-moon-missions-water-probe-will-be-first-humanity-space-agency) [](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12583-024-2023-7) The [paper on Chang’e 7 science](https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwad329) by Chi Wang, et al. captures the mission’s approach to studying lunar water and its importance as follows: > Previous studies of water and volatiles were mainly based on orbital remote sensing neutron spectrometers, synthetic aperture radars, spectrometers and other methods; only indirect evidence of the existence of water ice in the shadowed area was obtained, and it is difficult to judge its depth, abundance and forms, etc. By using more advanced high-precision neutron gamma spectrometers and synthetic aperture radars, and by conducting direct in-situ measurements of H2O molecules and their H isotopes in PSRs at the same time, we can not only confirm the existence of water ice and reveal its origin, but also obtain the distribution and content of water ice in the PSRs through a comparative analysis of in-situ measurement results with the remote sensing detection results of PSRs on the entire lunar surface. Combined with laboratory test analysis and research on water and volatile components in lunar samples, we may address fundamental questions on the origin and distribution of lunar water ice and volatile components. Chang’e 7 will be China’s first attempt to gain such a ground truth understanding of the accessibility, movement, and storage of surface and near-surface water ice on the Moon’s poles, which is crucial to appropriately plan long-term lunar exploration and sustained off-Earth living. Virtually all recent missions funded by NASA have [failed to advance on the same](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-221/) despite it being the foundational goal of the US Artemis program. Given China’s exceptional track record of virtually no major failure despite undertaking increasingly complex lunar missions, there’s little reason to doubt that Chang’e 7 and its successor [Chang’e 8](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/#prepare-for-crew-and-double-down-with-mission-eight) will not be successes. China is poised to prepare well for an eventual Moonbase [with crew](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-237/) and robots under the Sino-led project called the [International Lunar Research Station](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/) (ILRS). There’s another mission aspect that’s interesting that’s mentioned in the same paper. Chinese researchers have suggested that when coupled with Earth-based ground stations, China’s in-progress [network of lunar navigation and communications satellites](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-185/) can help CNSA track its deep space missions with sub-kilometer accuracy all the way to Jupiter and even beyond. As noted by Chi Wang, et al., the Queqiao 2 relay satellite will use its radio payload to test an element of this during Chang’e 7’s mission: > The LOVEX \[payload\] on the relay satellite is used to construct a 400000-km baseline Moon–Earth VLBI measurement and observation experiment system to improve the accuracy of orbit determination in deep space and to carry out astrometry and astrophysics observation and study. ### International instruments onboard Of all the Chang’e 7 instruments, seven are international contributions, a welcome move as China [seeks to increase global participation in its Moon missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-225/) in the lead up to its ILRS Moonbase plans. Ling Xin recently [reported](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3329997/china-led-moon-missions-water-probe-will-be-first-humanity-space-agency) that according to Chang’e 7’s deputy chief designer Tang Yuhua, the international instruments that will be aboard the mission’s various elements have all been delivered to CNSA. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/10/zhongmin-wang-china-ilrs-international-cooperation-glex-2025.jpg) Zhongmin Wang, Director of international cooperation for China’s lunar and deep space missions, speaking at GLEX 2025 on international cooperation in the Sino-led ILRS Moonbase project. [Image: CNSA / DSEL / IAF](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EKLKugBolFE) The orbiter’s hyperspectral mineral mapping camera is made by Egypt and Bahrain, a space radiation measuring instrument duo is from Thailand, and a monitor which will measure incoming and outgoing radiation to and from Earth got aid from Switzerland. For Egypt, Bahrain, and Thailand, this mission represents their first study of our Moon. On the lander end, the lunar dust & plasma analyzer is from Russia, the [ILO-C](https://iloa.org/ilo-c-instrument-for-change-7-lunar-lander-launching-net-november-2026/) telescope from the US-based International Lunar Observatory Association (ILOA), and the retroreflector is from Italy-based SCF Lab just like Chang’e 6. In July, ILOA’s telescope [passed payload acceptance tests](https://www.lsr.hku.hk/hku-lsrs-ilo-c-telescope-completes-testing-for-change-7-lunar-mission/). Developed through collaboration with China’s NAOC and the University of Hong Kong, ILO-C is a wide-field optical telescope which aims to capture inspiring images of our galactic center from the Moon. In August, Thailand’s National Astronomical Research Institute (NARIT) [delivered](https://www.narit.or.th/en/NARITNews-20250830-MATCH) its \~5-kilogram radiation monitoring [MATCH payload](https://www.narit.or.th/en/technology-development/space-system-technologies/MATCH) to CAS and CNSA. It will study [solar storms](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) and [cosmic rays](https://news.uchicago.edu/explainer/what-are-cosmic-rays) respectively with two instruments. MATCH was developed by over a dozen Thai researchers in collaboration with seven professors across Chinese scientific institutions. Thailand was the first country to [sign on](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465652/n6465653/c10497120/content.html) to the Sino-led [ILRS Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/) project [as well as](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-welcomes-thailand-as-newest-artemis-accords-signatory/) the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords). Senegal is the [only other country](https://payloadspace.com/senegal-becomes-2nd-ilrs-member-to-join-artemis-accords/) to sign both. I hope many more join. Upcoming missions globally this decade which are similar to Chang’e 7’s surface mission of aiming to find and characterize [lunar water](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) include the joint Indo-Japanese [Chandrayaan 5 / LUPEX mission](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/) and NASA’s [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) which might fly [on a Blue Origin lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-243/). All of these missions will provide enhanced context for analyzing ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 4](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-241/) samples, which aims to bring lunar polar material to Earth in 2028. **Related:** [*Western media narratives misrepresent Chinese space*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-229/#a-problem-with-western-media-narratives-of-chinese-space)*, which reduces trust and deters cooperation and collaboration.* --- *Many thanks to* [***Space Age Publishing***](https://www.spaceagepub.com)*,* [***Astrolab***](https://astrolab.space/) *and* [***Mahesh Anand***](https://profiles.open.ac.uk/mahesh-anand) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support Moon Monday 🌙](https://jatan.space/support) --- ## NASA reopens Artemis III human landing contract ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/10/spacex-lunar-starship-and-blue-origin-blue-moon-landers-for-nasa-artemis-crewed-landings.jpg) Illustrations of SpaceX’s Lunar Starship and Blue Origin’s Blue Moon landers respectively, which were selected by NASA to land astronauts on Luna this decade and beyond starting with Artemis III and V respectively. Images: [SpaceX](https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/nasa-awards-spacex-second-contract-option-for-artemis-moon-landing/) / [Blue Origin](https://www.blueorigin.com/news/nasa-selects-blue-origin-for-mission-to-moon) A year later than expected, SpaceX [finally hit all suborbital testing milestones](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/10/after-year-of-hardships-spacexs-starship-finally-flirts-with-perfection/) it needed from the second version (v2) of its Starship Super Heavy rocket thanks to October 13’s eleventh integrated test flight [IFT-11](https://www.spacex.com/launches/starship-flight-11). Like IFT-10’s [August flight](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/08/spacex-bounces-back-with-a-starship-test-flight-that-ended-on-a-buoyant-note/), IFT-11 achieved its primary goals, from a demonstration of deploying simulated Starlink satellites to heat shield tests as well as precise core & upper stage return and splashdowns. SpaceX will next test an upgraded v3 Starship early next year from a new launchpad, only after the success of which can the many [remaining milestones](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-240/) leading up to a lunar landing be checked off one after another—slowly but hopefully surely. Between those still pending milestones, the [three](https://spacenews.com/starship-breaks-up-on-reentry-after-loss-of-attitude-control/) [back-to-back](https://spacenews.com/starship-upper-stage-lost-on-seventh-test-flight/) [failures](https://arstechnica.com/science/2025/03/the-starship-program-hits-another-speed-bump-with-second-consecutive-failure/) of Starship this year, and an [explosion of a test pad](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-230/#another-blowup-for-artemis), the [slow progress](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-240/) of SpaceX in building its contracted [crewed lunar lander](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) for NASA’s [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/) mission has shook the US in [finally realizing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-242/#while-artemis-iii-lags) that it will likely not meet its [self-imposed goal](https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/President-Trumps-Fiscal-Year-2026-Discretionary-Funding-Request-Overview.pdf) of “beating China” to the Moon. To that end, NASA’s Trump-appointed Acting Administrator Sean Duffy has [acknowledged](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/duffy-to-open-up-artemis-hls-contract-to-ensure-u-s-beats-china-back-to-the-moon/) that Starship’s crewed landing will be delayed by at least two years from 2027, and has thus gone ahead and [reopened](https://www.cnbc.com/2025/10/20/nasa-duffy-spacex-artemis-moon-landing.html) the Artemis III contract to all entities who can propose a faster turnaround. SpaceX is allowed to put in an accelerated timeline proposal as well. I’m not interested in covering man child like tantrums in reaction to this development as news. Between that and sticking to Moon Monday’s approach of [avoiding (Artemis) hot takes and speculative coverage](https://jatan.space/how-i-avoid-hot-takes-and-speculations/), it’s better to wait for all bidders to send in their accelerated Artemis III crewed landing proposals to NASA. These proposals are due by October 29, and we’ll see where things are headed once more formal information about them is out. In the meanwhile, Marcia Smith has [covered well](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/duffy-to-open-up-artemis-hls-contract-to-ensure-u-s-beats-china-back-to-the-moon/) how Artemis III’s timeline has kept moving to the right. Note that this whole development was not announced on NASA’s website; the US government shutdown is not supposed to affect Artemis II and III related activities and yet here we are. If NASA can announce this change on social media, and undertake its logistics, it can also put out said announcement on its website as its canonical presence on the web. ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/10/artemis-ii-orion-spacecraft-stacked-on-sls-rocket.jpeg) The Artemis II Orion spacecraft (with the NASA and ESA logos) is seen here about to be stacked atop the SLS rocket. [Image: NASA](https://x.com/SecDuffyNASA/status/1980359623975792872) - Also without an announcement on NASA’s website, we got to know [through](https://x.com/SecDuffyNASA/status/1980359623975792872) Duffy’s X account instead that the integration of the [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) onto the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/reference/space-launch-system/) for the upcoming crewed [Artemis II](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-242/) circumlunar missionis now complete. The [four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) flying around the Moon and back for the mission have [named](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2025/09/24/artemis-ii-crew-members-name-their-orion-spacecraft/) their Orion craft “Integrity”. NASA wants to target February 2026 for Artemis II’s launch although quite a few pre-launch preparations remain for [this year](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-242/) and [next](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/09/nasa-targeting-early-february-for-artemis-ii-mission-to-the-moon/). - Astrobotic [announced](https://www.astrobotic.com/griffin-1-mission-update/) that the launch of the company’s [Griffin lander](https://www.astrobotic.com/lunar-delivery/landers/griffin-lander/) to the Moon’s south pole as part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) is now postponed from this year to no earlier than July 2026\. The large lander’s primary payload will be the [FLIP rover](https://www.astrolab.space/flip-rover/) by Astrolab (a Moon Monday sponsor), which got [manifested earlier this year](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-212/) after NASA [decided not to fly](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/#viper-rover-delivery-by-astrobotic) the [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) aboard Griffin. - The Rice University in Texas, USA is [hiring a postdoctoral associate](https://emdz.fa.us2.oraclecloud.com/hcmUI/CandidateExperience/en/sites/CX%5F2001/job/5252) for a NASA-funded project dedicated to developing next-generation radiometric dating methods specifically to analyze samples from Apollo and future Artemis missions. ### Shining light on solar activity and the Moon’s exosphere—a Diwali gift from Chandrayaan 2 URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-247/ Last updated: 2025-10-21T19:22:12.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/10/solar-wind-bombarding-the-moon-and-spacecraft-studying-it.jpg) Illustration visualizing the Sun’s radiation wind bombarding the Moon, and various spacecraft observing its activity and effects. Background image: [E. Masongsong / UCLA EPSS](https://news.uchicago.edu/story/new-study-reveals-why-moon-has-very-thin-atmosphere) | Derivative graphic and annotations: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) Theoretical and computational models of highly energetic solar storms have predicted for more than a decade that the density of the Moon’s nearside exosphere [increases by at least ten times](https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JE004011) during such events. Between our Moon having no global magnetic field to shield its surface and the charged, energetic [solar wind particles](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) bombarding the ground like a machine gun, solar storms release a greater number of atoms to the exosphere than during normal solar activity. But until now there have been no confirmed measurements to know the real rate increase. Last year’s heightened solar activity which [caused widespread auroras on Earth](https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/0c501560633549b69dbd01c4c725b2b3) provided an opportunity to Indian researchers for utilizing the [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) to confirm or deny these predictions as well as refine them. A [newly published paper](https://doi.org/10.1029/2025GL115737) based on data from the orbiter’s neutral gas mass spectrometer (named CHACE-2) taken during the time of the heightened solar activity now confirm that the nearside lunar exosphere became at least tenfold denser. Said solar storms were [also observed](https://www.isro.gov.in/ISROCapturestheSignaturesoftheRecentSolarEruptiveEvents.html) by the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter’s X-ray solar monitor. You probably wouldn’t get a clear enough picture of this if you read ISRO’s [only-jargon-filled release](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan-2%5FCoronal%5FMass%5FEjections%5FLunar%5FExosphere.html) about the discovery on its website, which also needs multiple typo fixes. The release meant for science popularization does not even attempt to capture the unique importance of studying our Sun from the vantage point of our Moon as opposed to elsewhere. That ISRO does not even consider leveraging any of the fairly large number of science writers in the country for such releases, much less think about actively supporting the growing talent, is inefficient. In any case, with the aforementioned discovery explained in brief above, here’s my attempt at capturing its broader picture: why the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter studies the Sun from the Moon, what scientists have found through it, and why the endeavor is unique and relevant to future exploration. --- **Sponsored job listings:** [*PierSight Space*](https://piersight.space) *is hiring for* [*11 roles*](https://jobs.gohire.io/piersight-rfd9c90d/)*—and particularly a* [*senior Embedded Software developer*](https://jobs.gohire.io/piersight-rfd9c90d/senior-embedded-software-developer-242904/)*, a lead for* [*Antenna Design*](https://jobs.gohire.io/piersight-rfd9c90d/lead-antenna-design-engineer-211529/)*, and AIT* [*Mechanical*](https://jobs.gohire.io/piersight-rfd9c90d/lead-mechanical-ait-engineer-spacecraft-251177/) *&* [*Electrical*](https://jobs.gohire.io/piersight-rfd9c90d/lead-electrical-ait-engineer-211528/) *engineering leads—to join their teams in Ahmedabad and Bangalore who are building a constellation of SAR-AIS satellites for persistent, all-weather ocean monitoring.* --- ## The Sun watcher By now it’s clear that the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter doesn’t just [study the Moon’s surface](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-220/#lunar-science-galore-from-chandrayaan-2) and [aid its exploration](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/) but observes the Sun too. Specifically, scientists use the orbiter’s high-resolution [Solar X-ray Monitor](https://arxiv.org/pdf/1910.09231.pdf) (XSM) to study solar flares. In turn, XSM [provides a reference](https://web.archive.org/web/20220804152429/https://www.isro.gov.in/update/10-oct-2019/solar-flare-observed-solar-x-ray-monitor-chandrayaan-2) for the orbiter’s [Chandrayaan-2 Large Area Soft X-ray Spectrometer](http://oro.open.ac.uk/29976/1/CLASS%5F2011%5FLunar%5FPlanetary%5FScience%5FConf.pdf) (CLASS) instrument so it can [map elements](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/pdf/2191.pdf) on the lunar surface. Scientists have published multiple results in international journals based on XSM’s [unique observations](https://web.archive.org/web/20211228232513/https://www.isro.gov.in/update/22-jun-2021/unraveling-mysteries-of-solar-corona-new-results-chandrayaan-2-solar-x-ray) of the Sun’s surface and atmospheric activities. These include results from statistical measurements of [micro-flares](https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/abf0b0) and [nano-flares](https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/aca078) crucial to understanding our Sun’s dynamic nature. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f46292acc-b030-4a0f-adc0-6abcb1efbf76_2179x1517-jpeg.jpg) Panel (a) shows a micro-flare on the Sun detected by India’s Chandrayaan 2 orbiter. Panels (b) and (c) show its locations in images captured by NASA’s SDO spacecraft. [Image: Santosh Vadawale, et al.](https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/abf35d) XSM studies of micro-flares and nano-flares are especially important because scientists think they’re relevant to unlocking a fundamental mystery about our Sun: why is its extended atmosphere, the corona, much hotter than its surface? Scientists have been [debating since the 1940s](https://web.archive.org/web/20230310102654/https://science.nasa.gov/news-articles/the-mystery-of-coronal-heating) how the Sun’s atmosphere is heated to a million degrees Celsius while the surface barely crosses 6,000\. Recent close-up observations of many [tiny eruptions](http://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Space%5FScience/Solar%5FOrbiter/Solar%5FOrbiter%5Fs%5Ffirst%5Fimages%5Freveal%5Fcampfires%5Fon%5Fthe%5FSun) across the Sun’s surface by ESA’s [Solar Orbiter](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Space%5FScience/Solar%5FOrbiter) mission coupled with coronal measurements made by NASA’s [Parker Solar Probe](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/parker-solar-probe/) have [helped scientists almost solve](https://www.quantamagazine.org/how-a-nasa-probe-solved-a-scorching-solar-mystery-20240429/) the coronal heating mystery. In that context, having abundant micro-flare and nano-flare observations over time from other spacecraft at different vantage points, like the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter, has helped scientists contextualize and refine these results to improve [our understanding of the Sun](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/). Furthermore, through high-resolution measurements of the Sun’s background X-ray emissions, the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter’s XSM data has provided the [first elemental abundances](https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/abf35d) of magnesium, aluminum, and silicon in the Sun’s corona during quiet times, refining our understanding. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/11/solar-campfires-by-esa-solar-orbiter.jpg) A high-resolution image of the Sun from ESA’s Solar Orbiter spacecraft, captured on May 30, 2020\. The lower left circle indicates Earth’s size for scale. The arrow points to one of the many nano-flares. [Image: ESA](http://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Space%5FScience/Solar%5FOrbiter/Solar%5FOrbiter%5Fs%5Ffirst%5Fimages%5Freveal%5Fcampfires%5Fon%5Fthe%5FSun) ## Protecting future lunar explorers Other than XSM, the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter’s aforementioned CLASS instrument [can detect](https://web.archive.org/web/20200831011710/https://www.isro.gov.in/update/03-oct-2019/studying-earth’s-extended-magnetosphere-geotailplasma-around-moon) some solar events too. In January 2022, CLASS detected [two highly energetic proton emission events](https://web.archive.org/web/20220223143806/https://www.isro.gov.in/update/23-feb-2022/chandrayaan-2-detected-solar-proton-events-due-to-high-intensity-solar-flares) in the solar wind. NASA’s GOES-16 satellite couldn’t detect one of these two events because Earth’s magnetic field shielded it from said particles. The Chandrayaan 2 orbiter being at the Moon though could detect them, as could other Sun-studying spacecraft lying outside Earth’s magnetic field. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ff69dc278-18a0-4ba5-8e11-4e5192f1a7dc_1080x602-jpeg.jpg) The rate of protons recorded by India’s Chandrayaan 2 lunar orbiter (blue) and NASA’s GOES-16 Earth orbiter (red) circa January 20, 2022\. [Image: ISRO / NASA](https://web.archive.org/web/20220223143806/https://www.isro.gov.in/update/23-feb-2022/chandrayaan-2-detected-solar-proton-events-due-to-high-intensity-solar-flares) During August 4-7 in 1972, the Sun released [several bursts of flares](http://spaceweatherlivinghistory.org/timeline/31) and associated energetic particles. This places its time between the Apollo 16 and 17 missions to the Moon in the same year. Had any of the astronauts been in lunar orbit or on the surface during the solar event, they could’ve faced damaging levels of radiation with the potential to cause cancer. As we prepare to send astronauts on much longer Moon missions and beyond, we’ll need to protect our explorers from such solar storms whose particles reach the Earth-Moon space in a matter of hours. NASA’s Artemis I mission in 2022 [studied solar radiation effects inside the Orion spacecraft](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07927-7) that will host crew on future missions. The agency’s upcoming Artemis II flight will [advance these studies](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-242/) further. India’s Chandrayaan 2 orbiter is aiding these safety efforts by improving our understanding of solar flares themselves as well as by helping scientists model how solar events affect the Moon, its exosphere, and the [surrounding radiation environment](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-162/#a-gist-of-gateway-science) as an overall place which will host future astronauts. Dedicated efforts from India for studying solar weather itself obviously include [data](https://www.isro.gov.in/ISRO%5FNationalmeet%5FAdityaL1.html) from the recently launched [Aditya-L1](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-08/) solar observatory and its [ongoing](https://www.isro.gov.in/SUIT%5Fonboard%5FAditya-L1%5FMission.html) [contributions](https://www.isro.gov.in/SUIT%5FAditya-L1%5FCaptures%5FSolarFlare.html) but also specific institutional research such as the CESSI lab in IISER Kolkata, which [focuses on the fundamental physics](https://cessi.iiserkol.ac.in/spaceweather/) of stellar dynamics and modeling solar weather. Chandrayaan’s Moon-based solar observations are helping extend all solar weather studies to an environment that future astronauts will be exposed to during long-duration missions as well as at [Moonbases](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/10/complex-lunar-environment-1.jpg) The Moon's environment illustrated to show the complex interactions between solar wind radiation, space plasma, flux of impacting meteorites, and the Moon’s surface, dust, and exosphere. [Image: Jasper Halekas](https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2023.0311) --- *Many thanks to* [***Takshashila Institution***](https://takshashila.org.in)*,* [***PierSight***](https://piersight.space)*,* [***GalaxEye Space***](https://galaxeye.space)*,* [***Gurbir Singh***](https://gurbir.co.uk) *and* [***Catalyx Space***](https://catalyx.space) *for sponsoring this week’s special combined edition of Moon Monday and Indian Space Progress.* *If you too appreciate my efforts to capture nuanced trajectories of India in space, support my independent writing:* [Support my writing 🌙](https://jatan.space/support) --- ## Lunar water and exosphere With the above context, let’s come back to the discovery we started with up top about the Sun’s wind affecting the lunar ionosphere. It affects [water on the Moon](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) too. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/10/lunar-water-transport-via-shadows-and-exosphere.jpg) Shadows on the Moon due to terrain can enable water ice to survive on the sunlit lunar surface. Instead of being trapped within lunar soil and rocks, where water is largely immobile, a new study suggests that water molecules remain as frost on the surface in cold shadows and move to other cold locations via the Moon’s thin exosphere. [Image: NASA / JPL-Caltech](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasa-study-highlights-importance-of-surface-shadows-in-moon-water-puzzle) The Sun’s wind of charged particles is one of the [key sources of lunar water](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/#the-search-for-lunar-water-deepens), and so understanding how the solar wind shapes the lunar exosphere simultaneously helps us understand processes fundamental to it, which includes mechanisms of how water is altered and [moves across the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-39/#science), and how it’s lost. Lunar missions wanting to map and analyze surface water, like the upcoming joint ISRO-JAXA [LUPEX rover](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/), will be best served when accounting for all of these factors. The overall work also enables planetary scientists to make better water cycle models on other airless bodies across the Solar System like Mercury, gas giant moons, Ceres, etc. --- Instead of explaining such interconnected aspects of the solar wind, the lunar exosphere, and human lunar exploration, ISRO’s aforementioned jargon-filled release about the importance of the discovery only states the following with no specifics or elaboration: > Apart from pushing the edge of our scientific understanding about the Moon and the lunar space weather (effect of the Sun’s emissions on the Moon), this observation also indicates the challenges of building scientific bases on the Moon. Lunar base architects need to account for such extreme events, which would temporarily alter the lunar environment, before the effects subside. ## More lunar exosphere studies by Chandrayaan 2 ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/10/sodium-source-and-release-processes-on-the-moon.jpeg) Illustration showing source, sink, and release processes for sodium on the Moon’s surface and in its exosphere. [See full caption](https://academic.oup.com/view-large/figure/533982452/staf1447fig7.jpg) | [Image: A. Devaraj et al.](https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/staf1447) - Indian researchers finally recently made ground-based [telescopic observations of sodium](https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/staf1447) in the lunar exosphere, building up on the first ever [global-scale sodium maps](https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/ac905a) of the Moon as [seen by the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-98/#another-classy-find-by-chandrayaan-2). - Indian scientists analyzed how two-way radio signals between the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter and an [Indian Deep Space Network](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian%5FDeep%5FSpace%5FNetwork) antenna were affected, and used that to infer the first electron density profile of the Moon’s ionosphere for when the Moon passes through Earth’s geomagnetic tail. They [found the density to be substantially higher](https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/adb3a7) than expected. - In a related study, a probe on the [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) lander has taken the [first in-situ plasma environment measurements](https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/staf1276) from near the Moon’s south polar surface. The study also begins the long process of characterizing the lunar polar environment for planning long-duration human and robotic missions as well as at [Moonbases](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/). --- ### Read previous editions on Indian space - [**Indian Space Progress #31**](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-241/)**:** Chandrayaan 4 will bring unique Moon materials—and maybe a giant scientific leap for India - [**Indian Space Progress #30**](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-30/)**:** Notable nuances about NISAR and how it flows into planetary science for NASA and ISRO - [**Indian Space Progress #29**](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-29/)**:** Was Shubhanshu Shukla’s Axiom-4 flight to the International Space Station worth it for ISRO? ### An assortment of lunar papers from around the world | Moon Monday #246 URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-246/ Last updated: 2025-10-15T07:34:53.000Z A lot of interesting lunar science results have been published this year. Here’s a non-exhaustive but curated set of papers with a brief takeaway from each along with a representative graph or illustration of the discovery or finding. 🌙 - A study of lunar soil simulants on biological cells conducted by Australian researchers suggests that inadvertent inhaling of lunar dust by future astronauts during missions might be less toxic than our current relationship with air pollution in terrestrial cities. – [**Paper**](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lssr.2025.02.005) **|** [**Article**](https://phys.org/news/2025-06-abrasive-lunar-toxic-city-pollution.html) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/10/lunar-soil-simulants-and-terrestrial-air-pollution-toxicity-comparison.jpg) Inflammation response to the introduction of lunar soil simulants LMS-1 and LHS-1 in biological cells BEAS-2B and A549 was lower than by polluted Earth dust. [Image: Michaela B. Smith et al.](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lssr.2025.02.005) - More comprehensive impact simulations conducted by US researchers suggest that at least 22.6% of all material ejected from the Moon by crater impacts and more such mechanisms end up hitting Earth over time. – [**Paper**](https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2504.15502) **|** [**Article**](https://www.universetoday.com/articles/almost-a-quarter-of-all-lunar-ejecta-eventually-hits-earth) > The team were able to conclude that, following lunar impacts, Earth collects about 22.6% of the ejected material over 100,000 years, with half of these collisions occurring within the first 10,000 years. The collision rate follows a power-law distribution over time (a relationship where a change in one quantity results in a proportional relative change in another) independent of the initial size of those quantities. Material launched from the Moon's trailing side has the highest Earth collision probability, while the leading side produces the lowest. When hitting Earth, lunar ejecta travel at 11.0-13.1 km/s and predominantly strike near the equator (with 24% fewer impacts at the poles). These impacts are nearly symmetrically distributed between morning and evening hours, peaking around 6 AM/PM. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/10/lunar-ejecta-collisions-on-earth-over-time.jpg) Distribution of lunar ejecta colliding with Earth over time. [Graphs: Jose Daniel Castro-Cisneros et al.](https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2504.15502) Watch out for meteor showers caused by the 60-meter-wide asteroid 2024 YR4, which is currently estimated to have a [4% chance of hitting the Moon](https://www.esa.int/Space%5FSafety/Planetary%5FDefence/Will%5Fasteroid%5F2024%5FYR4%5Fhit%5Fthe%5FMoon) in 2032\. 🪨 ... 🌒 ... 💥 ... 🌍 ... ☄️ - A collaboration between Chinese and US researchers have found that oxygen particles blown from Earth’s atmosphere to the Moon can react with lunar minerals to form hematite (rust). – [**Paper**](https://doi.org/10.1029/2025GL116170) **|** [**Article**](https://archive.is/20250922204153/https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-025-03051-2) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/10/hematite-in-lunar--like-troilite.jpg) An example formation of hematite (blue) upon oxygen bombardment in iron-rich crystals known to exist on the Moon. A high-resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy image shows the bombarded layer containing nano-crystals of hematite. [Image: Ziliang Jin et al.](https://doi.org/10.1029/2025GL116170) - US researchers combining and analyzing gravity, topography, and elemental abundance data under a NASA Lunar Data Analysis grant found that Artemis astronauts might pick up rocks from the Thorium-rich ejecta blanket deposited during the formation of the massive 2500-kilometer [South Pole-Aitken basin](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2008/pdf/1626.pdf)—the largest, deepest, and oldest lunar crater. These samples will help further constrain the basin’s age, building upon its [age finally determined by Chang’e 6](https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwaf103), and likewise further enrich our understanding of the Moon’s [farside-nearside dichotomy](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) by better sampling the early lunar crust and possible mantle materials. – [**Paper**](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-09582-y) **|** [**Article**](https://www.leonarddavid.com/earths-moon-new-paper-points-to-science-resource-bounty/) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/10/thorium-rich-ejecta-blanket-from-spa-basin-formation-illustration.jpg) The southward ejecta blanket (visualized in red) deposited over the surface during the formation of the South Pole-Aitken impact basin on the Moon’s farside. [Illustration: Jeff Andrews-Hanna / University of Arizona / NASA / NAOJ](https://news.arizona.edu/news/moons-biggest-impact-crater-made-radioactive-splash) - The first detailed examination of sintered Apollo lunar samples by a team of scientists & engineers at ESA has found sufficient similarities in desired quality to sintering of simulated lunar-like soil. This means a diverse set of the latter can be a good proxy to test future lunar construction technologies especially since real samples are expensive and difficult to obtain in bulk. – [**Paper**](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtadv.2025.100620) **|** [**Article**](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-244/) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/10/esa-apollo-lunar-samples-sintering-study.jpg) Sintered Apollo lunar samples (left) and their closeup views (right) as seen using X-ray Computed Tomography (XCT). [Image: ESA / Bethany Lomax et al.](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtadv.2025.100620) - Chinese researchers opportunistically studied water-hosting near-surface lunar soil fragments, which got exposed to the surface by the [engine plumes](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-180/) of the Chang’e 6 lander when it [touched down](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-178/) on the Moon’s farside last year. The study helps us better understand [the Sun’s wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) of charged particles as one of the [key sources of lunar water](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/#the-search-for-lunar-water-deepens). It also allows planetary scientists to make better models of the same for other airless bodies across the Solar System like Mercury, gas giant moons, Ceres, etc. – [**Paper**](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41550-025-02668-7) **|** [**Article**](https://www.leonarddavid.com/water-on-the-moon-china-lunar-lander-data-assessed/) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/10/chang-e-6-lander-engine-plumes-exposes-water-bearing-lunar-soil-to-the-surface.jpg) Illustration showing how the Chang’e 6 lander engine plumes exposed water bearing lunar-soil fragments and their layers to the now-morphed surface. [Image: Bin Liu et al.](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41550-025-02668-7) - By studying Apollo-sampled boulders, accounting for seismic measurements, and analyzing imagery from NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, US researchers have predicted the frequency and magnitudes of [moonquakes](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-199/) at the Apollo 17 landing site. They now aim to do the same for [active faults on the Moon’s south pole](https://www.nasa.gov/solar-system/moon/shrinking-moon-causing-moonquakes-and-faults-near-lunar-south-pole/) to protect future astronauts and hardware on long-term missions especially since unlike Earthquakes, moonquakes can last for hours, thereby posing a stability risk to structures and vehicles operating nearby. – [**Paper**](https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adu3201) **|** [**Article**](https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/nasas-apollo-samples-lro-help-scientists-predict-moonquakes/) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/10/predicted-seismic-shakemap-and-ground-motion-near-apollo-17-landing-site.jpg) Predicted seismic ground motion and shake intensities due to an active fault near the Apollo 17 landing site. [See full caption](https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adu3201#F5) | [Image: Thomas Watters / Nicholas Schmerr](https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adu3201) **Related:** [*Not the fault in our stars but certainly stressful faults on our Moon*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-199/) - Indian researchers have finally made ground-based telescopic observations of sodium in the lunar exosphere, building up on the first ever [global-scale sodium maps](https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/ac905a) of the Moon as seen by the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter. – [**Paper 1**](https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/staf1447) **|** [**Paper 2**](https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/ac905a) **|** [**Article**](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-98/#another-classy-find-by-chandrayaan-2) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/10/sodium-source-and-release-processes-on-the-moon.jpeg) Illustration showing source, sink, and release processes for sodium on the Moon’s surface and in its exosphere. [See full caption](https://academic.oup.com/view-large/figure/533982452/staf1447fig7.jpg) | [Image: A. Devaraj et al.](https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/staf1447) --- *Many thanks to* [***The Orbital Index***](https://orbitalindex.com) *and* [***Mahesh Anand***](https://profiles.open.ac.uk/mahesh-anand) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support Moon Monday 🌙](https://jatan.space/support) --- ## More paper briefings [🌗 Visualize a new Moon based on scientific discoveries by Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-233/) [⚙️ Chandrayaan 3 research updates](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-243/#chandrayaan-3-research-updates) [🛰️ Lunar science galore from Chandrayaan 2](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-220/#lunar-science-galore-from-chandrayaan-2) ## More Moon > **Editorial disclaimer:* The next bit is about an announcement from the Open Lunar Foundation, which is one of the Moon Monday* [*sponsors*](https://jatan.space/about/#sponsors-and-supporters)*. I’m also Open Lunar’s* [*Science Communications Lead*](https://jatan.space/joining-open-lunar-as-their-science-communications-lead/)*. As such, to cover the following news on Moon Monday while ensuring* [*editorial independence and transparency*](https://jatan.space/ethics/)*, I did not communicate with Open Lunar about if I’ll write on this topic or even mention it, much less how so.* - After [three collaborative years ](https://jatan.space/a-registry-of-moon-missions/)of research, development, and community consultations, the Open Lunar Foundation has [launched](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/ledger-launch-press-release) the [Lunar Ledger](https://www.lunarledger.space) (Registry) project. The Ledger aims to be a database of global lunar objects and activities which hopes to improve mission operator transparency by enhancing information sharing wherever possible. Information sharing is known to [enable cutting-edge space missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-232/#information-sharing-enables-cutting-edge-lunar-exploration). Unfortunately though, there are currently no institutionalized mechanisms that do so while also scaling with the [increasing pace of Moon missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-231/) worldwide. Different states share different & limited information at different times, in disparate formats, dispersed through different channels at varying levels. Amid competition, companies remain tightfisted about sharing information even on mission aspects that aren’t sensitive to intellectual property. The current state of lunar information sharing and coordination is thus [neither safe](https://jatan.space/a-registry-of-moon-missions/) nor [efficient](https://jatan.space/pitfalls-in-lunar-exploration/) for abundant progress. The Lunar Ledger aims to improve this situation by accommodating more actors to reliably share technical data with mutual discretion. And that’s why it’s notable that five companies have signed up for the Ledger at launch and agreed to share mission information to some as-yet-unspecified level through the project. The companies are [ispace](https://ispace-inc.com/), [Firefly](https://fireflyspace.com/), [Astrolab](https://www.astrolab.space/) (a Moon Monday sponsor), [JAOPS](https://www.jaops.com/), and [Dymon](https://dymon.co.jp). - Thanks to fresh lunar samples brought to Earth by [Chang’e 5](https://jatan.space/change-5-landing-site/) and [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-201/) missions, there has been a new influx of sample science results which have transformed our understanding [of lunar volcanism](https://doi.org/10.11728/cjss2024.04.2024-yg10) and [the Moon’s farside](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-233/). For scientists globally to [share more such results](https://www.bagevent.com/event/9078832/p/566207), the University of Hong Kong is hosting the [International Lunar Sample Research Symposium](http://ilsrs.org) this November 21-24\. I plan on being there to cover the event, and eager to learn more about the process of drawing fundamental planetary science insights from little bits of Luna. 🌕 ### Moon Monday #245: Blue origin to hunt for a lunar oasis URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-245/ Last updated: 2025-10-06T10:26:55.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/10/blue-origin-oasis-small-satellite-illustration.jpg) Rendering of the Oasis-1 polar orbiter flying over the Moon’s pole. [Image: Blue Origin](https://www.blueorigin.com/news/blue-origin-luxembourg-partner-on-oasis-1-mission) Blue Origin [announced](https://www.blueorigin.com/news/blue-origin-luxembourg-partner-on-oasis-1-mission) that it will send an “ultra-low” polar orbiter called Oasis-1 to the Moon to “create the most detailed high-resolution maps to date of lunar water ice, Helium-3, radionuclides, rare earth elements, precious metals, and other materials”. The mission will be in partnership with the [Luxembourg Space Agency](https://space-agency.public.lu/en.html), ESA’s space-resources-focused [ESRIC](https://www.esric.lu) institute, and [GOMspace](https://gomspace.com/home.aspx). Blue Origin noted in its blog post that the orbiter will use “neutron spectroscopy to quantify subsurface water ice concentrations to one-meter depths”. That’s a reasonable yet indirect method to detect [lunar water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) as what it really does is detect hydrogen as a presumed sign of water molecules. There will be more instruments aboard Oasis-1: > Additional instruments include magnetometers for metal detection and multispectral imaging for Helium-3 and geological mapping, with controlled impact sequences maximizing data collection for precise extraction site selection. When asked what is the planned altitude range for the “ultra-low” lunar polar orbiter, Blue Origin responded with the following: > Nothing further to share than what was in the blog post. The company did not specify when Oasis-1 is supposed to launch either. As such, the project can be assumed to be in early stages, with the announcement being a starting point for more to come. Upcoming missions globally aiming to find and characterize the nature of lunar polar water include China’s [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#the-instrumental-and-increasingly-international-7) and [Chang’e 8](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/#prepare-for-crew-and-double-down-with-mission-eight) spacecraft, NASA’s [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/), and the joint Indo-Japanese [Chandrayaan 5 / LUPEX mission](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/). These missions will also provide context for analyzing ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 4](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-241/) samples, which aims to bring lunar polar material to Earth in 2028\. Considering that [the US has been failing to explore lunar water](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-221/) as the principal goal of Artemis, Blue’s announcement of Oasis-1 is welcome despite the fuzziness on details. Oasis-1 is the opening part of Blue’s multi-phase initiative to locate, map, characterize, and utilize lunar resources. And the closing end is Blue’s Alchemist project, which recently [passed Critical Design Review](https://www.blueorigin.com/news/blue-alchemist-hits-major-milestone-toward-permanent-sustainable-lunar-infrastructure) (CDR). The project currently involves making solar cells using silicon and metals extracted from lunar soil simulants. This milestone is part of a broader goal set in 2023, when the company [received $34.7 million](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-138/) from NASA as part of public-private *Tipping Point* contracts to build advanced lunar technologies. Said broader goal is to demonstrate the autonomous operation of Blue Alchemist solar cells in a “simulated lunar environment” by 2026\. The latest CDR milestone clears the way for trying to achieve that goal. While Blue Alchemist is an undeniably intriguing project, the sheer complexity and scale of [producing infrastructure](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-244/) *on the Moon* to power habitats means that at least for a decade from now, NASA’s plans for getting power—[solar](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/three-companies-to-help-nasa-advance-solar-array-technology-for-moon) and [nuclear](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-238/)—for surface activities continues to be through the annoying tradition of pulling material out of [Earth’s gruesome gravitational well](https://jatan.space/the-moon-as-a-rocket-platform/). It should be noted though that Blue Alchemist includes systems for [extracting oxygen](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-153/) from lunar soil while getting metal byproducts so that will be useful in the meanwhile when it comes. Between Project Oasis, the company’s [bet to carry NASA’s VIPER rover to the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-243/), and using in-space refueling as a central architectural component for aiming to [land humans on Luna](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/), Blue Origin is positioning itself as an end-to-end lunar transportation and resource company. --- *Many thanks to* [***Open Lunar Foundation***](https://www.openlunar.org) *and* [***Gurbir Singh***](https://gurbir.co.uk) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support Moon Monday 🌙](https://jatan.space/support) --- ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/10/sls-rocket-artemis-ii-assembly-2.jpg) The Artemis II SLS rocket being integrated inside the Vehicle Assembly Building at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center. The stage adaptor upon which the Orion spacecraft will be stacked is visible on an upper platform. [Image: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2025/09/30/nasa-draws-closer-to-artemis-ii-rocket-completion-with-newest-addition/) - NASA [completed integrating](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2025/09/30/nasa-draws-closer-to-artemis-ii-rocket-completion-with-newest-addition/) all hardware modules of the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/reference/space-launch-system/) for the upcoming crewed [Artemis II](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-242/) circumlunar mission with the latest addition of the stage adaptor. The adaptor sits atop the rocket’s upper stage, and is upon which the crew’s [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) will come next. NASA says a composite diaphragm in the adaptor protects the Orion spacecraft from hazardous gases generated during launch. The [four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) flying around the Moon and back on the mission have [named](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2025/09/24/artemis-ii-crew-members-name-their-orion-spacecraft/) their Orion craft “Integrity”. NASA continues to target April 2026 as the official date for Artemis II’s launch although quite a few pre-launch preparations remain for [this year](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-242/) and [next](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/09/nasa-targeting-early-february-for-artemis-ii-mission-to-the-moon/). - ispace [has been selected](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7317) as part of Japan’s 1-trillion yen “Space Strategy Fund” initiative to [develop, launch, and operate](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=8038) a lunar orbiter which will use a terahertz wave sensor system to locate and map [water ice deposits](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s poles. Data from this orbiter will be analyzed in tandem with direct surface and subsurface measurements made by the upcoming joint Indo-Japanese [LUPEX rover mission](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/). - ispace Europe has bagged a [$22 million contract](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7993) from Magna Petra to carry a NASA-developed mass spectrometer on its [second lunar micro-rover](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7495). \[The first rover was aboard the parent company ispace Japan’s second Moon lander RESILIENCE, which [crashed on the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-228/) due to [performance issues](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7671) of the laser rangefinder.\] The second rover will be aboard ispace Japan’s US subsidiary’s [first lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-184/) part of the [NASA-funded CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) through Draper. It is targeting a landing on the Moon’s farside [in 2027](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7366). - Relatedly, a South Korean company called Unmanned Exploration Laboratory (UEL) is building [two micro rovers](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7932) and intends to send them on future Moon landing missions by ispace. - Last year we learnt that the launch of Australia’s [first lunar rover](https://www.space.gov.au/meet-roo-ver) called Roo-ver has [been delayed](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-197/#australian-lunar-roo-ver-delayed) to 2028—two years later than originally intended. Roo-ver is to launch on an as-yet-unidentified NASA CLPS lander to [explore the Moon’s south pole](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2024/pdf/1682.pdf) for [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). Now it seems that the launch year is pushed further, with a [NASA release on the partnership](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/nasa-signs-us-australia-agreement-on-aeronautics-space-cooperation/) stating “by the end of this decade” as the timeframe. Even the instrument being contributed by NASA is talked about murkily: > Australia is developing a semi-autonomous lunar rover, which will carry a NASA analysis instrument intended to demonstrate technology for scientific and exploration purposes. *A NASA analysis instrument intended to demonstrate technology for scientific and exploration purposes?* To borrow a phrase I’ve picked up from a friend: “I understood all the words but not the sentence.” ### Moon Monday #244: Towards lunar construction URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-244/ Last updated: 2025-09-29T17:01:06.000Z *Before we begin, a clarifying note about the title of the* [*previous Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-243/)*: *An Amazon delivery for NASA’s VIPER rover?* Well, I’ve received many emails saying how Amazon has a distinct space entity from Blue Origin. It’s fair to point that out but I do know that* 😄*. I just hoped my readers would enjoy offbeat titles sometimes. Most media outlets are either too clickbait-y or too drab with their headlines. There’s no space for fun in there. But I* [*don’t care about SEO*](https://jatan.space/i-write-for-you/) *and don’t host ads so why not be a little creative? If wonky titles really bother you though, maybe you should NOT read my list of* [*fun Moon exploration headlines*](https://jatan.space/fun-with-moon-exploration-headlines/) *and* [*SLS ones*](https://jatan.space/fun-with-serious-sls-rocket-headlines/)*.* 🌝 --- ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/09/esa-apollo-lunar-samples-sintering-study.jpg) Sintered Apollo lunar samples (left) and their closeup views (right) as seen using X-ray Computed Tomography (XCT). [Image: ESA / Bethany Lomax et al.](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtadv.2025.100620) Space agencies and companies worldwide hope to build infrastructure on the Moon from lunar soil, including by heating it into compressed & reinforced structural material. The first [detailed examination of sintering Apollo lunar samples](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtadv.2025.100620) by a team of scientists & engineers at ESA has found sufficient similarities in desired quality to sintering simulated lunar-like soil. This means a diverse set of the latter can be a good proxy to test future lunar construction technologies especially since real samples are expensive and difficult to obtain in bulk. The study did find though that the process is sensitive to surface weathering maturity of the lunar soil and particle sizes as well so real lunar soil can always surprise you. From the paper: > The mare samples from Apollo 11 and Apollo 15 exhibited a rapid onset of sintering, indicating it would be easier to accidentally over-sinter or melt mare soil. The sintering temperature of all Apollo samples fell within the range of temperatures required to sinter regolith simulant using the same experimental set-up. Regolith maturity appeared to lower the sintering temperature relative to what would be predicted by composition alone. Sintering simulant regolith with added agglutinates and dust indicated that the smaller average particle size contributed more to the sintering temperature of mature regolith than the higher glass and nanophase iron content. ## Work globally towards lunar landing pads ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/09/esa-paver-project-illustration-and-sample.jpeg) Illustration showing a road and a landing pad on the Moon made using melted lunar soil. The inset image on the left shows interlocked 20-centimeter blocks made by laser-melting simulated lunar soil. Images: [PAVER consortium](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2023/10/Interlocking%5Fshapes%5Fto%5Fmake%5Fpaved%5Fsurfaces) / [LIQUIFER](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2023/10/Paved%5Fsurfaces%5Faround%5Fa%5FMoon%5Fbase) Future infrastructure on the Moon part of long-term robotic or human bases will need protection against [lunar sandblasting by incoming landers](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-180/). For that, ESA has the aptly named [PAVER project](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FEngineering%5FTechnology/How%5Fto%5Fmake%5Froads%5Fon%5Fthe%5FMoon). It uses powerful lasers to melt simulated lunar soil into glassy solid surfaces, which can then be used to create blocks of landing pads and roads. On the Moon, ESA plans to use a Fresnel lens to focus sunlight instead of using lasers. Landing on the pads instead of loose regolith will drastically reduce sandblasting. Relatedly, as part of [project MOONRISE](https://www.lzh.de/en/moonrise), which was funded by Germany at €4.74 million, research teams at LZH and TU Berlin have been developing an ML-supported compact laser system to build pads with 3D-printing. The team says they’ve had successful basic terrestrial demonstrations, including under simulated lunar gravity in [an Einstein-Elevator](https://www.hitec.uni-hannover.de/en/large-scale-equipment/einstein-elevator/). A space-grade MOONRISE hopes to fly on an Astrobotic Griffin lander in [late 2026](https://www.lzh.de/en/press-releases/2024/next-step-towards-moon-lzh-and-tu-berlin-partner-with-astrobotic) for a lunar demonstration. In the meanwhile, a group of researchers at the Indian Institute of Science have been progressing slowly on [bacteria-based lunar simulant bricks](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/science/now-iisc-team-develops-lunar-brick-repair-solution-using-bacteria/articleshow/119861258.cms) that are repairable. NASA is funding the development of entire lunar landing pads. - In 2023, as part of multiple public-private *Tipping Point* contracts, NASA [funded](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-partners-with-american-companies-on-key-moon-exploration-tech) a Redwire-led project with $12.9 million to [develop microwave heating technologies](https://redwirespace.com/newsroom/pads-roads-and-other-forms-of-infrastructure-on-the-moon) that could solidify and strengthen lunar soil for building infrastructure such as roads, foundations for habitats, and landing pads. The funding hasn’t included a lunar surface demonstration though. - As part of a Lunar Surface Technology Research (LuSTR) solicitation in 2022, NASA [awarded \~$2 million](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/strg/lustr/NASA%5FSelects%5FThree%5FUS%5FUniversities%5Fto%5FDevelop%5FLunar%5FInfrastructure%5FTech) to the Colorado School of Mines who in partnership with Lunar Outpost and others were to develop a [rover-enabled lunar landing pad construction system](https://lunaroutpost.com/lunar-outpost-colorado-school-of-mines-developing-technology-for-autonomous-lunar-excavation-and-construction) for a demonstration on Earth. - NASA has also [awarded a small contract](https://explorationarchitecture.com/astroport-space-technologies-awarded-nasa-contract) to Astroport to prototype parts of the technology that can melt lunar regolith, convert it to manufacturing feedstock, and use that to robotically assemble landing pads. - As part of DARPA LunA-10’s [selection of 14 companies](https://www.darpa.mil/news-events/2023-12-05) in 2023 to conduct [lunar infrastructure studies](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-157/#prepping-for-lunar-infrastructure-galore) on how best to build key pieces for long-term human presence, ICON was to [advance its work](https://www.iconbuild.com/newsroom/darpa-selects-icon-for-luna-10-lunar-architecture-study) on building [structures using lunar soil](https://payloadspace.com/icon-wins-nasa-contract-for-lunar-3d-printing/). In 2022, NASA awarded a [$57 million contract](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-icon-advance-lunar-construction-technology-for-moon-missions) to ICON for [continuing to develop](https://www.nasa.gov/centers/marshall/news/releases/2020/nasa-looks-to-advance-3d-printing-construction-systems-for-the-moon.html) said technologies, with a test structure build targeted as early as 2026\. A demonstration on the Moon is not in sight for at least two more years. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/09/illustration-of-icon-constructing-lunar-infrastructure-1.jpg) Illustration of ICON’s lunar construction technology in action on the Moon. [Image: ICON / BIG-Bjarke Ingels Group](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-icon-advance-lunar-construction-technology-for-moon-missions) Furthermore, Jack Kuhr [reported](https://payloadspace.com/lunar-infrastructure-startup-ethos-emerges-from-stealth/) last year about the new startup Ethos Space Resources, which has melted lunar soil simulants on Earth and demonstrated the resulting material’s ability to withstand rocket plumes. Ethos plans to build large landing pads for future [Lunar Starships](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-240/) with the help of the [FLEX rover](https://astrolab.space/flex) from Astrolab (a Moon Monday sponsor) in the future. Ethos plans for its landing pads to have embedded navigational beacons, which would aid [precision landing](https://jatan.space/precision-moon-landings-and-the-future/)—because otherwise a lander touching down anywhere besides the pad would defeat the purpose of it all. China’s upcoming [Chang’e 8](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/#prepare-for-crew-and-double-down-with-mission-eight) mission, targeted for launch in 2028, aims to not only melt lunar soil but also transform it via 3D printing into bricks and assemble basic structures out of them. With Chang’e 8, China aims to test techniques for constructing future lunar infrastructure like habitats and landing pads in the build up to the ambitious Sino-led Moonbase called the [International Lunar Research Station](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/) (ILRS). **Related article:** [*We’re building future technologies for the Moon without closing missed milestones*](https://jatan.space/pitfalls-in-lunar-exploration/) *🕳️* --- *Many thanks to* [***Astrolab***](https://astrolab.space/)*,* [***Marc Rayman***](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B0PbFp-y6Dc) *and* [***Pint of View***](https://pintofviewclub.substack.com) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support Moon Monday 🌙](https://jatan.space/support) --- ## Mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/09/artemis-ii-sls-rocket-core-stage.jpg) The Artemis II SLS rocket core stage being transported towards NASA’s Pegasus ferry barge near the agency’s Michoud Assembly Facility. [Image: NASA / Eric Bordelon / Michael DeMocker](https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/artemis-ii-core-stage-on-the-move/) - The [four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) flying around the Moon and back next year on the [Artemis II](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-242/) mission have [named](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2025/09/24/artemis-ii-crew-members-name-their-orion-spacecraft/) their Orion spacecraft “Integrity”. NASA continues to target April 2026 as the official date for Artemis II’s launch although quite a few pre-launch preparations remain for [this year](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-242/) and [next](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/09/nasa-targeting-early-february-for-artemis-ii-mission-to-the-moon/). - US-based Firefly’s [first Moon landing mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-218/#firefly-deserves-an-unusual-kudos) was so productive that NASA has [awarded](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-aerospace-receives-10-million-nasa-contract-addendum-for-blue-ghost-mission-1-lunar-data/) a $10 million data buy contract to the company over and above its base [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) contract of [$101 million](https://edition.cnn.com/2025/03/01/science/blue-ghost-mission-moon-landing/index.html) for the mission. Looking ahead, Firefly is gearing up for its [second](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-226/#firefly-to-carry-second-uae-lunar-rover-and-more), [third](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/more-nasa-science-tech-will-fly-to-moon-aboard-future-firefly-flight/), and [fourth](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-236/) Moon missions this decade. From Firefly’s announcement of NASA’s extended data purchase: > The scope of this data buy encompasses images captured by Firefly’s Blue Ghost lunar lander during its 45-day transit to the Moon and more than 14 days of surface operations. This includes the first high-definition images of a solar eclipse and sunset captured from the Moon’s surface, that could provide insight into outstanding questions regarding lunar dust levitation and the horizon glow phenomenon. > > The data buy also includes communications data and transmit speeds from Blue Ghost’s S-band and X-band antennas, propulsion data from Firefly’s Spectre thrusters during critical burns and the final lunar descent, and other lander performance data. Firefly will also provide NASA with additional payload science data as well as lander and payload temperature data captured during a 500°F \[260°C\] temperature delta on the Moon. ## More Moon - NASA has launched the [Lunar Melt citizen science project](http://mappers.psi.edu/) for enthusiasts to help it map flows of now-cooled melt deposits formed by asteroidal/cometary impacts using data gathered by the agency’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lro/). - Erika Nesvold makes the case of the US [not having presented a clear and coherent argument](https://makingnewworlds.substack.com/p/the-missing-argument-for-the-lunar) for the country’s self-imposed claim of defeating China in the new “Space Race” to the Moon. - Related: [How Western media narratives of Chinese lunar activities misjudge capabilities and intent](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-229/#a-problem-with-western-media-narratives-of-chinese-space) and [China is not racing to the Moon](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/china-is-not-racing-to-the-moon) ### Moon Monday #243: An Amazon delivery for NASA’s VIPER rover? URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-243/ Last updated: 2026-05-01T08:12:16.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/09/blue-moon-mark-1-lander-viper-rover-delivery-illustration.jpg) Illustration showing Blue Origin’s Blue Moon Mark I lander having deployed NASA’s VIPER rover on the Moon’s south pole. [Image: Blue Origin](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-selects-blue-origin-to-deliver-viper-rover-to-moons-south-pole/) NASA’s planned lunar-water-studying [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) mission, whose [launch fate has been uncertain](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/#viper-rover-delivery-by-astrobotic) for over a year now, has gotten a new hope to cling to with the agency’s latest announcement of [awarding a potential contract to Blue Origin](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-selects-blue-origin-to-deliver-viper-rover-to-moons-south-pole/) for delivering the rover to the Moon’s south pole in late 2027\. The Jeff Bezos owned Blue Origin is preparing two of its “Mark I” robotic lunar landers for launch, with the [first one targeted to fly later this year](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-226/). If this first flight goes well, and if Blue Origin can separately demonstrate to NASA how the lander’s mechanisms should safely deploy the [450-kilogram](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/viper/in-depth/) VIPER rover onto the lunar surface post landing, NASA will award Blue a $190 million contract for delivering VIPER to the Moon on the second Mark I lander. The contract will be part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). Notably, the announcement also states that NASA will itself conduct operations and science planning of the VIPER rover as opposed to the agency’s prior considerations when it [tried finding](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-212/) a private company to both fly and operate the rover at the latter’s own cost—an approach many argued [decidedly failed at VIPER’s original goal](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-188/). It’s good of NASA to not have followed that path and instead retain VIPER science execution with itself. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/09/blue-moon-mk1-lunar-lander-compared-to-apollo.jpg) The Apollo lander size compared to Blue Moon Mark I. [Image: Blue Origin](https://www.leonarddavid.com/blue-origin-lunar-plans-detailed/) The Mark I landers are large in size, on the same scale as the Apollo landers, and yet the first one is carrying [only two small NASA payloads](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-226/), representing a low value bet for the agency despite the higher risk postures that CLPS orders are supposed to accept. I elaborated on this aspect earlier in [Moon Monday #226](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-226/) (May 2025): > Note that the Mark I lander has a large payload capacity of 3,000 kilograms. That’s more than the entire fueled mass of smaller landers like Firefly’s Blue Ghost and India’s [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/)! And yet NASA hasn’t stated any plans to fly any other scientific instruments on either of the two Mark I flights. Considering that [the US has been failing to explore lunar water](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-221/) as the principal goal of Artemis, and that the Mark I’s landing site is the lunar south pole, it would be remiss for NASA to skip flying any lunar water related payloads on the Mark Is as a bare minimum. Whether that be through Artemis, CLPS, or other funding sources does not ultimately matter. And thus I’m glad that at least for the second Mark I flight, NASA has gone ahead with the intention of flying VIPER onboard, with what is perhaps the most apt payload for Blue and the US at this juncture. Let’s hope VIPER’s resource prospecting mission finally actually happens. Upcoming missions globally which are similar to VIPER—also aiming to find and characterize the nature of [lunar water](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) at the lunar south pole—include China’s [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#the-instrumental-and-increasingly-international-7) and [Chang’e 8](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/#prepare-for-crew-and-double-down-with-mission-eight) spacecraft as well as the joint ISRO-JAXA [Chandrayaan 5 / LUPEX mission](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/). These missions will also provide context for analyzing ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 4](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-241/) samples, which aims to bring lunar polar material to Earth in 2028. **Related:** [*Hope in desolation*](https://jatan.space/hope-in-desolation/) *(verses)* 🌙 ## Chandrayaan 3 research updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/09/ch3-rover-apxs-measurements-of-lunar-crust.jpg) ****Top left:** The Chandrayaan 3 rover rolling out of the lander’s ramp during pre-launch testing; ****Bottom left:** The co-added spectrum from all 23 lunar surface soil and rock measurements by the rover’s APXS instrument; ****Right:** An artist’s concept of our Moon shortly after its formation, with a magma ocean and a newly forming rocky crust. Images: [ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan3%5Fcurtainraiser%5Fvideo.html) / [Santosh Vadawale, et al.](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07870-7.epdf?sharing%5Ftoken=4ZQFD5zK9GT9acs31FeVNNRgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0MR1M6jsWV0QR20SmA7k7Hvrkyl3GgMk99HFFb15nD09447WpwTLcpEaBgvj9C4YhThW7GJgQ7WgMAckZYS0fZ6FTf8RdEwv0eX%5FN4HvzLxBwhFq2fqKCzi0YsrWI%5FcfAQ%3D) / [NASA Goddard](https://www.dlr.de/content/en/articles/news/2020/03/20200710%5Fa-slightly-younger-moon.html) ISRO is [seeking competitive proposals](https://www.isro.gov.in/Ch3%5FData%5FUtilisation%5FAO.html) from the national scientific community to study [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) lander, rover, and orbiter data with support in the form of partial funding, infrastructure access, data analysis help, and conference attendance aid. It was a year after [the landing](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) in August 2023 that ISRO finally [made available](https://pradan.issdc.gov.in/ch3) an initial set of peer-reviewed Chandrayaan 3 payload data online, accessible by anyone after free registration. ISRO’s data portal, called Pradan ISSDC, is compliant with NASA’s Planetary Data System (PDS). And so [just as with the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-44/), Chandrayaan 3 data is available in the latest PDS4 format for international researchers to easily utilize it. The latest announcement is specifically for Indian researchers nationwide who may have good ideas but would benefit from ISRO’s institutional support. It’s a good step in growing India’s nascent planetary science community. Relatedly, I’ve compiled below notable research outcomes from Chandrayaan 3. - [Results from the thermal probe experiment](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-219/) on the Chandrayaan 3 lander have expanded the possible locations for finding [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) beyond the Moon’s poles, thereby benefiting future scouting missions. *April 2026 update:* Thermal probe measurements post [Chandrayaan 3’s hop](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-143/) revealed [finer layers of the lunar soil](https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/ae5228) and their physical properties, helping plan future near-polar and polar exploration. - The Chandrayaan 3 rover lunar soil composition measurements [contributed to knowledge of our Moon’s origin](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-190/), and it [may or may not have stumbled upon the Moon’s mantle material](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-224/) when analyzing local lunar soil using its X-ray spectrometer. - Researchers have been using the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter’s high-resolution camera, which is the world’s sharpest lunar imager, to [identify sub-resolution tracks of Chandrayaan 3’s rover](https://www.currentscience.ac.in/Volumes/128/06/0558.pdf) based on illumination changes. Scientists are also using the imager to [study interactions](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/2277.pdf) between the lander’s [engine plumes and lunar regolith](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-180/) during when [Chandrayaan 3’s lander hopped](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-143/) towards the end of its surface mission. - The Chandrayaan 3 propulsion module (orbiter) [observed Earth as an exoplanet](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-22/#observing-earth-as-an-exoplanet). - The first geological map of Chandrayaan 3’s landing region [reveals it to be 3.7 billion years old](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asr.2025.01.020). The region has been significantly altered since its formation by subsequent crater impacts and their material ejections. - The seismometer on the [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) lander, called Instrument for Lunar Seismic Activity (ILSA), was the first since the Apollo era decades ago to measure moonquakes ([paper](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2024.116285), [archived PDF](https://archive.org/details/identification-and-preliminary-characterisation-of-signals-recorded-2024-ic)). In the 12 days of its operations from August 24, 2023, ILSA measured 50 seismic events, each lasting several seconds. While ILSA was not meant to detect prolonged deep and shallow moonquakes due to the mission’s design life being just one lunar day, instead of revealing insights about the Moon’s interior it’s helping scientists better understand [micrometeorite impacts](https://jatan.space/the-tiniest-of-impact-craters/) on the surface at high latitudes. The amount and rate of such impacts is not well constrained at the moment but is necessary to ensure safety of future human lunar polar explorers by designing protective suits and habitats accordingly. Furthermore, ILSA detected 200 signals correlated to known activities of either the lander, its instruments, or [traverses](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/#the-surface-mission) of the [Chandrayaan 3 rover](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/#a-lunar-region-never-explored). Such data will help engineers design safe lunar polar infrastructure. - The [Chandrayaan 3 landing site](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/#the-moment-of-touchdown) is found to [lie above an ancient crater](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2024.116329) which spans about 160 kilometers across and is up to 4.4 kilometers deep. This inference is primarily based on ejecta trails around the landing site as imaged by the mission’s [Pragyan rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-190/) coupled with high-resolution views of the larger region from the [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/). Scientists think the crater is well over four billion years old, and has been filled with material ejected from subsequent crater-forming impacts in the south polar region. These deposits include swaths of possible mantle material displaced here by the [gigantic impact](https://www.lroc.asu.edu/images/219) that formed the South Pole-Aitken basin south of the Chandrayaan 3 landing site. - The [composition of high-latitude lunar soil](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-190/) measured by the Chandrayaan 3 rover is [being used to create lunar soil simulants](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/1861.pdf) from Moon-like anorthositic rocks in the UAE—whose second lunar rover [is flying on Firefly’s second lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-226/#firefly-to-carry-second-uae-lunar-rover-and-more) with a targeted launch next year. - A probe on Chandrayaan 3 has taken the [first in-situ plasma environment measurements](https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/staf1276) from near the Moon’s south polar surface which [revealed the ground truth](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan3RAMBHALP%5FGroundTruth.html) about the nature of ions in the region. --- *Many thanks to* [***Astrolab***](https://astrolab.space/) *and* [***Marc Rayman***](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B0PbFp-y6Dc) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support Moon Monday 🌙](https://jatan.space/support) --- ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/09/sls-rocket-artemis-ii.jpg) The Artemis II SLS rocket being integrated inside the Vehicle Assembly Building at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center. [Image: NASA / Frank Michaux](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/esdmd/common-exploration-systems-development-division/space-launch-system/nasa-artemis-ii-moon-rocket-ready-to-fly-crew/) - NASA has made [notable safety improvements](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/esdmd/common-exploration-systems-development-division/space-launch-system/nasa-artemis-ii-moon-rocket-ready-to-fly-crew/) to the next [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/reference/space-launch-system/) which will launch the Orion spacecraft hosting [four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) towards the Moon for the [Artemis II](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-242/) mission: > The Artemis II rocket includes an improved navigation system compared to Artemis I. Its communications capability also has been improved by repositioning antennas on the rocket to ensure continuous communications with NASA ground stations and the U.S. Space Force’s Space Launch Delta 45 which controls launches along the Eastern Range. An emergency detection system on the ICPS \[upper stage\] allows the rocket to sense and respond to problems and notify the crew. The flight safety system adds a time delay to the self-destruct system to allow time for Orion’s escape system to pull the capsule to safety in event of an abort. - NASA is [preparing to demonstrate 4G/LTE on the Moon](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/johnson/building-a-lunar-network-johnson-tests-wireless-technologies-for-the-moon/) during the [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/) crewed lunar surface exploration mission with the aim of streaming high-definition video and audio from astronauts as they explore first hand the [strange new world](https://www.nasa.gov/ames/feature/the-dark-side-of-the-crater-how-light-looks-different-on-the-moon-and-what-nasa-is-doing) that is the lunar polar terrain. - The Orbital Index (a Moon Monday sponsor) [highlighted](https://orbitalindex.com/archive/2025-09-10-Issue-335/) an interesting paper recently related to lunar rover testing: > Explaining why rovers get stuck in sand in low-gravity environments, like the Moon and Mars, requires understanding how [sand grains themselves interact in low gravity](https://news.wisc.edu/robotic-space-rovers-keep-getting-stuck-uw-engineers-have-figured-out-why/). “On Earth, sand is more rigid and supportive—reducing the likelihood it will shift under a vehicle’s wheels. But the moon’s surface is “fluffier” and therefore shifts more easily—meaning rovers have less traction, which can hinder their mobility.” Computational models of sand in lower gravity (using the open source [Project Chrono](https://projectchrono.org/) simulation engine) show that gravitational offsets (suspension systems) or light-weighted rover models during terrestrial testing are insufficient to predict how wheels will actually behave on arrival ([paper](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/rob.22597)). --- ## Fly me to the Moon! ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/09/fly-me-to-the-moon-lecture-pint-of-view-1.jpeg) I’m giving a talk with Q&A on the history and future of lunar exploration this Sunday, September 28, in Bangalore. Bring all your questions about the Moon and how we’re exploring it worldwide! You can [book tickets online](https://urbanaut.app/spot/fly-me-to-the-moon). The event is offline-only to make the audience comfortable in engaging freely with their curiosities. (Note: My honorarium for the talk is fixed regardless of the tickets sold so there are no commission incentives for sharing this.) ### Verses: Hope in desolation URL: https://jatan.space/hope-in-desolation/ Last updated: 2025-11-10T10:29:27.000Z > *Space just desolate…* > *and yet humans launch hope* > *to explore some more* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/09/long-march-2f.jpg) Image: Xinhua | See the first note at the end --- > *On our Moon* > *from where the Sun never shines,* > *a new era will dawn.* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/09/permanently-shadowed-crater-rim.jpg) The rim of the 10-kilometer-wide Erlanger crater on the Moon’s north pole. The crater floor is in permanent darkness. [Image: NASA / GSFC / ASU / LRO](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) | See the second note below --- **Poem notes:** 1. There’s nothing quite as bold and beautiful as committing to venturing the brutal colossal desolation that is space. Every (civil) space launch carries not just hardware but hope. The act of exploring the void makes humans special. 2. From “where the sun never shines” is a reference to [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) on our Moon’s poles which were discovered to host [water ice deposits](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). These could be crucial for sustained [exploration of our Moon](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) as well as the Solar System. --- *Both the haiku and the verse are part of* [***Seven uni-verses***](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/)*, my globally published poetry pamphlet.* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/share-seven-universes-poetry-qr-3.jpeg) #### Seven uni-verses (booklet) By [****Jatan Mehta**](https://jatan.space/about). Poetry on all that space evokes. [About & Read →](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/) ### Moon Monday #242: Artemis II advances, and so does Long March 10 🔥 URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-242/ Last updated: 2025-09-16T09:36:07.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/09/artemis-ii-crew-enter-orion-capsule-to-practice-operations-and-procedures.jpg) The Artemis II flight crew (in suits) and the mission closeout crew (in clean room apparel) at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida prior to test operations of the Orion lunar capsule. The flight crew from left to right: Mission Specialists [Jeremy Hansen](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronauts/canadian/active/bio-jeremy-hansen.asp) and [Christina Koch](https://www.nasa.gov/astronauts/biographies/christina-h-koch), Pilot [Victor Glover](https://www.nasa.gov/astronauts/biographies/victor-j-glover), and Commander [Reid Wiseman](https://www.nasa.gov/astronauts/biographies/reid-g-wiseman). [Image: NASA / Rad Sinyak](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-2/nasas-artemis-crew-trains-in-moonbound-orion-ahead-of-mission/) NASA’s crewed [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii) circumlunar mission targeting launch in early 2026 will see astronauts participate in multiple [advanced health monitoring experiments](https://www.nasa.gov/general/artemis-ii-crew-both-subjects-and-scientists-in-nasa-deep-space-research/). Given the scarcity of data on human health in deep space environments, the aim with the experiments is to collectively understand how the [four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) are physiologically affected by their 10-day deep space transit and its radiation influx. The [Orion capsule](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) hosting the astronauts will carry even more radiation sensors [than in Artemis I](https://jatan.space/science-on-artemis-i/#studying-deep-space-radiation-like-never-before), with a notable upgrade coming from a partnership with the German Space Agency (DLR): > NASA has again partnered the German Space Agency DLR for an updated model of their M-42 sensor—an M-42 EXT—for Artemis II. The new version offers six times more resolution to distinguish between different types of energy, compared to the Artemis I version. This will allow it to accurately measure the radiation exposure from heavy ions which are thought to be particularly hazardous for radiation risk. Artemis II will carry four of the monitors, affixed at points around the cabin by the crew. This collaboration builds on results from Artemis I [whose radiation data was evaluated](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-1/artemis-i-radiation-measurements-validate-orion-safety-for-astronauts/) by NASA, ESA, and DLR scientists last year. They found that radiation exposure to future astronauts will vary not only based on time spent at locations within the capsule but also on Orion’s orientation in space. For example, [the paper says](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07927-7) when Orion’s orientation was altered during an engine burn, exposure levels dropped nearly in half due to the highly directional nature of the radiation in the Van Allen belt. These results are supporting understanding and preparedness for radiation exposure for Artemis II crew and beyond. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/09/artemis-1-radiation-experiements.jpg) The Artemis I Orion spacecraft carried multiple radiation experiments onboard, including anatomically accurate female torsos and varied radiation sensors. [Images: Stuart George, at al. / NASA / Lockheed Martin / DLR](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07927-7/figures/1) ### More Artemis II progress On other fronts of Artemis II, NASA recently completed the new “[Mission Evaluation Room](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/orion/inside-nasas-new-orion-mission-evaluation-room-for-artemis-ii/)” to complement flight control. Said team will consist of about 48 engineers from across NASA, ESA, Lockheed Martin, and Airbus with deep knowledge of Orion’s subsystems. They will analyze technical data as the mission unfolds, assisting flight control with optimizations as well as during any anomalies. In August, the crew put on their spacesuits and headed to the launchpad to [simulate a possible nighttime launch](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2025/08/14/artemis-ii-crew-train-for-night-launch-scenarios-at-kennedy-space-center/). They also practiced an emergency escape scenario should something go wrong in the launch complex. And in July, the crew entered the [fuel-loaded](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2025/08/11/nasas-artemis-ii-orion-spacecraft-moves-closer-to-launch/) Orion [to practice activities and operations](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-2/nasas-artemis-crew-trains-in-moonbound-orion-ahead-of-mission/) they’d have to perform before launch and during the transit to Luna. This excercise had high fidelity since the crew not only used the original capsule but also put on their spacesuits and tested Orion’s interfaces while the capsule operated on full power with its communications and life control systems turned on. Next up, Orion will be integrated with its emergency escape system. In the lead up to the eventual second [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/reference/space-launch-system/) launch for Artemis II, NASA will [conduct a series of 10 integrated tests](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-2/integrated-testing-on-horizon-for-artemis-ii-launch-preparations/) over the remainder year. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/09/artemis-ii-integrated-tests-prelaunch.jpeg) The 10 integrated tests NASA will conduct in the lead up to the crewed Artemis II Moon mission launch on an SLS rocket. [Image: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-2/integrated-testing-on-horizon-for-artemis-ii-launch-preparations/) ### While Artemis III lags.. In the meanwhile, Acting NASA Administrator Sean Duffy [named](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/acting-nasa-administrator-duffy-selects-exploration-focused-associate-administrator/) Amit Kshatriya as the agency’s new Associate Administrator with the hope of accelerating the [slow progress](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-240/) of the [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/) crewed Moon landing mission. Kshatriya previously led NASA’s [Moon to Mars Program Office](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/new-program-office-leads-nasas-path-forward-for-moon-mars/) for planning and implementing Artemis missions. The slow progress of SpaceX’s human lunar landing system for Artemis III, [Lunar Starship](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon), has implied that the US will likely not meet its [self-imposed goal](https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/President-Trumps-Fiscal-Year-2026-Discretionary-Funding-Request-Overview.pdf) of “beating China” to the Moon, leading to [continued chatter](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/senators-insist-artemis-must-get-america-back-to-the-moon-before-china/) in the US Congress. The only exceptions to mere fear-mongering are seen in an [op-ed by three former Artemis leaders](https://spacenews.com/we-led-nasas-human-exploration-program-heres-what-artemis-needs-next/) and notably what former NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine—under whom Artemis was conceived—spoke at a US Senate meeting on September 3\. From Jeff Foust’s [apt summary](https://www.thespacereview.com/article/5053/1) on The Space Review: > Bridenstine, in his opening remarks, criticized that need for in-space refueling of a propellant depot. “We’ll need to launch—nobody really knows, nobody knows—but it could be up to dozens of additional Starships to refuel the first Starship,” he said. “By the way, that whole in-space refueling thing has never been tested, either.” He added that, once that depot Starship fuels the lunar lander Starship, it’s unclear how long the lander version can then loiter in lunar orbit, waiting for the crew to arrive on an SLS-launched Orion. The Acting NASA Administrator responded in anger: > That was shade thrown on all of NASA. I was angry about it. \[...\] I’ll be damned if that is the story that we write. \[...\] We are going to beat the Chinese to the Moon. Given China’s bagging of a quicker succession of [milestones in 2025](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-237/) than expected, this story may not be for the Americans to write. **Related:** [*We’re building future technologies for the Moon without closing missed milestones*](https://jatan.space/pitfalls-in-lunar-exploration/) *🕳️* The article linked above takes the longer view of sustaining [exploration of our Moon](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) through robustness of approach and collaboration. No matter who lands humans on the Moon first in this century, it’s important that we take a global view if, after all, we really are going to Luna for “humanity” as is often proclaimed. As I noted in the article on [Starship being slow to ship](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-240/): > It’ll be great to have a second nation from Earth land humans on Luna. We should be happy that we now have two distinct efforts to sustain crewed and robotic exploration of our Moon. It gives humanity a better chance to do so since a dichotomic political system can apparently only do better under a competitive mindset and [internal fear-mongering](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/08/after-recent-tests-china-appears-likely-to-beat-the-united-states-back-to-the-moon/). ## A Long March 10 booster roars thrice with Luna in sight ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/09/long-march-10a-second-static-fire-test-first-stage.jpeg) ****Left inset:** A test first stage structure of the upcoming Long March 10A rocket. See the technician humans standing beside for scale; ****Right inset:** Second static fire test run of the rocket’s seven YF-100K engines roaring in tandem. Images: [CMSA](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-%5Fvo3kI1vTU) / [CCTV / CALT](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sk2dnLGCuGs) On September 12, the China Manned Space Agency (CMSA) and the China Academy of Launch Vehicle Technology (CALT) [conducted](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/long-march-10-completes-second-static) multiple [test fires](https://weibo.com/5304666796/Q4eTUCznU?layerid=5210105949192486) for the [upcoming Long March 10 series](https://english.www.gov.cn/news/202508/15/content%5FWS689eec3dc6d0868f4e8f4dcb.html) of crew-capable rockets using a high fidelity first stage structure. This follows the [first test in August](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-238/) when they simultaneously fired the seven YF-100K high-thrust kerolox engines for 30 seconds to validate the design system, components, and materials which will power Long March 10A rockets. These will launch China’s [next-generation human spacecraft](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-230/) named Mengzhou to Earth orbit for Tiangong space station visits. To [launch humans to the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/), China will combine three Long March 10A first stages to form the core stage of the Long March 10\. This rocket—as China’s most capable—will loft a lunar [Mengzhou Y](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-230/) capsule with humans and, in a separate launch, the [Lanyue lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-237/) towards lunar orbit. The second Long March 10A booster test fire involved simultaneous roaring of the engines for longer than the first time, engine gimbaling, restarting of four engines, and then of one. The latter two modes were to test engine performance for China’s plan to recover Long March 10A boosters post launch with reentry and landing burns. The cumulative firing time in the second test was 320 seconds, an order of magnitude more than the first. CMSA noted the importance of the milestone [in its release](https://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4430261/content.html): > The move marks a breakthrough in developing the initial prototype of the Long March-10 series of carrier rockets. \[...\] This test focused on evaluating the capabilities of the seven clustered engines of the rocket's first stage for low-thrust operating condition and secondary restart condition, obtaining complete test data. To see all recent milestones hit by China in the lead up to its first crewed Moon landing aimed to be accomplished by 2030, read my review article linked below: [China’s march to the Moon 🌗](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-237/) --- *Many thanks to* [***Catalyx Space***](https://catalyx.space)*,* [***Gurbir Singh***](https://gurbir.co.uk) *and* [***Arun Raghavan***](https://arunraghavan.net) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support Moon Monday 🌙](https://jatan.space/support) --- ## More mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/09/change-7-lander-orbiter-illustration.jpg) Illustration of the Chang’e 7 lander and orbiter. [Image: CMG](https://news.cgtn.com/news/2023-06-05/China-sets-record-in-sixth-rocket-engine-trial-of-crewed-lunar-mission-1knNhdQYU6I/index.html) - In August, Thailand’s National Astronomical Research Institute (NARIT) [delivered](https://www.narit.or.th/en/NARITNews-20250830-MATCH) its \~5-kilogram [MATCH payload](https://www.narit.or.th/en/technology-development/space-system-technologies/MATCH) to CAS and CNSA. The country’s first to the Moon, MATCH will fly aboard China’s upcoming [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#the-instrumental-and-increasingly-international-7) orbiter. It will study [solar storms](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) and [cosmic rays](https://news.uchicago.edu/explainer/what-are-cosmic-rays) respectively with two instruments. CNSA aims to launch the Chang’e 7 lander-orbiter stack in late 2026\. MATCH was developed by over a dozen Thai researchers in collaboration with seven professors across Chinese scientific institutions. Thailand was the first country to sign and participate in both the Sino-led [ILRS Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/) project and the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords) \[announcements [one](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465652/n6465653/c10497120/content.html) and [two](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-welcomes-thailand-as-newest-artemis-accords-signatory/)\]. Senegal is the [only other country](https://payloadspace.com/senegal-becomes-2nd-ilrs-member-to-join-artemis-accords/) to sign both. I hope many more join. - **Related:** [*The case for India to study and exchange Chang’e lunar samples*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-241/#the-case-for-india-to-study-and-exchange-chang%E2%80%99e-lunar-samples) - ispace Europe [announced](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7846) that is has passed the milestone of “Mission Design Review” (MDR) for the [MAGPIE rover mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-228/#two-new-european-moon-missions) its leading to study lunar polar [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other such volatiles. The launch target is 2028\. The mission team involving European universities won a \~[€2.7 million ESA contract](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7621) earlier this year to collaborate with the agency for achieving the scientific goals. ispace Europe says the MDR went free of any critical blockers, allowing the project to proceed to the next phase of funding and development which will involve maturing payload designs and building prototypes. Similar to the upcoming joint ISRO-JAXA [LUPEX rover](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/) mission, MAGPIE will also feature a drill, a ground penetrating radar, and a neutron spectrometer to map and analyze lunar polar soil. ## More Moon - Riccardo Pozzobon, an instructor on ESA’s [Pangaea](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/CAVES%5Fand%5FPangaea/What%5Fis%5FPangaea) analog lunar campaign to train future astronauts, unfortunately [passed away](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2025/09/11/a-tribute-to-dr-riccardo-pozzobon/) in an accident during a recent excursion. 😔 - Blue Origin [announced](https://www.blueorigin.com/news/blue-alchemist-hits-major-milestone-toward-permanent-sustainable-lunar-infrastructure) that it has passed Critical Design Review (CDR) for its Blue Alchemist project, which involves making solar cells using silicon and metals extracted from lunar soil simulants. This milestone is part of a broader goal set in 2023, when the company [received $34.7 million](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-138/) from NASA as part of public-private *Tipping Point* contracts to build advanced lunar technologies. That broader goal is to demonstrate the autonomous operation of Blue Alchemist solar cells in a “simulated lunar environment” by 2026\. The latest CDR milestone clears the way towards achieving that goal. While Blue Alchemist is an undeniably intriguing project, the sheer complexity and scale of producing infrastructure *on the Moon* to power habitats means that at least for a decade from now, NASA’s plans for getting power—[solar](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/three-companies-to-help-nasa-advance-solar-array-technology-for-moon) and [nuclear](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-238/)—for surface activities continues to be through the annoying tradition of pulling material out of [Earth’s gruesome gravitational well](https://jatan.space/the-moon-as-a-rocket-platform/). It should be noted though that Blue Alchemist also includes systems for [extracting oxygen](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-153/) from lunar soil while getting metal byproducts so that’s valuable in itself. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/09/blue-alchemist-extracted-materials-1.jpeg) Materials such as iron, silicon, glasses, and ceramics extracted from simulated lunar soil by the electrolysis reactor part of the Blue Alchemist project. [Image: Blue Origin](https://www.blueorigin.com/news/blue-alchemist-hits-major-milestone-toward-permanent-sustainable-lunar-infrastructure) - [*Chandrayaan 4 will bring unique Moon materials—and maybe a giant scientific leap for India*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-241/) 🌓🪨 ### We’re building future technologies for the Moon without closing missed milestones URL: https://jatan.space/pitfalls-in-lunar-exploration/ Last updated: 2025-09-12T13:59:41.000Z ![A graphic from ESA showing our Moon and many points spread in orbit around it which represent a constellation of satellites.](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/09/esa-moonlight-graphic.jpg) [Image: ESA](https://www.esa.int/About%5FUs/Corporate%5Fnews/ESA%5Fadvances%5Fits%5Fplan%5Ffor%5Fsatellites%5Faround%5Fthe%5FMoon) This century has seen countries worldwide explore our Moon with new and varied technological capabilities. In recent years, Japan’s [SLIM spacecraft](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/en/missions/spacecraft/current/slim.html) achieved the world’s [most precise robotic lunar landing](https://jatan.space/precision-moon-landings-and-the-future/) while China demonstrated the first [remote docking and undocking](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-04/) of spacecraft in lunar orbit with the [Chang’e 5](https://doi.org/10.11728/cjss2024.04.2024-yg10) sample return mission. This year Firefly’s [Blue Ghost](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-218/#firefly-deserves-an-unusual-kudos) Moon lander, part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), received the first [terrestrial navigation signal fixes](https://www.asi.it/en/2025/03/lugre-achieves-historic-lunar-radionavigation-milestone/) all the way at the Moon. More such capabilities that have been demonstrated, and those which aren’t yet, need to come together for humans to build and sustain permanent outposts on our Moon for the [exploration of itself](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) and [worlds beyond](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-239/). Below is a review of advanced capabilities that Moon missions aim to demonstrate through the remainder of this decade, achieving which can—collectively—power the foundational elements of Moonbases. ## Upcoming lunar milestones - **Rover autonomy:** Safely operating most robotic rovers in the harsh environment of our Moon currently involves accepting the necessary lag of two-way Earth-Moon communications and human-in-loop decision making. But a bevy of upcoming rovers from organizations worldwide aim to demonstrate a variety of autonomous surface operations spanning navigation, exploration, and mapping to enable the next generation of expansive missions. These rovers will come from [the UAE](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-226/#firefly-to-carry-second-uae-lunar-rover-and-more), US-based [Astrobotic](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-172/#astrobotic-to-fly-cuberover-on-griffin-after-all), NASA’s [CADRE](https://www.nasa.gov/cooperative-autonomous-distributed-robotic-exploration-cadre/) group, [Australia](https://www.space.gov.au/meet-roo-ver), and [Canada](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronomy/moon-exploration/first-canadian-rover-to-explore-the-moon.asp) respectively. - **Polar solar and nuclear power:** To maximize endurance, operations time, and its effectiveness during frigid lunar nights and in harsh [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) at the Moon’s poles, NASA is investing in multiple companies to have [large & tall vertical solar panels](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/three-companies-to-help-nasa-advance-solar-array-technology-for-moon/) suited for the poles as well as [nuclear power](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-238/) in the 100-kilowatt range. - **Oxygen extraction:** Both ESA and NASA are aiming to demonstrate the ability to extract oxygen from lunar soil with the upcoming missions called [PROPSECT](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Prospect%5Fsearching%5Ffor%5Fwater%5Fat%5Fthe%5Flunar%5Fpoles) and [LIFT-1](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-153/) respectively. Future astronauts will benefit from such oxygen for breathable air, and eventually even use it as rocket fuel too. With this ability, we will no longer need to carry and drag ample oxygen out of [Earth’s gruesome gravity well](https://jatan.space/the-moon-as-a-rocket-platform/). - **Resource utilization:** China’s upcoming [Chang’e 8](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/#prepare-for-crew-and-double-down-with-mission-eight) mission aims to go one step further. It would not only melt lunar soil but also transform it via 3D printing into bricks and assemble basic structures out of them. Chang’e 8 aims to test techniques for construction of future lunar infrastructure like habitats and landing pads in the build up to the Sino-led Moonbase called the [International Lunar Research Station](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/) (ILRS). ![An illustration showing the Moon’s surface being explored by a host of landers, rovers, and humans. Seen scattered is accompanying infrastructure like solar power and communications towers.](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/09/china-russia-ilrs-moonbase.jpg) An artist’s concept showing the concept of the Sino-led ILRS Moonbase. [Image: CNSA / Roscosmos](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l2P5kFTBuOs) - **Navigation and communications:** With recent demonstrations of [automated navigation](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-222/), accurate [distance measurements](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-225/), and [low-energy orbital transfers](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-229/), China is gearing up to create the [Queqiao network of lunar satellites](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-185/) that enable Mooncraft to navigate autonomously and provide them with high-bandwidth communications independently of Earth. - **Advanced mobility:** Upcoming large rovers in the class of the [Artemis Lunar Terrain Vehicle](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-171/) will be able to explore our Moon longer, farther, and across more terrains than any rover before. It will also host astronauts during their lunar visits. - **In-space refueling:** Both SpaceX’s [Starship](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-spacex-second-contract-option-for-artemis-moon-landing-0) and Blue Origin’s [Blue Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/) spacecraft aim to refuel in Earth orbit to enable their respective plans & contracts of landing Artemis astronauts on the Moon for NASA by the end of the decade. In-space refueling would unlock large payload capacities and better spacecraft maneuverability across the Solar System. Combined with several capabilities above, it also lays the pathway for using the Moon as a [future launch base](https://jatan.space/the-moon-as-a-rocket-platform/) to other places in our Solar System. Gaining these capabilities would represent a huge feasibility leap in having permanent human or robotic outposts across the Solar System. However, these technological milestones, while necessary, are insufficient in themselves to achieve the goal. They need to work in tandem with several other technologies which have all gone unachieved in past Moon missions as listed below. ## Missing the mark - **Water ice:** Virtually all recent lunar surface and orbital missions funded by NASA have [failed to explore lunar water](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-221/) as the foundational goal of the US’ Artemis program. China’s [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#the-instrumental-and-increasingly-international-7) lander and rover, targeting launch next year, will be the first attempt by the Chinese to advance on the same. - **Safer landings:** NASA flew an [advanced LiDAR-based sensor](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/stmd/impact-story-navigation-doppler-lidar/) on Intuitive Machines’ [first CLPS Moon lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-166/) in 2024\. The mission was supposed to validate the sensor’s use in enabling autonomously safe and precise landings. But [issues with retrieving sensor data](https://arstechnica.com/space/2024/02/it-turns-out-that-odysseus-landed-on-the-moon-without-any-altimetry-data/) during the lander’s descent coupled with the hard landing did not allow said technology’s validation. - **Lunar sample ownership transfer:** In 2020, NASA [contracted three companies](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-selects-companies-to-collect-lunar-resources-for-artemis-demonstrations/) to each collect lunar soil after their respective landings and then virtually transfer its ownership to NASA. It aimed to set precedence for legal frameworks that would enable extracting and utilizing resources on the Moon and in space in the future. But the flown missions, [one by Lunar Outpost](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-216/#tipped-intuitive-mooncraft-dies-with-none-of-the-net-130-million-worth-of-payloads-deployed) and [two by ispace](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-228/), failed to operate on the Moon. The only other award was to Masten Space, who [filed for bankruptcy](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/#first-clps-mission-by-masten) in 2022 and its CLPS mission contract became void. - **Smart lunar night survival:** NASA’s [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/), whose fate is [now uncertain](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/#viper-rover-delivery-by-astrobotic), was supposed to test a technique on the Moon’s south pole of intermittently parking at pre-identified high-altitude spots where nights are shorter due to the local topography, thereby enabling the mission to last six months or more. This would allow future autonomous rovers to efficiently explore the lunar poles and its [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). Now the upcoming joint Indo-Japanese [LUPEX rover](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/) hopes to demonstrate and utilize this technique during its mission to study water ice. ![An annotated image of part of the Moon’s south pole shows a reference traverse path for NASA’s VIPER rover, which goes in and around permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/09/nasa-viper-traverse-path-moon-nobile-crater.jpg) A reference traverse path for NASA’s VIPER rover on the Moon’s south pole. [Image: NASA](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bd7ekqMrHkg) ## A pattern for lunar landing failures Those key technological milestones that we wished for have been missed because reliably landing and operating on the Moon remains hard. *About half the world’s lunar landing attempts still fail.* And most missions get delayed. As the following recent Moon landing attempts illustrate, a truly comprehensive testing regime for landers during their development is non-optional for success. - ISRO attributes Chandrayaan 3’s [triumphant touchdown](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) on the Moon principally to the [emphasis on demonstrating the lander system’s performance](https://jatan.space/kalpana-kalahasti-chandrayaan-3-nature/) down to its specifics post Chandrayaan 2’s failure. - Both of Intuitive Machines’ CLPS landers [hard-landed on the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-216/#tipped-intuitive-mooncraft-dies-with-none-of-the-net-130-million-worth-of-payloads-deployed) due to [inadequate testing](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/03/intuitive-machines-second-attempt-to-land-on-the-moon-also-went-sideways/) and [checkouts](https://spacenews.com/im-1-lunar-lander-tipped-over-on-its-side/) of their laser rangefinders. ispace Japan’s second Moon landing attempt [shared a similar fate](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-228/) this year due to [performance issues](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7671) with its laser rangefinder. - Astrobotic’s first CLPS lander Peregrine failed because of [skipping comprehensive launch environmental testing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-191/#those-pesky-valves) of its propulsion system. - In contrast, Firefly proactively [kept ample safety margins](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-215/) through terrestrial testing as well as for spaceflight deviances and anomalies to achieve the first true soft landing for NASA CLPS earlier this year. ![The Athena CLPS lander is seen lying on its side inside a shadowed crater after its hard landing. Two of its legs are visible, with the Earth half-lit hanging above in the black sky.](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/09/im-2-athena-clps-lander-on-the-lunar-surface.jpg) The Athena CLPS lander lying on its side after a hard landing, as captured from one of its navigation cameras. [Image: Intuitive Machines](https://www.flickr.com/photos/intuitivemachines/54370792577/in/photostream/) As indispensable as comprehensive testing is, another hard fact is that private companies and emerging space nations don’t have the kind of large budgets or time afforded by advanced government space agencies. This necessarily implies lesser overall redundancy in their lander designs as well as a testing regime that’s always battling cost and schedule—all leading to greater risks. Even fuel margins on privately built landers tend to be on the lower side because every kilogram of added fuel reserve would take away at least several hundred thousand dollars worth of commercial payload capacity. But alas, the closer a lander is to the surface during lunar descent, the lesser its ability to self-correct amid depleting fuel reserves. Based on these observations, the Open Lunar Foundation (a [Moon Monday](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) sponsor) [notes a fundamental issue](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/global-collaboration-moon) with this approach: > Rather than one agency attempting seven landings, a growing number of new actors are launching their first or second attempts. Instead of hard won lessons flowing freely into the next mission, knowledge is often siloed, treated as proprietary by agencies and companies, and so potentially avoidable mistakes can resurface. \[...\] Collaboration becomes critical to ensure that tens of millions of dollars of investment and years of work aren’t lost in the final seconds of flight. The more we can share data from these attempts, the more return humanity as a whole makes on these investments. The Moon is hard, but there is no reason to make it harder. Information sharing is known to [enable cutting-edge space missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-232/#information-sharing-enables-cutting-edge-lunar-exploration). Unfortunately though, there are currently no institutionalized mechanisms that do so while also scaling with the [increasing pace of Moon missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-231/) worldwide. Different states share different information at different times, in different formats, and through different channels at varying levels. Amid competition, companies remain tightfisted about sharing information even on mission aspects that aren’t sensitive to intellectual property. Information sharing and coordination is thus dispersed and limited, and not efficient for safety, sustainability, or abundant progress. If we improve it to accommodate more actors, we can compound perks for all. It’s to this end that Open Lunar has embarked upon the [Lunar Ledger](https://www.lunarledger.space/) project for companies and organizations to [reliably share technical data for the safety and success](https://jatan.space/a-registry-of-moon-missions/) of all. ![Our Earth is seen rising above the Moon’s horizon in this sharp black & white image captured by South Korea’s KPLO lunar orbiter. The lunar surface in front shows large craters spanning the scene.](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/09/earth-moon-horizon-kplo-2.jpg) Our Earth on the Moon’s horizon as imaged by South Korea’s KPLO lunar orbiter. [Image: KARI](https://www.kari.re.kr/kplo/danuri/news/newsView.do?nttId=8597&pageIndex=1&searchCnd=&searchWrd=) In parallel, the non-profit [Lunar Policy Platform](https://lunarpolicyplatform.org/about) (LPP), with funding from Open Lunar and in synergy with multilateral initiatives within [UN COPUOS](https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/copuos/index.html), started the “[Lunar Information Sharing 101](https://lunarpolicyplatform.org/informationsharing)” initiative. It has consulted over 70 representatives from 35 governments, space agencies, companies, and experts to understand converging and diverging views on when, where, and how to share lunar mission information. Open Lunar has also submitted a formal [Conference Room paper](https://www.unoosa.org/res/oosadoc/data/documents/2025/aac%5F1052025crp/aac%5F1052025crp%5F15%5F0%5Fhtml/AC105%5F2025%5FCRP15E.pdf) to COPUOS, which outlines how the [Lunar Ledger](https://www.lunarledger.space/) complements the UN’s efforts by enabling rapid, transparent data sharing among multiple types of lunar actors. Core challenges still remain in harmonizing humanity’s technological abilities [through effective collaboration](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/registry-series-2). Only then do we gain more than the sum of our parts. [Christine Tiballi](https://www.openlunar.org/christine), the Lunar Ledger Lead and a researcher with Open Lunar, highlights one such challenge in the [Lunar Compass](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/lunar-zones-blog-1): > Over the next decade and beyond, the Moon will bear witness to increasing levels of activity: the most significant and perhaps consequential loci are the Artemis Base (US-led coalition) and the China and Russia led International Lunar Research Station (ILRS). Both align signatories along mission milestones with increasing cadence and complexity, married to technological and scientific advancement, In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU), and strategies of incremental autonomy. But despite the parallel focus on standards, cooperation, and interoperability, neither explicitly states its objectives in relation to non-appropriation (permanence), nor its willingness to cooperate (beyond due regard) with the other, setting the stage for terrestrial geopolitical conflict to remain tethered to us. --- [*Originally published*](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/future-technologies) *by me on the blog of Open Lunar Foundation (a* [*Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) *sponsor) as their* [*Science Communications Lead*](https://jatan.space/joining-open-lunar-as-their-science-communications-lead/)*. The article is republished here on* [*my blog*](https://jatan.space/about) *because of its relevance to my Moon Monday readers as well as for archival.* ### Chandrayaan 4 will bring unique Moon materials—and maybe a giant scientific leap for India URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-241/ Last updated: 2026-05-01T12:33:59.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/09/chandrayaan-4-spacecraft-stacks-two-lvm3-rockets.jpg) Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) | Individual images of the LVM3 rocket, the two Chandrayaan 4 spacecraft stacks, and the Moon’s south pole: [ISRO](https://www.lpsc.gov.in/newProjects.html) / [NASA / GSFC / Timothy McClanahan / LOLA](https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/moon/nasas-lro-lunar-ice-deposits-are-widespread/) It’s been a year since [the approval](https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2055983) of ISRO’s Chandrayaan 4 mission, and ISRO has not yet provided an update on if the preliminary design review (PDR) to finalize the mission design has been completed—especially when considering that the original announcement stated 2027 as the target launch year. The word on the street from multiple sources is that Chandrayaan 4’s PDR is done or near complete but multiple media queries and follow-ups sent to ISRO continue to not be answered. That it’s the tax season in India is reminding space industry observers and participants here that ISRO doesn’t consistently share about key milestones associated with the publicly funded civil space exploration missions. The limited official information on Chandrayaan 4 remains scattered online and offline, and is even inconsistent with each other at times. As a result, it’s frequently taken and presented out of context by the media and the space industry at large, causing more misunderstandings of the mission’s goals and potential. Based on confirmed but scattered public sources, I want my readers and people worldwide to know about India’s fascinating Chandrayaan 4 mission in one convenient place. This article is thus my attempt to collate, clarify, and adequately contextualize everything we know about ISRO’s actual plans for Chandrayaan 4\. I also explain the mission’s immense scientific potential in the global context, and propose the idea of India doing a sample exchange with China and the US for the benefit of both nations and their researchers. ISRO responding to media queries would’ve helped put together a better article but here goes all that I could assemble anyway. ## The mission ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/09/chandrayaan-4-vs-3-module-stack.jpg) The elongated Chandrayaan 4 spacecraft stack of five modules (left) versus the two modules which comprised Chandrayaan 3 (right). Images: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) / [ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan%5F3%5FModule%5FDynamic%5FTests.html) Chandrayaan 4 will fetch samples from the Moon’s south pole for researchers worldwide. Now launching by 2028, the mission was approved with a budget of [₹2104 crores](https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2055983) ($252 million) last September by the Indian Government Union Cabinet following Chandrayaan 3’s [triumphant touchdown](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) on the Moon in August 2023\. Chandrayaan 4 currently aims to bring two kilograms of [scooped plus drilled](https://www.isro.gov.in/UnionCabinetApprovesIndiasMission.html) samples for scientific studies to enrich our understanding of the Moon. Using combined imagery and topographic data from the [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) and NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lro/about/), the mission’s [landing site](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-263/#chandrayaan-4-landing-site-in-sight) being evaluated is between 84-85° on the lunar south pole, which has the potential for hosting buried [water ice deposits](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). The Chandrayaan 4 mission comprises five spacecraft modules: - the lander (descender module) - the propulsion module - the ascender module - the sample transfer module - and the Earth reentry capsule module. ISRO will launch these modules in two stacks, each currently weighing about 4600 kilograms. However, each stack’s mass still lies beyond the reach of India’s current most powerful rocket, the [Launch Vehicle Mark III](https://www.isro.gov.in/GSLVmk3%5FCON.html) (LVM3), which [launched](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) Chandrayaan 3\. That’s why ISRO’s launch vehicle of choice for Chandrayaan 4 is an upgraded version of LVM3 whose core stage will be powered by the upcoming SE2000 [semi-cryogenic kerolox engine](https://www.isro.gov.in/ISRO%5Fachieves%5Fbreakthrough%5Fin%5FSemicryo%5Fengine%5Fdevelopment%5FMar%5F2025%5FFinal.html). The LVM3’s [lift capacity to GTO orbit](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-18/#increasing-mass-to-orbit-and-a-spaceplane) would then be increased from about 4200 kilograms to roughly 5000, allowing an LVM3 each to launch a Chandrayaan 4 stack while also allowing some margin for mass changes during development. ISRO has said this maxed out LVM3 rocket will be ready to fly [in 2027](https://web.archive.org/web/20250802121451/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/first-lvm3-launch-vehicle-equipped-with-semi-cryogenic-stage-slated-to-fly-in-2027/article69886681.ece). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/09/gslv-mk-iii-second-oneweb-launch-2.jpg) Liftoff of 36 OneWeb satellites on India’s LVM3 rocket in 2023\. [Image: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/LVM3M3%5Fgallery.html) During the Chandrayaan 4 mission, each spacecraft stack will be deployed in an elliptical Earth orbit. The two launches will be within a month of each other. The stacks then rendezvous and dock with each other in Earth orbit to form a full, integrated stack. The large propulsion module then raises the stack’s Earth orbit, approaching closer to the Moon and jettisoning itself post that. The remainder stack then enters lunar orbit, where the lander plus ascender module separate out for descent and land on the Moon’s south pole. A robotic arm will collect and transfer scooped plus drilled samples into a sealed container. Only the ascender module carrying these samples then lift off to lunar orbit. After docking with the stack that stayed back in lunar orbit, the samples will be transferred to the reentry capsule module to get them to Earth with a tactful reentry and oceanic splash. Having a successful mission would also mean ISRO can then leverage this docking based mission architecture for its eventual goal of [sending humans to the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/). ## Pre-Chandrayaan 4 preparations With Chandrayaan 3, one of the extended goals ISRO achieved was pulling the mission’s [propulsion module](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/science/chandrayaan-3-mission-150kg-fuel-left-in-propulsion-module-life-span-now-years/articleshow/102866268.cms) from lunar orbit back [to Earth orbit](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-157/), thereby demonstrating a small but key capability that will be required to pull off a robotic sample return with Chandrayaan 4\. One of the most complex parts of Chandrayaan 4 would be to remotely dock large robotic modules in Earth and lunar orbit. The latter is a feat only China has achieved so far with their [Chang’e 5](https://jatan.space/change-5-landing-site/) and [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) sample return missions respectively. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/09/spadex-satellites-prelaunch-photo-and-renders.jpg) Pre-launch photo and renders of the SPADEX satellites. ISRO designed the satellites such that either could act as the chaser and the other the target for docking. [Images: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/mission%5FSpaDeX.html) Because Chandrayaan 4 is a huge technological leap for India, ISRO is taking the approach of demonstrating and practicing docking satellites in Earth orbit first to reduce risks. Earlier this year, the first such milestone was accomplished when India’s $14 million SPADEX satellites successfully [docked](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-24/) and then later [undocked](https://www.isro.gov.in/spadex%5Fundocking%5Fsuccessful.html) in circular Earth orbit. ISRO continues testing dual-satellite operations and precision approaches with the satellites. [M. Sankaran](https://www.ursc.gov.in/directors/sankaran.jsp), the Director of ISRO’s key [URSC](https://www.ursc.gov.in/index.jsp) center in Bangalore—which was involved in Chandrayaan 3’s design, assembly, and testing—has [told asianetnews](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e2hGyf7--D0) that the upcoming SPADEX 2 mission will demonstrate docking in elliptical orbit, the same kind that the two Chandrayaan 4 spacecraft stacks will also need to execute. To further mimic a Chandrayaan 4 like mission scenario, the SPADEX 2 satellites and their docking ring sizes will be bigger than the first pair. SPADEX 2 has gotten mission approval from the Indian government, and is now awaiting a financial sanction. ## The scientific value of Chandrayaan 4 samples ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/09/lunar-south-pole-illumination-map-lro-perspective-view-labeled.jpg) Aggregated solar illumination map of the Moon’s south pole made from stacked observations by NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, shown in perspective view. The brightest spots are topographic highs that are maximally sunlit whereas the pitch black areas are [permanently shadowed](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/)—within which water ice deposits are thought to exist. [Image: NASA](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/271) NASA’s Apollo missions helped scientists confirm that our celestial companion [had a fiery origin](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/) tied to Earth. On the other hand, the Soviet Luna missions were the [world’s first robotic sample return missions](https://airandspace.si.edu/stories/editorial/revisiting-soviet-lunar-sample-return-missions), establishing the modern approach that fetching planetary material to Earth generates scientific results for decades. Samples fetched by China’s robotic Chang’e 5 mission confirmed that the Moon was [volcanically active and thermally complex](https://doi.org/10.11728/cjss2024.04.2024-yg10) geologically recently. And Chang’e 6 [transformed our understanding of how our Moon evolved](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-233/) thanks to the first ever samples from the [mysterious lunar farside](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). As I wrote in my article ‘[Why explore our Moon](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/)’, for us to continue piecing together the complex and nuanced origin and evolution of the Earth-Moon system, we need to continue fetching distinct geological material so that our world’s lunar samples represent more of the Moon—a trend started by Chang’e missions. We currently don’t have any samples from the lunar poles, including potential water ice or water-mixed regolith from there. It’s important to understand this [water’s sources](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/#the-search-for-lunar-water-deepens), [its abundance](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-196/), and how it is related or unrelated to [Earth’s water](https://www.planetary.org/articles/how-did-earth-get-its-water). Said knowledge is equally crucial in helping us plan sustained lunar exploration and build future [Moonbases](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/). As such, when Chandrayaan 4 brings unique lunar polar samples to Earth, it will help humanity make its first tactile advances into these fundamental open questions about our Moon, Earth, Solar System, and future in space. > *Related tangent: I’m pleased that* [*ISRO’s webpage on Chandrayaan 4*](https://www.isro.gov.in/UnionCabinetApprovesIndiasMission.html) *cites my blog as a reference for the mission’s scientific context!* 🚀 ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/09/isro-chandrayaan-4-post-references-my-blog.jpg) Screenshot of [ISRO’s webpage](https://www.isro.gov.in/UnionCabinetApprovesIndiasMission.html) on the Chandrayaan 4 and Venus Orbiter missions. --- *Many thanks to* [***Open Lunar Foundation***](https://www.openlunar.org)*,* [***Takshashila Institution***](https://takshashila.org.in/?ref=jatan.space)*,* [***PierSight***](https://piersight.space/?ref=jatan.space) *and* [***Gurbir Singh***](https://gurbir.co.uk/?ref=jatan.space) *for sponsoring this week’s special combined edition of Moon Monday and Indian Space Progress!* *If you too appreciate my efforts of putting together this curated & unique resource on Chandrayaan 4 for free, and without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support Moon Monday 🌙](https://jatan.space/support) --- ## Prepping for Chandrayaan 4 science For a nation that began planetary exploration only this century starting with [Chandrayaan 1](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/), a sample return mission will be a giant leap in scientific output. To ensure tapping into its potential though, ISRO has recognized that early preparations would be needed across the board. Some representative developments to that end are listed below. - In April, ISRO [gathered about 50 scientists](https://www.isro.gov.in/ISRO%5FNationalsciencemeet%5Fch4.html) from across India to deliberate on and help determine next steps for storage and scientific studies of lunar samples Chandrayaan 4 will fetch. - The ISRO-affiliated PRL institute conducted an in-person [inaugural workshop for students](https://metmess2024.ipsa-asso.in/assets1/img/ksc.pdf) last November to teach them via lab visits and hands-on sessions how to handle and analyze space and planetary samples. More such workshops are planned not just for students but for professional scientists across the country since realizing Chandrayaan 4 necessitates building national capacity to thoroughly prepare, store, curate, characterize, and analyze the first set of space samples fetched by India. The second such workshop is yet to take place. - An official [response](https://sansad.in/getFile/annex/268/AU2205%5FFLg2VU.pdf?source=pqars) this past August to a query put forth in the *Rajya Sabha*—loosely, the Indian equivalent to the US Senate—provides us some details on how ISRO is planning the handling and storage of Chandrayaan 4 samples: > Chandrayaan-4 mission will ensure the safe handling and storage of lunar sample to prevent contamination by transferring the leak proof sample canisters to sample curation facility with contamination control features. Establishment of Curation Facility (Class 100 & 1000 clean room environment as per ISO standard) is planned with advanced instrument\[s\] to preserve the integrity of the sample for scientific analysis. As per COSPAR (Committee on Space Research) Planetary Protection policy, lunar missions fall under the category where it does not demand stringent requirement for biological contamination. ## *The case for India to study and exchange Chang’e lunar samples* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/09/chang-e-5-lander-and-sample.jpg) ****Top:** A panorama of the Moon’s surface shot by the Chang’e 5 lander, which shows its robotic sampling arm and marks made in lunar soil by its scoop; ****Bottom:** A close look at a Chang’e 5 lunar sample, labelled CE5C0000YJYX03501GP. Images: [CLEP](https://x.com/SegerYu/status/1798688466026594539) / [CNSA](https://moon.bao.ac.cn/moonSampleMode/infoDetail.html?sampleId=CE5C0000YJYX03501GP) | Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) In April, China [announced](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-223/) the first set of international researchers whose proposals were selected to study [unique lunar samples](https://doi.org/10.11728/cjss2024.04.2024-yg10) brought to Earth by [Chang’e 5](https://jatan.space/change-5-landing-site/) in 2020\. The researchers now analyzing said samples are from universities or institutes in the UK, Japan, France, Germany, Pakistan, and even the US (through efforts [outside of NASA](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-223/)). Unfortunately, ISRO or its affiliated institutions did not participate in these sample research proposals. In fact, no non-ISRO or non-government funded Indian institute proposed Chang’e 5 sample studies either in this round. Sure, India and China aren’t on friendly terms but so aren’t US and China, and yet recognizing the scientific value of Chang’e 5 samples, NASA did [secure a remarkable exception](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-156/) to the Wolf Amendment from the US Congress for the country’s researchers to be able to apply for federally funded Chang’e sample research proposals. While the latter outcome remains blocked from the US’ own side, getting the Congressional exception was the first big step in the right direction. India doesn’t have a Wolf Amendment of its own, and so no major legal blockers exist for national research institutes or otherwise to study Chang’e samples. Besides, India and China do have relations & interactions for trade, economic growth, infrastructure contracts, and several technologies out of necessity for both nations. So why should science be the one excluded of all things? Several Indian scientists, like those at the ISRO-affiliated PRL institute, have already studied Apollo and Luna samples. They have analyzed asteroid samples too. As such, Indian researchers stand to benefit from studying the geologically young and unique Chang’e 5 samples as well by publishing varied and more current work. Notably, doing so would also naturally open windows for the national scientific community to access Chang’e 6 samples in the future, which are [even more diverse and valuable](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-233/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/09/materials-within-chang-e-6-lunar-farside-samples.jpeg) A close look at scooped lunar farside samples brought to Earth by China’s Chang’e 6 mission. They contain a diversity of stony, volcanic, impact-induced, and glassy materials. [Images: Chunlai Li, et al.](https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwae328) Even more crucially perhaps, going through the logistical process of proposing Chang’e sample studies and then getting & storing them would provide India with a good programmatic sense of the kinds of things that it would also need to do to share Chandrayaan 4 samples when our time comes. This experience would span an obviously indirect yet nuanced sense of [China’s storage facilities](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-201/), initial characterization and cataloging of samples, their transport systems, and so on. Sure, India could also pick up things from how NASA manages Apollo samples but that system is utterly expensive, having been made in a different era of budgetary freedom during the Cold War. In contrast, the scale and scope of China’s [lunar sample facilities](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-201/) are more in reach for India to replicate. And they are modern too. There’s no harm in seeking inspiration from the only other facility on Earth that concerns the same celestial body and is also closest in scope to what India desires for Chandrayaan 4\. I hope Indian research proposals make their way into the second round of international Chang’e 5 sample studies. While geopolitical hesitation may keep this prospect a dream, it’s worth noting that in the meanwhile China did [formally welcome India](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-225/) to cooperate on Moon missions and the Sino-led [ILRS Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/) project this past May. The invitation came from none other than Wu Weiren, the Chief Designer of China’s extremely successful lunar program. In fact, Indian scientists applying for Chang’e sample studies can be an enabler of even more valuable scientific exchanges with the Chinese. One of these could be a literal sample exchange, a mechanism known to [work very well in the past](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/leag2021/pdf/5045.pdf) and [present](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3218138/chinas-lunar-sample-gifts-france-russia-have-scientists-over-moon) worldwide—such as the recent [asteroid sample swap](https://cosmos.isas.jaxa.jp/comparing-pieces-of-our-past-grains-from-asteroid-bennu-arrive-from-nasa/) between the US and Japan. With Chandrayaan 4 lunar samples in hand, ISRO should initiate a sample exchange program with China and the US, swapping Chang’e and Artemis samples respectively for the also uniquely valuable Chandrayaan 4 Moon materials. With this program, all three nations will benefit in terms of their scientific outputs while India also gets better geopolitical leverage and China further improves its international relations. A win-win for all, and for humanity. Indian and Chinese space researchers have an opportunity to interact, exchange ideas, and consider future collaborations at the [International Lunar Sample Research Symposium](http://ilsrs.org) being hosted by the University of Hong Kong this November. I sincerely hope that ISRO is sending, or is at least considering sending, some of its researchers to this science-focused symposium for mutual benefit. In turn, realizing such proposed collaborations and building trust in the process could be the start of many more synergies between India and China at the Moon. ![A red Moon as seen during the total lunar eclipse of September 7, 2025 from Bangalore, India. The red Moon stands out against the black sky while a large grey cloud lying beneath spans half the view diagonally, enhancing the contrasting effect.](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/09/lunar-eclipse-duotone.jpeg) A contrasting view of the total lunar eclipse of September 7, 2025 as seen from Bangalore, India. [Image: Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) > *On our Moon* > *from where the Sun never shines,* > *a new era will dawn.* > *–* [*Jatan*](https://jatan.space/about) ### No, Starship’s latest success doesn’t favor the US over China in landing humans on Luna | Moon Monday #240 URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-240/ Last updated: 2025-09-01T12:08:13.000Z *A note before we start: A warm welcome to the new wave of subscribers coming from* [*Fraser Cain’s recommendation*](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pygx-mseIZY&t=1022s) *of my blog & newsletter on his YouTube channel. It made my day—especially because I’ve been reading and inspired by* [*Universe Today*](https://www.universetoday.com) *since I was in college. I hope you find my writings on space exploration and our Moon useful. You may want to* [*start here*](https://jatan.space/start/)*.* 💫 ![A surface-oxidized, powered Starship upper stage from SpaceX’s IFT-10 flight is seen here approaching the Indian ocean shortly before splashdown during local morning.](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/09/starship-ift-10-upper-stage-before-splashdown.jpg) The surface-oxidized Starship IFT-10 upper stage shortly before splashdown. [Image: SpaceX](https://x.com/SpaceX/status/1961165064666312956) Following [three](https://spacenews.com/starship-breaks-up-on-reentry-after-loss-of-attitude-control/) [back-to-back](https://spacenews.com/starship-upper-stage-lost-on-seventh-test-flight/) [failures](https://arstechnica.com/science/2025/03/the-starship-program-hits-another-speed-bump-with-second-consecutive-failure/) this year and an [explosion of a test pad](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-230/#another-blowup-for-artemis), SpaceX finally had a [largely successful integrated test flight](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/08/spacex-bounces-back-with-a-starship-test-flight-that-ended-on-a-buoyant-note/) (IFT) of Starship on August 26\. Called IFT-10, the flight achieved all of its primary goals across deployment of simulated Starlink satellites, heat shield tests, and precise core & upper stage splashdowns. In 2021, NASA [selected](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) Starship’s lunar variant for landing Artemis astronauts on the Moon in 2024\. Over and above previous delays, this year’s failures of Starship have significantly slowed down progress along the long road ahead for NASA to put humans on the Moon on [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/). But now the success of IFT-10 has somehow led many in the US space industry to hope that said Moon moment will take place before China [lands crew](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/) as its own goal by 2030\. In fact, Stephen Clark [reports](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/08/with-starship-spacex-encounters-an-obstacle-that-haunted-nasas-space-shuttles/) NASA’s Acting Administrator Sean Duffy confidently noting SpaceX President and COO Gwynne Shotwell as saying that Starship won’t be the holdup for Artemis III. However, the fact is no other system involved in either [Artemis](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-link-list/#usa) or [China’s architecture](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/) is nearly as complex as Starship. While the Artemis [Moonsuits from Axiom Space](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-198/) have been facing its own delays, the technological advances needed there over existing spacesuits aren’t as wide as Starship’s would be compared to traditional rockets. It’s only now that SpaceX has managed to get the upper stage heat shield to perform well enough. It’s no doubt a challenging task but nevertheless only one of the many key milestones needed to achieve the goal of landing humans on the Moon. Next up, SpaceX also needs to be able to: - have lofted Starships return to launchpads by default - refurbish Starships fast enough - consistently deploy payloads in Earth orbit - perform cryogenic fuel transfers between upper stages in Earth orbit - and, later during Moon missions, avoid having that cryogenic fuel boil off in lunar orbit and on the Moon’s surface while waiting for and hosting astronauts. That’s why Lunar Starship needs a [high launch cadence for adequate in-orbit refueling](https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/11/what-nasa-wants-to-see-from-spacexs-second-starship-test-flight). But it will [take several more Starship test launches](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/08/spacex-got-good-heat-shield-data-for-starship-so-what-comes-next/) before we can even get a baseline demonstration of in-orbit fuel transfer, a milestone already delayed by a year since its previously intended target. In July 2024, Jeff Foust [had reported](https://spacenews.com/nasa-assessment-suggests-potential-additional-delays-for-artemis-3-lunar-lander/) that an internal confirmation review conducted by NASA on Lunar Starship’s readiness gave Artemis III a 70% chance of launch by February 2028\. It’s been over a year since, and with the earlier failures of Starship this year, the launch target has already moved to the right even if NASA may stick to calling 2027 as the official year. In fact, we don’t even have a firm launch target for the uncrewed Starship lunar landing demonstration, which needs to be successful before SpaceX is allowed to carry Artemis astronauts. Simply put, NASA’s road to the Moon has been inching through Starship. In the meanwhile, China has bagged a quicker succession of [milestones in 2025](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-238/) than expected across [its Moon rocket](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-238/), the [crew capsule](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-230/), the [lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-237/), and supporting [navigation and communications infrastructure](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-229/). China’s track record this century of nearly no failures despite undertaking increasingly complex lunar missions has been exceptional. Barring a major failure or technical holdup in any of China’s crewed lunar landing components, there’s little reason to doubt a Sino success. ![Three images show a Moon lander test structure from China held in a suspension tower system, which offloads Earth’s gravity on the lander to simulate its lunar touchdown with propulsion system tests.](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/09/china-lanyue-crewed-lander-mockup-propulsion-gnc-test.jpeg) Shots from the control systems test of China’s Lanyue lander design for crewed Moon missions. The full-scale lander mockup is seen next to humans in the inset image at the bottom right. Images: [CASC](https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/xywWynVaOQrTpWbKtHfveg) / [CMSA](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LKNt3dCUvjU) | Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) Given the numerous milestones left for Starship to land humans on the Moon compared to the relatively fewer gaps for China to fill, the US will likely not meet its [self-imposed goal](https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/President-Trumps-Fiscal-Year-2026-Discretionary-Funding-Request-Overview.pdf) of “beating China” to the Moon. Either way, it’ll be great to have a second nation from Earth land humans on Luna. We should be happy that we now have two distinct efforts to sustain crewed and robotic [exploration of our Moon](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/). It gives humanity a better chance to do so since a dichotomic political system can apparently only do better under a competitive mindset and [internal fear-mongering](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/08/after-recent-tests-china-appears-likely-to-beat-the-united-states-back-to-the-moon/). ***Related articles:*** - [*How China has an edge over the US in sustaining future crewed Moon missions*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-229/) - [*How Western media narratives of Chinese lunar activities misjudge capabilities and intent*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-229/#a-problem-with-western-media-narratives-of-chinese-space) ## More Artemis updates ![Multiple people working on consoles in a space-mission-control like room at a NASA facility.](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/09/artemis-ii-orion-mission-evaluation-room.jpg) The newly setup Orion Mission Evaluation Room at NASA’s Johnson Space Center in Houston. Team members are seen here working during a simulated Artemis II mission on August 19, 2025\. [Image: NASA / Rad Sinyak](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/orion/inside-nasas-new-orion-mission-evaluation-room-for-artemis-ii/) - NASA continues preparations to launch the crewed [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii) circumlunar mission in early 2026, with [the latest update](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/orion/inside-nasas-new-orion-mission-evaluation-room-for-artemis-ii/) being the completion of the new “Mission Evaluation Room” to complement flight control. Said team will consist of about 48 engineers from across NASA, ESA, Lockheed Martin, and Airbus with deep knowledge of subsystems comprising the crew’s [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft). They will analyze technical data from the 10-day mission as it unfolds, assisting flight control with optimizations as well as during any anomalies. In the lead up to the Artemis II launch, NASA will [conduct a series of 10 integrated tests](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-2/integrated-testing-on-horizon-for-artemis-ii-launch-preparations/) over the remainder year. - NASA has built a new system to test hardware components in a simulated environment which replicates the frigid vacuum conditions of the harsh lunar night and many [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/). Uniquely combining cryocoolers and vacuum setups, the system called the [Lunar Environment Structural Test Rig](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/glenn/lunar-environment-structural-test-rig/) (LESTR) allows testing components—like small rover wheels—at temperatures as low as -233° C amid a dry vacuum similar to what hardware will experience on the Moon. NASA says LESTR’s architecture is scalable, meaning it lays the groundwork for advancing testing of technologies for future, increasingly complex Artemis missions. - ***Related articles:*** - [*How engineers test Moon landers on Earth*](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-moon-landers/) - [*Europe’s LUNA test facility brings Moon vibes on Earth*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-195/) --- *Many thanks to* [***The Orbital Index***](https://orbitalindex.com) *and* [***Matt Ryall***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/mattryall) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support Moon Monday 🌙](https://jatan.space/support) --- ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/09/lupex-lander-rover-illustration.jpg) Illustration of the Chandrayaan 5 lander and LUPEX rover. [Image: JAXA / ISRO](https://humans-in-space.jaxa.jp/en/biz-lab/tech/lupex/) - On August 29, teams led by the Prime Ministers of India and Japan respectively [signed](https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2025/Aug/29/india-japan-ink-pact-for-chandrayaan-5-to-explore-moon-together) the implementing arrangement for the joint ISRO-JAXA [Chandrayaan 5 / LUPEX](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/) Moon mission intended to launch by the end of the decade. This phase follows the mission’s financial approval by India in March \[Japan approved years ago\] and the third [in-person technical interface meeting](https://www.isro.gov.in/ISRO%5FJAXA%5FCH5%5FTechnical%5FInterface%5FMeet.html) between mission members from the two agencies in May. The Chandrayaan 5 / LUPEX mission will drill and analyze [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s south pole and be a giant leap in lunar capabilities for both ISRO and JAXA. It can also provide NASA with data critical for Artemis planning currently [missing from US missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-221/). - The NASA-supporting-and-enabled Lunar Exploration Analysis Group (LEAG) is looking for volunteers for [multiple positions](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag/committee/application-process/) in its Executive Committee and related roles. ## Even more Moon! Last week I published a linked list of unique ways in which [our Moon is valuable even beyond itself](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-239/). In there, I also asked if any aspect is missing, and that was indeed the case. I’ve updated the post with two more points: - The [lunar regolith has a layered record](https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2019.0562) of our dynamic Sun over the last 2+ billion years, and the interstellar mediums and environments our Solar System passed through in that time - [Studying moonquakes and the lunar interior](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-199/) helps us understand the origin and evolution of solid surface planets & moons across our Solar System and beyond Many thanks to planetary scientists [Ian Crawford](https://www.bbk.ac.uk/our-staff/profile/8004655/ian-crawford) and [Clive Neal](https://www3.nd.edu/~cneal/) for these suggestions. 🌙 ### Our Moon is valuable even beyond itself | Moon Monday #239 URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-239/ Last updated: 2026-07-20T10:55:55.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/08/farside-moon-and-earth-change-5-t1.jpg) Our Earth and Moon as captured from beyond the lunar farside by China’s Chang’e 5 T1 test spacecraft in 2014\. [Image: CAST](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/earth-and-the-moon-from-change5t1) Very few people know that our serene, silvery cosmic companion’s value lies even beyond the [exploration of itself](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/). That’s why I’ve been sharing and writing about various such aspects too and their relevance on my blog and beyond. However, I realized I never brought it all together in one place. Today I’m fixing that. Take a look at these fantastic propositions our Moon offers. Who knows it might be useful during some policy debrief when people want to choose between the Moon and Mars based on logical fallacies tied to mutual exclusions? Our Moon is valuable even beyond itself: - As a [unique platform for radio cosmology](http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/May21/radio-astronomy-from-Moon.html) to study the Cosmological Dark Ages from the Moon’s farside - To [repurpose Moon missions for enabling deep space exploration](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-193/) - For leveraging Luna’s unique vantage point to [monitor our Sun and its wind](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-22/#a-sun-watcher-at-the-moon) - As a [geological time capsule](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) and an [age reference](https://www.planetary.org/articles/0401-the-lunar-chronology) for Earth and events across the Solar System - By [studying moonquakes and the lunar interior](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-199/) to understand the origin and evolution of solid surface planets & moons across our Solar System and beyond - As a well known, nearby reference body to [calibrate imagers](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-232/#more-moon) and [radar systems](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-235/#a-moon-catalyzed-jupiter-update) for Earth observation as well as planetary exploration - For performing [some of the most stringent tests of Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity](https://doi.org/10.12942/lrr-2010-7) using deployed retroreflectors - As a [good proxy of unprotected solar and radiation](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-162/#a-gist-of-gateway-science) in deep space environments to enable future human exploration of our Solar System - Its [regolith being a layered record](https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2019.0562) of our dynamic Sun over the last 2+ billion years, and the interstellar mediums and environments our Solar System passed through in that time - Enabling an [exclusive set of gravitational wave studies](https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2508.11631) of highly energetic cosmic body collisions not possible to conduct from Earth or elsewhere in our Solar System - As a unique astronomy platform to [study magnetospheres associated with exoplanets](https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2019.0564) that are galactically-nearby and potentially habitable - Perhaps, as a [future launch base](https://jatan.space/the-moon-as-a-rocket-platform/) to other places in our Solar System Related recommendations: [Book: Our Moon 🌗 by Rebecca Boyle](https://rebeccaboyle.com/our-moon-how-earths-celestial-companion-transformed-the-planet-guided-evolution-and-made-us-who-we-are/) [Whitepaper 📃: Why sustain Moon exploration](https://baas.aas.org/pub/2021n4i401/release/1) There might be a few more aspects that I’m missing and [would love to know](https://jatan.space/connect) about it from you! **Edit:** Many thanks to planetary scientists [Ian Crawford](https://www.bbk.ac.uk/our-staff/profile/8004655/ian-crawford) and [Clive Neal](https://www3.nd.edu/~cneal/) for two suggestions which I’ve incorporated. 🌙 Taken together, the above aspects in themselves constitute a clear rationale not just for exploring our Moon but also standing up for [its preservation](https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/stsc/2024/ListTechnicalPresentations/2024%5FSTSC%5Ftechnical%5Fpresentations%5Fslides/R%5FGreen%5FLunar%5Ffor%5FSTSC%5F24.pdf) against pure commercialization and national or private claims of ownership—especially so when it’s the same kinds of exploratory technologies that both enable many of these observations and can eventually destroy them. ## Science does not exist in a (lunar) vacuum ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/08/magma-ocean-and-solidifying-crust-on-the-early-moon.jpg) An artist's concept of the Moon shortly after its formation, with a mag­ma ocean and a newly forming rocky crust. [Image: NASA Goddard](https://www.dlr.de/content/en/articles/news/2020/03/20200710%5Fa-slightly-younger-moon.html) NASA’s Apollo missions helped us confirm that our celestial companion [had a fiery origin](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/) tied to Earth. Soviet Luna missions were the [world’s first robotic sample return missions](https://airandspace.si.edu/stories/editorial/revisiting-soviet-lunar-sample-return-missions), establishing the modern approach that fetching planetary material to Earth generates scientific results for decades. India’s Chandrayaan 1 orbiter [discovered water on the Moon](https://jatan.space/how-nasa-and-chandrayaan-discovered-water-on-the-moon/), revealing a dynamic lunar environment and catalyzing [global interest in lunar exploration](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-231/). Japan’s SELENE orbiter extensively mapped the Moon and found [openings to long underground lava tubes](https://doi.org/10.1029/2009GL040635). Samples fetched by China’s Chang’e 5 mission confirmed that the Moon was [volcanically active and thermally complex](https://doi.org/10.11728/cjss2024.04.2024-yg10) geologically recently. And Chang’e 6 [transformed our understanding of how our Moon evolved](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-233/) thanks to the first ever farside lunar samples. These are profound discoveries that tie back to the history of Earth and potentially its water. The scientific exploration of our Moon has been a microcosm of what humans globally are cumulatively capable of. And it promises more still as a unique platform for [radio cosmology](http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/May21/radio-astronomy-from-Moon.html), [solar sciences](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-22/#a-sun-watcher-at-the-moon), unraveling the [complex history of our Solar System](https://jatan.space/solar-system-history-101/), and more. But with increasing Moon missions, [harsh lunar dust](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-180/) that can go orbital, [congestion and lack of regulation](https://jatan.space/a-registry-of-moon-missions/) in lunar orbit, the lunar south pole becoming a [region of convergence and potential contest](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/as-moon-missions-mount-globally-we-need-to-preserve-future-exploration-and-science) for technology, mining, infrastructure, and habitat development, and the changing geopolitical environment on Earth, our Moon’s scientific value as an [extraordinarily unique time capsule](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) could become increasingly inaccessible and gated. That’s why the non-profit [Lunar Policy Platform](https://lunarpolicyplatform.org/foundation) (LPP), with support from the [Open Lunar Foundation](https://www.openlunar.org/) (a Moon Monday sponsor), consulted key scientific organizations like [COSPAR](https://cosparhq.cnes.fr/) and the [International Astronomical Union](https://www.iau.org/) (IAU) as well as universities and research centers worldwide to understand nuances of the situation. In the [ensuing guide](https://lunarpolicyplatform.org/science), LPP finds that because science doesn’t exist in a vacuum, the intersection of national, commercial, technological, and strategic objectives means there’s no single way forward to accommodate the scientific pursuits of all. In the project’s [key takeaways](https://spacewatch.global/2025/07/spacewatchgl-opinion-one-moon-many-interests-can-we-make-space-for-all/) shared before the guide’s impending public availability, LPP noted a concluding remark pertinent to preserving lunar science for all: > As lunar development accelerates, it’s tempting to fall back on familiar scripts: that science is neutral, that preservation requires exclusion, and that responsible actors will defer to experts. But the Moon is not just a research site. It’s a commons. \[...\] We can design governance tools that protect fragile sites without prioritising any one specific activity. Shared-use protocols, adaptive zoning, and rotational access are all terrestrially tested mechanisms that could allow multiple actors to coexist. \[...\] The challenge is to find that shared margin, ensure that protection does not entrench inequality, and that managed access does not become a proxy for power plays. *This section was originally published by me on the* [*blog*](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/lunar-collaboration) *&* [*newsletter*](https://www.openlunar.org/newsletter) *of Open Lunar Foundation (a Moon Monday sponsor) as their* [*Science Communications Lead*](https://jatan.space/joining-open-lunar-as-their-science-communications-lead/)*.* ## Key mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/08/long-march-5-chang-e-6-launch-altered-mission-trajectory.jpeg) ****Left:** Launch of the Chang’e 6 lunar sample return mission by a Long March 5 rocket from Wenchang, Hainan island on May 3, 2024; ****Center:** Drop zone of the rocket’s payload fairing near the Philippine Sea before and after (red and green boxes) CNSA made mission profile modifications; ****Right:** The Chang’e 6 lunar lander’s descent & ascent trajectories for prograde and retrograde orbits (red and yellow arcs) so as to reach the targeted landing site on the Moon’s farside for its [immense scientific value](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-233/). Image: [CNSA / Xinhua](https://english.news.cn/20240503/12266387c16d4859a376bf5cbddc1798/c.html) / [GUO Zhilei et al.](https://english.news.cn/20240503/12266387c16d4859a376bf5cbddc1798/c.html) - Ling Xin [reports](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3322331/how-philippines-forced-china-adjust-historic-mission-moons-far-side) that due to the Philippines government [voicing issues](https://www.leonarddavid.com/dumping-grounds-chinas-back-to-back-launches-heightens-philippine-space-agency-angst/) against China’s rocket stages entering their sovereign territories at sea, CNSA had to redesign the launch and flight trajectories of the [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) mission which successfully [fetched samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-201/) from the Moon’s farside last year. The report is based on the [technical paper](https://dx.doi.org/10.3873/j.issn.1000-1328.2025.07.007) published in the Journal of Astronautics by the mission designers themselves, which provides interesting graphs as well. In particular, the mission profile modifications stretched Chang’e 6’s Moonward journey from 23 days to 53 days while narrowing the window for touching down within the primary landing region on the Moon’s farside. The landing region was not to be changed owing to its [immense scientific value](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-233/). At the end, everything has gladly worked out. - Astrobotic [announced](https://www.astrobotic.com/lunagrid-lite-completes-critical-design-review-flight-model-underway/) that its “LunaGrid-Lite” lunar surface power transfer demonstration mission targeting a 2026 launch has passed the Critical Design Review phase ahead of flight model build and assembly. As part of [public-private *Tipping Point* contracts](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-138/) in 2023, NASA awarded Astrobotic [$34.6 million](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-wins-34-6m-for-power-demo-mission-on-the-moon) for this mission. After landing, the company’s tethered [CubeRover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-93/#meet-the-versatile-cuberover-from-astrobotic)—itself supported by a [$5.8 million](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/solicitations/tipping%5Fpoints/2020%5Fselections) *Tipping Point* contract—will unreel about 500 meters of high-voltage, 1 kilowatt power line across the surface. The demonstration will be a test for [LunaGrid](https://www.astrobotic.com/lunar-delivery/lunar-surface-power/), wherein Astrobotic aims to commercially deliver power to enable hardware and rovers on the Moon’s poles to survive the [poorly lit terrain](https://www.nasa.gov/ames/feature/the-dark-side-of-the-crater-how-light-looks-different-on-the-moon-and-what-nasa-is-doing) and frigid nights. Concerning another piece that would be part of LunaGrid, Astrobotic [said in May](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-lunar-wireless-charger-system-qualified-for-flight/) that it has completed the standard but critical set of [space environmental tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-moon-landers/) for its [wireless charging system](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-96/#astrobotic-reveals-plans-for-first-ever-power-grid-on-the-moon) for hardware operating on the Moon. Also related is the company’s development of the [also NASA-funded](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/three-companies-to-help-nasa-advance-solar-array-technology-for-moon) 20-meter tall, retractable polar solar arrays and its [newly picked up larger cousin](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-developing-xl-solar-array-tech-for-lunar-power-infrastructure/). These are aimed to be deployed on [maximally sunlit sites](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/271) at the Moon’s south pole. --- *Many thanks to* [***Catalyx Space***](https://catalyx.space)*,* [***Alexandra Witze***](http://alexandrawitze.com) *and* [***Gurbir Singh***](https://gurbir.co.uk) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support Moon Monday 🌙](https://jatan.space/support) ### Moon Monday #238: The long march to Luna continues URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-238/ Last updated: 2025-08-18T11:55:38.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/08/long-march-10a-static-fire-test-first-stage.jpg) ****Left inset:** A test first stage structure of the upcoming Long March 10A rocket. See the technician humans standing beside for scale; ****Right inset:** Static fire test of its seven YF-100K engines roaring in tandem. [Images: CMSA / CCTV / CALT](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-%5Fvo3kI1vTU) On August 15, the China Manned Space Agency (CMSA) and the China Academy of Launch Vehicle Technology (CALT) [conducted a 30-second static fire test](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/long-march-10-roars-to-life-in-wenchang) for the [upcoming Long March 10 series](https://english.www.gov.cn/news/202508/15/content%5FWS689eec3dc6d0868f4e8f4dcb.html) of crew-capable rockets using a high fidelity first stage structure. China has thus now successfully simultaneously fired the seven YF-100K high-thrust kerolox engines to validate the design system, components, and materials which will power Long March 10A rockets to launch its [next-generation human spacecraft](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-230/) named Mengzhou to Earth orbit. China will combine three such first stages to form the core stage of the Long March 10, which will [launch humans to the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/). Notably, the test was conducted at [the same launch complex](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/tianwen-2-probe-near-launch-new-life) in Wenchang which China will use for said crewed Moon missions. [Unlike the US Artemis efforts](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-230/#another-blowup-for-artemis), the Chinese have been [consistently hitting milestones](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-237/) in the lead up to its [first crewed Moon landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/) aimed to be accomplished by 2030\. The article linked below provides a review of all such recent milestones. [China’s march to the Moon 🌗](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-237/) > *On our Moon* > *from where the Sun doesn’t shine,* > *a new era will dawn.* > *–* [*Jatan*](https://jatan.space/about) ## NASA un-nukes its decision to steer away from using nuclear power on the Moon Right after [the US Presidential NASA budget request](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-227/) for FY2026 [noted](https://www.nasa.gov/fy-2026-budget-request/) that the agency will focus on “advanced non-nuclear power in support of lunar and Mars missions”, NASA through its new Acting Administrator Sean Duffy has now [announced](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/glenn/nasa-seeks-industry-feedback-on-fission-surface-power/) a [Request for Information](https://sam.gov/workspace/contract/opp/ff7181661cb94e6fa0fb14ca89013730/view) asking the industry to design a 100-kilowatt-plus nuclear fission power system with a mass less than 15,000 kilograms that can be ready to launch by 2030 to use on the Moon’s surface for a decade. NASA’s [previous $15 million award](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-announces-artemis-concept-awards-for-nuclear-power-on-moon/) in 2022 distributed equally to three companies was for such systems with \~40 kilowatts of electrical power. The agency’s driving rationale is that nuclear systems enable missions to operate continually through the long and frigid lunar nights, and in [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) on the poles where the [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) is. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/08/zeno-nuclear-powered-rover-concept.jpeg) Concept image showing Zeno’s nuclear electrical power system being used on a lunar rover. [Image: Zeno Power](https://www.zenopower.com/news/nasa-selects-zeno-to-lead-team-to-develop-radioisotope-power-system-for-lunar-applications) Missing from NASA’s latest announcement is any mention of Zeno Power, which [raised $50 million](https://www.zenopower.com/news/zeno-power-raises-50-million-series-b-to-power-defense-space-and-beyond) earlier this year, a major chunk of which is going towards developing and demonstrating the company’s [nuclear electric power system](https://spacenews.com/nasa-selects-companies-to-advance-lunar-power-and-other-technologies) on the Moon for NASA by 2027\. NASA’s now-former Chief Technologist A. C. Charania [recently joined Zeno](https://www.zenopower.com/news/zeno-names-former-nasa-chief-technologist-charania-as-svp) as Senior Vice President of Space Business Development. As part of public-private *Tipping Point* contracts in 2023, NASA [awarded $15 million](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-138/) to Project Harmonia, a team led by Zeno Power which includes two lunar surface delivery vendors from the agency’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/): Blue Origin and Intuitive Machines. Project Harmonia aims to demonstrate a radioisotope generator using a Stirling engine instead of traditional thermocouples to convert radioactive heat into electrical power. The system will use the Americium-241 isotope, which is more readily available than the conventionally used Plutonium-238\. As such, Zeno would very likely participate in this old-not-new initiative from NASA. --- *Many thanks to* [***The Orbital Index***](https://orbitalindex.com) *and* [***Vinayak Vadlamani***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/vinayakvadlamani/) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support Moon Monday 🌙](https://jatan.space/support) --- ## Artemis updates - NASA continues preparations to launch the [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii) Moon mission in 2026\. The [latest test](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2025/08/14/artemis-ii-crew-train-for-night-launch-scenarios-at-kennedy-space-center/) involved [its crew](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) putting on their spacesuits and heading to the launchpad to simulate a possible nighttime launch. They also practiced an emergency escape scenario should something go wrong in the launch complex. In the meanwhile, technicians at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida [completed fueling the crew’s Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2025/08/11/nasas-artemis-ii-orion-spacecraft-moves-closer-to-launch/). Next up, Orion will be integrated with its emergency escape system. In the lead up to the Artemis II launch, NASA will [conduct a series of 10 integrated tests](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-2/integrated-testing-on-horizon-for-artemis-ii-launch-preparations/) over the remainder year. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/08/artemis-ii-integrated-tests-prelaunch.jpeg) The 10 integrated tests NASA will conduct in the lead up to the crewed Artemis II Moon mission launch on an SLS rocket. [Image: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-2/integrated-testing-on-horizon-for-artemis-ii-launch-preparations/) - As Firefly continues building its [second](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-226/#firefly-to-carry-second-uae-lunar-rover-and-more), [third](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/more-nasa-science-tech-will-fly-to-moon-aboard-future-firefly-flight/), and [fourth](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-236/) CLPS Moon landing missions as well as an [orbital imaging service](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-230/#the-silver-ocula-to-fill-some-gaps-for-nasa), the company is hiring a [Deputy Chief Engineer](https://fireflyspace.com/careers/?keywords=deputy&jobId=0DC9A238-C570-BB49-F093-91CAF224EB67#jobopenings). - Leonard David [reports](https://www.space.com/astronomy/moon/new-lunar-surface-simulator-in-colorado-puts-moon-machinery-to-the-test) that as part of NASA’s Lunar Surface Technology Research ([LuSTR](https://www.nasa.gov/lunar-surface-technology-research-lustr/)) program, the Colorado School of Mines has built a large simulated lunar surface facility to enable testing of rovers and other lunar hardware designs. The testbed contains over 100,000 kilograms of lunar soil simulant. [More Artemis & CLPS updates →](https://jatan.space/tag/artemis/) ### Notable nuances about NISAR and how it flows into planetary science for NASA and ISRO | Indian Space Progress #30 URL: https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-30/ Last updated: 2025-08-16T14:30:40.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/08/nisar-launch-testing-photos-and-orbit-illustration.jpeg) ****Left inset image:** The July 30 launch of NISAR on an ISRO GSLV Mk II rocket; ****Right inset image:** NISAR’s two radar systems from NASA and ISRO respectively being tested at ISRO’s compact antenna test facility in Bengaluru, India; ****Background image:** Illustration of NISAR in Earth orbit with its large 12-meter antenna deployed. Images: [ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/Mission%5FGSLVF16%5FNISAR%5FGallery.html) / [JPL](https://images.nasa.gov/details/PIA26115) / [NASA](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasa-isro-mission-will-map-farmland-from-planting-to-harvest/) The [July 30 launch](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-isro-satellite-lifts-off-to-track-earths-changing-surfaces/) of the [NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/nisar/) (NISAR) spacecraft has put the first dual frequency radar system on a free-flying Earth observation satellite, with the longer wavelength L-band SAR coming from NASA and the complementary shorter S-band system from ISRO. Much has been covered about how over the next three years, these [all-weather radar systems](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/nisar/get-to-know-sar/) will repeatedly [observe physical changes on Earth](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/nisar/5-things-to-know-about-powerful-new-u-s-india-satellite-nisar/) from a polar orbit at the finest scales while also touting the broadest, most time-consistent, and fully free global coverage so far. And so I won’t get into those same details in this article and instead let you look at some notable nuances about NISAR, and how it makes its way into planetary exploration as well. ## At the heart of NISAR Let’s start with the [origin story of NISAR](https://www.eoportal.org/satellite-missions/nisar#background). Over a decade ago, NASA was formulating the L-band based [DESDynI mission](https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/pdf/10.2514/6.2014-1757) based on the US scientific community’s [2007 Decadal recommendation](https://cce.nasa.gov/pdfs/Decadal%5FSurvey.pdf). ISRO’s S-band radar contribution to NISAR, which was formalized in 2014, came in to meet the specific goals of India. From the [NISAR press kit](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/press-kits/nisar/): > In addition to using L-band data to meet the mission’s global science objectives, ISRO will leverage it to address a series of India’s Earth science priorities, including coastal wind velocity, seafloor topography near Indian coasts, the shape and position of the country’s coastlines, biomass measurements, geological features in the Himalayas and on the Deccan Plateau, and sea ice features in the Arctic and Antarctic. Thus NISAR was born. These goals turned out to be complementary to ones NASA had while enhancing coverage and visibility for regions with extensive forest cover. If you probe deeper and look at [the mission’s specific Level 1 (L1) requirements](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/nisar/mission-requirements/), you see two notable bits about how the mission objectives have been formalized: > The Level 1 Science Requirements define the specific science measurements that NISAR must perform to satisfy NASA's and most of ISRO's science goals. In addition to these joint requirements, ISRO has identified a number of additional Level 1 science requirements that are to be satisfied by the L-band radar instrument. These requirements then flow down to lower-level science and mission requirements that define the scope of the mission development and operations. Two of these formal L1 requirements of ISRO are to specifically understand the nature of India’s landmass and its shorelines so to better plan agricultural and civilian development: > The NISAR mission will measure coastal wind velocity on a 1 km grid with an average sampling capability of 6 days, with an accuracy goal of 2 m/s over at least 80% of oceans within 200 km of India's coast. > The NISAR mission will image geological features over selected regions of India at 10 m resolution at an average sampling interval of 90 days with at least two viewing geometries. The regions include paleochannels in Rajasthan, linear features, and structural studies in the Himalayas and on the Deccan plateau. To meet the whole set of L1 requirements and mission objectives, the [finer requirements of L2](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/nisar/mission-requirements2/), L3, and so on continue top down with increasing specificity of the engineering of the satellite and its subsystems. As such, NISAR’s ambitious scientific goals are ingrained into the very design of the satellite, and not something added up top as convenient. With its integral involvement in NISAR, ISRO is demonstrating a commendable commitment to understanding India’s natural ecosystems and their implications for responsible and more efficient national development. It harkens back to [Vikram Sarabhai’s summary](https://www.isro.gov.in/sarabhaiformer.html?ref=jatan.space) from 1969 of his efforts that decade to convince the Indian government to start a national space program in earnest: > There are some who question the relevance of space activities in a developing nation. To us, there is no ambiguity of purpose. We do not have the fantasy of competing with the economically advanced nations in the exploration of the moon or the planets or manned space-flight. But we are convinced that if we are to play a meaningful role nationally, and in the community of nations, we must be second to none in the application of advanced technologies to the real problems of man and society. NISAR thus embodies the very spirit of using cutting-edge space technologies to solve humanity’s fundamental problems. The NISAR [press kit](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/press-kits/nisar/) highlights another such goal: > NISAR will study the planet’s ice-covered surfaces as they melt, move, and deform. The melting of the massive ice sheets covering Antarctica and Greenland has contributed about a third of global sea level rise, while the disintegration of mountain glaciers has added about the same share, in addition to affecting water supplies for billions of people. Meanwhile, the melting of polar sea ice can affect ocean circulation on a global scale. NASA and ISRO have also baked in joint L1 requirements for NISAR, such as for the emergency observations the satellite will conduct post natural—or even human—disasters in any part of the world: > In support of responses to major natural or anthropogenic disasters, the mission system shall be capable of providing revised scheduling for new acquisitions within 36 hours of an event or an event forecast notification and delivering data within 9 hours of being collected, and shall exercise this capability on a best efforts basis. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/08/nisar-ground-stations-worldwide-1.jpeg) NISAR’s numerous ground stations. The thousands of terabytes of data NISAR’s observations will generate will be distributed for free worldwide. [Image: NASA / JPL](https://www.eoportal.org/satellite-missions/nisar#ground-segment) Direct collaboration on NISAR extends beyond the two agencies, in fact. The specific [SweepSAR](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/nisar/sweepsar/) radar mapping technique NISAR will use, which allows it to capture wide swaths of hundreds of kilometers without compromising on resolution, was developed and refined by NASA in collaboration with the German Aerospace Center (DLR). SAR company PierSight Space (a sponsor of Indian Space Progress) has [noted in a blog post](https://piersight.space/blog/honouring-our-advisor-dr.-anthony-freeman-on-receiving-the-cbe) that Anthony Freeman, who led the NISAR program during its formulation phase, spearheaded the decision of NISAR to use SweepSAR. That’s because to meet NISAR’s objectives, having centimeter level of detail is as essential as gaining vast, global coverage. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/08/nasa-and-isro-technicians-working-on-nisar.jpg) NASA JPL and ISRO engineers & technicians posing for a picture after combining the spacecraft bus and radar systems of NISAR at ISRO’s URSC center. [Image: ISRO / URSC](https://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA25867) NASA and ISRO have explicitly designed NISAR’s instrumentation such that both the L-band and S-band [can work simultaneously](https://www.eoportal.org/satellite-missions/nisar#instrument-design) as well where apt and necessary for achieving mission goals by combining the strengths of each: > The feed apertures at L- and S- band are built by JPL and ISRO, respectively, as well phase-matched to their respective electronics and cabling. In this sense, each radar is a self-contained instrument up to the radiated energy from the feed aperture. Thereafter, both will share the same reflector, with a nearly identical optical prescription (F/D=0.75). Because a distributed feed on a reflector-feed antenna has a single focus, much of the radiated and received energy is not at the focus. Since S-band wavelength is 2.5 times shorter than L-band, yet the feed is the same length to achieve identical swath coverage, the S-band system has greater deviations from the focus. Thus, the design has been iterated to derive the best offset, tilt and phasing of each radar to balance the performance across the two systems. This analysis has been done independently by the JPL and ISRO teams, then cross-compared to validate. Like in a democracy, such a heavily integrated collaboration between different entities and their cultures is not easy to pull off and can certainly be time consuming. And yet the US Government Accountability Office (GAO) found in its [2018 assessment](https://www.gao.gov/assets/gao-18-280sp.pdf) during NISAR’s development that the satellite was progressing despite risks stemming from procedural differences between the two agencies. In fact, the assessment [noted effective collaboration](https://web.archive.org/web/20240115134016/www.parabolicarc.com/2018/05/26/nasa-isro-synthetic-aperture-radar-satellite-moving-forward/) thanks to NASA and ISRO having iteratively updated their cooperative project plan. Some GAO reports can be [quite scathing](https://www.gao.gov/assets/gao-23-105609.pdf?ref=jatan.space), and so for NISAR to have had a favorable assessment is worth noting. --- *Many thanks to the* [***Takshashila Institution***](https://takshashila.org.in/?ref=jatan.space)*,* [***PierSight***](https://piersight.space/?ref=jatan.space)*,* [***GalaxEye***](https://galaxeye.space/?ref=jatan.space) *and* [***Gurbir Singh***](https://gurbir.co.uk/?ref=jatan.space) *for sponsoring this month’s edition of Indian Space Progress. If you too appreciate my efforts to capture nuanced trajectories of India in space, support my independent writing.* [🇮🇳 Support Indian Space Progress](https://jatan.space/support) --- ## Flowing into planetary science and back The NASA-ISRO collaboration has since expanded to the Moon as well. Over the last few years, ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) has been [aiding NASA](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/#isro-aids-artemis) in selecting and filtering [candidate landing sites](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-91/) for the crewed [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/?ref=jatan.space) Moon mission, which aims to put US astronauts back on the Moon later this decade. This collaboration between researchers on both sides specifically involves the use of radar data from the ISRO orbiter’s [Dual-Frequency SAR](https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2104.14259) (DFSAR) instrument to [uniquely characterize](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/pdf/2397.pdf?ref=jatan.space) the Artemis III candidate landing zones. DFSAR has enabled NASA to sense valuable information on the physical state and structure of those regions, including mapping landing hazards for future landers to avoid. DFSAR has also been used to [help reduce false positives](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2024/pdf/2274.pdf?ref=jatan.space) where certain terrain on the Moon’s poles with rough textures seem like desirable [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) pockets but may not be. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/08/artemis-iii-nine-landing-region-candidates.jpg) This image of the Moon’s south pole shows the nine candidate landing regions/zones for NASA’s Artemis III crewed mission. [Image: NASA / GSFC / ASU / LRO](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-provides-update-on-artemis-iii-moon-landing-regions/?ref=jatan.space) And so, it’s interesting that while NISAR is the first free-flying Earth observation satellite to use dual-frequency SAR, we already did that at the Moon first through the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter DFSAR. For ISRO, its radar technology has [first flown on Earth observation satellites](https://www.eoportal.org/satellite-missions/risat-1), evolving later for use on Chandrayaan 2, and has now been fed back into NISAR. JPL’s various radar systems have recently flown on NASA’s planetary missions across the Solar System, honing a plethora of techniques over time. With NISAR, the two approaches [have converged](https://www.pressreader.com/india/hindustan-times-lucknow/20250729/282106347692306). In an [interview with The Hindu](https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/anything-that-moves-nasa-isro-satellite-will-see-with-unprecedented-fidelity/article69881443.ece), NASA’s Director of its Earth Sciences division Karen Germain affirmed the cross-pollination of the agency’s radar systems across planetary and Earth observation missions, and went on to note how NISAR itself will also help scientists better understand other planets. > One of the things that NISAR is going to tell us about is what’s going on underneath the crust of the surface because we’ll be able to see these very small motions that you and I don’t experience daily, right? We can’t sense these. But NISAR will, and it will allow us to advance our models about how the interior of planets work. Venus comes to mind in particular. ISRO’s upcoming [Shukrayaan Venus orbiter](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-20/) will fly the highest resolution radar to the searing planet thus far, taking cues from both the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter and NISAR. It will pierce through the planet’s thick clouds and sense the crust to help planetary scientists unlock long-standing Venusian mysteries, including the critical question of how Earth has remained so habitable while its sister planet turned into a hellscape. Moreover, NASA, ESA, and ISRO hope to [coordinate and complement observations](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-20/) from their respective Venus missions and share data with each other to enhance the scientific output from them all. NISAR sets precedence for such multi-organizational scientific use as well. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/08/venus-visible-radar-vom-orbit-configuration-illustration.jpg) ****Left:** Venus as it would approximately look to the human eye, imaged by NASA’s Mariner 10 spacecraft; ****Right:** Radar image of Venus’ surface captured by NASA’s Magellan orbiter. Also shown in the graphic is ISRO’s newly approved Venus orbiter design. Images: [Mattias Malmer](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/global-view-of-venus-from?ref=jatan.space) / [NASA / JPL](https://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA00104?ref=jatan.space) / [ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/UnionCabinetApprovesIndiasMission.html?ref=jatan.space); Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) When seen in this holistic context, NISAR is demonstrating peak peaceful uses of cutting-edge space technologies to not only solve humanity’s fundamental problems but also laying the path for helping us answer fundamental questions about our Solar System. --- ### Read previous editions on Indian space - [**Indian Space Progress #29**](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-29/)**:** Was Shubhanshu Shukla’s Axiom-4 flight to the International Space Station worth it for ISRO? - [**Indian Space Progress #28**](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-28/)**:** A pressing PSLV rocket failure and orbital congestion to brood over - [**Indian Space Progress #27**](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-27/)**:** Three months of mission updates, and fixing ISRO’s monthly summaries ### Moon Monday #237: China completes large lander test in latest milestone to put humans on the Moon URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-237/ Last updated: 2026-01-18T10:09:17.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/08/china-lanyue-crewed-lander-mockup-propulsion-gnc-test.jpeg) Shots from the control systems test of China’s Lanyue lander design for crewed Moon missions. The full-scale lander mockup is seen next to humans in the inset image at the bottom right. Images: [CASC](https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/xywWynVaOQrTpWbKtHfveg) / [CMSA](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LKNt3dCUvjU) | Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) On August 6, China [successfully conducted](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/lanyue-lunar-lander-conducts-simulated) a terrestrially simulated lunar landing and takeoff test using a full-scale mockup of its upcoming \~26,000-kilogram [crewed Moon lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/) named Lanyue—which roughly means ‘embracing the Moon’ in Chinese. For the control systems test, the China Manned Space Agency (CMSA) used the same [exogravity simulation system](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LKNt3dCUvjU) in Huailai County outside Beijing as for previous tests part of past robotic Moon and Mars landing missions. The system involves giant tethered towers to simulate lunar gravity and an artificially cratered, rugged terrain on the ground to mimc the Moon’s surface. The test seemed to show apt coordination between the lander’s main engines and fine-control thrusters as orchestrated by Lanyue’s guidance, navigation, and control system by engaging all sensors and imagers. As Ling Xin [has noted](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3321150/china-completes-key-lander-test-preparation-crewed-moon-mission-2030), there are two more interesting aspects to the test: > Footage aired by state broadcaster CCTV showed a lunar rover mounted on the lander’s side, along with a ladder attached to one leg for astronauts to climb down to the surface. \[...\] Lanyue consists of the lander itself and a propulsion module, which carries most of the fuel and engines for the initial slowdown. A few kilometers above the surface, the propulsion module will separate from the lander and lighten the load for final landing. The propulsion module was not tested on Wednesday. CMSA [says](https://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4399581/content.html) the development “represents a breakthrough in research and development in terms of China’s manned lunar exploration program.” That’s true, especially since the Chinese have been consistently hitting milestones in the lead up to its [first crewed Moon landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/) aimed to be accomplished by 2030\. Below is a review of all such recent milestones. ## Recent Sino milestones towards crewed Moon missions - Two months ago, CMSA successfully [tested the launchpad escape system](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-230/) of China’s next-generation Mengzhou spacecraft. A variant called ‘Mengzhou Y’ will carry astronauts for Moon missions to lunar orbit. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/08/mengzhou-launchpad-escape-test-2025.jpg) Shots from the launchpad escape test of Mengzhou, China’s next-generation crewed spacecraft vehicle design. Images: [CMSA](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5Vni7zFksV4&ref=jatan.space) / [CMSEO](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eeYWlXL03iM&ref=jatan.space) | Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) - With [Chang’e 5](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-156/), China demonstrated the world’s first remote docking and undocking of spacecraft in lunar orbit in 2020\. It repeated the feat with [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-182/) last year, bringing [lunar samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-201/) from the Moon’s farside and demonstrating flexibility in the core architecture. China will utilize the technology for crewed Moon landings, wherein a Mengzhou Y spacecraft will dock with the Lanyue lunar lander in lunar orbit. Two of three/four astronauts then transfer into the lander. After the two spacecraft separate, the Lanyue lander will touchdown on the Moon for [the surface mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/). It will then return to lunar orbit to re-dock with Mengzhou Y, which will subsequently bring the crew back home. - Late last year, China [created a test stand](http://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4193399/content.html?ref=jatan.space) in the northwestern Shaanxi province, which can simulate the kind of high-altitude and vacuum conditions that the Lanyue lander will experience during its lunar descent and touchdown. The stand allows the lander’s main engine to be tested for its full burn duration of up to 20 minutes. Apparently the test system took only eight months to complete, [according to Li Guanghui of CAST](https://news.cgtn.com/news/2024-09-12/Asia-s-largest-high-altitude-test-stand-for-space-engines-put-into-use-1wPlSsnIOZy/p.html?ref=jatan.space) who was involved in the project. - **Edit:** In August and September 2025, China [conducted booster engine tests](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-242/#a-long-march-10-booster-roars-thrice-with-luna-in-sight) of its upcoming heavy-lift, crew-capable rocket called the Long March 10A. Three such boosters will make up the [Long March 10](https://english.www.gov.cn/news/202508/15/content%5FWS689eec3dc6d0868f4e8f4dcb.html) rocket’s core stage. Two Long March 10s will launch Mengzhou Y and Lanyue towards the Moon respectively for every Chinese crewed Moon mission. - Andrew Jones [reported](https://spacenews.com/china-performs-fairing-separation-test-for-crewed-moon-mission-rocket/?ref=jatan.space) in November 2024 that CALT successfully conducted a 5-meter-fairing separation test of Long March 10A. The Long March 10 will sport a larger fairing for crewed Moon missions, whose separation system [should be tested](http://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4228397/content.html?ref=jatan.space) soon too as per CASC. - Jack Congram has [reported](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/tianwen-2-probe-near-launch-new-life) that for launches of Long March 10 from the southern Hainan island, China is constructing a third launchpad at Wenchang called Launch Complex 301\. The core launch support tower build has been completed. The development of associated infrastructure is now in full swing, including the vehicle assembly building, servicing platforms, and transport systems. Xinhua has [reported](https://english.news.cn/20250423/ae389344c9b84b5483b0b0667979dc49/c.html) CMSA saying that the development and construction of ground systems—including the launch site, the measurement and control communication system, and the landing site—are “advancing in order”. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/08/long-march-10-fairing-separation-test.jpg) Payload fairing halves of the Long March 10 rocket flanking a large test structure after a fairing separation test. See the humans on the edges for scale. [Image: CALT](https://spacenews.com/china-performs-fairing-separation-test-for-crewed-moon-mission-rocket/?ref=jatan.space) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/08/cgi-concept-of-china-crewed-moon-landing-mission.jpg) CGI concept of China’s first crewed Moon landing mission. [Image: PhilLeafSpace](https://m.weibo.cn/detail/4922740148013011?ref=jatan.space) - With the [debut launch](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/new-rocket-new-launch-pad-new-launch) of the semi-cryogenic Long March 12 rocket last November, China successfully flew the YF-100K engine, the same kind that will power the first stage(s) of the Long March 10\. And, as Ling Xin [reported](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3271690/chinas-critical-third-stage-rocket-engine-passes-test-crewed-moon-mission?ref=jatan.space) in July 2024, China successfully test fired the YF-75E high energy hydrolox engine as well, three of which will power the third stage of Long March 10. - The upcoming [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#the-instrumental-and-increasingly-international-7) and [Chang’e 8](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/#prepare-for-crew-and-double-down-with-mission-eight) missions, targeted for launch next year and 2028 respectively, will demonstrate [precision landings](https://jatan.space/precision-moon-landings-and-the-future/) as well as the ability to explore the Moon’s south pole for [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other resources. Both of these capabilities will be valuable for China’s plan to create the crew-plus-robotic [ILRS Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/), which will follow the string of initial crewed lunar missions of the 2030s. - Over the last couple of years, China has demonstrated [world-leading lunar navigation and communications](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-229/) technologies in complex Earth-Moon orbital spaces. These abilities will substantially improve both the lunar surface coverage time and area as well as ground station availability for China’s future crewed Moon missions, and [give it an edge over the US](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-229/) in sustaining the program. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/08/cmsa-lunar-spacesuit-prototype.jpg) A suited person demoing China’s lunar spacesuit prototype. [Image: CMSA / CCTV / CMS](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UUH5YyRPPXE&ref=jatan.space) - Chinese taikonauts (astronauts) have begun initial training for lunar missions [since late last year](https://news.cgtn.com/news/2024-10-29/Lunar-landings-planned-for-China-s-fourth-batch-of-taikonauts-1y5qZzq6hYA/p.html) across lunar transit and surface operations. Development has also progressed on the [space suit](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-195/#a-sino-suit-for-luna) and [rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-200/) to be used by astronauts, with various prototypes built and tested. Edit: Jack Congram [reported](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/taikonauts-prepare-for-lunar-missions) that China trained 28 taikonauts in cave exercises in Wulong, Chongqing in December 2025 to prepare them mentally for Moon missions. - In 2023, the China Manned Space Agency (CMSA) [solicited science payload proposals](https://web.archive.org/web/20230717135506/http://www.cmse.gov.cn/gfgg/202307/t20230717%5F54065.html) for the mission’s lander. Similar to the instruments [NASA will deploy on Artemis III](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-170/), CMSA wants these payloads to focus on lunar geology, physics, life sciences, and solar and astronomical observations. Unlike Artemis III though, CMSA is open to in-situ resource utilization demos being proposed too! The final selection of the instruments to fly is expected to be announced soon. - In February, the China Manned Space Engineering Office (CMSEO) announced a [call for Chinese organizations](https://www.cmse.gov.cn/xwzx/202502/t20250214%5F56299.html?ref=jatan.space) to bid for developing a [lunar mapping satellite](https://spacenews.com/china-invites-bids-for-lunar-satellite-to-support-crewed-moon-landing-missions/?ref=jatan.space) in support of crewed Moon missions. The satellite’s mandate is to obtain high-precision mineral, topographic, and geomorphic data of the Moon’s low-latitude regions to aid planning of surface missions. Xinhua [reported](https://english.news.cn/20250423/ae389344c9b84b5483b0b0667979dc49/c.html) CMSA stating in April that the project has completed its approval and competitive selection process. So that was a review of all recent advances from China as it prepares to send humans to the Moon. China sure is giving it all the might it can muster, and it will be great to watch a second nation from Earth land humans on Luna. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/08/long-march-2f.jpg) China’s Long March 2F rocket flying with astronauts, with a lunar backdrop. Image: Xinhua [More China and Luna updates →](https://jatan.space/tag/china-and-luna/) --- *Many thanks to* [***Open Lunar Foundation***](https://www.openlunar.org) *and* [***Ajay Kothari***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/ajay-kothari-739b0b32/?ref=jatan.space) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support Moon Monday 🌙](https://jatan.space/support) --- ## Artemis updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/08/artemis-ii-crew-enter-orion-capsule-to-practice-operations-and-procedures.jpg) The Artemis II flight crew (in suits) and the mission closeout crew (in clean room apparel) at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida prior to test operations. [Image: NASA / Rad Sinyak](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-2/nasas-artemis-crew-trains-in-moonbound-orion-ahead-of-mission/) - On July 31, the [crew](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) of [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii) entered the fuel-loaded, original [Orion capsule](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft?ref=jatan.space)—which is targeted to take them around the Moon and back next year—[to practice activities and operations](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-2/nasas-artemis-crew-trains-in-moonbound-orion-ahead-of-mission/) they’d have to perform before launch and during the transit to Luna. This excercise had high fidelity since the crew not only used the original capsule but also put on their spacesuits and tested Orion’s interfaces while the capsule operated on full power with its communications and life control systems turned on. This latest update follows last month’s milestone of NASA completing a [series of eight tests](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/kennedy/nasa-kennedy-ready-for-artemis-ii-moon-mission-ground-systems-testing-2/?ref=jatan.space) of ground systems and associated launch infrastructure ahead of the eventual second [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/reference/space-launch-system/?ref=jatan.space) launch for Artemis II. Marcia Smith has [recently reported](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/glaze-artemis-ii-could-launch-as-early-as-february-2026/?ref=jatan.space) that NASA is trying to launch Artemis II in February 2026. - After nearly six months of trying to establish communications with the [Lunar Trailblazer](https://jatan.space/nasa-lunar-trailblazer/) spacecraft post its [February launch](https://blogs.nasa.gov/trailblazer/2025/02/26/nasas-lunar-trailblazer-spacecraft-separates-from-falcon-9-second-stage/), NASA has [declared an end](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/small-satellite-missions/lunar-trailblazer/nasas-lunar-trailblazer-moon-mission-ends/) to the rescue efforts and the mission. The agency-funded Trailblazer was supposed to provide scientists with unprecedented, high-resolution global orbital maps of the amount, distribution, and state of [water](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) across our Moon. However, control over the spacecraft [was lost](https://blogs.nasa.gov/trailblazer/2025/02/27/nasa-working-to-reestablish-communications-with-lunar-trailblazer/?ref=jatan.space) shorty after launch, with subsequent revival efforts unsuccessful. Unfortunately, Trailblazer is the latest example of [the US failing to explore lunar water as the principal goal of Artemis](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-221/). NASA says the same infrared spectrometer design from Trailblazer will fly on an unspecified mission end of decade to provide regional contextual observations for the [instruments to be aboard](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-selects-instruments-for-artemis-lunar-terrain-vehicle/) the upcoming [versatile Lunar Terrain Vehicle](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-171/) (LTV), which will be used across Artemis missions for years starting end of decade at best. This means the expected scientific output from Trailblazer will now have to wait at least five more years. [More NASA Artemis updates →](https://jatan.space/tag/artemis/) ## More Moon - Orbital image processing enthusiast Chandra Tungathurthi has shared [new imagery](https://moonandbeyond.blog/p/im-2-athena-imaged-chandrayaan-2-ohrc) of the [unsuccessful touchdown](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-216/#tipped-intuitive-mooncraft-dies-with-none-of-the-net-130-million-worth-of-payloads-deployed) of Intuitive Machines’ IM-2 [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) lander Athena this past March. The images clearly show [engine plume and surface interactions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-180/) during the lander’s final descent phase as well as the first surface contact of Athena’s landing legs. To appreciate the difference in detail between NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lro/) (LRO) and ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/), and with ISRO itself not sharing enough imagery to make their orbiter’s potential clear, I had to compare the images of Athena from the two and adjust the scale and rotation to roughly match: ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/08/im-2-athena-imaged-by-lro-and-chandrayaan-2-orbiters.jpeg) Images: [NASA / GSFC / ASU / LROC](https://lroc.im-ldi.com/images/1409) / [ISRO / C. Tungathurthi](https://moonandbeyond.blog/p/im-2-athena-imaged-chandrayaan-2-ohrc) | Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) - The University of Hong Kong is hiring for [two doctoral positions](https://yuqiqian.com/positions/) to analyze Chang’e 5 & 6 lunar samples and characterize human & robotic lunar landing sites respectively. - Apollo 8 & 13 astronaut Jim Lovell [passed away](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/apollo-13-astronaut-jim-lovell-passes-away/) at 97. ### Moon Monday #236: A third orbiter-lander-rover trio to fire-and-fly URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-236/ Last updated: 2025-08-04T12:31:58.000Z *I’m thrilled to welcome* [*Astrolab*](https://astrolab.space/?ref=jatan.space) *as a continuing yearly sponsor of my* [*Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) *blog+newsletter!* [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/08/astrolab-logo-orange-black-no-bg-1-1.png)](https://astrolab.space/?ref=jatan.space) *California-based Venturi Astrolab Inc. (Astrolab) is developing the large multi-purpose rovers of* [*FLEX*](https://www.astrolab.space/flex-rover/) *and* [*FLIP*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-212/) *for advanced exploration of our Moon this decade and next. Through FLEX, Astrolab leads one of the three teams NASA selected last year to mature their designs for a* [*versatile Lunar Terrain Vehicle*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-171/) *(LTV), which the agency hopes to use with and without crew across Artemis missions starting end of decade.* 🌗 **Note:* All sponsorships abide by my public* [*Editorial Independence Policy*](https://jatan.space/ethics) *with zero exceptions.* ## A fourth Firefly ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/08/firefly-blue-ghost-lander-fourth-clps-mission-illustration.jpg) An illustration of Firefly’s Blue Ghost lander on the Moon’s south pole carrying out its fourth mission for NASA CLPS. Note how lander elements are adapted for the near-horizon polar Sun and Earth visibility. [Image: Firefly](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-awarded-177-million-nasa-contract-for-mission-to-the-moons-south-pole/) US-based Firefly Aerospace [won its fourth Moon landing mission contract](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-selects-firefly-for-new-artemis-science-tech-delivery-to-moon/) as part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). For $176.7 million, the company’s lander is to deliver three NASA-funded instruments to the Moon’s south pole in 2029 as well as two rovers: a [versatile CubeRover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-172/#astrobotic-to-fly-cuberover-on-griffin-after-all) from Astrobotic called [Moonranger](https://www.astrobotic.com/lunar-delivery/rovers/our-history/) and Canada’s [first lunar rover](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronomy/moon-exploration/first-canadian-rover-to-explore-the-moon.asp) through CSA. The Canadian rover has an interesting profile: > The CSA Rover is designed to access and explore remote South Pole areas of interest, including permanently shadowed regions, and to survive at least one lunar night. The CSA rover has stereo cameras, a neutron spectrometer, two imagers (visible to near-infrared), a radiation micro-dosimeter, and a NASA-contributed thermal imaging radiometer developed by the Applied Physics Laboratory. These instruments will advance our understanding of the physical and chemical properties of the lunar surface, the geological history of the Moon, and potential resources such as water ice. It will also improve our understanding of the environmental challenges that await future astronauts and their life support systems. The rover was originally intended to be launched on a CLPS lander in 2026 as part of a NASA-CSA deal, and it’s only now that we’ve learnt about its launch target being pushed to 2029\. Coming back to the CLPS mission itself, Firefly [says](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-awarded-177-million-nasa-contract-for-mission-to-the-moons-south-pole/) the mission’s orbiter element, Elytra Dark, will provide communications relay services for the lander. After the short surface mission is over, Elytra Dark will join its other two twin craft (assumed to be operational by then from prior missions) to offer [commercial lunar imaging and mapping services](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-230/#the-silver-ocula-to-fill-some-gaps-for-nasa). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/08/firefly-elyra-dark-orbiter-and-blue-ghost-lander-separate-1.jpg) Illustration showing the Blue Ghost lander separating from the Elytra Dark orbital module that brought it to lunar orbit. [Image: Firefly](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-awarded-177-million-nasa-contract-for-mission-to-the-moons-south-pole/) Building on [the success of its first Moon landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-218/#firefly-deserves-an-unusual-kudos), Firefly is gearing up for its [second](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-226/#firefly-to-carry-second-uae-lunar-rover-and-more), [third](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/more-nasa-science-tech-will-fly-to-moon-aboard-future-firefly-flight/), and now fourth Moon landing attempt this decade. While the company’s first lander did not carry a rover, all the next three are. The second Firefly lander [will carry UAE’s Rashid 2 rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-226/#firefly-to-carry-second-uae-lunar-rover-and-more) to the Moon’s farside whereas the third lander will deploy [Honeybee Robotics’ first planetary rover](https://www.honeybeerobotics.com/news-events/firefly-aerospace-selects-blue-origins-honeybee-robotics-to-provide-rover-for-lunar-mission-to-gruithuisen-domes/) on one of the two [Gruithuisen Domes](https://jatan.space/unique-volcanic-domes-of-gruithuisen/), a unique volcanic site on the Moon’s nearside. [More CLPS updates →](https://jatan.space/tag/clps/) ## More mission updates - After Intuitive Machines faced a [second unsuccessful CLPS landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-216/#tipped-intuitive-mooncraft-dies-with-none-of-the-net-130-million-worth-of-payloads-deployed) with IM-2 this year, the lunar lander builder is diversifying its offerings with [orbital lunar communications](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-195/#a-sino-suit-for-luna) and [cislunar deployment services](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/9-8m-contract-propels-intuitive-machines-orbital-transfer-vehicle-toward-flight-readiness), the latter being based on orbital vehicles derived from flown lander systems. - CSA awarded [initial study contracts](https://www.canada.ca/en/space-agency/news/2025/07/canadas-new-lunar-utility-rover-will-help-astronauts-build-a-future-on-the-moon.html) totaling $10.6 million to three companies—Canadensys, MDA Space, and Mission Control—towards developing a “Lunar Utility Vehicle” (LUV). This follows Canada’s [intent from 2023](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/news/articles/2023/2023-03-29-significant-investments-to-further-propel-canadian-space-exploration.asp) to invest $1.2 billion over 13 years to develop an assistance rover for future Artemis astronauts. Canada hopes that [just like how](https://www.canada.ca/en/space-agency/news/2020/12/a-canadian-astronaut-will-fly-to-the-moon.html) contributing their [Canadarm3](https://asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/canadarm3/about.asp) robotics servicing system to the upcoming NASA-led [Gateway lunar orbital habitat](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/gateway) bagged seats for their astronauts on circumlunar Artemis missions, contributing a large, durable LUV rover for Artemis surface missions will enable a Canadian to walk on the Moon. There are three other rovers in this largest size category being planned to explore the Moon: the [Artemis Lunar Terrain Vehicle](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-171/), JAXA’s [advanced pressurized rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-172/), and China’s [crewed rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-200/). - The Italian Space Agency (ASI) has [awarded a preliminary design contract](https://www.thalesgroup.com/en/worldwide/space/press%5Frelease/thales-alenia-space-signs-contract-italian-space-agency-asi-develop) to a group led by Thales Alenia Space for a Multi-Purpose Habitat (MPH) astronaut module central to NASA’s planned [Artemis Basecamp](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept) on the Moon. This follows last year’s milestone when a NASA review board [approved](https://europeanspaceflight.com/nasa-greenlights-next-phase-of-italian-lunar-habitat-project/?ref=jatan.space) the module’s development to commence. To be launched and placed on the Moon sometime in the 2030s, the MPH module can host two astronauts for up to 30 days nominally while a larger crew can stay for short periods during emergencies. The 15,000-kilogram module will have wheels so it can reposition itself as needed on the [dynamically lit](https://www.nasa.gov/ames/feature/the-dark-side-of-the-crater-how-light-looks-different-on-the-moon-and-what-nasa-is-doing) lunar polar surface. The flight model can be constructed only later once the development phase is complete. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/08/asi-thales-artemis-multi-purpose-habitat-module-illustration.jpg) Illustration of Italy’s mobile Multi-Purpose Habitat module for Artemis. [Image: Thales Alenia Space](https://x.com/Thales%5FAlenia%5FS/status/1836694467778060792) ## More Moon - A [new document](https://www.airuniversity.af.edu/AUPress/Display/Article/4250446/the-commercial-lunar-economy-field-guide-a-vision-for-industry-on-the-moon-in-t/) collated by US DARPA provides more details on the [lunar infrastructure concepts by multiple companies](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-157/#prepping-for-lunar-infrastructure-galore) which the former organization selected in 2023 for advanced studies. These are part of a 10-year Lunar Architecture (LunA-10) on how to build [key commercialinfrastructure pieces](https://arstechnica.com/space/2024/03/the-us-government-seems-serious-about-developing-a-lunar-economy/) for sustaining human presence on the Moon. - [Eric Jones](https://www.honeysucklecreek.net/space%5Fpeople/eric%5Fjones.html), the lead creator of the meticulous [Apollo Lunar Surface Journal](https://www.nasa.gov/history/alsj/), passed away last month. --- *Many thanks to* [***Astrolab***](https://astrolab.space/?ref=jatan.space) *and* [***Ajay Kothari***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/ajay-kothari-739b0b32/?ref=jatan.space) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support Moon Monday 🌙](https://jatan.space/support) ### Everything you need to know about NASA CLPS Moon landing missions URL: https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/ Last updated: 2026-01-12T11:38:31.000Z NASA is [returning humans](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) to the Moon later in the decade, but a fleet of agency-supported robotic spacecraft will touch down on lunar soil starting this year. With its $2.6 billion [Commercial Lunar Payloads Services](https://www.nasa.gov/content/commercial-lunar-payload-services-overview) (CLPS) initiative, NASA has been [competitively](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-announces-new-partnerships-for-commercial-lunar-payload-delivery-services) funding commercial companies to build spacecraft that will autonomously land on the Moon, carrying with them the agency’s science and technology payloads to geologically diverse places. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9a94265c-73ad-46e6-b36e-2a002c01cbe6_1200x950-jpeg.jpg) A render of Firefly’s Blue Ghost lander descending on the Moon. [Image: Firefly](https://firefly.com/firefly-aerospace-is-one-step-closer-to-landing-on-the-moon) ## Upcoming CLPS Moon landings To date, NASA has funded several commercial companies for these CLPS Moon landing missions with the following contract values at the time of their selections: - **Mission 1, January 8, 2024:** [$79.5 million](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-awarded-79-5-million-contract-to-deliver-14-nasa-payloads-to-the-moon) contract to Astrobotic - **Mission 2, February 12, 2024:** [$77 million](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-first-commercial-moon-landing-services-for-artemis-program) contract to Intuitive Machines - **Mission 3, Late 2024:** [$47 million](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-to-land-water-measuring-payload-on-the-moon) contract to Intuitive Machines - **Mission 4, 2024:** [$93.3 million](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-firefly-aerospace-for-artemis-commercial-moon-delivery-in-2023) contract to Firefly - **(Cancelled) Mission 5, November 2023:** [$75.9 million](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-contract-to-deliver-science-tech-to-moon-ahead-of-human-missions) contract to Masten Space - **(Cancelled) Mission 6, November 2024:** [$226.5 million](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-rover-to-search-for-water-other-resources-on-moon) contract to Astrobotic (increased to [$320.4 million](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-87/) for extra tests) - **Mission 7, 2025:** [$77.5 million](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-for-new-lunar-science-delivery) contract to Intuitive Machines - **Mission 8, 2026:** [$73 million](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-draper-to-fly-research-to-far-side-of-moon) contract to Draper - **Mission 9, 2026:** [$112 million](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-picks-firefly-aerospace-for-robotic-delivery-to-far-side-of-moon) contract to Firefly - **Mission 10, 2025-26:** [$6.1 million](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-188/#a-clps-contract-for-blue-out-of-the-blue) to Blue Origin - **Mission 11, 2027:** [$116.9 million contract](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-awards-intuitive-machines-lunar-south-pole-research-delivery/) to Intuitive Machines - **Mission 12, 2028:** [$179 million contract](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/more-nasa-science-tech-will-fly-to-moon-aboard-future-firefly-flight/) to Firefly - **Mission 13, 2029:** [$176.7 million contract](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-selects-firefly-for-new-artemis-science-tech-delivery-to-moon/) to Firefly Unlike traditional missions, these CLPS missions are built, operated and managed by their companies, with lower oversight from NASA. The agency primarily dictates preferences for the landing sites, and the instruments it wants onboard. These missions will also have non-NASA payloads from across the globe, something the agency encourages to spur a commercial lunar ecosystem. All landers on these missions will nominally last a maximum of one lunar day—that is, 14 Earth days—since frigid night time temperatures, well below -100 degrees Celsius, will render the solar- and battery-powered landers non-functional. ### Astrobotic’s first CLPS mission ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f8f9e36c4-a320-4b0f-928a-beed9811da80_1950x1300-jpeg.jpg) Astrobotic’s first Moon lander, Peregrine. [Image: John Thornton](https://www.linkedin.com/feed/update/urn:li:activity:6998697480980676609) On January 8, 2024, Astrobotic’s lander [launched](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-158/) with the aim of touching down in a lunar lava plain called [Sinus Viscositatis](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=-43.6314482%2C34.0851306%2C-37.4432437%2C37.5891353&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4XyA&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFOOZLRfImqnioA&proj=16) just outside the [Gruithuisen volcanic domes](https://jatan.space/unique-volcanic-domes-of-gruithuisen/) on February 23\. The lander carried [15 payloads from 6 countries](https://www.astrobotic.com/lunar-delivery/manifest), including two micro-rovers. As part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), it was also supposed to carry [11 agency-funded instruments](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/first-commercial-moon-delivery-assignments-to-advance-artemis) but [flew only five](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-151/) of them. However, Astrobotic’s lunar lander [failed](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-159/) before it could reach Luna, precluding a lunar descent attempt. ### Intuitive Machines’ first CLPS mission For [its first CLPS mission](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/im-1) named IM-1 which launched in February 2024, Intuitive Machines carried [six NASA payloads](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/first-commercial-moon-delivery-assignments-to-advance-artemis) to the Moon, attempting a soft landing in the polar [Malapert A crater](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=-27.6167293,-80.9725683,9.6287046,-78.2434553&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIgL5A&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypOOKbRFdAJgQSfyJqt6XAMYiBCnrIsibsXLVgydAA4AnJNyEZlarIpA&proj=17) at 80°S. There was also a commercial telescope called [ILO-X](https://iloa.org/ilo-x-precursor) from Hawaii-based ILOA [aboard](https://iloa.org/iloa%5Fnews%5Frelease%5Foct%5F4%5F2023). The company [hit a hard-landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-165/) on the Moon instead but after which NASA and Intuitive Machines [skewed the success criteria](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-166/) of the mission to claim is as successful. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/01/intuitive-machines-im-1-lander-on-the-moon-firing-1.jpg) A dramatic view of the Odysseus lunar lander still firing its main engine after making contact with the Moon. [Image: Intuitive Machines](https://twitter.com/Int%5FMachines/status/1762919217089720716/photo/1) ### Intuitive Machines’ second CLPS mission **March 2025 update:** [*The spacecraft landed sideways and the mission failed*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-216/#tipped-intuitive-mooncraft-dies-with-none-of-the-net-130-million-worth-of-payloads-deployed) On its [second Moon mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-189/) in Q1 2025, Intuitive Machines will deliver NASA’s [PRIME-1 drill](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/polar-resources-ice-mining-experiment-1-prime-1) and a mass spectrometer at an [optimum location](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/clps/nasa-intuitive-machines-announce-landing-site-location-for-lunar-drill) on the Moon’s south pole where underground [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) is expected based on orbital data. The lander will drill up to 1 meter below the surface and analyze the soil for [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/), a first such study. The lander will also deploy Lunar Outpost’s [MAPP rover](https://lunaroutpost.com/nokia-and-intuitive-machines-select-lunar-outpost-for-first-rover-mission-at-lunar-south-pole) on the surface to [collect](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-companies-to-collect-lunar-resources-for-artemis-demonstrations)—but not bring back—lunar soil for NASA and also test Nokia’s [4G/LTE network](https://www.nokia.com/networks/insights/network-on-the-moon) on the Moon. Further, there’s the company’s own [NASA-supported](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/solicitations/tipping%5Fpoints/2020%5Fselections) hopper onboard called [Micro-Nova](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/intuitive-machines-and-nasa-finalize-contract-for-extreme-lunar-mobility-spacecraft), which aims to [hop five times](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-134/) to capture high-resolution imagery and other measurements of the surface under its flight path. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fc7696af5-aa5e-4cb0-b0f1-82204430e2bd_3262x2160-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of Intuitive Machines’ lander on the Moon with NASA’s PRIME-1 drill attached. [Image: Intuitive Machines](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/nasa-intuitive-machines-announce-landing-site-location-for-lunar-drill) ### First CLPS mission by Masten Masten Space’s lander aimed to touchdown on the Moon’s south pole in November 2023\. It was to have at least [eight instruments](https://masten.aero/blog/masten-mission-1-instruments-lunar-south-pole) onboard, chiefly to detect water ice and other volatiles such as methane and carbon dioxide to help us understand the Moon’s resource potential. The lander was also supposed to deploy Astrobotic’s shoebox-sized autonomous rover called [MoonRanger](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-93/). NASA even planned to put [a neutron spectrometer](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/where-s-the-water-two-resource-hunting-tools-for-the-moon-s-surface) onboard the rover to detect signs of [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) below the surface. But following a [Chapter 11 bankruptcy filing](https://spacenews.com/masten-space-systems-files-for-bankruptcy) by Masten on September 13, 2022, the mission seems to have been rendered impossible. Astrobotic [acquired Masten Space](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-acquires-masten-space-systems), including much of its space technology portfolio [for $4.5 million](https://spacenews.com/court-approves-sale-of-masten-assets-to-astrobotic). Debra Needham, Program Scientist at NASA’s Exploration Science Strategy and Integration Office, said at the [2023 annual LEAG meeting](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/leag2023/technical%5Fprogram) in September that the agency plans to “strategically manifest payloads” from Masten’s mission onto other landers as feasible. ### VIPER rover delivery by Astrobotic Astrobotic planned to launch NASA’s [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) to the Moon’s south pole in November 2024 on a SpaceX Falcon Heavy rocket. VIPER was to explore areas in and around [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) for over 100 days, and use its drill and three instruments to unravel the nature of the Moon’s [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) deposits, assess their resource potential, and determine how accessible they are. This would’ve helped us plan future human missions to the Moon’s poles and eventually build [sustainable habitats](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept). On the same mission, ESA will fly a [landing-precision-aiding camera](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/ESA%5Flunar%5Flanding%5Fcamera%5Fto%5Ffly%5Fto%5Fthe%5FMoon), the first ever commercial delivery to the Moon contracted by the agency. Given the mission’s criticality, NASA [took a more conservative approach](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-87/) with VIPER compared to other CLPS contracts. The agency [requested](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-replans-clps-delivery-of-viper-to-2024-to-reduce-risk) Astrobotic to delay VIPER’s delivery by a year, and contracted them $67.8 million to perform additional testing of the mission’s large, 5900-kilogram [Griffin lander](https://www.astrobotic.com/griffin) in order to reduce risk. At $320.4 million, VIPER was the most expensive CLPS delivery yet. Note that NASA separated its own costs to build and operate VIPER (currently at $433.5 million) from the payment to Astrobotic. But in July 2024, NASA [questionably cancelled the mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-186/) and has opted for [a VIPER-less Artemis](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-204/). The agency then [tried finding](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-212/) a private company that will fly and operate the rover at its own cost, an approach many argued [decidedly fails at VIPER’s original goal](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-188/). After evaluating the [proposals submitted by private companies](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-evaluating-11-viper-proposals-as-congress-asks-questions/), NASA has [come to the same conclusion](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2025/05/07/nasa-to-explore-additional-methods-to-send-viper-to-moon/). The agency will [restructure the solicitation](https://spacenews.com/nasa-backtracks-on-viper-commercial-partnership/) to elicit stronger proposals that hopefully stay closer to VIPER’s [original science goals](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/). **Edit:** NASA has now [tentatively chosen](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-243/) Blue Origin’s second Mark I lander to fly VIPER in 2027. In the meanwhile, Astrobotic has [completed](https://www.astrobotic.com/integrated-griffin-1-simulation-sticks-the-landing/) [testing](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-tech-passes-critical-tests-for-safe-moon-landings/) their lunar navigation and guidance systems to be onboard Griffin. The large lander’s primary payload will be the [FLIP rover](https://www.astrolab.space/flip-rover/) by Astrolab (a Moon Monday sponsor), which got [manifested recently](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-212/) after NASA decided not to fly VIPER aboard. Astrobotic also [announced](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotics-cuberover-is-flight-ready-for-lunar-mission/) that its [first CubeRover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-172/#astrobotic-to-fly-cuberover-on-griffin-after-all) has successfully passed the [standard suite of space environmental tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-moon-landers/) ahead of its flight on this Griffin lander. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fbc256e02-f279-4ba4-b8ac-1b6e5a732a67_2200x1550-jpeg-1.jpg) Illustration of the VIPER rover exploring the Moon’s south pole. [Image: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/lets-get-building) ### Firefly’s first CLPS mission ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/04/firefly-blue-ghost-nasa-clps-mission-1.jpg) Blue Ghost Mission 1\. [Images: Firefly Aerospace](https://www.flickr.com/photos/fireflyspace/albums/72177720313239766/) **March 2025 update:** [*Firefly successfully landed and performed scientific experiments*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-218/#firefly-deserves-an-unusual-kudos) 🚀 On January 15, a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket [successfully launched](https://youtu.be/7jqWHtNv7YU?feature=shared&t=2996) and deployed Firefly’s [Blue Ghost lander](https://fireflyspace.com/missions/blue-ghost-mission-1/) in Earth orbit. It aims to descend in the [lava plains of Mare Crisium](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-70/#firefly-selects-goldilocks-landing-site-for-its-first-moon-mission) at 18.56°N, 61.81°E in March 2025, carrying [several NASA instruments](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-firefly-aerospace-for-artemis-commercial-moon-delivery-in-2023) to study the lunar environment. One of the lander’s legs feature [PlanetVac](https://www.planetary.org/sci-tech/planetvac), a low-cost soil sampling technology partially funded by The Planetary Society to enable future sample return missions from the Moon, Mars and other planetary bodies. This mission will also be NASA’s first attempt to get a [GPS lock from the Moon](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2021/nasa-explores-upper-limits-of-global-navigation-systems-for-artemis). The mission also has two commercial payloads. **Related:* On the same launch as Blue Ghost, the Falcon 9 upper stage also deployed ispace Japan’s* [*Hakuto-R lander*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-193/#second-ispace-moon-mission-on-the-horizon) *to space. The mission followed up on the company’s* [*first failed landing attempt*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-129/) *but also failed to touchdown due to* [*performance issues*](https://spacenews.com/laser-rangefinder-problems-blamed-for-second-ispace-lunar-lander-crash/?ref=jatan.space) *of the laser rangefinder. The outcome underscored the need for resilience in private lunar landing missions* [*through expansive and collaborative testing*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-228/)*. One must note that ispace has* [*continued its remarkable transparency*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-228/#tenaciously-transparent) *from the first failed landing mission, sharing* [*detailed findings*](https://ispace-inc.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/M2-Technical-Cause-Analysis-Materials.pdf?ref=jatan.space) *of what went wrong in mere weeks.* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/01/ispace-m2-lander-resilience-1.jpg) ispace Japan’s second Moon lander, named RESILIENCE, at JAXA’s Tsukuba Space Center. Also seen integrated into the lander is ispace’s first rover TENACIOUS. [Image: ispace](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=6120) ### Intuitive Machines’ third CLPS mission Intuitive Machines’ [third Moon landing](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-mission-to-reiner-gamma/) will be in the [swirl of Reiner Gamma](https://jatan.space/swirls-on-the-moon/) in 2026\. Reiner Gamma has a weak local magnetic field, possibly a remnant from the time the Moon [had a global magnetic field](http://advances.sciencemag.org/content/3/8/e1700207). The mission’s primary payload suite [Lunar Vertex](https://www.jhuapl.edu/NewsStory/211018b-lunar-vertex) is a collection of spectrometers and magnetometers on the lander and [a rover](https://lunaroutpost.com/lunar-outpost-delivers-first-flight-model-rover-in-record-time) to study the swirl’s composition, and map the strength and direction of magnetic fields on the surface. This will help us better understand the effects of [solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) and [bombarding micrometeorites](https://jatan.space/the-tiniest-of-impact-craters/) on planetary bodies across our Solar System, and also shape our understanding of the Moon’s magnetic evolution. Relatedly, NASA has been [testing](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasas-trio-of-mini-rovers-will-team-up-to-explore-the-moon) variants of the three shoebox-sized [CADRE rovers](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/game%5Fchanging%5Fdevelopment/projects/CADRE) to be deployed at Reiner Gamma by the aforementioned lander. The rovers will autonomously navigate the landed region to demonstrate collectively better mapping it than a single rover would. The rovers will have multistatic ground penetrating radars to create 3D images of the subsurface structure up to 10 meters deep. ### Draper’s farside CLPS mission For [its first CLPS mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-87/) in 2026, Draper will land a spacecraft made by ispace on the Moon’s farside, a feat only achieved by China’s [Chang’e 4](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/change-4) mission so far. The landing region chosen by NASA for the mission is no less impressive—the 312 kilometers wide [Schrödinger crater](https://jatan.space/the-crowned-crater-of-schrodinger/), the most pristine impact feature of its kind. The lander will carry [95 kilograms of NASA’s scientific instruments](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-draper-to-fly-research-to-far-side-of-moon), which includes two highly sensitive seismometers, a drill, a probe, and a magnetic sounder, all to help us better understand the Moon’s internal structure and composition, and [how our cosmic neighbor evolved](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). The lander will also carry [LuSEE-Lite](https://www.universityofcalifornia.edu/news/uc-berkeley-put-experiment-surface-moon-next-2-years), which shielded from Earth’s radio noises on the farside makes it apt to study [the solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/)’s interactions with the Moon’s surface. **Also see:** [*How ispace, CLPS, funding, and science are interlocked*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-184/) ### Firefly’s second CLPS mission ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/01/lunar-pathfinder-relay-service-1.jpg) The Lunar Pathfinder will relay communications between Earth and robotic mission hardware at the Moon as a commercial service. [Image: SSTL](https://www.esa.int/Applications/Navigation/Galileo%5Fwill%5Fhelp%5FLunar%5FPathfinder%5Fnavigate%5Faround%5FMoon) Firefly [will deliver](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-picks-firefly-aerospace-for-robotic-delivery-to-far-side-of-moon) an orbiter and several surface payloads to the Moon in 2026\. The company will use a similar [lander design](https://fireflyspace.com/blue-ghost) as its first CLPS mission but [add a transfer stage](https://spacenews.com/firefly-wins-second-nasa-clps-mission) to deliver the 280-kilogram [Lunar Pathfinder](https://jatan.space/nasa-esa-collaborate-on-lunar-pathfinder/) orbiter for ESA in lunar orbit. Pathfinder is a stepping stone towards [Moonlight](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-98/), ESA’s upcoming commercial navigation and communications constellation. The Firefly lander itself will attempt a touchdown on the Moon’s farside carrying [LuSEE-Night](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-department-of-energy-join-forces-on-innovative-lunar-experiment), a first of its kind instrument to [measure faint but unique radio signals](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-118/) from our Universe’s ‘Dark Age’—a slice of time right before the first stars were born. Firefly later won an extended [$18 million contract](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-awarded-18-million-nasa-contract-to-provide-radio-frequency-calibration-services-from-lunar-orbit) from NASA to provide services for LuSEE-Night. The lander will host the “User Terminal” payload to enable LuSEE-Night to communicate to and fro Earth via the Elytra stage in lunar orbit. Elytra will also provide radio frequency calibrations for LuSEE-Night. In all, the two LuSEE payloads will [help us characterize](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/bale4lusee.pdf) the Moon’s radio emissions for [future farside radio telescopes](http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/May21/radio-astronomy-from-Moon.html). The Firefly lander will [also carry](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-announces-agreement-with-fleet-space-to-deliver-payload-to-the-moon) a commercial seismometer from Australia-based Fleet Space Technologies, which once deployed will operate by tapping into lander-provided power and communications services—much the same as how the [seismometer](https://www.isro.gov.in/Ch3%5FILSA%5FListens%5FLanding%5FSite.html) deployed by ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) lander operated. SPIDER will offer scientists insights into the physical structure and nature of the local crust and subsurface, including hints of resources such as [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). The lander will also deploy [UAE’s Rashid 2 rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-226/#firefly-to-carry-second-uae-lunar-rover-and-more) on the Moon. ### Expanding scope With the mission selection to Reiner Gamma and Schrödinger, NASA began an [enhanced science phase](https://science.nasa.gov/researchers/solicitations/roses-2021/amendment-22-payloads-and-research-investigations-surface-moon-prism-draft-text-released-community) of its CLPS program. The next missions in this phase will visit [the volcanic domes of Gruithuisen](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/more-nasa-science-tech-will-fly-to-moon-aboard-future-firefly-flight/) with a [rover from Honeybee Robotics](https://www.honeybeerobotics.com/news-events/firefly-aerospace-selects-blue-origins-honeybee-robotics-to-provide-rover-for-lunar-mission-to-gruithuisen-domes/), two to the south pole with [Intuitive](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-191/) and [Firefly](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-selects-firefly-for-new-artemis-science-tech-delivery-to-moon/) respectively, and to [Ina](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/new-nasa-artemis-instruments-to-study-volcanic-terrain-on-the-moon). NASA [says](https://www.nasa.gov/content/commercial-lunar-payload-services-overview) future CLPS missions could also deliver more advanced rovers, technology demonstrations, standalone scientific payloads, and even infrastructure required by [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) human landing missions. ## A new commercial model for planetary missions Landing on the Moon is hard. Only five countries have accomplished this feat so far—the Soviet Union, the US, China, India, and Japan. The fact that NASA is entrusting commercial companies with the agency’s crucial lunar scientific and technological objectives, many of which will directly affect their Artemis plans, shows their growing confidence in building a commercial ecosystem around [lunar exploration](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/). CLPS also [inverts the tradition](https://www.planetary.org/space-advocate/january-2022-space-advocate) of having only custom-built planetary missions to meet specific scientific goals. However, the CLPS program has been challenging, particularly with an [immature supply chain and keeping costs in check](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-146/). Ultimately, if enough of the CLPS missions stick the landing, it could open up frequent and periodic access to the Moon’s surface for diverse scientific investigations in ways never possible before for any planetary body. ## Resources [Read more CLPS updates →](https://jatan.space/tag/clps/) [How to follow CLPS updates →](https://jatan.space/how-to-follow-nasa-clps-updates/) --- *A much earlier version of this article was originally published on* [*The Planetary Society*](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/clps) *in 2022\. Since then, the piece has been significantly rewritten, updated, and revised on here to provide the latest launch and mission information.* ### A story about open knowledge sharing in space URL: https://jatan.space/a-story-about-open-knowledge-sharing-in-space/ Last updated: 2025-08-01T13:56:10.000Z It was eight years ago that I wrote a guide on [how to correctly and reliably install NASA’s popular HEASoft software on Linux](https://jatan.space/how-to-quickly-install-and-setup-nasa-heasoft-on-ubuntu-or-any-debian-based-linux/), a software which is extensively used in high energy Astrophysics research. I wrote it because the official guides on NASA HEASoft’s website were failing to let us correctly install the software, particularly in setting all parameters correctly. But I found some way to reliably get it done through trial and error in installing the software from source in different ways. I never ended up pursuing a career in Astrophysics research, and [pivoted to space writing](https://jatan.space/my-science-writing-journey/) instead, but to this day I get emails from students and researchers alike that they find it useful. That has given me more satisfaction than any of my Astrophysics research might have probably. Open knowledge dissemination is at the heart of the Web. Years later I had removed the post, thinking it won’t be reliable for latest Linux releases—and which I hadn’t tested against. Then I started getting emails saying the guide still works, and that they need to refer it for every new install.. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/08/nasa-heasoft-user-email.jpg) And so I restored the guide and continued my passive contribution to Astrophysics research. 😄 ### Moon Monday #235: Artemis and other mission updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-235/ Last updated: 2025-07-28T12:21:18.000Z ## Artemis updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/artemis-ii-sls-ground-systems-tests.jpg) The eight high-level tests of the SLS rocket’s ground systems and associated launch infrastructure which NASA completed ahead of the upcoming crewed Artemis II mission. [Image: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2025/07/25/nasa-tests-new-liquid-hydrogen-tank-for-crewed-artemis-missions/) - NASA has completed a [series of eight tests](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/kennedy/nasa-kennedy-ready-for-artemis-ii-moon-mission-ground-systems-testing-2/) of ground systems and associated launch infrastructure ahead of an eventual second SLS rocket launch which will push [four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) in an Orion spacecraft towards the Moon for the [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to) mission next year. The [final prep test](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2025/07/25/nasa-tests-new-liquid-hydrogen-tank-for-crewed-artemis-missions/) involved testing flowing of cryogenic liquid hydrogen from a new tank at the launch complex. For those who remember the [pain of the big orange rocket crawling back and forth](https://jatan.space/fun-with-serious-sls-rocket-headlines/) between the launchpad and its assembly building for Artemis I, this new tank should provide some relief as it will shave off some time between launch attempts of Artemis II. - Efforts continue to reduce damage to NASA Science & Exploration against the [deep effects](https://www.planetary.org/save-nasa-science) of its proposed and initiated cuts and cancellations by the Trump administration—all of which [affect Artemis](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-227/) too. The US House and Senate are [proposing budget bills](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/07/congress-moves-to-reject-bulk-of-white-houses-proposed-nasa-cuts/) that would roughly maintain last year’s NASA funding if passed. Separately, the US Congress passed a [supplementary $6.7 billion fund](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/trump-megabill-includes-billions-for-artemis-iss-moving-a-space-shuttle-to-texas-and-more/) on July 3 as part of a megabill for NASA to [continue all Artemis hardware projects](https://www.commerce.senate.gov/services/files/2E6BB212-533C-43AF-982C-26D375B4A746) regardless of what the agency’s FY2026 budget proceedings output. More than 60 US Congress members from both parties [have written](https://foushee.house.gov/media/press-releases/ranking-member-foushee-sounds-the-alarm-over-nasa-science-cuts-threatening-us-leadership-in-space) to the *Trump-chosen* Acting Administrator Sean Duffy to request stopping the preemptive cuts to NASA. Agency employees from every center and mission directorate have also [written to the Administrator](https://www.standupforscience.net/nasa-voyager-declaration) expressing concerns of [scientific brain drain](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/rifs-at-nasa-headquarters-begin/) and mission & program cancellations. However, with more than 3,000 NASA employees having [taken voluntary departure options](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/one-fifth-of-nasas-workforce-take-voluntary-departure-options/) last week, and more reductions expected still, NASA’s capacity to execute the US’ ambitions will reduce even if the budgets are somehow maintained. - NASA is [seeking proposals](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/somd/space-communications-navigation-program/nasa-seeks-industry-concepts-on-moon-mars-communications/) from US companies for high-bandwidth, high-reliability [lunar communications and navigation services](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-185/) to support future Artemis missions. Relatedly, US-based Advanced Space (which leads the NASA-funded [CAPSTONE](https://www.nasa.gov/smallspacecraft/capstone/) lunar orbiter mission) has partnered with Firefly Aerospace (who is building orbiters and recently [demonstrated a soft Moon landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-218/#firefly-deserves-an-unusual-kudos)) to [study design reference missions](https://advancedspace.com/advanced-space-awarded-sbir-phase-ii-contract-to-develop-communications-relay-and-pnt-capabilities-for-nasa/) for NASA for the same. This is an area of lunar infrastructure which [China currently leads](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-229/)—as the country aims to meet its own ambition of sustained [crewed missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/) and a [lunar base](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/). - On July 24, Senegal [became the 56th country](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-welcomes-senegal-as-newest-artemis-accords-signatory/) and the fourth African nation to sign the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords/) for cooperative lunar exploration. Notably, the continent’s nation of South Africa has not signed the Accords so far while it is participating in the China-led [ILRS Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/) project. CNSA recently [announced](https://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4320459/content.html) that their upcoming [Chang’e 8](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/#prepare-for-crew-and-double-down-with-mission-eight) mission to explore the Moon’s south pole for [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other resources will carry a radio astronomy array from South Africa and Peru as one of many international payloads. [More Artemis updates →](https://jatan.space/tag/artemis/) ## More mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/planetvac-in-action-on-firefly-blue-ghost-clps-lander.jpg) PlanetVac in action near a leg of the Firefly Blue Ghost Moon lander. Seen in the image are rocks flinging as PlanetVac operates. [Image: Firefly](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5drBYiUCCsg) - JAXA-ISAS has a [good article](https://cosmos.isas.jaxa.jp/gathering-moon-dust-with-honeybee-robotics/) on some of the behind-the-scenes of Honeybee Robotics’ [PlanetVac](https://www.planetary.org/sci-tech/planetvac) sample collection payload and [its operation](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5drBYiUCCsg) earlier this year during US-based Firefly’s [first Moon landing mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-218/#firefly-deserves-an-unusual-kudos): > Both the Blue Ghost PlanetVac and the MMX sampler have a pneumatic design, ejecting pure nitrogen to sweep surface material into a tiny tornado, with a second jet to guide that lifted material into the collection chamber. One additional requirement for MMX is that the sampler would be able to collect material even if the sampling head could not be positioned flush against the moon surface. Since PlanetVac was mounted close to the fourth Blue Ghost leg that was not firmly on the lunar soil, this requirement was about to get an unexpected test. > \[...\] > A boom arm lowered PlanetVac towards the Moon surface. The team sent the command to collect a lunar sample. It was over in one second. To discover if PlanetVac had successfully gathered material, the Honeybee Robotics team had mounted a camera inside the sample container. The pristine container had colored plates on the inside. But when Blue Ghost transmitted the newest image back to Earth, this pretty scene was coated in dust and dirt. - The [ILO-C telescope](https://iloa.org/ilo-c-instrument-for-change-7-lunar-lander-launching-net-november-2026/) of the International Lunar Observatory Association (ILOA) has [passed payload acceptance tests](https://www.lsr.hku.hk/hku-lsrs-ilo-c-telescope-completes-testing-for-change-7-lunar-mission/) to be onboard China’s upcoming [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#the-instrumental-and-increasingly-international-7) mission, which is targeting landing on the Moon’s south pole near the Shackleton crater in late 2026\. Developed through collaboration with China’s NAOC and the University of Hong Kong, ILO-C is a wide-field optical telescope which aims to capture inspiring images of our galactic center from the Moon. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/pangaea-norway-anorthosites.jpg) NASA astronaut Jessica Wittner with Norwegian geologist Käre Kullerud discussing anorthosite samples picked up from the Norwegian Lofoten fjords. [Image: ESA / V. Crobu](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2025/07/28/astronauts-learn-moon-geology-in-a-fjord/) - ESA’s [Pangaea campaign](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/CAVES%5Fand%5FPangaea/What%5Fis%5FPangaea) to [train future lunar astronauts in geology](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2023/02/01/turning-astronauts-into-moon-explorers) continues with the [latest batch](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2025/07/28/astronauts-learn-moon-geology-in-a-fjord/) exploring the Norwegian fjords of [Lofoten](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lofoten) and its well preserved anorthosite rocks—the same kind that make up bulk of our Moon’s light-colored crust. Such training will help astronauts pick better lunar samples on future missions and return more suitable crustal materials from its highlands, which includes the polar regions. - Jack Congram has posted about China’s [updated regulatory guidelines](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/china-updates-commercial-space-regulation) for its private and/or commercial companies. These also generally apply to companies sending things to the Moon, starting with the [two five-kilogram mobile robots](https://spacenews.com/china-embraces-commercial-participation-in-moon-mission-for-the-first-time/) developed by ‘[STAR.VISION](http://star.vision/)’ in collaboration with universities from China and Turkey. The bots are targeted to fly to the Moon’s south pole aboard China’s [Chang’e 8](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/#prepare-for-crew-and-double-down-with-mission-eight) national lander in 2028\. It’s interesting how the steady cadence of China’s Moon landers could mean that Chinese firms can drop rovers and other infrastructure on the Moon regularly while skipping the most difficult part of landing by themselves for the time being. It would be an approach t0 commercialization that’s in stark contrast to [NASA CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). --- *Many thanks to* [***Catalyx Space***](https://catalyx.space)*,* [***Gurbir Singh***](https://gurbir.co.uk) *and* [***Ajay Kothari***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/ajay-kothari-739b0b32/) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource on global lunar exploration for free, and without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support Moon Monday 🌙](https://jatan.space/support) --- ## A Moon-catalyzed Jupiter update ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/esa-juice-at-jupiter.jpg) An artist’s impression of ESA’s JUICE spacecraft at Jupiter. [Image: ESA / NASA / DLR](https://sci.esa.int/web/juice/-/59334-exploring-jupiter) Just like how Earth observation satellites image the Moon [to calibrate](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2024/09/Sentinel-2C%5Fcaptures%5Fstunning%5Fglimpse%5Fof%5Fthe%5FMoon) the performance of their imagers, spacecraft on their way to explore other Solar System objects do so too at times. When ESA’s Jupiter-bound [JUICE spacecraft](https://jatan.space/esa-juice-mission-to-jupiter-moons/) flew past our Moon in August 2024, the mission operations team activated JUICE’s radar system to [characterize its detections](https://www.asi.it/en/2024/10/juices-rime-radar-pings-the-moon-and-listens-to-earth/) against a well known airless object—🌝—before it can study the Jovian icy moons. Lorenzo Bruzzone, principal investigator of JUICE’s radar instrument, said: > The measurements collected will also allow us to tune the processing algorithms to reduce the effects of radio frequency interference generated by the probe’s subsystems in the radar band. Now ESA has provided an update that JUICE’s radar system has been [algorithmically calibrated](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Space%5FScience/Juice/New%5FApollo%5FEarthrise%5Fview%5Fshows%5FJuice%5Fs%5FRIME%5Fworking%5Fwell) by engineers thanks to the lunar flyby. JUICE is now all set to [map layers below the icy surfaces](https://jatan.space/esa-juice-mission-to-jupiter-moons/) of Jovian moons. Relatedly, when NASA’s Cassini spacecraft flew by the Moon in 1999, en route to Saturn, its infrared spectrometer [detected water-bearing minerals](https://web.archive.org/web/20100224220322/https://www.nasa.gov/topics/moonmars/features/clark1.html) at most lunar latitudes, with higher concentrations towards the poles. However, the team didn’t publish their findings until the US instruments on Chandrayaan 1 [discovered water on the Moon](https://jatan.space/how-nasa-and-chandrayaan-discovered-water-on-the-moon/) a decade later. ***Relatedly, here are more ways our Moon is valuable beyond itself:*** - *As a* [*platform for radio cosmology*](http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/May21/radio-astronomy-from-Moon.html) - *To* [*repurpose Moon missions for enabling deep space exploration*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-193/) - *To* [*monitor the Sun and its wind*](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-22/#a-sun-watcher-at-the-moon) *from its unique vantage point* - *As a* [*geological time capsule*](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) *and an* [*age reference*](https://www.planetary.org/articles/0401-the-lunar-chronology) *for events across the Solar System.* ### Explore our Moon’s wild places and wonderful samples | Moon Monday #234 URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-234/ Last updated: 2026-04-13T07:42:49.000Z Look up at our Moon. You see [deep craters](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-lunar-craters/) and [massive mountains](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-moon-mountains/). If you approach closer, there are [lovely lava channels](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-lunar-lava-channels/) and [weird features](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-weird-lunar-features/). Land and fetch [some samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-233/), and it will [keep revealing](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) threads of our Moon’s [fiery origin](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/), its [two-faced evolution](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/), and the [history of our Solar System](https://jatan.space/solar-system-history-101/). We can’t all launch ourselves to Luna to admire its beauty and depth up close. But we can do it virtually. And so below is a set of curated galleries for you to visually explore our cosmic companion’s wild places and wonderful samples, with explainer links and resources. There’s even a video to see lunar places in 3D! Celebrate the [International Moon Day](https://internationalmoonday.org/about/) from anywhere in the world—because we all see the same Moon. Let us not just look up at our Moon but look up *to* it. **Note:* You can click the images to explore each gallery or visual collection.* *(Since this is visual browsing page, image credits are provided in the links.)* ## Wild geological places on our Moon [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/hell-q-lro.jpg)](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-lunar-craters/) [****Gallery: Our Moon’s captivating craters**](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-lunar-craters/) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/moon-mountains.jpg)](https://jatan.space/exploring-moon-mountains/) [****How Moon mountains form instantly**](https://jatan.space/exploring-moon-mountains/) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/tycho-mountain-lro.jpg)](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-moon-mountains/) [****Gallery: Our Moon's marvelous mountains**](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-moon-mountains/) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/rima-ariadaeus.jpg)](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-lunar-lava-channels/) [****Gallery: Our Moon's lovely lava channels**](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-lunar-lava-channels/) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/ina-nasa-lro.jpg)](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-weird-lunar-features/) [****Gallery: Just some weird yet wonderful features on our Moon**](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-weird-lunar-features/) ## Watch and browse the Moon in 3D! [****Watch on YouTube**](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b9qVw-DlLYQ) **| Learn** [****how 3D lunar images are made**](https://jatan.space/the-moon-in-3d/) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/lroc-quickmap-logo-1-1.png)](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/) ****Explore our Moon like Google maps with** [****LROC QuickMap**](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/) **| Browse the** [****fantastic LROC Blog**](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts) **full of high-resolution images** ## Explore Moon rocks! [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/apollo-16-rock-virtual-microscope.jpg)](https://www.virtualmicroscope.org/collections/apollo) [****Explore Apollo Moon rocks in a virtual microscope**](https://www.virtualmicroscope.org/collections/apollo) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/astromaterials-3d-logo-1-1.png)](https://ares.jsc.nasa.gov/astromaterials3d/apollo-lunar.htm) ****View Moon rocks in 3D and dissect them with the** [****Astromaterials Lunar Sample Collection**](https://ares.jsc.nasa.gov/astromaterials3d/apollo-lunar.htm) **| Browse the** [****Lunar Sample Compendium**](https://curator.jsc.nasa.gov/lunar/lsc) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/luna-16-basalt-sample-thin-section-2.jpg)](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/samples/#lunas) [****Browse Soviet Luna core samples**](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/samples/#lunas) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/change-5-moon-sample-1.jpg)](https://moon.bao.ac.cn/moonSampleMode/index.html) ****Browse China’s** [****Chang’e 5 and 6 lunar samples**](https://moon.bao.ac.cn/moonSampleMode/index.html) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/chang-e-6-basalt-sample-under-a-polarizing-microscope-2.jpg)](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-233/) [****Visualize a new Moon based on scientific discoveries by Chang’e 6**](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-233/) --- *Many thanks to* [***Astrolab***](https://astrolab.space) *and* [***Ajay Kothari***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/ajay-kothari-739b0b32/) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to inform and educate people worldwide on lunar exploration, for free and without ads, kindly support my independent writing:* [Support Moon Monday 🌙](https://jatan.space/support) ### Was Shukla’s Axiom-4 flight to the International Space Station worth it for ISRO? | Indian Space Progress #29 URL: https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-29/ Last updated: 2025-12-12T10:59:31.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/shubhanshu-shukla-iss-cupola.jpg) Axiom-4 (Ax-4) Mission Pilot Shubhanshu Shukla in the Cupola at the International Space Station. [Image: Ax-4 crew / ISRO](https://axiom.space/media/ax4) --- **Sponsored job listings:** [*PierSight Space*](https://piersight.space) *is hiring for* [*15 roles*](https://jobs.gohire.io/piersight-rfd9c90d/)*—notably an* [*embedded software developer*](https://jobs.gohire.io/piersight-rfd9c90d/embedded-software-developer-211525/) *and engineers for* [*RF design*](https://jobs.gohire.io/piersight-rfd9c90d/rf-design-engineer-221583/) *and* [*spacecraft electrical assembly & integration*](https://jobs.gohire.io/piersight-rfd9c90d/spacecraft-electrical-assembly-integration-test-engineer-211528/)*—to join their teams in Ahmedabad and Bangalore who are building a constellation of SAR-AIS satellites for persistent, all-weather ocean monitoring.* --- **Before we dive into evaluating the Axiom-4 mission’s specifics as relevant to ISRO, here’s a mission brief:** On June 25, India’s test pilot & Group Captain Shubhanshu Shukla [launched](https://www.axiomspace.com/mission-blog/ax4-launches) in a Crew Dragon capsule atop SpaceX’s Falcon 9 rocket to the International Space Station (ISS) as part of the [Axiom Space Ax-4 mission crew](https://www.axiomspace.com/missions/ax4). Said Axiom-4 crew comprises Mission Commander (and space veteran) Peggy Whitson, Mission Pilot Shubhanshu Shukla, and Mission Specialists Sławosz Uznański from Poland & Tibor Kapu from Hungary. The capsule, named “Grace” by the crew, [docked](https://www.axiomspace.com/mission-blog/ax4-docks) with the ISS the next day. ISRO provided a [timeline of activities](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/Successful%5FLaunch%5Fof%5FAxiom%5FMission.pdf) until June 30\. After a total of [19 days](https://www.axiomspace.com/category/ax4-mission) of stay and experiments at the ISS, the crew re-entered Grace and [splashed down safely](https://www.axiomspace.com/mission-blog/ax4-splashes-down) on Earth today, July 15. > **Note:* Shukla has become the first Indian national to have visited the ISS but is not the first Indian to do so, as numerous media reports have claimed, since Sunita Williams is of Indian origin too. Williams isn’t an Indian citizen but you don’t need to be one to be of Indian origin.* ## Shukla’s Ax-4 ISS flight is critiqued in India ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/axiom-4-crew-dragon-iss-approach.jpg) The “Grace” Crew Dragon spacecraft from Axiom-4 approaching the ISS to dock. A thruster plume is visible on its right as the spacecraft orients itself towards the docking port. [Image: NASA / Axiom Space](https://axiom.space/media/ax4) Shukla’s flight to the ISS has spurred controversial opinions in Indian space communities. Between the influx of public posts online, conversations I tuned into in semi-private messenger groups, and many people I spoke to offline, this mission has been the most polarizing in recent times. Some say that as a commercial mission, it’s just a “joyride”. Others say the mission should be proudly celebrated as a national achievement. Others still consider the mission to be a waste of \~$70 million for Indian taxpayers. What is true? The reason I’ve had to do this piece is because ISRO, or rather India’s Department of Space (DOS) as [its overarching entity](https://www.isro.gov.in/organisation.html), did not provide a formal rationale for paying for an astronaut ride on the Ax-4 ISS mission. It’s only after the mission’s launch and repeated media inquiries that ISRO provided a few details on what’s in it for us as a country. I reached out to ISRO, NASA, Axiom, and SpaceX to get more information other than assimilating what’s on the Web. I did not hear back from ISRO and SpaceX. Follow-ups were not responded to either. It remains frustrating that despite me being an Indian citizen, ISRO doesn’t formally respond to journalistic queries for [contacts listed on its website](https://www.isro.gov.in/contact.html). NASA and Axiom responded repeatedly. As an Indian citizen, how is it that I have easier formal access to NASA but not ISRO? Anyway, between responses from NASA and Axiom, and some added context to consider, it’s possible to make a nuanced case in favor of the mission as explained and discussed below—albeit with some caveats. ## Putting the cost in context ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/isro-gaganyaan-human-spaceflight-timeline.jpg) Illustration of human spaceflight technologies ISRO is gradually building to enable an indigenous space station in Earth orbit. [Image: ISRO / Hanumantray Baluragi](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I9tXvKZTScA) How much did Shukla’s Ax-4 ISS flight cost to ISRO? Chethan Kumar has reported at least [$68 million](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/india-has-spent-rs-413-crore-on-sending-astronaut-to-iss-rs-135-crore-more-to-go-this-year/articleshow/119670434.cms) sent in payments to Axiom and NASA. That’s almost the same amount as [Chandrayaan 3’s Moon landing](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/). And that’s why many consider Shukla’s ISS flight to be a rather expensive joyride. But what most have missed is the backdrop of the \~[$2.4 billion](https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2055978) budget of the [Gaganyaan program](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/) of which Ax-4 is part of. In other words, Shukla’s ISS flight has cost India only 3% of its sanctioned human spaceflight budget. It’s also about 4.5% of ISRO’s annual budget of [$1.5 billion](https://www.indiabudget.gov.in/doc/eb/sbe95.pdf) in [recent years](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-18/). Assuming the flight’s stated—and unstated—benefits hold true to scrutiny and prove valuable over time as expected, the amount spent is not high. As an agency new to the niche pursuit of human spaceflight, ISRO leveraging of Ax-4 to gain insights into the complexities of real world astronaut missions and its international coordination mechanisms can be a worthwhile cause. Especially so before India mounts its own far-more-expensive astronaut expeditions. And that’s why the exact amount spent on Shukla’s flight within that order of magnitude does not really matter. People have argued that \~$70 million could’ve been better spent on India’s more pressing space technology needs, including civil and defense ambitions. However, budget appropriations don’t work that way. Money assigned for use on Gaganyaan and its missions will not get automagically reassigned to India’s other space missions should Gaganyaan or aspects of it disappear. That money will instead simply be added to the country’s central funds. And yet despite all of this, it can be perplexing to understand the ISRO Chief V. Narayanan’s [statements to Times of India](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/shukla-in-space-benefits-far-outweigh-cost-says-isro-chief/articleshow/122190896.cms) that the Ax-4 mission’s spending is justified in another way too: > The ₹548 crore spent on the mission is a fraction of what India would’ve otherwise needed to spend on replicating the same training, exposure and systems-level experience. \[...\] We’ve gained access to infrastructure and experience that would otherwise require thousands of crores. Now, it’s possible that the context in which this was said is different and missing. Because otherwise Gaganyaan’s [explicit goal](https://www.isro.gov.in/Gaganyaan.html) is to indeed build the same kind of infrastructure and capabilities in India. For a country wanting its own [human space station](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-20/#human-spaceflight-plans) and to send Indians to space by ourselves, we would certainly need to spend those thousands and thousands of crores to possess the numerous functioning parts of an independent human spaceflight program. And so the assumption is that Shukla’s ISS flight will lend us practical and nuanced insights that help us accelerate [progress on Gaganyaan](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-23/#anchoring-human-spaceflight). That brings us to the next contended question. ## What all did Shukla and his backup Nair train for? ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/axiom-4-crew-emergency-training-iss.jpg) Assigned and backup Ax-4 crew members, including Shubhanshu Shukla and Prasanth Nair, review training materials during Emergency Fire training. [Image: Axiom Space](https://axiom.space/media/ax4) Critics argue that the commercial Ax-4 flight to the ISS is a fully automated one thanks to the sophistication of the SpaceX Crew Dragon vehicle. They add that that coupled with US safeguards like ITAR, the flight is nothing but an expensive joyride with nearly no technical returns for Gaganyaan. So let’s review several specific aspects of the mission and its preparations to see if there’s something unique for India to have learnt. ISRO itself has [mentioned the following](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/Successful%5FLaunch%5Fof%5FAxiom%5FMission.pdf) in high-level specifics post-launch: > The \[astronaut\] training modules covered are advanced spacecraft systems, emergency protocols, scientific payload operations, microgravity adaptation, space medicine, and survival training. They also participated in NASA’s National Outdoor Leadership Program (NOLPS) in the wilderness of Mexico, where the focus was on team cohesion and resilience under stress. > \[...\] > The Ax-04 mission will provide valuable inputs for ISRO’s upcoming Gaganyaan mission. It offers hands-on experience in the nuances of international crew integration, medical and psychological preparation, real-time health telemetry, experiment execution, and crew-ground coordination. These insights will directly influence mission planning, safety validation, and astronaut readiness for India’s first indigenous human spaceflight mission. This is a good start but does lack details so let’s get into some. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/axiom-4-crew-dragon-iss-approach-2.jpg) The “Grace” Crew Dragon spacecraft from Axiom-4 approaching the ISS to dock. [Image: NASA / Axiom Space](https://axiom.space/media/ax4) First and foremost, even for a commercial flight, it’s important to make the distinction between someone flying as a Mission Pilot versus other roles. Shukla is the former, as is his backup Prashanth Nair who was equally trained for the mission. Granted that Crew Dragon’s flight is practically fully automated, the Mission Pilot in particular is nevertheless taught to engage manual controls if and when necessary for contingency and emergency scenarios. When asked about distinguishing between mission training provided to Shukla & Nair versus that provided to the whole crew, Axiom Space responded with the following: > As the pilot, Shux \[Shukla’s callsign\] was trained to monitor Dragon’s systems during all critical phases—launch, docking with the ISS, and re-entry. > During launch, training focused on tracking system health, coordinating with mission control, and staying ready to troubleshoot anomalies. > For docking, he learned how to oversee the approach, ensuring correct alignment with the ISS docking port, and maintaining constant communication with both the station crew and ground mission controllers. > For re-entry, he was trained to monitor descent trajectory and key safety parameters—including parachute deployment and vehicle altitude—and he was trained to intervene manually if necessary. That last bit in particular can be life saving, and so I wouldn’t characterize the mission as a purely paid passive ride to space and back. Note also that Shukla and Nair are test pilots on Earth. The intuition for air flight is of course completely different than for spaceflight but being pilots of the highest order lend the duo increased adaptability and responsiveness. For emergency training that was applicable to the entire crew, Axiom Space stated the following. \[Note that as a [space veteran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peggy%5FWhitson), Mission Commander Peggy Whitson didn’t need to go through all of these.\] > The Ax-4 crew practiced responding to depressurization events, where they must quickly don emergency masks and seal off affected areas to manage a loss of cabin pressure. > They trained for medical emergencies, learning how to provide first aid and use onboard medical equipment to stabilize injured or ill crew members. > Fire response procedures were another focus, involving the location and extinguishing of fires, as well as managing smoke and toxic fumes. > These comprehensive drills equip the Ax-4 crew with the necessary skills and confidence to effectively manage emergencies in the challenging environment of space. > Their training took place across NASA, Axiom Space, and SpaceX facilities, and included integration with international partners to ensure readiness for ISS operations. Nair received similar training to ensure full mission capability as a backup. The portion of the crew’s training via NASA at the agency’s Johnson Space Center also involved dealing with emergency situations at the ISS. Jimi Russell, the Public Affairs Officer for NASA’s Space Operations Mission Directorate, said: > All private astronauts are trained to what is known as a minimum required level to ensure the safety of themselves and expedition astronauts aboard the ISS, as well as to ensure the safety of the station. At least two of the private astronauts also are trained to what is known as minimum escort level, which reduces the impact to ongoing station operations and improves overall mission safety and private astronaut crew autonomy. When asked which two Ax-4 astronauts were trained at the “minimum escort level”, and if that involved Shukla, NASA did not respond back. --- *Many thanks to the* [***Takshashila Institution***](https://takshashila.org.in)*,* [***PierSight***](https://piersight.space)*,* [***Catalyx Space***](https://catalyx.space)*,* [***Gurbir Singh***](https://gurbir.co.uk) *and* [***Arun Raghavan***](https://arunraghavan.net) *for sponsoring this month’s edition of Indian Space Progress. If you too appreciate my efforts to capture true trajectories of India in space,* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*.* 🇮🇳 🚀 --- ## Experience with microgravity experiments and its ISS modules ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/shubhanshu-shukla-peggy-whitson-iss-microgravity-liquid-sphere-1.jpg) Shubhanshu Shukla and Peggy Whitson in microgravity aboard the ISS. [Image NASA / Axiom Space](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PEgeSEsNbKI) When aboard the ISS, ISRO through Shukla conducted [seven](https://www.isro.gov.in/Indian%5Fmicrogravity%5Fresearch%5FAxiom4%5Fmission.html) out of [sixty experiments](https://www.axiomspace.com/missions/ax4#research). As part of a [broader ISRO-ESA agreement](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Operations/ESA%5Fto%5Fsupport%5FIndian%5Fhuman%5Fspaceflight%5Fmissions), Indian institutes had [two microgravity experiments](https://www.isro.gov.in/ISRO-ESA%5Fcollaboration%5Fin%5Fmicrogravity%5Fresearch%5Fin%5Fupcoming%5FAxiom-4%5FMission.html) jointly with ESA aboard as well. The Indian government’s public broadcast service Doordarshan [created a video](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QPSRx3AVKfE) on the experiments (in Hindi). ISRO and the institutes involved will analyze the data and outcomes from the experiments soon and share the results later. Note that it’s not the kinds of experiments Ax-4 crew performed that are as notable because, while good, they aren’t unique as the ISS hosts such research activities all the time. But the training for those experiments did give Shukla, Nair, and ISRO exposure to the European and Japanese modules on the ISS, which specialize in microgravity research. Here’s what [Axiom has shared](https://www.axiomspace.com/mission-blog/ax-4-ip-training): > ESA and JAXA, along with the Japan Manned Space Systems Corporation (JAMSS), have provided astronaut training programs to ensure the assigned Ax-4 crew is adept at functioning within the space station's multinational environment. > \[...\] > At ESA’s European Astronaut Centre (EAC) in Cologne, Germany, the assigned Ax-4 crew completed comprehensive training covering communications systems, emergency response procedures, and conducting research activities inside the Columbus module. \[...\] Following ESA training, the crew underwent rigorous training sessions at JAXA's Tsukuba Space Center in Japan, concentrating on understanding the operation of the Japanese Experiment Module (JEM), known as Kibō. The training included gaining an in-depth understanding of the JEM module's capabilities. Furthermore, ISRO [has shared](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/Successful%5FLaunch%5Fof%5FAxiom%5FMission.pdf) that it was the company Redwire that enabled the Indian experiments to logistically work at the ISS during Ax-4: > Redwire Space, USA, is coordinating the payload integration activities. Redwire facilitated key steps, including technical validation and compliance with ISS payload requirements. Each experiment is packaged into flight-ready payload containers. Redwire is also supporting the development of hardware handling protocols, ensuring that the Indian experiments could be safely deployed and operated onboard the ISS, thereby enabling meaningful scientific outcomes for India’s research community. Considering that ISRO intends to have scientific experiments as part of its free-flying Gaganyaan capsule as well as [space station missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/), the ISS research training exposure and experience with ESA, JAXA, and Redwire will certainly come in handy for India as a new player to forge microgravity science modules that are flight feasible. ## Could ISRO have achieved these goals another way? Critics have also stated that ISRO could’ve achieved the goals discussed above via terrestrial means for far lower costs. Note that by this point in the piece, we’ve gone through the ISRO astronauts being involved in mission training and observations across NASA, SpaceX, Axiom, ESA, and JAXA facilities. Now if ISRO were to mount five such bilateral contracts for astronaut training, even if time consuming, it may or may not have provided the same insights with coherence. It certainly wouldn’t include the experience of being tuned into a human spaceflight itself, which I discuss in the next section. A paid ticket to the ISS, even if commercial, was a *single-window* entry for ISRO to accelerate its own human spaceflight program. The inefficiency of arriving at a solution is a distinct problem from the outcomes being beneficial regardless. The desired outcome being fulfilled is more important than the pure efficiency of the solution—so long as the cost’s order of magnitude doesn’t rise from tens of millions to hundreds as discussed in this piece above. ## Tuning into mission operations ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/axiom-space-ax-4-iss-crew.jpg) The Ax-4 Mission crew and a SpaceX Crew Dragon capsule. [Images: Axiom Space](https://brandfolder.com/axiomspace/missions) Between the wide-ranging training provided to Shukla & Nair and the former’s flight experience now with its actual series of events in space, and the corresponding events at the mission control center, a valuable lesson for ISRO lies in something that seems simple but is nuanced: the ‘sequence of operations’ used throughout the mission for every system. Shukla knowing, practicing, and experiencing the specificities of this sequence will be valuable for ISRO to correctly or more quickly design human spaceflight systems and consoles. This is especially true for contingency scenarios and emergency situations, where the order of events matters most. Furthermore, Chethan Kumar has [reported](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/shubhanshu-shukla-floats-isro-digs-in-at-houston-to-watch-learn/articleshow/122119846.cms) that ISRO’s delegation of engineers and doctors supposedly had better access than what is possible through Axiom’s commercial flight alone, with India going through a NASA-ISRO agreement to that end. Kumar reports a “senior ISRO official” who is “closely involved with the mission” sharing the following—albeit all anonymously: > This is the first time we’re seeing these operations up close—till now, it was all just documentation. \[...\] We were on the audio loop, listening to mission control discussions. We saw what control operations did, how many docking attempts were made, what kind of error parameters were being monitored. These are not things you’ll find in any public webcast or document. The official also said that the ISRO doctors were involved in the mission during Shukla’s Crew Dragon flight as well as the ISS stay via private medical conference links. They will also be involved in Shukla’s post-flight recovery and rehabilitation for a week or so. This experience with real data of its astronaut will help India plan its indigenous setup for Gaganyaan missions. The ISRO Chief thus [summed up](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/shukla-in-space-benefits-far-outweigh-cost-says-isro-chief/articleshow/122190896.cms) the Ax-4 ISS flight’s advantage to India as follows: > From data handling to high-level system safety discussions, our understanding of the end-to-end process has grown. This cannot be acquired by simulation or literature review alone. Note though that ESA and JAXA are long-time partners on the ISS. They don’t need Axiom flights for their astronauts to learn anything new. Their true ISS partnerships have provided Europe and Japan vastly superior experiences in human spaceflight than India. Even so, neither ESA nor JAXA have seriously aimed to have an independent human spaceflight program as an outcome \[for various reasons including costs\] but India is. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/axiom-4-crew-dragon-before-splashdown-on-earth-with-parachutes.jpg) A thermal shot of the Ax-4 “Grace” Crew Dragon capsule approaching splashdown near California with its parachutes deployed. [Image: SpaceX / Axiom Space](https://brandfolder.com/axiomspace/missions) By this point in the piece, it appears that ISRO thought through the benefits of this mission as a key stepping stone in [its ambition](https://www.isro.gov.in/Gaganyaan.html) to indigenously send humans to space. But then you also have ISRO [stating on its website](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/Successful%5FLaunch%5Fof%5FAxiom%5FMission.pdf) that the mission took place “only because” of India’s Prime Minister Narendra Modi. > ISRO’s participation in Axiom-04 Mission happened only because of the visionary leadership of the Honorable Prime Minister of India, Shri Narendra Modi ji. It was under his guidance that the foundation was laid for this joint collaboration between ISRO and the United States. The mission was envisaged during the Prime Minister’s historic visit to the U.S. in 2023 and his meeting with the then-President of the United States to send an Indian astronaut to the International Space Station as part of a broader partnership. One would typically imagine that since ISRO as India’s premier space technology and research institution understands the nuances of what it stands to gain from the Axiom-4 ISS flight, it would therefore be the one originally proposing said mission. But since it’s the Indian Prime Minister that has both proposed the mission and orchestrated the deal with the US, one therefore asks if ISRO had alternate or even no plans to gain the same insights and experiences that they now have from Ax-4? ## Advanced training for ISRO astronauts? I asked NASA to share some specifics on the *non-Ax-4* related training provided by NASA to Shukla & Nair as part of said ISRO-NASA agreement on human spaceflight cooperation. For context, Shukla & Nair, along with the other two [ISRO astronaut candidates](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-13/), completed their basic astronaut training in Russia at various Roscosmos centers. Shukla & Nair were to undergo “advanced training” at NASA. It turns out that it’s not done yet. Jimi Russell, the Public Affairs Officer for NASA’s Space Operations Mission Directorate, said: > The two agencies also are discussing advanced ISRO astronaut training and will share more details as they are available. Note that the [US White House factsheet](https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2023/06/22/fact-sheet-republic-of-india-official-state-visit-to-the-united-states/) about the subject at the time of the agreement in 2023 stated the following: > NASA will provide advanced training to ISRO astronauts with the goal of launching a joint effort to the International Space Station in 2024. ## Next steps ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/gaganyaan-tv-d1-crew-module.jpg) The TV-D1 Gaganyaan crew module test article near an Indian navy ship, waiting to be lifted after a successful in-flight rocket abort test. [Image: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/tvd1%5Fgallery.html) Looking ahead, the next major milestone in India’s human spaceflight journey is Gaganyaan G1\. It’s the first of three uncrewed test flights which need to be successful before ISRO can deem all systems to be safe enough to launch its own astronauts from Indian soil. ISRO is targeting G1’s launch later this year although timelines have been uncertain until now. There will also be more abort tests of the Gaganyaan Crew Module to follow up on the [previous in-flight abort test](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-10/). ISRO’s human spaceflight program has been facing recurring delays despite progress on parts. It’s a complex undertaking, and astronaut safety is paramount. It’s also important to get the essential pieces right when a country has ambitions to create a space station of its own. Shukla’s Ax-4 ISS flight and the Shukla-Nair duo’s training experience will definitely be fed into ISRO’s central planning of Gaganyaan at India’s [Human Space Flight Center](https://www.isro.gov.in/HSFC.html) to accelerate the program—even if there may be caveats about the efficacy and extent of benefits of Shukla’s flight. As with most things, time will tell. --- ### Read previous editions on Indian space - [**Indian Space Progress #28:**](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-28/) A pressing PSLV rocket failure and orbital congestion to brood over - [**Indian Space Progress #27**](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-27/)**:** Three months of mission updates, and fixing ISRO’s monthly summaries - [**India’s achievements in Moon exploration this half year**](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-231/#india) ### Moon Monday #233: Visualizing a new Moon based on scientific discoveries by China’s Chang’e 6 mission URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-233/ Last updated: 2026-08-31T13:43:43.000Z *I’m over the Moon to share that* [*Open Lunar Foundation*](https://www.openlunar.org) *is continuing to be a sponsor of my* [*Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) *blog+newsletter for the fifth year in a row!* 🌕 [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/open-lunar-foundation-logo-bg-white-small-3-1.jpg)](https://www.openlunar.org) *Open Lunar is a non-profit organization that actively promotes cooperative, peaceful, and sustainable exploration of our Moon. The organization enables experts globally to collaborate and develop* [*equitable technical and policy building blocks*](https://www.openlunar.org/projects) *to such ends.* *It’s a mission I love so much—alongside* [*the people*](https://www.openlunar.org/team)*—that I’ve been happily aiding it as their* [*Science Communications Lead*](https://jatan.space/joining-open-lunar-as-their-science-communications-lead/) *since this year.* 🚀 **Note:* All Moon Monday sponsorships, including that of Open Lunar, abide by my public* [*Editorial Independence Policy*](https://jatan.space/ethics) *with zero exceptions.* --- ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/chang-e-6-lunar-sample-capsule-container-and-team.jpg) ****Top left:** Chang’e 6 reentry capsule after safe descent and landing on Earth; ****Top right:** Chang’e 6 lunar sample container after being lifted out of the reentry capsule; ****Bottom:** Part of the Chang’e 6 mission team from CNSA and CAST. Images: [Xinhua](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3267939/chinas-change-6-moon-mission-returns-earth-historic-lunar-far-side-cargo?campaign=3267939&module=perpetual%5Fscroll%5F0&pgtype=article) / [CCTV+](https://www.facebook.com/watch/?v=821456199919449&rdid=Tubmr9w5Im5ZzIkN) CNSA [held a press conference](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465652/n6465653/c10687632/content.html) on July 9 to share novel findings about our Moon as revealed by Chinese researchers studying [lunar farside samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-201/) brought to Earth by the [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) mission last year. This is a good time to highlight all major findings with an accompanying visual that lets you picture the scientific value the Chinese have added to [humanity’s exploration of our Moon](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/). > **Note:* Unlike as reported in many media outlets, the findings include but are not actually limited to the four papers that appear in the* [*July 10 edition of Nature*](https://www.nature.com/nature/volumes/643/issues/8071)*. Some reports are also calling these papers new whereas all but one of them were published earlier. The four papers are simply bundled in this journal edition for context. And there are more elsewhere.* First, take a good look at the [sampling site](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-178/) of Chang’e 6 on the Moon, lying at [153.99° W, 41.64° S](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?prjExtent=-5221688.1665765%2C-1467732.4084261%2C-3942620.3673887%2C-743473.9323902&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&isCesiumEntityDetailsEnabled=true&showCompass=true&trailType=1&wideTrail=true&features=206.01455000%2C-41.63839000%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Chang’e+6+landing+site%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKWbJYNOZLRfImq3ioA&proj=16) within the farside [Apollo](https://jatan.space/peak-ringed-apollo-crater/) impact crater. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/chang-e-6-lander-on-the-moon.jpg) A panorama from China’s Chang’e 6 lander on the Moon’s farside, showing one of its legs and the scoop sampling arm near its surface digs. Chang’e 6 collected 1.93 kilograms of soil and rocks across scoops and drills. [Image: CNSA / CLEP](https://x.com/SegerYu/status/1798688466026594539) Below is a good look at some scooped samples. Most of the Chang’e 6 samples are [stored at NAOC of CAS](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-201/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/materials-within-chang-e-6-lunar-farside-samples.jpeg) A close look at scooped lunar farside samples brought to Earth by China’s Chang’e 6 mission. They contain a diversity of stony, volcanic, impact-induced, and glassy materials. [Images: Chunlai Li, et al.](https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwae328) Alongside the [2-billion-year-old](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-50/) samples from [Chang’e 5](https://jatan.space/change-5-landing-site/), the Chang’e 6 samples at [2.8 billion years old](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-202/) are among the youngest volcanic material fetched from Luna. Earlier Apollo and Luna volcanic samples are not only older, they belong to a different era in the [evolution of our Moon](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/chang-e-6-farside-volcanic-samples-age.jpg) ****Top left:** The Chang’e 6 farside landing site (red dot) lying within the 500-kilometer wide Apollo impact crater. ****Bottom left:** Two basaltic (volcanic) rock fragments from Chang’e 6 whose age was determined in labs; ****Right:** The ages of Chang’e 5 and 6 basalts (CE-5 and CE-6) compared to Apollo samples and several lunar meteorites. [Images: Zexian Cui, Qing Yang, et al.](https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adt1093) One Chang’e 6 study did find evidence of a [distinct volcanic episode about 4.2 billion years ago](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-08382-0) amid samples otherwise dominated by the 2.8-billion-year aged basalts. Scientists concluded that the former was due to the presence of [heat-producing and radioactive elements](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KREEP) whereas the volcanic outbursts 1.4 billion years later took place despite the lunar interior beneath the landing site being deprived of such catalysts. Chang’e 6 findings have thus added to the complexities of the Moon’s volcanic history. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/chang-e-6-volcanic-samples-ages-4.2-and-2.8-billion-years-old.jpg) The X-axis shows the ages of volcanic samples brought by Chang’e and Apollo missions. Several lunar meteorites found on Earth are included as well. These are charted against the amount of [heat-producing and radioactive elements](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KREEP) in the samples to determine their origin and the varying makeup of our Moon’s mantle. The two kinds of Chang’e 6 (CE-6) volcanic samples are clearly visible to be distinct from each other here. [Image: Qian Zhang et al.](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-08382-0) Another interesting result from the same paper was that the accurate, lab-determined age of 2.8 billion years for the dominant Chang’e 6 basalts falls right in line with their approximate age as previously estimated using the remote [crater counting](https://www.planetary.org/articles/0401-the-lunar-chronology) method. This means that the crater-counting based age model established for the Moon’s nearside is gladly closely applicable to features on the farside too. This is what lunar dating for lunar scientists looks like. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/chang-e-6-farside-bulk-samples-age-agree-with-lunar-crater-counting.jpg) The lunar crater-counting chronology passes through the grounded age reference point of the Chang’e 6 local basalts. [See full legend](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08382-0/figures/4) | [Image: Qian Zhang et al.](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-08382-0) In contrast, dating Chang’e 5 samples led to [noticeably shifted ages](https://english.cas.cn/newsroom/research%5Fnews/phys/202202/t20220214%5F300776.shtml) of lunar features as well as refining of the [nature of impacts over the last 2 billion years](https://doi.org/10.59717/j.xinn-geo.2023.100014) in the inner Solar System. For example, it’s because of Chang’e 5 that scientists realized that some lunar features may be [up to 240 million years older](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41550-022-01604-3) than previously thought. Another study of the dominant Chang’e 6 basalts with embedded micrometer-sized iron grains revealed a [surprising increase in magnetic field strength](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-08526-2), providing the first ground truth constraints for farside lunar magnetism. From the paper: > These results record a rebound of the field strength after its previous sharp decline of around 3.1 Ga \[billion years ago\], which attests to an active lunar dynamo at about 2.8 Ga in the mid-early stage and argues against the suggestion that the lunar dynamo may have remained in a low-energy state after 3 Ga until its demise. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/chang-e-6-volcanic-samples-magnetic-field-strength-rebound.jpg) Evolution of our Moon’s magnetic field strength over time—called paleointensity—as measured in Apollo and Chang’e samples. Chang’e 6 sample measurements show a possible rebound of the lunar dynamo starting around 3 billion years ago. [See full legend](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08526-2/figures/4) | [Image: Shuhui Cai et al.](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-08526-2) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/chang-e-6-basalt-sample-under-a-polarizing-microscope-1.jpg) A Chang’e 6 volcanic basalt sample imaged with a polarizing microscope under various rotation angles. To scientists, the varying colors and their shades reveal the diverse mineral makeup of the sample. [Images: Shuhui Cai et al](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-08526-2). Let’s switch gears to the few hundred million years after our Moon’s [fiery formation](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/). This earliest era of Luna’s evolution is where findings from Chang’e 6 have been deeply insightful. Until recently, all direct evidence of our Moon being covered in a [global magma ocean](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/) shortly after its formation has come from Apollo and Luna samples sourced from nearside equatorial and near-equatorial regions. Surface measurements made by Chandrayaan 3’s Pragyan rover in 2023 [extended this hypothesis’ validity](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-190/) to high-latitude regions on the nearside. But we lacked any such tactile measurements from the Moon’s farside. Recently though Chinese researchers studying two grams of Chang’e 6 samples found the [isotopic measurements of key chemical elements](https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adt3332) to be compatible with a fully molten young Moon. Chang’e 6 has thus lent unequivocal credence to said hypothesis. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/magma-ocean-early-moon-illustration.jpg) Illustration of a young Moon with a global magma ocean and newly forming crust. [Image: CCTV+](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d8EfwGxza50) In another critical study, researchers analyzed 1600 fragments from five grams of Chang’e 6 samples and found 20 relevant pieces to [determine the truest age yet](https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwaf103) of the massive [South Pole-Aitken (SPA) basin](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2008/pdf/1626.pdf)—within which the spacecraft landed—as being 4.25 billion years. Spanning 2500 kilometers, the SPA basin is the Moon’s largest, deepest, and oldest impact crater. Its age and nature of formation has huge implications for understanding [how our Moon evolved](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/chang-e-6-samples-provide-age-of-spa-lunar-basin.jpg) Illustration showing ancient impact melt rock fragment collected among Change’e 6 samples at the mission’s landing site, which lies within the South Pole-Aitken (SPA) basin. [Image: CAS](https://english.cas.cn/newsroom/research%5Fnews/earth/202503/t20250321%5F908490.shtml) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/spa-basin-unar-basic-melt-sheet-and-structure-chang-e-6-samples.jpg) Formation of the SPA basin’s impact melt sheet and layered structure as identified based on Chang’e 6 sample studies. [Image: SU Bin, et al.](https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwaf103) The [CNSA release](http://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4289299/content.html) about the study notes: > This finding provides the first direct, sample-based evidence that the Moon's largest impact basin formed approximately 320 million years after the beginning of Solar System. The definitive age of 4.25 billion years for the SPA basin can serve as a crucial anchor point for refining the lunar cratering chronology and establishing a more complete temporal sequence of the Moon's early evolution. The impact that created the SPA was so colossal that scientists think it changed the physical and chemical makeup of the Moon’s mantle down to hundreds of kilometers. And that’s exactly what more Chang’e 6 studies are finding. The dominant Chang’e 6 basalts are from lava erupted \~1.4 billion years after the SPA event’s morphing of the mantle. These thus exhibit a unique makeup compared to other volcanic lunar samples. A [study of 16 fragments](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-09131-7) scooped up by Chang’e 6 found them severely lacking elements such as titanium and thorium. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/illustration-of-effect-of-spa-impact-on-the-deep-lunar-mantle-and-subsequent-volcanism.jpg) ****a)** An illustration showing the effect of the 4.25-billion-year old SPA impact on the Moon’s deep mantle. ****b)** The altered mantle makeup then reflects in the 2.8-billion-year aged volcanic basalts, some of which were fetched by Chang’e 6\. [See full legend](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09131-7/figures/4) | [Image: Fu-Yuan Wu et al.](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-09131-7) Another study analyzing 578 particles weighing a total of 5 grams revealed for the first time that the Moon’s farside mantle [contains less water](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-08870-x) than within the nearside. The finding added to [the debate on the topic](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-85/) by lending a solid and unique credence to the hypothesis that our Moon indeed lost most of its water [during its fiery formation](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/). CASC’s [news release](https://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4305200/content.html) on the study noted how [Francis McCubbin](https://ares.jsc.nasa.gov/people/bios/francis-m-mccubbin/), NASA’s Astromaterials Curator and a peer reviewer of the paper, called the work “a landmark study on the water abundance of the lunar farside.” ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/chang-e-6-farside-water-mantle-abundance.jpg) Locations of samples collected by nearside Moon missions are both farther away and geologically distinct from the Chang’e 6 landing site inside the farside SPA basin. The sizes of outer circles around location dots reflect the maximum estimated water abundance in the mantle sources beneath the sampled sites. The ****inset image** shows how measurements of farside Chang’e 6 samples indicate lower abundance than the nearside Apollo, Luna, and Chang’e 5 ones. [Images: Yangtin Lin, et al.](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-08870-x) With this long march of notable scientific discoveries, China’s Chang’e 6 sample return mission has lived up to its bold promises of helping scientists [advance on a host of Moon mysteries](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2024/pdf/1873.pdf). Chang’e 6 anchoring past lunar events and providing literally deep insights on the Moon’s [farside-nearside enigma](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) is helping us not just understand our celestial companion’s evolution but [that of our Solar System](https://jatan.space/solar-system-history-101/). --- *Many thanks to* [***Open Lunar Foundation***](https://www.openlunar.org) *and* [***Ajay Kothari***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/ajay-kothari-739b0b32/) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource for free, and without ads, kindly* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*.* 🌙 --- ## More Moon - For the [versatile Lunar Terrain Vehicle](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-171/) (LTV) to be used across [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/artemis/) missions starting end of decade at best, NASA has [announced](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-selects-instruments-for-artemis-lunar-terrain-vehicle/) that the rover will carry three agency-funded instruments: an infrared spectrometer, a microwave spectrometer, and a ground penetrating radar. Together, these would map minerals, volatiles like [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/), and subsurface structures on the Moon’s south pole. NASA will also have an infrared spectrometer in orbit—but whose flight opportunity is not yet determined—to provide regional context for the LTV rover’s measurements and observations. The agency will announce later this year which of the [three competing teams](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-171/) has been selected to make and operate the LTV. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/artemis-ltv-gtu.jpg) Suited engineers testing a terrestrial LTV rover prototype at NASA’s Johnson Space Center. [Image: NASA / Bill Stafford](https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/nasa-prepares-for-lunar-terrain-vehicle-testing/) - US-based Advanced Space (who leads the NASA-funded [CAPSTONE](https://www.nasa.gov/smallspacecraft/capstone/) lunar orbiter mission) has partnered with Firefly Aerospace (who is building orbiters too and recently [demonstrated a soft Moon landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-218/#firefly-deserves-an-unusual-kudos)) so as to [study design reference missions](https://advancedspace.com/advanced-space-awarded-sbir-phase-ii-contract-to-develop-communications-relay-and-pnt-capabilities-for-nasa/) for NASA for future [lunar communications and navigation services](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-185/), an area of lunar infrastructure which [China currently leads](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-229/). - The Swedish Institute of Space Physics (IRF) is [offering a PhD position](https://irf.varbi.com/en/what:job/jobID:842001/) for calibration and analysis of data obtained by the organization-built instrument on the Moon’s farside. The instrument is the [Negative Ions at the Lunar Surface](https://presentations.copernicus.org/EPSC2022/EPSC2022-992%5Fpresentation-h642517.pdf) (NILS) payload, which flew on China’s Chang’e 6 lander last year. NILS [detected negatively charged particles](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/First%5Fdetection%5Fof%5Fnegative%5Fions%5Fon%5Fthe%5FMoon), a world first. These ions are produced due to highly energetic [solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) particles slamming the Moon’s surface and kicking up secondary particles. NILS is the first of two European and ESA-involved instruments to operate on the Moon’s surface, and was Europe’s first such collaboration with China. ### Moon Monday #232: Still free mission updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-232/ Last updated: 2025-09-04T09:09:42.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/moon-to-mars-artemis.jpg) [Image: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/nasa-australia-sign-agreement-to-add-rover-to-future-moon-mission/) - In response to the Trump’s administration’s [FY2026 presidential budget request for NASA](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-227/) slashing the Artemis projects of the SLS rocket, the Orion spacecraft, and the NASA-led international Gateway orbital habitat after the upcoming crewed [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/) Moon landing mission, the US Congress passed a [supplementary $6.7 billion fund](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/trump-megabill-includes-billions-for-artemis-iss-moving-a-space-shuttle-to-texas-and-more/) for NASA on July 3 as part of a megabill to [continue those projects](https://www.commerce.senate.gov/services/files/2E6BB212-533C-43AF-982C-26D375B4A746) instead regardless of what the agency’s FY2026 budget proceedings output. - In what is perhaps emblematic of the inefficiency and mismatched priorities of US politics vis-à-vis its space ambitions, the Congressional megabill also provisions $85 million just to move the ancient Space Shuttle Discovery from the Smithsonian Air and Space Museum to Texas but does not include any funds to reinstate NASA’s [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) mission to study [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s south pole even though the US has been [failing at this goal central to Artemis](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-221/). - Last month on June 6, ispace Japan’s second Moon lander RESILIENCE [crashed on the Moon](https://x.com/Ramanean/status/1935941200587927958) due to [performance issues](https://spacenews.com/laser-rangefinder-problems-blamed-for-second-ispace-lunar-lander-crash/) with its laser rangefinder. I’ve argued how the outcome underscores the need for resilience in private lunar landing missions [through expansive and collaborative testing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-228/)—something former NASA astronaut and current ispace US Chair Ron Garan [has also vouched for](https://spacenews.com/after-resiliences-moon-landing-attempt-why-openness-is-key-to-the-lunar-economy/). One must note that ispace [continued its remarkable transparency](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-228/#tenaciously-transparent) from the first failed landing mission, sharing [detailed findings](https://ispace-inc.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/M2-Technical-Cause-Analysis-Materials.pdf) of what went wrong in mere weeks. - The Hawaii-based International Lunar Observatory Association (ILOA) [will fly its ILO-1 telescope](https://iloa.org/the-ilo-mission/) on the crew-capable [FLEX rover](https://www.astrolab.space/flex-rover/) by Astrolab (a Moon Monday sponsor). Astrolab leads one of the three competing teams NASA selected last year to mature their designs for a [versatile Lunar Terrain Vehicle](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-171/) for use across Artemis missions starting end of decade. ## What science will Artemis II do? Zilch? ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/artemis-ii-crewed-flight-map.jpg) Artemis II flight map. [Image: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/artemis-ii-media-resources/) NASA wrote the following in a [recent release](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2025/06/13/nasas-artemis-science-team-inaugurates-flight-control-room/) on its website about the topic: > Artemis II astronauts will observe the Moon during their 10-day mission around the Moon and back, taking photographs and verbally recording what they see. Their observations will support science objectives and provide data for potential landing sites for future Moon missions. Now, [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii) is not even an orbiter mission. The [four-person crew](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) inside Artemis II’s [Orion](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) capsule will be flying [more than 7000 kilometers from the Moon](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/nasas-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to-mars/) at their closest approach. What science can they even do from such large distances? And so in less than 10 days? Certainly no landing sites will be selected. While all Artemis II activities will certainly be useful *operationally* to feed forward into [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/) and beyond but doing science as an objective in itself is a different ballgame altogether. Now, every space agency does PR pieces. But NASA used to stand out for clearly articulating the scientific motivations and implementations part of its missions. This webpage release is not one of them. **Related:** [*How NASA has been incrementally planning Artemis III science*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-170/) ## Information sharing enables cutting edge lunar exploration ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/jaxa-slim-lander-lunar-surface-image-superimposed-on-ohrc-image-by-isro-chandrayaan-2-orbiter.jpg) The SLIM lander’s images of the Moon (blue boxes) taken from about 50-meter altitudes, superimposed on the background image by ISRO’s Chandrayaan 2 orbiter for navigation. [Image: ISRO / JAXA / SLIM](https://global.jaxa.jp/press/2024/01/20240125-1%5Fe.html) The day was January 19, 2024\. JAXA’s [SLIM](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/en/missions/spacecraft/current/slim.html) spacecraft just achieved the most precise Moon landing ever for a robotic vehicle, touching down [only 55 meters from its targeted point](https://jatan.space/precision-moon-landings-and-the-future/). A unique enabler of that feat was ISRO, who [shared its Chandrayaan 2 orbiter datasets](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/) with JAXA for landing site selection as well as for SLIM’s onboard navigation maps. Without the world’s sharpest lunar imager, it wouldn’t be possible for SLIM to spot and navigate to a safe touchdown point without compromising the landing accuracy—the primary mission goal. The two agencies are now collaborating on the joint [LUPEX rover mission](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/) to study [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s south pole. It’s a fine example of state actors bridging their unique strengths to gain more than the sum of their parts. There’s also the recent case of international researchers [getting access to lunar samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-223/) from China’s [Chang’e 5](https://jatan.space/change-5-landing-site/) mission for detailed scientific studies. One such lab is from the UK’s Open University. The UK does not have an independent lunar landing program but it does have state-of-the-art laboratories and world-class planetary scientists. With the samples, UK researchers are [uniquely advancing](https://www.open.ac.uk/blogs/news/science-mct/ou-space-expert-among-worlds-first-to-receive-moon-rock-samples-for-research/) humanity’s understanding of our Moon’s [origin](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/) and [evolution](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/), which in itself is tied to that of Earth and the [history of our Solar System](https://jatan.space/solar-system-history-101/). For China, it also helps maximize the output of its missions. Such data sharing and access are useful not just for enabling cutting-edge lunar exploration but to have it continue safely as well. The US, India, and South Korea [constantly coordinate their polar orbiters](https://jatan.space/a-registry-of-moon-missions/) to avoid uncomfortably close passes with each other. A collision otherwise would render low lunar orbit dangerous for all orbiters while also obstructing surface landers traversing through the region. All of these examples represent commendable efforts from each actor. But unfortunately, they’re also ad hoc or opportunistic in ways that don’t scale with the [increasing pace of Moon missions worldwide](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-231/). Different states share different information at different times, in different formats, and through different channels at varying levels. Information sharing and coordination is thus dispersed, and not efficient for safety, sustainability, or abundant progress. Improving it for more actors can compound perks for all. To that end, in 2025 the non-profit [Lunar Policy Platform](https://lunarpolicyplatform.org/foundation) (LPP) has embarked on the “Lunar Information Sharing 101” initiative. With funding from the [Open Lunar Foundation](https://www.openlunar.org/) (a Moon Monday sponsor) and in synergy with UN COPUOS initiatives, LPP spent five months consulting over 70 representatives from 35 governments, space agencies, companies, and experts to understand converging and diverging views on when, where, and how to share lunar mission information. The resulting document will be released publicly later this year after feedback. You can [read more about the initiative](https://lunarpolicyplatform.org/informationsharing) and [contact LPP](https://lunarpolicyplatform.org/getinvolved) with your feedback and ideas. *This section was originally published by me on the* [*newsletter*](https://www.openlunar.org/newsletter) *of Open Lunar Foundation (a Moon Monday sponsor) as their* [*Science Communications Lead*](https://jatan.space/joining-open-lunar-as-their-science-communications-lead/)*.* --- *There are many ways to contribute to humanity. Mine is to tell people it’s a Monday.* 🌝 *Many thanks to* [***The Orbital Index***](https://orbitalindex.com) *and* [***Tim Glotch***](https://www.stonybrook.edu/commcms/geosciences/people/%5Ffaculty/glotch.php) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource for free and without ads,* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*. 🌙* --- ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/arcstone-taking-measurements-for-eo-callibration-illustration.jpeg) An illustration of NASA’s newly launched Arcstone satellite gathering measurements of lunar reflectance from Earth orbit. [Image: Blue Canyon Technologies](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/smallsatellites/2025/07/03/spacecraft-bus-commissioning-complete-for-nasas-arcstone/) - Earth observation satellites periodically image the Moon to detect, calibrate, and correct deviations in the performance of their imagers. The latter happens naturally due to aging hardware, degradation of imager material or the coating, radiation exposure, and other such factors. It’s our Moon’s stable and known light intensity that allows it to act as an accurate celestial reference for Earthbound remote sensing satellites. And that’s why NASA [launched](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/smallsatellites/2025/06/27/successful-liftoff-signal-acquired-for-nasas-arcstone-satellite/) the [Arcstone satellite](https://science.larc.nasa.gov/arcstone/about/) on June 23 to provide state-of-the-art radiometric calibration for Earth Observation satellites. NASA [completed commissioning](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/smallsatellites/2025/07/03/spacecraft-bus-commissioning-complete-for-nasas-arcstone/) the spacecraft bus on July 3\. NASA [says](https://www.nasa.gov/science-research/science-enabling-technology/nasa-tech-to-use-moonlight-to-enhance-measurements-from-space/) Arcstone is “the first mission exclusively dedicated to measuring lunar reflectance from space as a way to calibrate and improve science data collected by Earth-viewing, in-orbit instruments.” - *Another the way our Moon is useful beyond lunar exploration:* [***Repurposing Moon missions to enable deep space exploration***](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-193/) - The Italian Space Agency (ASI) has [contracted a OHB-led consortium](https://www.asi.it/2025/06/oracle-al-via-il-progetto-italiano-per-lestrazione-di-ossigeno-dalla-regolite-lunare/) to develop the flight payload for the ORACLE project aimed at [extracting oxygen from lunar soil](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-153/). ASI has not selected or announced yet which Moon lander ORACLE will fly on but was previously targeting launch by 2028. - After [three collaborative years ](https://jatan.space/a-registry-of-moon-missions/)of research & development and community consultations, the Open Lunar Foundation (a Moon Monday sponsor) has launched the [Lunar Ledger](https://www.lunarledger.space) (Registry) project in Beta. The ledger of lunar objects and activities hopes to improve operator transparency and public understanding of Moon missions globally. Open Lunar also announced a [multi-country Advisory Board](https://www.lunarledger.space/advisors) for the Ledger. ### On SpaceNews going paywalled, and the broader disregard for archiving in journalism URL: https://jatan.space/paywalled-spacenews-and-disregard-for-archiving-in-journalism/ Last updated: 2026-04-16T07:03:58.000Z *This article is a break from my usual because space communities worldwide are affected by this important topic, and I have some thoughts to offer to add to the discussions.* --- [SpaceNews](https://spacenews.com), a well known media publication in the global space industry, went paywalled for its website on July 1 with a [short announcement](https://spacenews.com/building-the-future-of-spacenews/). This led many longtime readers such as myself to run into the following view on its articles. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/spacenews-goes-paywalled.jpg) The new SpaceNews digital access paywall Considering that SpaceNews typically publishes well over a hundred stories every month, getting access to only three free monthly articles is more like a preview. For all practical purposes, the SpaceNews website is now fully paywalled. A paywall is not necessarily bad by itself for readers across global space communities. After all, a sustained revenue source can empower good journalism. But that’s precisely why it’s disappointing to see how the wall has been erected on multiple fronts, including for my own piece on SpaceNews.. ## Should you paywall past pieces in retrospect? My article on India’s Venus orbiter mission [published on SpaceNews](https://spacenews.com/indias-shukrayaan-orbiter-to-study-venus-for-over-four-years-launches-in-2024/) in 2020 is now behind their paywall too for some reason. I did get paid for writing the piece at the time but I also contributed it with the expectation that it will be publicly readable—just as all or most pieces on SpaceNews’ website were back then and until recently. With SpaceNews going paid now, I was not asked or even informed if I’d like to have my piece behind a paywall in such a retrospective way. I do not. I’ve been in contact with SpaceNews about it, where I expressed the above concerns. I was told they “appreciate my perspective” but did not offer to unpaywall my article. That is frustrating. Even [recent op-eds](https://spacenews.com/all-eyes-on-the-moon-sharing-information-for-lunar-peace-safety-and-sustainability/) published on SpaceNews by external experts before the paywall came into effect are made paid-only. Were the authors notified of this impending change? Shouldn’t they have been made aware of it since it could affect their right of decision to publish on SpaceNews? In many cases, op-ed contributions on media outlets are made pro bono for the mutual benefit of the author and publisher. Authors get a wider reach, and publishers get more and higher quality articles. But retrospectively paywalling pieces originally published for everyone to read for free breaks this inherent trust and deal. As such, sadly it no longer makes sense for me to recommend space experts I know to pitch op-eds to SpaceNews. I’d argue that the principle extends even to originally free articles published by the SpaceNews staff. After all, pieces published months and years ago must’ve been already accounted for financially, be it through ads, sponsorships, donations, magazine-subsidies, or something else. Those past pieces are technically already paid for. I can completely understand paywalling new articles going forward but why gate nearly all the past pieces? \[Some posts from about a year or two ago seem to be accessible; it’s not clear what’s the exact criteria for paywall exceptions.\] I’m a huge fan of [Jeff Foust](https://spacenews.com/author/jeff-foust/)’s work. So much that every time anyone subscribes to my newsletter, they’re recommended his website [The Space Review](https://www.thespacereview.com) as part of a [curated set](https://jatan.space/recommendations). \[Jeff is probably reading this post since I know he does read my blog. Hi Jeff!\] It’s quite sad that the vast majority of Foust’s incredible work in space journalism—which is [extensively cited](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?advancedSearch-current=%7B%22fields%22:%7B%22phrase%22:%22Foust,%20Jeff%22%7D%7D&limit=100&offset=0&profile=default&search=%22Foust%2C+Jeff%22&title=Special:Search&ns0=1) web-wide such as on Wikipedia—is now behind a paywall. As readers of my [Moon Monday](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) blog+newsletter know, I frequently cite and link to Foust’s articles too. But now hundreds and hundreds of space-related pages on the internet at large citing such work that’s hosted on SpaceNews lead to a paywall. Why can’t there be exceptions for communities and people to access articles that are, say, older than a year or more for archival purposes? Why can’t media publications at least make such articles accessible using a custom link similar to [how Medium offers ‘friend links’](https://help.medium.com/hc/en-us/articles/360006543813-About-Friend-Links). This brings us to the next issue with the SpaceNews paywall, which is its blocking of the [Internet Archive](https://web.archive.org). ## Blocking of public-benefit web archives In retrospect, I should’ve seen the paywall coming because it was in February that I realized that SpaceNews articles (then free) couldn’t be accessed on the Internet Archive at [web.archive.org](https://web.archive.org/). It’s one of the tools which—ironically—journalists use to access originally published material which may have since become modified or unavailable. It’s also useful when a website goes offline for whatever reason. A look at SpaceNews’ [robots.txt file](https://spacenews.com/robots.txt) tells you that the non-profit [Common Crawl bot](https://commoncrawl.org/ccbot) (CCBot) used by the Internet Archive to store webpages is explicitly blocked by the website. To be clear, it’s their right to be able to do so. But it’s also rather unsettling that it is journalistic works, which are so valuable as archival materials, that are being fundamentally access-blocked for archival. Again, I can completely understand wanting to do so for new or recent pieces so as to prevent people from bypassing paywalls but why not allow archiving of much older articles for public benefit? How will older news articles garner more subscriptions anyway? Besides, as the website owner, SpaceNews always has the ability to take down specific pages from the Internet Archive they don’t want archived. Is that not fair game? Several other media outlets have also blocked archival access. And, earlier this year, NASA also [failed to keep many of its community webpages and documents online](https://jatan.space/scientific-documents-go-missing-from-nasa-lunar-community-website/) for months. In fact, [more related documents were taken out](https://web.archive.org/web/20250517092330/https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-025-01438-9) in May. ISRO’s [new website](https://www.isro.gov.in) launched a few years ago still hasn’t retained many webpages and documents at their original URLs, which all point to dead pages now. The only saving grace in NASA and ISRO’s case is that web archives worked as alternative access means for the most part, illustrating their importance. But the poignant point is that when credible journalistic outlets and even institutions as revered as NASA can’t protect public access to public works for public good, how do we trust the web’s origin as a public place? If journalism as an industry meant for public good cannot regard accessible archives as one of its foundational principles, what is even the point of our work? On a professional yet personal note, this issue is close to me. [All of my work](https://jatan.space/about) on this blog & website is completely free to access by everyone, with no ads. My work is supported by [organization and reader sponsorships](https://jatan.space/support). I also regularly self-archive my articles and blog posts over on the Internet Archive so that if my blog goes offline or becomes completely inaccessible in the distant future for whatever reason (such as my death), people can still browse and read fully archived copies on the Wayback Machine. Archiving also forces me to take responsibility for my mistakes and make public corrections. Anyway, back to the matter at hand.. ## Pricing woes Last but not the least let’s talk about pricing. The SpaceNews subscription’s [annual base price of $230](https://spacenews.com/subscribe/) just for digital access is steep. It’s certainly far more expensive than most popular science & technology outlets out there. Given below are equivalent subscription or membership amounts as I see them from India for various media outlets with large global readerships: - Scientific American: [$40/year](https://www.scientificamerican.com/getsciam/) - The Hindu: [$33/year](https://www.thehindu.com/subscription/) - Ars Technica: [$25/year](https://arstechnica.com/store/product/subscriptions/) - The Planetary Society: [$50/year](https://www.planetary.org/membership) - Nature: [$220/year](https://www.nature.com/nature/subscribe) (with print access!) - Science News: [$36/year](https://www.sciencenews.org/subscribe) - Sky & Telescope: [$39/year](https://skyandtelescope.org) - New Scientist: [$49/year](https://subscription.newscientist.com/) - WIRED: [$30/year](https://www.wired.com/subscribe/) - The Verge: [$50/year](https://www.theverge.com/subscribe) In other words, the absolute amount SpaceNews wishes to charge is about six times greater than what I pay for my media subscriptions of [Scientific American](https://www.scientificamerican.com) and [The Hindu](https://www.thehindu.com/subscription/) respectively. And that’s without including any discounts the latter offer. I’m disappointed that a media publication as globally read industry-wide as SpaceNews hasn’t offered variable pricing based on purchasing power parity for people in low and middle-income countries. At the very least, it could’ve been offered for digital access, where physical distribution costs are not involved. Being based in India, spending $230 just for digital access to SpaceNews feels like spending at least $600 due to purchasing power parity. The base subscription price is high enough that the one-time launch offers, or even other academic or unspecified group discounts, simply do not bring the wall down enough. Despite all my concerns, I don’t consider the paywall in itself to be bad for readers of SpaceNews. If it empowers great journalism, I’m all for paywalls. I want nothing but for SpaceNews to thrive, and in turn further empower space communities worldwide. But as I explained in this article, there are at least three core issues in my eyes as things stand right now: 1. Previously freely accessible articles by external authors should not be paywalled in retrospect without their permission. 2. There should be at least some way to access old pieces, particularly for archival purposes instead of blocking a foundational journalistic element en masse. 3. Make the subscription cost actually affordable. As such, despite being a long-time reader of SpaceNews, I just can’t justify spending that much money. I can easily imagine many others feel the same way—even if we are all entrenched into the space industry globally. What if the outlet I thought was indispensable turns out to be not so? This is a good opportunity for other space media outlets to step up their game, especially ones that remain essentially free such as [Spaceflight Now](https://spaceflightnow.com) and [NASASpaceflight](https://nasaspaceflight.com)—which, by the way, [remains inaccessible in India for mundane reasons](https://jatan.space/how-to-access-blocked-nasaspaceflight-and-its-forum-websites/).. ### Moon Monday #231: Achievements and shortfalls in Moon exploration this half year URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-231/ Last updated: 2025-07-28T07:23:18.000Z 2025 is halfway through, and we’ve already seen a raft of lunar exploration achievements—as well as several sad shortfalls—from organizations worldwide. Here’s a curated list of it all, each linked for understanding the context of its development. Just like my list of [2024 in lunar exploration](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-206/), I’ve made a conscious effort to highlight events and trends that *actually happened* instead of amplifying speculative coverage of what might or might not transpire—the latter of which seems to consume many media outlets too much. If someone asks you what’s happening at the Moon, say all of this is. 🌗 ## China ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/06/chang-e-6-lander-on-the-moon.jpg) A panorama from China’s Chang’e 6 lander on the Moon’s farside, showing one of its legs and the scoop sampling arm near its surface digs. [Image: CNSA / CLEP](https://x.com/SegerYu/status/1798688466026594539) - Chinese researchers [published a range of papers](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-211/) on their recent lunar exploration outcomes as well as ongoing scoping of future ambitions. This includes unique results from lunar farside samples brought to Earth last year by CNSA’s [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) mission, such as [confirming](https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adt3332) that our young Moon was [fully molten](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/), determining the age of [the Moon’s largest impact basin](https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwaf103), and that the farside mantle [contains less water](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-08870-x) than within the nearside. All of these are helping scientists understand [our Moon’s evolution](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) and why its farside is [so different](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) from the nearside we know and see—and what it all tells us about the [evolution of our Solar System](https://jatan.space/solar-system-history-101/). - China also [announced](https://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4320481/content.html) the first set of international organizations whose proposals were selected to [study unique lunar samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-223/) fetched to Earth by CNSA’s [Chang’e 5 mission](https://jatan.space/change-5-landing-site/) in 2020\. And, this month China [displayed Chang’e samples](https://news.cgtn.com/news/2025-06-26/Lunar-soil-samples-debut-at-UN-Vienna-headquarters-1Ewmf9ERBlu/p.html) at the UN for the first time. - Throughout the past several months, China [cemented and further advanced](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-229/) its lead in building a [lunar communications and navigation network](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-185/). The DRO-A and DRO-B twin satellite pair [demonstrated automated navigation](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-222/) at the Moon—[despite a failure](https://spacenews.com/surprise-chinese-lunar-mission-hit-by-launch-anomaly/) of their launch vehicle’s upper stage leaving them stranded in Earth orbit and causing structural damage. China also [achieved](https://www.space.com/astronomy/moon/lunar-laser-china-makes-1st-daytime-laser-ranging-measurement-from-earth-to-the-moon) daytime Earth-Moon laser distance measurements with a retroreflector on the [Tiandu 1](https://space.skyrocket.de/doc%5Fsdat/tiandu-1.htm) spacecraft—the first for a lunar orbiter. These and other developments have cumulatively [provided China an edge over the US in sustaining future crewed Moon missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-229/). - Building on international cooperation in the upcoming [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#the-instrumental-and-increasingly-international-7) mission, CNSA [announced more international payloads](https://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4320459/content.html) that will be onboard [Chang’e 8](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/#prepare-for-crew-and-double-down-with-mission-eight) to explore the Moon’s south pole for [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other resources. - In February, the China Manned Space Engineering Office (CMSEO) announced a [call for Chinese organizations](https://www.cmse.gov.cn/xwzx/202502/t20250214%5F56299.html) to bid for making a [lunar mapping satellite](https://spacenews.com/china-invites-bids-for-lunar-satellite-to-support-crewed-moon-landing-missions/) in support of China’s [crewed landing missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/)—which start later this decade. The satellite’s mandate is to obtain high-precision mineral, topographic, and geomorphic data of the Moon’s low-latitude regions. This month, the China Manned Space Agency (CMSA) successfully [tested the launchpad escape system](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-230/) of China’s next-generation Mengzhou spacecraft, a variant of which will carry astronauts for Moon missions. [More China and Luna updates →](https://jatan.space/tag/china-and-luna/) ## The US ### *CLPS* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/06/firefly-blue-ghost-clps-lander-final-descent-and-touchdown.jpg) Shadows of Firefly’s Blue Ghost Moon lander performing final descent and having touched down on the lunar surface. [Images: Blue Ghost landing video](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NpHhEybJdxg) - With [rigor and abundant caution](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-215/), Firefly’s Blue Ghost spacecraft part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) brought the first true soft landing for the US in the 21st century, involving operations of its [science & technology payloads](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-216/#a-busy-lunar-morning), a [precision landing demonstration](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-216/), the [first GPS/GNSS lock on the Moon](https://www.asi.it/en/2025/03/lugre-achieves-historic-lunar-radionavigation-milestone/), and a stunning [solar eclipse capture](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-217/). - In March, Intuitive Machines’ [second CLPS craft](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-215/#intuitive-machines-launches-second-moon-lander) hard-landed on the Moon’s south pole and came to rest on its side, which led to [the mission being unsuccessful](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-216/#tipped-intuitive-mooncraft-dies-with-none-of-the-net-130-million-worth-of-payloads-deployed) across all of NASA’s primary goals related to [learning about local water ice](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-221/). - NASA’s [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) cannot catch a break. Originally meant to reveal the first set of hard facts about the Moon’s polar [water ice deposits](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/), NASA instead [cancelled](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-186/) VIPER’s CLPS flight last year citing cost challenges. The agency then [tried finding](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-212/) a private company that will fly and operate the rover at its own cost, an approach many argued [decidedly fails at VIPER’s original goal](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-188/). After evaluating the [proposals submitted by private companies](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-evaluating-11-viper-proposals-as-congress-asks-questions/), NASA has [come to the same conclusion](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2025/05/07/nasa-to-explore-additional-methods-to-send-viper-to-moon/). The agency will [restructure the solicitation](https://spacenews.com/nasa-backtracks-on-viper-commercial-partnership/) to elicit stronger proposals that hopefully stay closer to VIPER’s [original science goals](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/). - Astrobotic [completed](https://www.astrobotic.com/integrated-griffin-1-simulation-sticks-the-landing/) [testing](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-tech-passes-critical-tests-for-safe-moon-landings/) their lunar navigation and guidance systems to be onboard the company’s upcoming [Griffin CLPS lander](https://www.astrobotic.com/lunar-delivery/landers/griffin-lander/). The large lander’s primary payload will be the [FLIP rover](https://www.astrolab.space/flip-rover/) by Astrolab (a Moon Monday sponsor), which got [manifested recently](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-212/) after NASA decided not to fly VIPER aboard. Astrobotic also [announced](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotics-cuberover-is-flight-ready-for-lunar-mission/) that its [first CubeRover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-172/#astrobotic-to-fly-cuberover-on-griffin-after-all) has successfully passed the [standard suite of space environmental tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-moon-landers/) ahead of its flight on this Griffin lander. - Firefly and the UAE space agency MBRSC [announced](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-aerospace-adds-uaes-rashid-2-rover-to-blue-ghost-mission-to-the-far-side-of-the-moon/) that the former’s [second CLPS lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-226/#firefly-to-carry-second-uae-lunar-rover-and-more) will [carry the second UAE rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-226/#firefly-to-carry-second-uae-lunar-rover-and-more) to the Moon’s farside next year. - Firefly also announced the Ocula lunar imaging service, which [can fill some—but not all—critical gaps for NASA](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-230/#the-silver-ocula-to-fill-some-gaps-for-nasa). [More NASA CLPS updates →](https://jatan.space/tag/clps/) ### *Artemis* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/06/artemis-ii-sls-rocket-core-stage-2.jpg) The Artemis II SLS rocket core stage being transported towards NASA’s Pegasus ferry barge near the agency’s Michoud Assembly Facility. [Image: NASA / Eric Bordelon / Michael DeMocker](https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/artemis-ii-core-stage-on-the-move/) - Preparations continue to fly [the four Artemis II astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) around the Moon and back [next year](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/glaze-artemis-ii-could-launch-as-early-as-february-2026/). Technicians working at NASA [completed integrating](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2025/05/02/rocket-upper-stage-integrated-as-preparations-for-artemis-ii-continue/) the SLS rocket sans the Orion spacecraft in May while Lockheed Martin [delivered said capsule](https://spacenews.com/lockheed-martin-delivers-completed-orion-to-nasa-for-artemis-2/) to NASA for further processing and assembly. And, teams and the crew are [practicing sea recovery procedures](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/kennedy/nasa-dod-practice-abort-scenarios-ahead-of-artemis-ii-moon-mission/) for when the capsule would splash on Earth at the end of the mission. - With [three](https://spacenews.com/starship-breaks-up-on-reentry-after-loss-of-attitude-control/) [back-to-back](https://spacenews.com/starship-upper-stage-lost-on-seventh-test-flight/) [failures](https://arstechnica.com/science/2025/03/the-starship-program-hits-another-speed-bump-with-second-consecutive-failure/) of SpaceX Starship and an [explosion during testing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-230/#another-blowup-for-artemis) this month, NASA’s [long road](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-197/) to putting humans on the Moon with [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/) has significantly slowed down. While the [Moonsuits from Axiom Space](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-198/) have been facing its own delays, Starship now seems to be *the pacing item* for NASA to land humans on the Moon this century. Given the numerous milestones left before a Starship can carry astronauts, it might not meet the US’ [self-imposed goal](https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/President-Trumps-Fiscal-Year-2026-Discretionary-Funding-Request-Overview.pdf) of “beating China” to the Moon. - In the meanwhile, Blue Origin’s [successful launch](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/blue-origins-new-glenn-reaches-orbit/) of its New Glenn rocket in January finally opened up a second line of pursuit for NASA to send lunar astronauts vis-à-vis [Blue Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/). Blue Origin aims to launch [its first two robotic Moon landers](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-226/) by next year as practice ahead of crewed flights—but with [nearly no NASA payloads](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-226/) onboard. - The Trump administration’s [budget request for NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/fy-2026-budget-request/) for FY 2026 proposes a [historic \~25% cut](https://www.planetary.org/press-releases/the-planetary-society-reissues-urgent-call-to-reject-disastrous-budget-proposal-for-nasa) but [continues support](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-227/) for the crewed [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii) and [III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/) missions. Notably, the budget proposes cancelling SLS and Orion from [Artemis IV](https://www.nasa.gov/general/nasas-artemis-iv-building-first-lunar-space-station/) onward as well as the NASA-led international [Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) orbital habitat. It proposes [changes to CLPS](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-227/) and several lunar science programs too. The US Congress will review these proposals in the coming months for appropriation or changes. Notably, the proposed budget does nothing to address the fact that [the US is failing to explore lunar water as the principal goal of Artemis](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-221/). - In February, Blue Origin [simulated two minutes of lunar gravity](https://www.blueorigin.com/news/new-shepard-ns-29-mission) inside the New Shepard crew capsule. NASA [funded this project](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/armstrong/nasa-blue-origin-partner-to-bring-lunar-gravity-conditions-closer-to-earth/), and [tested 17 lunar-relevant payloads](https://www.nasa.gov/stmd-flight-opportunities/flight-summaries/lunar-gravity-simulation-via-suborbital-rocket/) onboard. As such, NASA [continues leveraging](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/kennedy/nasa-experiment-sheds-light-on-highly-charged-moon-dust) New Shepard’s suborbital flights to [help verify](https://www.blueorigin.com/news/new-shepard-mission-ns-13-launch-updates) and [refine](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/langley/nasa-tests-infuses-software-into-blue-origin-landing-tech) new lunar technologies at relatively low costs before they can be sent to the Moon. - Zeno Power [raised $50 million](https://spacenews.com/nuclear-battery-startup-zeno-power-raises-50-million-to-expand-in-space-and-at-sea/), a major chunk of which will go towards developing and demonstrating the company’s [nuclear electric power system](https://spacenews.com/nasa-selects-companies-to-advance-lunar-power-and-other-technologies) on the Moon for NASA [by 2027](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-138/). [More NASA Artemis updates →](https://jatan.space/tag/artemis/) --- *Many thanks to* [***Open Lunar Foundation***](https://www.openlunar.org) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource for free and without ads,* [***support my independent writing***](https://jatan.space/support)*. 🌙* --- ## India ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/06/lupex-lander-rover-illustration-and-logo.jpg) Illustration of the Chandrayaan 5 lander and rover, and a mission graphic. [Images: JAXA / ISRO](https://humans-in-space.jaxa.jp/en/biz-lab/tech/lupex/) - [Results from the thermal probe experiment](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-219/) on India’s [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) lander have expanded the possible locations for finding [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) beyond the Moon’s poles, thereby benefiting future scouting missions. - India approved the joint ISRO-JAXA [Chandrayaan 5 / LUPEX](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/) mission to drill and analyze water ice on the Moon’s south pole. The mission will be a giant leap in lunar capabilities for both ISRO and JAXA. And it can provide NASA with data critical for Artemis planning currently [missing from US missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-221/). - India’s Chandrayaan 3 rover [may or may not have stumbled upon the Moon’s mantle material](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-224/) when studying the composition of the local lunar soil using its X-ray spectrometer. - ISRO’s Chandrayaan 2 orbiter has helped international researchers produce a [galore of science results](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-220/#lunar-science-galore-from-chandrayaan-2) recently: from lunar geological studies to characterizing the lunar environment as well as [aiding NASA](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/#isro-aids-artemis) in assessing landing sites for crewed Artemis missions. [More Chandrayaan updates →](https://jatan.space/tag/chandrayaan/) ## More Asia-Pacific ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/06/ispace-resilience-lander-earth-from-moon-2.jpg) ****Left:** ispace Japan’s second Moon lander, named RESILIENCE, at JAXA’s Tsukuba Space Center pre-launch. Also seen integrated into the lander is ispace’s first rover TENACIOUS; ****Right:** Our Earth as imaged by RESILIENCE from lunar orbit. [Images: ispace](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=6120) - Earlier this month, ispace Japan’s second Moon lander RESILIENCE [crashed on the Moon](https://x.com/Ramanean/status/1935941200587927958) due to [performance issues](https://spacenews.com/laser-rangefinder-problems-blamed-for-second-ispace-lunar-lander-crash/) of the laser rangefinder. The outcome underscores the need for resilience in private lunar landing missions [through expansive and collaborative testing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-228/), something former NASA astronaut and current ispace US Chair Ron Garan [has also vouched for](https://spacenews.com/after-resiliences-moon-landing-attempt-why-openness-is-key-to-the-lunar-economy/). One must note that ispace has [continued its remarkable transparency](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-228/#tenaciously-transparent) from the first failed landing mission, sharing [detailed findings](https://ispace-inc.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/M2-Technical-Cause-Analysis-Materials.pdf) of what went wrong in mere weeks. - South Korea [approved plans](https://spacenews.com/south-korea-approves-strategic-plans-for-space/) made by the country’s [newly forged space agency](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-181/) KASA to build a Moon lander by 2032 as part of a broader [$500+ million annual investment](https://en.yna.co.kr/view/AEN20250122002400320?section=news) in indigenous space technologies. South Korea is also transforming the former mining site of Taebaek [into a testing ground](https://pulse.mk.co.kr/news/all/11279380) for advanced mobile lunar exploration technologies, owing to the mine’s environmental resemblance to the darkness, coldness, and ruggedness of the Moon’s south pole. - The Australian Space Agency (ASA) [continues funding local companies](https://payloadspace.com/australias-lunar-plans-are-just-getting-started/) to build lunar technologies. In February, ASA particularly [supported EntX](https://www.minister.industry.gov.au/ministers/husic/media-releases/more-aussie-tech-destined-moon) to [build a radioisotope heater unit](https://www.space.gov.au/news-and-media/projects-in-action-aug-2024-entx) to enable future landers and rovers to survive frigid lunar nights. ## Europe ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/06/astronaut-and-a-robot-in-the-esa-dlr-luna-test-facility.jpg) An astronaut and a robot in the Moon-simulating LUNA testbed in Germany. [Image: DLR / ESA](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2024/09/LUNA6) - ESA has started testing [instruments](https://luna-analog-facility.de/en/recording-earthquakes-on-the-moon-mars-and-now-in-luna/), [mission concepts](https://www.dlr.de/en/latest/news/2024/a-swarm-of-sensors-rovers-and-astronauts-explore-the-moon), and [modern astronaut tools](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2025/04/Moon%5Ftools%5Fto%5Fthe%5Ftest%5Fat%5FLUNA) at its new, versatile Moon-simulating [LUNA](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-195/) facility in Germany. A [simulated habitat module](https://www.dlr.de/en/blog/archive/2026/the-flexhab-space-habitat-moon-living-on-earth) now adjoins LUNA to better test complex mission scenarios where humans and robots interact in varied ways for long periods. - ispace’s European subsidiary led team won a \~[€2.7 million ESA contract](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7621) to collaborate with the agency on the [MAGPIE rover mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-228/#two-new-european-moon-missions) to study lunar polar water ice and other such volatiles. - In January, ESA announced a [$882 million contract](https://www.thalesaleniaspace.com/en/press-releases/thales-alenia-space-signs-contract-esa-develop-argonaut-lunar-lander-cargo-delivery) to a European consortium led by Thales Alenia Space for [developing the Lunar Descent Element](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Argonaut%5Fa%5Ffirst%5FEuropean%5Flunar%5Flander) of the agency’s upcoming large Moon lander [Argonaut](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Exploration/Argonaut). Launching no earlier than 2031, Argonaut will be capable of deploying about 2,000 kilograms of payload on the Moon. ESA hopes for Argonaut to support Artemis with [navigation and communications equipment](https://europeanspaceflight.com/esa-awards-thales-alenia-space-e862m-argonaut-moon-lander-contract/), cargo supplies for astronauts, large rover deliveries, and habitat-related infrastructure such as [lunar oxygen extractors](https://www.thalesgroup.com/en/worldwide/space/press-release/thales-alenia-space-wins-study-contract-develop-payload-extract) and [solar arrays](https://europeanspaceflight.com/the-european-charging-station-for-the-moon/). It will also leverage ESA’s upcoming [Moonlight navcom constellation](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-198/#moonlight-in-motion-and-contrasting-queqiao) for precision landings. - The [2025 European Lunar Symposium](https://sservi.nasa.gov/els2025/) was held from June 22–27 with a focus on science & engineering presentations. The abstracts and documents from the conference are [open access](https://zenodo.org/communities/elsy/records?q=&l=list&p=1&s=10&sort=newest), and recorded talks will be available later on the [SSERVI YouTube channel](https://www.youtube.com/@NASALunar). ## On cooperation and collaboration - The US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords) for cooperative lunar exploration has onboarded 55 countries with the latest addition of [Norway](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-welcomes-norway-as-55th-nation-to-sign-artemis-accords/). - China [formally welcomed India](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-225/) to cooperate on Moon missions and the Sino-led ILRS Moonbase project. - Why [Moon missions need their own Wikipedia and beyond](https://jatan.space/a-registry-of-moon-missions/) - As lunar missions converge globally, we need to [preserve future exploration and science](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/as-moon-missions-mount-globally-we-need-to-preserve-future-exploration-and-science) - Moon missions can be both cheaper and safer if more countries [share navigation infrastructure](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/the-road-to-a-moonbase-goes-through-advanced-navigation-based-on-open-standards) - How information sharing would [enable peace and prosperity](https://spacenews.com/all-eyes-on-the-moon-sharing-information-for-lunar-peace-safety-and-sustainability/) in Moon missions - [Western media narratives misrepresent Chinese space](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-229/#a-problem-with-western-media-narratives-of-chinese-space), which reduces trust and deters cooperation and collaboration. --- [*Originally published*](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/achievements-moon-2025) *by me on the blog of Open Lunar Foundation (a* [*Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) *sponsor) as their* [*Science Communications Lead*](https://jatan.space/joining-open-lunar-as-their-science-communications-lead/)*. The article is republished here on* [*my blog*](https://jatan.space/about) *with a few additions and tweaks to capture developments that took place after the first publish.* ### Moon Monday #230: China leaps again in its steady march to Luna while NASA’s progress on Artemis remains a mixed bag URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-230/ Last updated: 2025-06-23T14:08:23.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/06/mengzhou-launchpad-escape-test-2025.jpg) Shots from the launchpad escape test of Mengzhou, China’s next-generation crewed spacecraft vehicle design. Images: [CMSA](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5Vni7zFksV4) / [CMSEO](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eeYWlXL03iM) | Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) On June 18, China [successfully conducted](https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/J7OKUhGYHLFq9FxSz%5FyRmQ) a launchpad escape test of its next-generation Mengzhou spacecraft, variants of which will carry astronauts on future Earth orbit and Moon missions. A video from CCTV+ [shows](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5Vni7zFksV4) how everything seems to have functioned as planned across the eventful two minutes: from the escape to the ascent to the drogue & main parachute deployments and—last but not the least—the airbag-cushioned capsule landing. Notably, Chinese engineers have designed the emergency escape to be handled by the spacecraft itself instead of the rocket. This makes it somewhat launch vehicle agnostic, giving China flexibility to scale its [crewed Moon mission plans](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/) in the run up to the China-led [ILRS Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/) ambitions. The China Manned Space Agency (CMSA) has thus [noted](https://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4363881/content.html) that the successful test has “laid an important technical foundation for the subsequent manned lunar exploration missions.” Jack Congram notes the following in his [detailed coverage](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/mengzhou-soars-for-zero-altitude) of the test (which is relevant because China will launch its crewed lunar missions from Wenchang): > A few days ahead of this test, [China Central Television released a report](https://news.cctv.com/2025/06/13/ARTIUl89Ayirn03zkOZ1x5Gz250613.shtml) regarding launch escape systems for crewed spacecraft, which briefly touched on Mengzhou’s launch system. That report notes that due to the density of launch infrastructure at Wenchang, Mengzhou’s escape systems boasts a higher thrust-to-weight ratio, compared to Shenzhou, to pull the spacecraft out toward the ocean quickly. Additionally, the report stated that should a launch abort be triggered late into flight, Mengzhou’s propulsion systems on the service module can propel the spacecraft a safe distance away or into orbit. The escape test is the latest in a series of design validations for Mengzhou, most notably including the [high velocity capsule reentry test](https://spacenews.com/new-chinese-spacecraft-landing-marks-step-toward-future-crewed-lunar-missions/) in 2020\. Once a few final tests planned later this year are complete, China is targeting flying crew on Mengzhou for Earth orbit missions next year. This will also help characterize the vehicle’s performance in space as well as refine its operations before a variant [carries Chinese taikonauts to lunar orbit](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/) before 2030. ### More Sino milestones for crewed Moon missions - With [Chang’e 5](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-156/), China demonstrated the world’s first remote docking and undocking of spacecraft in lunar orbit in 2020\. It repeated the feat with [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-182/) last year, bringing [lunar samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-201/) from the Moon’s farside and demonstrating flexibility in the core architecture. China will utilize the technology for crewed Moon landings, wherein a “Mengzhou Y” spacecraft will dock with a “Lanyue” [lunar lander](https://spacenews.com/china-unveils-lunar-lander-to-put-astronauts-on-the-moon) in lunar orbit. Two of three/four astronauts then transfer into the lander. After the two spacecraft separate, the Lanyue lander will touchdown on the Moon for [the surface mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/). It will then return to lunar orbit for re-docking with Mengzhou, which will subsequently bring the crew back home. - Late last year, China [created a test stand](http://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4193399/content.html) which can simulate the kind of high-altitude and vacuum conditions that the Lanyue lander will go through during its lunar descent and touchdown. The stand allows the lander’s main engine to be tested for its full burn duration of up to 20 minutes. Apparently the test system took only eight months to complete, [according to Li Guanghui from CAST](https://news.cgtn.com/news/2024-09-12/Asia-s-largest-high-altitude-test-stand-for-space-engines-put-into-use-1wPlSsnIOZy/p.html). - Andrew Jones [reported](https://spacenews.com/china-performs-fairing-separation-test-for-crewed-moon-mission-rocket/) in November 2024 that CALT successfully conducted a 5-meter-fairing separation test of China’s upcoming heavy-lift, crew-capable [Long March 10](https://spacenews.com/chinas-new-rocket-for-crew-and-moon-to-launch-in-2026/) rocket. The Long March 10 will also have a three-booster variant with a larger fairing for crewed Moon missions, whose separation system [will be tested](http://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4228397/content.html) soon too as per CASC. Two Long March 10 mega rockets will launch Mengzhou Y and Lanyue towards the Moon respectively. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/06/long-march-10-fairing-separation-test.jpg) Payload fairing halves of the Long March 10 rocket flanking a large test structure after a fairing separation test. See the humans on the edges for scale. [Image: CALT](https://spacenews.com/china-performs-fairing-separation-test-for-crewed-moon-mission-rocket/) - With the [debut launch](https://spacenews.com/china-launches-first-long-march-12-from-new-commercial-spaceport-in-boost-for-countrys-lunar-plans/) of the semi-cryogenic Long March 12 rocket last November, China successfully flew the YF-100K engine, the same kind that will power the first stage(s) of the Long March 10. - Ling Xin [reported](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3271690/chinas-critical-third-stage-rocket-engine-passes-test-crewed-moon-mission) in July 2024 that China successfully test fired the high-energy hydrolox YF-75E engine as well. Three of these engines will power the third stage of Long March 10. - The upcoming [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#the-instrumental-and-increasingly-international-7) and [Chang’e 8](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/#prepare-for-crew-and-double-down-with-mission-eight) missions, targeted for launch next year and 2028 respectively, will demonstrate precision landing as well as the ability to explore the Moon’s south pole for [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other resources. Both of these will be valuable for China’s [ILRS Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/) plans with crew and robots. - China has demonstrated [world-leading lunar navigation and communications](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-229/) systems in complex Earth-Moon orbital spaces. It’s bound to substantially improve both the surface coverage time and area as well as ground station availability for China’s future crewed lunar missions. - Development has also progressed for the [space suit](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-195/#a-sino-suit-for-luna) and [rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-200/) to be used by astronauts. The last time China conducted a launchpad escape test was in 1998\. Five years later, it [flew its first astronaut](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shenzhou%5F5) to Earth orbit. With 2025 marking the completion of the critical escape tests for China’s next-generation crewed vehicle, the country has yet again set a target of five years within which to send humans to the Moon. It might just do it. --- *Many thanks to* [***Gurbir Singh***](https://gurbir.co.uk) *and* [***Sanket Suman Dash***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/sanketsumandash/) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource for free and without ads,* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*. 🌙* --- ## Another blow(up) for Artemis ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/06/starship-upper-stage-pre-static-fire-explosion-jun-2025.jpg) Fireball from the Starship upper stage explosion on June 19\. The building immediately to the right of the tall crane is roughly the size of the exploded Starship. [Image: Jerry Pike / NASASpaceflight](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=71AwkBt3%5Fts) An upper stage of SpaceX’s [Starship Super Heavy](https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/starship) rocket [exploded on June 19](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=71AwkBt3%5Fts) during preparations for a static fire test that’s conducted pre-launch. The explosion may have been caused by the failure of a high-pressure nitrogen tank in the vehicle’s payload bay. SpaceX [said shortly after](https://x.com/SpaceX/status/1935572705941880971) that no people were lost in the incident, which happened on the test stand called Massey’s. It lies several kilometers away from the Starship launch site. As Stephen Clark [points out](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/06/starships-rough-year-gets-worse-after-a-late-night-explosion-in-south-texas/), the test stand was the only place for SpaceX to static fire Starships and validate their functioning before taking them to the launchpad. As such, SpaceX is left without a facility at the moment to support preflight testing of Starships. The incident marks the fourth failure in a row for the Starship program this year. The upper stage on the ninth Starship Super Heavy launch on May 29 [failed](https://spacenews.com/starship-breaks-up-on-reentry-after-loss-of-attitude-control/) due to a fuel leak and loss of attitude control. The booster was lost too due to anomalous engine re-lighting after reentry. The mission couldn’t achieve any of its key objectives: from opening the payload bay door and ejecting simulated satellites to [testing heat shield tile reentry experiments](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/05/spacex-may-have-solved-one-problem-only-to-find-more-on-latest-starship-flight/) to safely bringing back a previously flown booster. The two flights prior to it [failed as well](https://arstechnica.com/science/2025/03/the-starship-program-hits-another-speed-bump-with-second-consecutive-failure/). Due to SpaceX’s failures this year, NASA’s long road to putting humans on the Moon with [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/) via an [inching Starship](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-197/) has slowed down even more. While the [Moonsuits being made by Axiom Space](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-198/) has been facing its own delays, Starship now seems to be *the pacing item* for NASA to land humans on the Moon this century. Given the numerous milestones left before a Starship can carry astronauts to Luna, it may not be ready in time to meet the US’ [self-imposed goal](https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/President-Trumps-Fiscal-Year-2026-Discretionary-Funding-Request-Overview.pdf) of “beating China” to the Moon. ***Related:*** - [*How China has an edge over the US in sustaining future crewed Moon missions*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-229/) - [*How Western media narratives of Chinese lunar activities misjudge capabilities and intent*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-229/#a-problem-with-western-media-narratives-of-chinese-space) ## The silver Ocula to fill some gaps for NASA ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/06/firefly-ocula-lunar-imaging-servie-illustration.jpg) Illustration of the Ocula lunar imaging service. [Image: Firefly](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-aerospace-announces-new-lunar-imaging-service-on-its-elytra-spacecraft/) US-based Firefly [announced](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-aerospace-announces-new-lunar-imaging-service-on-its-elytra-spacecraft/) a commercial lunar imaging service called Ocula to succeed parts of the role that NASA’s gracefully aging [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lro/) (LRO) has played for US and international Moon missions by providing high-resolution lunar surface imagery and topographic information. Firefly says the imaging with mineral detection capabilities will commence with its first [Elytra Dark](https://fireflyspace.com/elytra/) spacecraft next year from low lunar orbit. The orbiter will do so after completing its services for Firefly’s upcoming [second Moon lander mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-226/#firefly-to-carry-second-uae-lunar-rover-and-more) part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). Firefly says Ocula’s best case optical imagery will tout a resolution of 20 cm/pixel, more than twice as good as the 50 cm/pixel LRO provides at its sharpest. If achieved, it would also be bit sharper than the current best of 25 cm/pixel that ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) pulls off. In fact, NASA [has been collaborating with ISRO](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/#isro-aids-artemis) to have the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter aid Artemis landing site selections with [lunar polar water](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) prospecting and hazard classifications. But NASA’s leveraging and ISRO’s promoting of the orbiter’s optical and radar capabilities have been limited in scope. In the meanwhile, the 2009-launched LRO is due for its final mission extension evaluation with limited capabilities left, and can no longer maintain an orbit that can study the lunar poles heads down in any case. Recognizing these constraints, a specialized team of US scientists [released a report](https://web.archive.org/web/20230307045441/https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag/reports/CLOC-SAT%5FReport.pdf) in 2022 [urging NASA to plan replacing the LRO](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-116/) with a multi-orbiter approach so as to support the increasingly complex and diverse upcoming [robotic](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) and [crewed](https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/artemis/) Moon missions. Three years since, NASA has not approved any LRO successor despite the [LExSO mission](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lexso/) being proposed by members from the LRO team itself. [NASA’s budget request for FY2026](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-227/) too does not ask for any funding for the same. As such, Firefly’s Ocula service could fill some of that gap for US missions, closing some critical cases. But other shortfalls will remain since Ocula is not a full-fledged reconnaissance orbiter. For those, NASA and ISRO could tighten their use of the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter for Artemis, using it as a de facto LRO replacement and enhancement especially for helping locate [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) on lunar poles—something [the US has been failing at](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-221/) despite it being central to Artemis. **Related:** [*Lunar science galore from Chandrayaan 2*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-220/#lunar-science-galore-from-chandrayaan-2) ## More Artemis updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/06/astrobotic-cube-rover-test.jpg) An Astrobotic CubeRover prototype traversing on a simulated lunar terrain testbed developed by NASA. [Image: NASA / Kim Shiflett](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/commercial-cuberover-test-shows-how-nasa-investments-mature-space-tech) - Astrobotic [announced](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotics-cuberover-is-flight-ready-for-lunar-mission/) that its [first CubeRover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-172/#astrobotic-to-fly-cuberover-on-griffin-after-all) has successfully passed the [standard suite of space environmental tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-moon-landers/) ahead of its upcoming flight on the company’s [Griffin lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-212/) heading to the Moon’s south pole as part of [NASA CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). The large lander’s primary payload will be the [FLIP rover](https://www.astrolab.space/flip-rover/) by Astrolab (a Moon Monday sponsor), which got [manifested recently](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-212/) after NASA [decided not to fly](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-188/) the [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) aboard Griffin. Astrobotic also [announced](https://www.astrobotic.com/integrated-griffin-1-simulation-sticks-the-landing/) that it has successfully completed a high fidelity hardware-in-loop simulation of Griffin’s navigation and landing systems all the way up to an emulated touchdown. - This month NASA, the US Department of Defense, and Artemis flight control teams are [practicing emergency procedures at sea](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/kennedy/nasa-dod-practice-abort-scenarios-ahead-of-artemis-ii-moon-mission/) that they would use to rescue the [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii) crew from their [Orion](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) capsule after a launch emergency—either one on the launchpad or after liftoff. The recoveries use a mock Orion spacecraft with similar exterior to emulate the capsule and mannequins to simulate crew. - In similar vein to ESA’s [LUNA](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-195/) Moon-simulating facility, NASA [opened up a new facility](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/esdmd/artemis-campaign-development-division/human-landing-system-program/nasa-engineers-simulate-lunar-lighting-for-artemis-iii-moon-landing/) to simulate the high contrast, high shadows lighting environment at the Moon’s south pole that the Artemis astronauts will face. - Interlune, one of the several [lunar water startups](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-196/#lunar-water-startups) developing [resource extraction and excavation](https://payloadspace.com/interlune-unveils-prototype-lunar-helium-3-excavator/) technologies for the Moon, is [hiring a planetary scientist](https://www.interlune.space/open-positions/planetary-scientist) to lead work on lunar regolith and soil simulants. The company is also hiring an [operations manager](https://www.interlune.space/open-positions/operations-manager) and a [mechanical engineer](https://www.interlune.space/open-positions/mechanical-engineer-2). ### Moon Monday #229: China extends lead in lunar orbital infrastructure, gets an edge in future crewed missions over the US URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-229/ Last updated: 2025-06-17T11:25:28.000Z *Before we begin this week’s Moon Monday, consider taking a moment of silence for everyone affected by the deadly* [*Air India flight crash*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air%5FIndia%5FFlight%5F171) *in Ahmedabad on June 12\. 😔* --- Ling Xin [reports](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3312860/did-chinas-tiandu-1-satellite-beat-us-competitors-critical-earth-moon-orbit) that on May 22, China moved the [Tiandu 1](https://space.skyrocket.de/doc%5Fsdat/tiandu-1.htm) lunar orbiter from its [Distant Retrograde Orbit](https://skyriddles.wordpress.com/2022/01/25/change-5-returns-to-the-moon/) (DRO) to a 3:1 resonance orbit. This move comes after the small 61-kilogram (at launch) spacecraft helped China [achieve](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-225/) the first ever daytime Earth-Moon laser distance measurements using an orbiter earlier this year. In its new orbit, Tiandu-1 [loops around Earth thrice](https://bsky.app/profile/coastal8049.bsky.social/post/3lpzz25h4b22k) for every revolution of the Moon around our planet. It’s a stable orbit, requiring minimal maintenance. It reminds me of how in 2023, ISRO pulled Chandrayaan 3’s [propulsion module](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/science/chandrayaan-3-mission-150kg-fuel-left-in-propulsion-module-life-span-now-years/articleshow/102866268.cms) from lunar orbit [to Earth orbit](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-157/), demonstrating a small but key capability that will be required to pull off a robotic sample return mission in the future with [Chandrayaan 4](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-194/). Coming back to China, as per [graphics shown by CAS](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9QsoFSApZuQ) and subsequently reported by others, China also made the DRO-B lunar satellite depart its DRO orbit in April and enter a 3:2 resonance orbit—a world first. When in DRO, the 277-kilogram (at launch) DRO-B and its twin craft DRO-A [demonstrated automated navigation](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-222/) at the Moon in tandem with the Earthbound DRO-L satellite. The three satellites tracked each other without relying on Earthly ground stations. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/06/dro-a-dro-b-dro-l-new-geometry-with-resonance-orbit.jpg) Graphic showing the new geometry of the DRO-A, DRO-B, and DRO-L satellites tracking each other. In its 3:2 resonance orbit, DRO-B travels through the Earth-Moon Lagrangian L3, L4, and L5 regions—where the gravitational forces of the two bodies roughly balance. [Credit: CAS](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9QsoFSApZuQ) The [damaged solar panels](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-222/) of DRO-B post its [anomalous launch](https://spacenews.com/surprise-chinese-lunar-mission-hit-by-launch-anomaly/) will reduce the extent of automated navigation the craft can perform in its new orbit but demonstrations and spacecraft operations continue nevertheless. Enthusiastic spacecraft observer [Scott Tilley](https://bsky.app/profile/coastal8049.bsky.social), who has been tracking the aforementioned Mooncraft and independently confirmed their orbits, has [pointed out](https://bsky.app/profile/coastal8049.bsky.social/post/3lpiwpfnifs2e) that Chinese researchers [recently published a paper](https://doi.org/10.2514/1.G008582) on exactly these kinds of orbital maneuvers. And now, China has demonstrated several low-energy orbital transfers as well as autonomous navigation in complex multi-body gravitational environments. China is doing more still in the Earth-Moon space. CNSA launched the 1200-kilogram [Queqiao 2](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-169/) satellite to DRO last year to support Earth-Moon communications for the [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) spacecraft modules to fetch [farside lunar samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-201/). With that immediate mission [accomplished](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-182/), the orbiter then began making observations to pursue its other scientific goals. CASC has [provided an update](https://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4342585/content.html) on the same with notable statements: > The satellite has been stably operating in orbit for 14 months. \[...\] The satellite’s extreme ultraviolet camera captured the first global 83.4-nanometer ionosphere image, providing crucial data for studying the impact of solar activity on the plasmasphere. The satellite’s VLBI experiment system, in coordination with the Shanghai 65m Radio Telescope, extended the observation baseline to 380,000 kilometers and successfully observed deep-space targets like radio source A00235 and the Chang’e-6 orbiter. Chinese researchers are expected to publish results based on these observations later this year. Recall that Chinese researchers have suggested that when coupled with Earth-based ground stations, China’s in-progress [network of lunar navigation and communications (navcom) satellites](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-185/) can help CNSA track its deep space missions with sub-kilometer accuracy all the way to Jupiter and even beyond. As noted by Chi Wang, et al. in a [December 2023 paper](https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwad329), Queqiao 2 will try testing an element of this during the upcoming [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#the-instrumental-and-increasingly-international-7) Moon mission: > The LOVEX \[payload\] on the relay satellite is used to construct a 400000-km baseline Moon–Earth VLBI measurement and observation experiment system to improve the accuracy of orbit determination in deep space and to carry out astrometry and astrophysics observation and study. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/06/farside-moon-and-earth-change-5-t1.jpg) Earth and our Moon as seen from beyond the lunar farside by China’s Chang’e 5 T1 test spacecraft on October 28, 2014\. [Image: CAST](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/earth-and-the-moon-from-change5t1) ## How China has an edge in sustaining future crewed Moon missions over the US Between the developments above, the Queqiao 1 orbiter having enabled humanity’s first lunar farside mission with [Chang’e 4](https://www.eoportal.org/satellite-missions/chang-e-4), and Queqiao 2 expected to aid the upcoming [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#the-instrumental-and-increasingly-international-7) and [Chang’e 8](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/#prepare-for-crew-and-double-down-with-mission-eight) missions to the Moon’s south pole, China has extended its lead in lunar navigation, communications, and complex orbital operations by what seems like a light year. In the meanwhile, the US has [demonstrated a GPS lock](https://www.asi.it/en/2025/03/lugre-achieves-historic-lunar-radionavigation-milestone/) on the Moon through private company Firefly’s [first Moon lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-218/#firefly-deserves-an-unusual-kudos) part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). But that’s pretty much it. The NASA-funded and Advanced Space-led [CAPSTONE](https://www.nasa.gov/smallspacecraft/capstone/) lunar orbiter has been [making progress](https://web.archive.org/web/20240326143654/https://advancedspace.com/advanced-spaces-resilient-capstone-mission-for-nasa-is-operating-at-the-moon-for-445-days-continues-to-transform-exploration-with-cutting-edge-technology/) towards automated navigation demonstrations with NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lro/about/) (LRO) since over two years now. The goal is similar to China’s DRO-A/B/L trio but has a relatively limited scope even when successful. ESA is yet to launch its first lunar communications spacecraft called [Lunar Pathfinder](https://jatan.space/nasa-esa-collaborate-on-lunar-pathfinder/) as part of its upcoming [Moonlight](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-198/#moonlight-in-motion-and-contrasting-queqiao) navcom constellation. And [so is NASA](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-195/#intuitive-machines-to-also-launch-lunar-comm-relays). In contrast, China’s visibly great progress in building its full-fledged [lunar navcom constellation](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-185/) named Queqiao is bound to substantially improve both the surface coverage time and area for China’s upcoming ambitious [crewed lunar missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/), which along with robotic explorers systematically lead up to the full-fledged [ILRS Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/). ILRS is a long-term undertaking, and the Queqiao constellation’s capabilities will afford China redundancy even if—or when—there are ground station availability issues from its Moonbase partners across the globe. Even if the US somehow lands humans on the Moon first with [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/) later this decade, the long term game of sustaining human and robotic lunar presence still favors China because it has achieved more complex capabilities in orbital infrastructure as well as modern surface missions, gaining valuable operational experiences therein. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/06/china-queqiao-lunar-navcom-constellation-concept.jpg) A three-stage concept for a cislunar navigation and communications constellation proposed by Chinese researchers. [Image: SCMP](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3270910/chinese-scientists-propose-information-superhighway-between-earth-and-moon) --- *Many thanks to* [***Open Lunar Foundation***](https://www.openlunar.org) *and* [***Sanket Suman Dash***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/sanketsumandash/) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource for free and without ads,* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*. 🌙* --- ## A problem with Western media narratives of Chinese space While China has been building up orbital infrastructure for increasingly complex lunar missions, the Western media and industry observers at large have underestimated or ignored the depth of what the Chinese have accomplished at the Moon. Such blindspots usually happen when there’s a fixation on narratives, the kind that lead to fabricating stories such as China choosing “[the same](https://www.anasda.de/archive-2nd-february-2024)” landing sites as the US for its upcoming [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#the-instrumental-and-increasingly-international-7) Moon mission. In fact, Gizmodo [titled](https://gizmodo.com/china-change-6-moon-landing-shackleton-crater-artemis-1851209296) that as “China oversteps NASA in choosing coveted Shackleton crater for its Moon lander”. Such framing is quite questionable: - Firstly, it was always likely, and known, that the robotic Chang’e 7 would land on the Moon’s south pole before the crewed Artemis III does. So can we even call the former to be choosing “the same” landing site as the latter? - Artemis III had [13 candidate landing zones](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-91/) in 2022\. We’re almost halfway through 2025, and the candidate regions are still a [set of nine](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-provides-update-on-artemis-iii-moon-landing-regions/). It’s not quite a “selection” yet. - More importantly, [Shackleton](https://quickmap.lroc.im-ldi.com/?prjExtent=-41248.761851%2C-39160.9318066%2C59840.7766822%2C18079.9393714&wideTrail=true&shadowsType=all&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypZATgCZ6ZWEV0AOFhbSfIjSpCkcOFD7tgydIwS9EA4uWEqk4cW0QoxyLIsLLa0rjy1Kh1FRSA&proj=17) is a large 21-kilometer wide crater, and the number of mission-favorable areas on the rim and nearby ridges are relatively plenty. Even if both missions ultimately chose Shackleton as the main landing region, they would be reasonably far away from each other not just in time but in space too. - Similar arguments can apply for [Chang’e 8](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/#prepare-for-crew-and-double-down-with-mission-eight). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/06/change-7-landing-site-candidates.jpg) Some of the Chang’e 7 candidate landing sites on the Moon’s south pole. [Image: DSEL](https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/EGGNRR4jfK5J8978aH8ing) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/06/artemis-iii-nine-landing-region-candidates.jpg) This image of the Moon’s south pole shows the nine candidate landing regions for NASA’s Artemis III crewed mission. [Image: NASA / GSFC / ASU / LRO](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-provides-update-on-artemis-iii-moon-landing-regions/) While, yes, the [water-hosting](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) lunar south pole not being a massive place could eventually mean potential contest between countries—and companies—for some common sites, much before that though comes the fact that there are purely engineering and scientific factors that make landing site selections converge to certain locations. For example, the Sun [perpetually circling](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) the lunar polar horizon coupled with [rocky terrain](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/Slope%20map%5FSouth%20Pole%5F85%20to%2090%20deg%20S%5Fv2.pdf) automatically render [higher altitude areas desirable](https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.1208.5587) power-wise for touchdown—which is what most lunar polar missions end up converging to. I highlighted this point in an invited [Media Roundtable](https://sites.duke.edu/rethinkingdiplomacy/sdls-2024-space-media-roundtable-roundup-optimism-in-outer-space/) discussion hosted by the Duke University in 2024: > It’s important to keep in mind that not all decisions are taken with a geopolitical adversary in mind. Some of them are purely engineering. But this you would only understand if you have scientists and engineers talking to policy makers. Fear-mongering narratives can cause issues to scale up, and then convert into a lot of unfriendliness that could impact everyone badly… as journalists, our job is to simplify and clarify the layers of what scientists and engineers do—as well as the geopolitical and policy elements. Such technical factors should be considered first before jumping the gun with [political changes](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-227/) and associated policy recommendations and that maybe based on shallow narratives. It could adversely affect [international cooperation](https://jatan.space/a-registry-of-moon-missions/) and [collaboration](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/), both of which are [hard won](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-223/), while making discussing real challenges more difficult. We shouldn’t have to waste our time and efforts discussing [laughable claims](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#is-china-landing-in-the-apollo-crater-to-signal-the-us-of-a-race) like China apparently landing Chang’e 6 in the farside Apollo crater just to signal the US of a race. It can be helpful to get some non-US perspective here. [Jack Congram](https://linktr.ee/phazzee), who writes the blog & newsletter “[China in Space](https://www.china-in-space.com/archive)” with the aim of providing more grounded coverage of Sino space activities, [offers a view](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/china-is-not-racing-to-the-moon) on this Moon “race”: > While the US has tried to lean on the idea of competition to secure political and financial support, China treats its space and lunar programs as part of long-term plans for national development. \[...\] With few political shifts and more stable funding, China doesn’t need to frame its lunar program in a race with the US plans. > \[...\] > Once a policy and its direction are decided, it tends to receive consistent support over many years, with progress evaluated against clear developmental and technological milestones. This structure means the space program is not vulnerable to the kind of budgetary uncertainty or political turnover common in Western liberal democracies. Budgetary uncertainty and political turnover [indeed](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-227/). ### Moon Monday #228: The need for resilience in private lunar landing missions through expansive and collaborative testing URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-228/ Last updated: 2026-02-05T09:01:46.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/06/ispace-resilience-lander-earth-from-moon-1.jpg) ****Left:** ispace Japan’s second Moon lander, named RESILIENCE, at JAXA’s Tsukuba Space Center pre-launch. Also seen integrated into the lander is ispace’s first rover TENACIOUS; ****Right:** Our Earth as imaged by RESILIENCE from lunar orbit. [Images: ispace](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=6120) ispace Japan’s second Moon lander [RESILIENCE](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=6734) launched [in January](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-209/) with the aim of a Moon landing. But just like [its predecessor](https://jatan.space/ispace-japan-m1-moon-mission/) Hakuto-R’s fate about two years ago, RESILIENCE crashed into the Moon during its landing attempt on June 6\. It was a moment of heartbreak for several lunar communities and space enthusiasts around the world. It’s also a moment to reconsider resilience in lunar exploration through expansive and collaborative lunar lander testing for private missions. While ispace’s first lunar lander ultimately failed due to its [navigation software rejecting correct altitude readings](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-129/) from the Moon provided by the laser rangefinder onboard, RESILIENCE failed differently. The latter’s rangefinder readings were correct only [later in the descent](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7664) around a [kilometer above](https://spacenews.com/laser-rangefinder-problems-blamed-for-second-ispace-lunar-lander-crash/) the surface. The lander thus hadn’t slowed down enough by the time it approached the Moon’s surface, crashing into it rather than gently landing. ispace Japan’s CTO Ryo Ujiie noted during the post-landing-attempt [media briefing](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0yr1a-hf7SQ) that RESILIENCE used a different rangefinder than on the first mission (M1) because the vendor had discontinued the earlier model. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/06/ispace-m2-mission-milestrones-resilience-lander-1.jpg) RESILIENCE mission milestones and success criteria as stated by ispace Japan. The company achieved eight of ten milestones. [Image: ispace](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7578) ### Testing the limits of resilience As always, we will know the root cause(s) of the M2 mission’s failure and its extent only after engineers conduct a detailed failure investigation. That’s always been the case for all major spacecraft failures. And yet it didn’t deter media reports and social media posts from continuing to confidently “explain” the events of RESILIENCE based on [lander telemetry from the livestream](https://www.ispace-inc.com/landing) alone—despite us learning about the unreliable rangefinder readings from ispace itself mere hours after the landing attempt. And so, instead let’s discuss an underlying point about the testing regime of Moon landers through what is admittedly speculation on RESILIENCE. Note that RESILIENCE began its descent to the lunar surface from its [circular orbit](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7578) of \~100-kilometer altitude. It’s a much higher starting point than those of contemporary landers; [India’s Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/), the US-based Firefly’s [Blue Ghost](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-215/), and JAXA’s [SLIM lander](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/en/outreach/announcements/files/SLIM-pressconf-20240125.pdf) began their descent from 30, 20, and 15 kilometers above the lunar surface respectively. Depending on the operational extent of the specific laser rangefinder ispace used, choosing a lower orbital profile to start RESILIENCE’s descent from could’ve allowed ispace to test the rangefinder before diving in. This would’ve provided mission operators a warning that the rangefinder wouldn’t be relaying accurate readings, at least at that high altitude, and may have allowed them to design some workarounds. Now, to be fair, such an orbital profile might have been unfeasible in RESILIENCE’s case, or simply too risky given [uneven lunar gravity](https://jatan.space/the-moons-lumpy-gravity-field/). Or it may not have given RESILIENCE sufficient time to adapt while in orbit after all since the rotating Moon would increasingly steer its carefully chosen [lava plain landing site](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?prjExtent=-193208.8151159%2C1414120.8709056%2C91768.6418938%2C1575486.3113064&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&isCesiumEntityDetailsEnabled=true&showCompass=true&trailType=1&wideTrail=true&features=-4.60000000%2C60.50000000%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22ispace+Japan+M2+mission+landing+site%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKWbJYNOZLRfImq3ioA&proj=10) away from reach. Regardless, the point is that conducting operational checkouts of the laser rangefinder before attempting to land was probably missing from RESILIENCE’s in-space testing regime. For example, ISRO’s Chandrayaan 3 lander performed such checkouts with its propulsion module after the two separated from each other in lunar orbit. And so the lander’s altitude above the lunar surface didn’t matter as much. Prior to RESILIENCE’s launch, ispace had told me in an email response that to improve the chances of a successful touchdown, the company has conducted extensive field testing of landing sensors in lunar-like environments at multiple locations around the world. This is over and above the improvements across subsystems which ispace identified after flying its first Moon mission to feed into RESILIENCE. Despite that, the rangefinder has clearly missed the mark. It again goes to show that [you can only know your particular spacecraft’s behavior once it is in space](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-moon-landers/). And that’s also why for its SLIM lander, JAXA [tested its crucial crater recognition system](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/en/outreach/announcements/files/SLIM-pressconf-20240125.pdf) while in lunar orbit before SLIM attempted and achieved its goal of [landing on the Moon with precision](https://jatan.space/precision-moon-landings-and-the-future/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/06/ispace-m1-lessons-fed-to-m2-2.jpg) Areas of enhancement which ispace identified after flying its first Moon mission (M1) to feed into RESILIENCE (M2). [Image: ispace](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Owt2u9SJIbU) ### Complex balance Moon landings remain hard; and a truly comprehensive testing regime non-optional for success. Note the following about four recent Moon landing attempts. - ISRO attributes [emphasis on demonstrating the lander system’s performance](https://jatan.space/kalpana-kalahasti-chandrayaan-3-nature/) down to its specifics as the principal reason for Chandrayaan 3’s [triumphant touchdown](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) on the Moon after Chandrayaan 2’s failure. - Both of Intuitive Machines’ landers part of NASA’s [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) program [hard-landed on the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-216/#tipped-intuitive-mooncraft-dies-with-none-of-the-net-130-million-worth-of-payloads-deployed) due to [inadequate testing](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/03/intuitive-machines-second-attempt-to-land-on-the-moon-also-went-sideways/) and [checkouts](https://spacenews.com/im-1-lunar-lander-tipped-over-on-its-side/) of their laser rangefinders. - Astrobotic’s first CLPS lander Peregrine failed because of [skipping comprehensive launch environmental testing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-191/#those-pesky-valves) of its propulsion system. - In contrast, Firefly proactively [kept ample margins](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-215/) in terrestrial testing as well as for spaceflight deviances and anomalies to achieve Blue Ghost’s soft landing for NASA CLPS earlier this year. As indispensable as comprehensive testing is, another hard fact is that private companies don’t have the kind of high budgets or time afforded by government space agencies. This necessarily implies lesser overall redundancy in their robotic lander designs as well as a testing regime that’s always battling cost and schedule—all leading to greater risks. Even fuel margins on privately built landers tend to be on the lower side because every kilogram of added fuel reserve would take away *at least* several hundred thousand dollars worth of commercial payload capacity. But alas, the closer a lander is to the surface during lunar descent, the lesser its ability to self-correct with depleting fuel reserves. Such complex balance of testing and resources is why I agree with [remarks](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/global-collaboration-moon) made by the Open Lunar Foundation (a Moon Monday sponsor) after the RESILIENCE mission’s outcome: > Rather than one agency attempting seven landings, a growing number of new actors are launching their first or second attempts. Instead of hard won lessons flowing freely into the next mission, knowledge is often siloed, treated as proprietary by agencies and companies, and so potentially avoidable mistakes can resurface. \[...\] Collaboration becomes critical to ensure that tens of millions of dollars of investment and years of work aren’t lost in the final seconds of flight. The more we can share data from these attempts, the more return humanity as a whole makes on these investments. The Moon is hard, but there is no reason to make it harder. We must encourage companies and organizations to [share technical data for safety and success](https://jatan.space/a-registry-of-moon-missions/) of all. ### Tenaciously transparent ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/06/ispace-m1-lunar-lander-falcon-9-payload-fairing.jpg) ispace’s first Moon lander inside the Falcon 9 rocket’s fairing pre-launch. [Image: SpaceX](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4020) RESILIENCE’s crash landing means its [multiple payloads](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=6734) have been lost too, most notably the [5-kilogram micro-rover](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4954) built by ispace’s European subsidiary under an ESA contract with funding aid from the Luxembourg Space Agency. Called TENACIOUS, the rover was supposed to explore and image the Moon’s surface in HD, and use a back-mounted shovel to [collect lunar soil](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=3696) and [transfer its ownership](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-companies-to-collect-lunar-resources-for-artemis-demonstrations) to NASA as part of the latter’s move to set precedence for future resource use under the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords/). Alas, these opportunities have succumbed to harsh lunar dust. Jeff Foust has [previously reported](https://spacenews.com/ispace-revises-design-of-lunar-lander-for-nasa-clps-mission/) that ispace got a $22 million payout for its first crashed Moon mission through [insurance brought from Mitsui Sumitomo](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=3952). We’ll get to know later this year what ispace receives for its second failed attempt. Looking ahead, ispace Japan’s CFO Jumpei Nozaki [told CNN](https://www.cnn.com/science/live-news/moon-landing-mission-ispace-06-05-25#cmbk4053a001j3b6myn4nk3c0) that the company has the funding necessary to attempt a third lunar landing. That would be the company’s US subsidiary’s [first CLPS mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-184/) through US-based Draper Laboratory. It’s targeting landing on the Moon’s farside in 2027, carrying [NASA payloads](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-184/#science) onboard as well as [another rover from ispace Europe](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7495). ispace US will also provide [ground communications](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=5509) and [relay services](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=5301) for the mission. Between the capital intensive nature of building Moon missions and the ispace-provided CLPS lander [having to be wholly redesigned](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-184/), and even go through a late [engine swap](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7366), ispace Japan has had to raise a huge amount of funds. To its credit, the [publicly traded](https://spacenews.com/first-ispace-mission-ready-for-lunar-landing-as-company-stock-starts-trading/) company has always announced these upfront. Such financing has taken the form of [$35 million](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7466) and [$70 million](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7514) in loans this year, and [$62 million](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=5557) and [$45 million](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=5282) last year. Jeff Foust [reported](https://spacenews.com/japanese-lunar-lander-company-ispace-raises-53-5-million-in-stock-sale/) in March 2024 that ispace then raised $53.5 million through a stock sale, $47 million of which was to be used for the Draper-led CLPS mission. ispace’s share of Draper’s $77 million CLPS contract is supposedly $55 million. Note though that all of these amounts, along with a [$80 million Japanese government grant](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4943), do include funds for ispace Japan to launch a fourth lunar lander by 2027, and so aren’t just for the CLPS flight. Contrast ispace’s impeccable transparency with CLPS vendor Intuitive Machines. Despite both of them being publicly traded companies, ispace has [transparently published mission objectives before launch](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-208/) as well as accepted outcomes of both its lunar missions on the same day as the landing attempts with [unusual candidness](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-125/). Whereas Intuitive—and NASA as its CLPS flight enabler and partner—retrospectively [skewed the success criteria](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-166/) for the company’s [first Moon mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-165/) and even straight up falsely [proclaimed](https://spacenews.com/intuitive-machines-and-nasa-call-im-1-lunar-lander-a-success-as-mission-winds-down/) it to be a “soft and safe landing” and an “unqualified success”. Intuitive continued to use [intentionally fuzzy language](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/im-2-the-southernmost-step-in-human-exploration) to claim success for its second hard Moon landing despite the mission hosting [more than $100 million](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-216/#tipped-intuitive-mooncraft-dies-with-none-of-the-net-130-million-worth-of-payloads-deployed) worth of US taxpayer money through NASA whose goals weren’t met. The value of ispace Japan too [gets affected](https://www.google.com/finance/quote/9348:TYO?window=1M) as a publicly traded company, and yet they face it with more honest, upfront communications. That is true resilience. --- *Many thanks to* [***The Orbital Index***](https://orbitalindex.com) *and* [***Sanket Suman Dash***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/sanketsumandash/) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource for free and without ads,* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*. 🌙* --- ## Two new European Moon missions ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/06/lunar-south-pole-illumination-map-lro-perspective-view-labeled.jpg) Aggregated solar illumination map of the Moon’s south pole made from stacked observations by NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, shown in perspective view. The brightest spots are maximally sunlit topographic highs whereas the pitch black areas are [permanently shadowed](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/)—within which water ice deposits are thought to exist. [Image: NASA](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/271) ispace [utilized five of ESA’s Estrack network ground stations](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Operations/ESA%5FGround%5FStations/ESA%5Fsupports%5FMoon%5Fmission%5Fcarrying%5Ffirst%5FEuropean%5Frover) to command and hear back from RESILIENCE throughout its mission. This partnership is now growing as ispace’s European subsidiary along with five of its also-European institutional partners have won an extended \~[€2.7 million ESA contract](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7621) to collaborate with the European Space Agency on the MAGPIE mission. It’s a rover to study [water ice and other volatiles](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) deposited on the Moon’s south pole. MAGPIE stands for **M**ission for **A**dvanced **G**eophysics and **P**olar **I**ce **E**xploration. The mission is being assessed for flight as part of [ESA’s 2023 call](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Preparing%5Ffor%5Fthe%5FFuture/Discovery%5Fand%5FPreparation/To%5Fthe%5FMoon%5FESA%5Fseeks%5Fideas%5Ffor%5Fsmall%5Flunar%5Fmissions) to the European industry, asking it to propose small and medium Moon mission concepts that can fly starting by 2028\. As long as each mission stays under €50 million, and focuses on ESA’s lunar [exploration and science goals](https://www.esa.int/terraenovae), any physical form goes: an orbiter, a (presumably small) lander, a flyby craft, a rover, what have you. As one way to stay within budget, ESA [encouraged](https://ideas.esa.int/servlet/hype/IMT?documentId=9904aa3d71cbae0c8d3d86503095f607&userAction=Browse&templateName=) mission proposals to leverage a rideshare launch on Europe’s [Ariane 6](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FTransportation/Launch%5Fvehicles/Ariane%5F6) rocket, specifically using [several lunar-ward trajectories](https://ideas.esa.int/apps/IMT/UploadedFiles/00/f%5Fbb2d0c3aa47b841f2638cc7b5fab597a/Small%5FMissions%5FAR6%5FAccess%5Fto%5Fthe%5FMoon%5F%5FRideshare.pdf) to that end including possible aids with a kick-stage. ESA also suggested spacecraft use its upcoming [Moonlight](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-198/#moonlight-in-motion-and-contrasting-queqiao) navigation and communications service to reduce the mass of the onboard communications system and save mission costs. Relatedly, ESA approved the **LU**nar **M**eteoroid **I**mpacts **O**bserver ([LUMIO](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FEngineering%5FTechnology/Shaping%5Fthe%5FFuture/LUMIO%5FNew%5FCubeSat%5FIlluminating%5FLunar%5FImpacts)) CubeSat mission last year. As its name suggests, LUMIO will monitor flashes of meteorite impacts on the Moon’s farside to determine its poorly constrained rate and potential impact (pun intended) on long-term robotic and crewed exploration. ESA aims to launch LUMIO in 2027 to the second Earth-Moon Lagrangian point (EM-L2) from where it can continuously observe the Moon’s farside. The CubeSat also aims to demonstrate [autonomously determining its position](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2024/07/Eye%5Ftest%5Ffor%5Flunar%5Fimpact%5Fsurveyor) in space and navigating accordingly, independent of communications with Earth, something China [pioneered with its DRO lunar craft](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-222/) recently. ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/06/moon-to-mars-artemis.jpg) [Image: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/nasa-australia-sign-agreement-to-add-rover-to-future-moon-mission/) - In response to the Trump’s administration’s [FY2026 presidential budget request for NASA](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-227/) slashing the SLS rocket, Orion spacecraft, and the NASA-led international Gateway orbital habitat programs right after the upcoming crewed [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/) Moon landing, the US Senate is trying to propose and pass a [supplementary $10 billion fund](https://spacenews.com/cruz-seeks-10-billion-for-nasa-programs-in-budget-reconciliation-bill/) for NASA to continue those projects instead. - Amid these larger proposed cuts for NASA, people seem to have missed some [finer cuts](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-227/) affecting four forward-looking Moon projects: the oxygen extractor mission, Decadal science efforts, an advanced instruments program, and the THEMIS-ARTEMIS spacecraft. - In the meanwhile, NASA is [pulling its support](https://spacenews.com/nasa-withdraws-support-for-conferences/) for the long-running, community-oriented [Lunar and Planetary Science Conference](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar%5Fand%5FPlanetary%5FScience%5FConference), one of the largest gatherings of planetary scientists in the world. - [Notable Chandrayaan updates from last month](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-28/#chandrayaan-updates) ### A pressing PSLV rocket failure and orbital congestion to brood over | Indian Space Progress #28 URL: https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-28/ Last updated: 2025-06-09T10:52:59.000Z *I’m delighted to share that* [*PierSight Space*](https://piersight.space/) *is continuing its sponsorship of my Indian Space Progress blog+newsletter for another year!* 🚀 *Ahmedabad-based PierSight is building a private constellation of SAR satellites equipped with AIS sensors for persistent, all-weather ocean monitoring. With* [*$8 million raised*](https://piersight.space/blog/adding-strategic-capital-and-mission-aligned-investors) *in funds, and building on the recent spaceflight of its* [*Varuna*](https://piersight.space/varuna-mission) *technology demonstrator, PierSight is targeting a mid-2026 launch for its first commercial satellite. The company is* [*hiring across subsystems*](https://jobs.gohire.io/piersight-rfd9c90d/) *at Ahmedabad as well as Bangalore.* 🛰️ ## PSLV’s failure could trigger multiple mission delays for India ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/06/isro-pslv-teleos-2-launch-poem-starberry-sense-1.jpg) Launch of ISRO’s PSLV rocket on April 22, 2023 carrying Singapore’s TeLEOS-2 satellite. [Image: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/PSLVC55%5Fgallery.html) On May 18, India’s PSLV rocket [failed for the second time](https://spacenews.com/pslv-launch-of-indian-radar-imaging-satellite-fails/) in this century. ISRO’s Chief V. Narayanan said during the post-launch [media briefing](https://www.youtube.com/live/ec3LpsrNiGU?si=%5FX%5FG7WdHf5sQumZ7&t=6777) that “a fall in the chamber pressure of the motor case” of PSLV’s solid-fueled third stage prevented the dual-use 1700-kilogram [EOS-09](https://www.isro.gov.in/Mission%5FPSLV%5FC61%5FEOS%5F09.html) radar imaging satellite onboard the rocket from attaining orbit. PSLV’s failure comes as a shock to many in the space industry because this is the rocket that has notably launched a [lunar orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/), a [Mars orbiter](https://jatan.space/reviewing-mission-mangalyaan/), a [space telescope](https://academic.oup.com/astrogeo/article/63/4/4.27/6646766), a [solar observatory](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-08/) to the Earth-Sun L1 point, a record [104 satellites](https://www.isro.gov.in/mission%5FPSLV%5FC37.html) in one flight, and also important missions for other space agencies such as last year’s [launch of the Proba-3 Sun-studying craft](https://www.isro.gov.in/PSLV%5FC59%5FPROBA-3%5FMission.html) for ESA. A failure analysis committee is [examining](https://www.indiatoday.in/science/story/pslv-c61-mission-fails-former-isro-scientist-explains-what-happens-next-2726586-2025-05-18) PSLV’s failure. Between solid rocket motors being a staple element across ISRO’s entire [rocket family](https://www.isro.gov.in/Launchers.html) and the PSLV notably sharing the liquid fueled [Vikas engine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikas%5F%28rocket%5Fengine%29) with the more powerful [GSLV Mk II](https://www.isro.gov.in/GSLV%5FCON.html) and [LVM3](https://www.isro.gov.in/GSLVmk3%5FCON.html) rockets, one of the first things ISRO will try to get clarity on is if any aspect of PSLV’s failure would affect its other launch vehicles or not. While the PSLV’s Vikas engine performed fine on May 18, a Mk II is [soon slated](https://science.nasa.gov/blogs/nisar/2025/05/01/nasa-isro-aiming-to-launch-nisar-earth-mission-in-june-2025/) for a high-profile launch of the joint Indo-US [NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar](https://nisar.jpl.nasa.gov) (NISAR) Earth observation satellite. Every process tied to it will be scrutinized, and NISAR’s launch might get delayed again purely out of abundant caution. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/06/pslv-transporter.jpg) The PSLV rocket being transported in India’s launch complex at Sriharikota. Image: ISRO More directly though, the May 18 PSLV failure means the launch of the [PSLV N1](https://www.isro.gov.in/Productionisation%5Fof%5FPSLVs.html) will now be delayed further. N1 is the first industry-led PSLV to be launched as part of a [$104 million contract](https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/indl-goods/svs/engineering/hal-lt-to-build-five-pslv-rockets-bags-rs-860-crore-deal-from-nsil-for-the-project/articleshow/93980649.cms) awarded by ISRO to the bid-winning HAL-L&T consortium. It’s a national effort to improve the rocket’s production rate by privatizing it. The N1’s launch was [originally targeted last year](https://web.archive.org/web/20250328130343/https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/bangalore/private-pslv-space-9576053/). ISRO’s [new and nimble SSLV rocket](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-19/) is also affected. The next SSLV launch might take a while because the PSLV’s [third stage motor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar%5FSatellite%5FLaunch%5FVehicle#Third%5Fstage%5F%28PS3%29) is virtually identical to the SSLV’s second stage one. Note that the SSLV’s direct competitors in the global small lift commercial market [already moved ahead](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-19/) last year given the SSLV’s slow operationalization pace. What makes the PSLV’s loss more aggravating is that this is the second failure for India’s national space program this year, following [that of the NVS-02 navigation satellite](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-24/#next-generation-isro-navigation-satellite-stranded-in-space) in January. The Mk II that deployed NVS-02 into orbit worked well but the satellite’s own propulsion system failed, leaving India’s strategic [NavIC](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-05/) navigation constellation of a handful of satellites operating [below expected performance levels](https://adithyapani.substack.com/p/analyzing-effects-of-isros-nvs-02). ISRO has [not found the root cause](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/science/glitch-hit-nvs-02-can-provide-services-only-for-2-3-hours-per-day/articleshow/121324380.cms) of NVS-02’s failure so far, and the next navigation satellite might face delays to address issues found. ISRO will certainly return the PSLV to flight and make it more robust, just as it [methodically achieved Chandrayaan 3’s success](https://jatan.space/kalpana-kalahasti-chandrayaan-3-nature/) after Chandrayaan 2’s landing failure, and how it [re-flew the GSLV Mk II](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-05/) and maintained [consecutively successful launches](https://www.isro.gov.in/GSLV%5FLaunchers.html) after [its failure in 2021](https://web.archive.org/web/20220715113556/https://www.isro.gov.in/update/25-mar-2022/gslv-f10-eos-03-mission-failure-failure-analysis-committee-submits-conclusions). What makes this particular wait feel longer is the more fundamental place of the PSLV in India’s space progress. ## Dodging orbital debris, congestion, and collisions ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/06/pslv-c60-spadex-launch-window-and-no-liftoff-zones.jpg) The figure shows the no-liftoff zones within the PSLV SPADEX mission’s launch window to avoid uncomfortably close passes with other space objects. [Image: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/ISSAR%5F2024.html) India currently chairs the UN’s [working group on long-term space sustainability](https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/copuos/working-groups.html). And, ISRO, based on its experience of launching and operating varied space missions, has helped manage the growing orbital congestion and risk of high-velocity collisions in Earth orbit by contributing [updated guidelines](https://iadc-home.org/documents%5Fpublic/view/id/318) for debris mitigation as part of the [Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee](https://www.iadc-home.org/what%5Fiadc) (IADC)—whose participating members include the major spacefaring national agencies of NASA, CNSA, Roscosmos, and more. Now, ISRO has released its internal Space Situational Assessment Report for the year 2024\. It’s [public executive summary](https://www.isro.gov.in/ISSAR%5F2024.html) published this May has several interesting things of note: The PSLV rocket which launched the [twin SPADEX satellites](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-24/) on December 30, 2024 was intentionally delayed by 2 minutes and 15 seconds based on collision avoidance analysis for known orbital objects. > The upper stage of PSLV-C3 underwent an accidental break-up in 2001 and generated 371 debris. While most of these fragments have re-entered the atmosphere, 41 PSLV-C3 debris were still in orbit by the end of 2024\. \[...\] Among the intact Indian upper stages, 34 rocket bodies re-entered the Earth's atmosphere till 2024 end, and 5 of such re-entries took place in 2024\. All LVM3 rocket bodies have decayed, only the one from LVM3 M2 OneWeb mission remain in orbit. Among GSLV rocket bodies, only GSLV-F12 and GSLV-F14 rocket bodies are in orbit. > The number of CAMs \[Collision Avoidance Maneuvers\] was less in 2024 compared to the previous year. This is because improved close approach analysis methodology with larger conjunction screening volume and usage of more accurate ephemerides helped to meet collision avoidance requirements by adjusting orbit maintenance maneuvers on several occasions and avoiding exclusive CAMs. > Based on the projected deployment of multiple large constellations, active satellites are likely to outnumber space debris population within the current decade, making Space Traffic Management (STM) an indispensable part of spaceflight safety. As of now, there is no accepted framework for STM, hence on-orbit close approach between two active space assets needs to be resolved on case-by-case basis through inter-operator coordination, with non-trivial operational overheads. Consequently, spaceflight safety in future scenario is expected to involve more intensive coordination and cooperation between various spacefaring entities, it is desirable that a suitable collaborative framework evolves for meeting STM requirements. Beyond Earth orbit, at the Moon, ISRO, NASA, and South Korea’s KARI continue [coordinating lunar traffic](https://jatan.space/a-registry-of-moon-missions/) for their respective orbiters. From the aforementioned report summary: > 14 OMs \[Orbital Maneuvers\] were carried out for the Chandrayaan-2 Orbiter, the plans were adjusted on 8 occasions. On one occasion, a scheduled orbit maintenance manoeuvre was advanced to avoid a close conjunction with Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter of NASA. \[...\] An orbit maintenance manoeuvre was originally scheduled on 26 Nov 2024 but advanced to 11 Nov to mitigate conjunctions with LRO which were predicted to occur on 15-16 Nov. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/06/ch2-lro-orbiters-trajectory-close-passes-and-cam-1.jpg) ****Left:** Illustrations of the ISRO Chandrayaan 2 and NASA LRO orbiters around the Moon; ****Right:** Increase in separation between their orbits after Chandrayaan 2 performed a diversion maneuver in 2021\. Images: [ISRO](https://web.archive.org/web/20220725175353/https://www.isro.gov.in/update/15-nov-2021/chandrayaan-2-orbiter-ch2o-performs-evasive-manoeuvre-to-mitigate-critically) / [NASA / GSFC / Chris Meaney](https://web.archive.org/web/20210318045928/https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/images/lithos/LRO%20litho1%5Ffinal.pdf) --- *Many thanks to the* [***Takshashila Institution***](https://takshashila.org.in)*,* [***PierSight***](https://piersight.space)*,* [***GalaxEye Space***](https://galaxeye.space)*,* [***Gurbir Singh***](https://gurbir.co.uk) *and* [***Arun Raghavan***](https://arunraghavan.net) *for sponsoring this month’s Indian Space Progress edition. If you too appreciate my efforts to capture true trajectories of India in space,* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*.* 🇮🇳 🚀 --- ## Chandrayaan updates Scientists analyzing the elemental composition of our Moon’s southern high-latitude surface as [measured by ISRO’s Chandrayaan 3 rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-190/) have surmised that the excess sulfur detected in the landing site’s soil and rocks compared to other regions [may have originated in the Moon’s ancient mantle](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-224/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/06/ch3-rover-apxs-measurements-of-lunar-crust-and-landing-site.jpg) ****Top left:** Locations of samples collected by previous nearside Moon missions. The geologically distinct landing site of Chandrayaan 3 is marked down south; ****Bottom left:** The co-added X-ray spectrum from all 23 lunar surface soil and rock measurements by the Chandrayaan 3 rover; ****Right:** An artist’s concept of our Moon shortly after its formation, with a magma ocean and a newly forming rocky crust. Images: [Rishitosh Sinha, et al.](https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-025-02305-1) / [Santosh Vadawale, et al.](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07870-7.epdf?sharing%5Ftoken=4ZQFD5zK9GT9acs31FeVNNRgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0MR1M6jsWV0QR20SmA7k7Hvrkyl3GgMk99HFFb15nD09447WpwTLcpEaBgvj9C4YhThW7GJgQ7WgMAckZYS0fZ6FTf8RdEwv0eX%5FN4HvzLxBwhFq2fqKCzi0YsrWI%5FcfAQ%3D) / [NASA Goddard](https://www.dlr.de/content/en/articles/news/2020/03/20200710%5Fa-slightly-younger-moon.html) The IAF organized the latest international Global Space Exploration Conference ([GLEX](https://www.iafastro.org/events/global-series-conferences/global-conference-on-space-exploration-2025/)) in New Delhi, India last month, which ISRO hosted. I covered notable updates from GLEX in [Moon Monday #225](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-225/), of which two things are most relevant to India: - China formally welcomed India to cooperate on Moon missions. Wu Weiren, the Chief Designer of China’s extremely successful Chang’e lunar exploration program as well as the Director General of China’s Deep Space Exploration Laboratory (DSEL), [said during a panel](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lKMeWNwhW4Q) of various national space agency heads that China “especially welcomes India to participate in cooperating and collaborating on the ILRS” [Moonbase project](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/). Considering the not-so-great relations between China and India, and their mutual space activities being nearly nil, China’s invitation can be interpreted to be likely a formality. Nevertheless, it’s good to have the invitation explicitly said than not. - ISRO and ESA are [enhancing their collaboration](https://www.esa.int/Newsroom/Press%5FReleases/European%5FSpace%5FAgency%5Fannounces%5Fnew%5Fcooperation%5Fwith%5FIndian%5FSpace%5FResearch%5FOrganisation) in space exploration across scientific collaboration, human spaceflight, and lunar exploration. For the Moon in particular, the agencies are discussing “alignment on payloads and robotic scientific missions”. Nigar Shaji, Associate Director of ISRO’s key satellite integration and testing center URSC, [told during her GLEX panel](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eyiEWeZDIRk) that ISRO is open to flying ESA payloads on India’s [upcoming lunar missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/). Despite the [many cuts in NASA’s FY2026 budget](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-227/) proposed by the US Trump administration, the agency is thankfully continuing its funding and commitment to provide and operate a neutron spectrometer for the upcoming joint ISRO-JAXA [Chandrayaan 5/ LUPEX mission](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/) to study [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s south pole. ## More Indian space ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/06/axiom-space-ax-4-iss-crew-1.jpg) The Ax-4 Mission crew flying soon to the International Space Station aboard a SpaceX Crew Dragon capsule. [Images: Axiom](https://www.axiomspace.com/news/ax4-countries-crew)[Space](https://brandfolder.com/axiomspace/missions) India’s Shubhanshu Shukla’s flight to the International Space Station (ISS) through the [Ax-4 Axiom Space mission](https://www.axiomspace.com/missions/ax4) aboard a SpaceX Crew Dragon capsule as Mission Pilot is now delayed and [rescheduled for June 10](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/shubhanshu-shuklas-axiom-4-mission-postponed-to-june-10/articleshow/121602643.cms). Shukla underwent [astronaut](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/ax-4-crew-including-indias-shubhanshu-shukla-begin-training-in-germany/articleshow/115482278.cms) [training](https://www.isro.gov.in/Training%5FGaganyatris%5FISRO-NASA%5FMission.html) for the 14-day mission arranged under a NASA-ISRO partnership. ISRO and Shukla will conduct [seven](https://www.isro.gov.in/Indian%5Fmicrogravity%5Fresearch%5FAxiom4%5Fmission.html) out of [sixty experiments](https://www.axiomspace.com/missions/ax4#research) aboard Ax-4\. As part of a [broader ISRO-ESA agreement](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Operations/ESA%5Fto%5Fsupport%5FIndian%5Fhuman%5Fspaceflight%5Fmissions), Indian institutes will [conduct two joint microgravity experiments](https://www.isro.gov.in/ISRO-ESA%5Fcollaboration%5Fin%5Fmicrogravity%5Fresearch%5Fin%5Fupcoming%5FAxiom-4%5FMission.html) with ESA. Chethan Kumar has reported the ISS mission’s cost to ISRO being at least [$68 million](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/india-has-spent-rs-413-crore-on-sending-astronaut-to-iss-rs-135-crore-more-to-go-this-year/articleshow/119670434.cms). ISRO seeks to leverage this experience into India’s ambition to [indigenously send humans](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-13/) to Earth orbit. The next major milestone to enable that end is Gaganyaan G1, the first of three uncrewed test flights required to be successful before ISRO deems all systems being safe enough to launch astronauts. ISRO is targeting G1’s launch later this year although timelines have been uncertain until now. ## Read last four editions - [**Indian Space Progress #27**](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-27/)**:** Three months of mission updates, and fixing ISRO’s monthly summaries - [**Indian Space Progress #25-26**](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/)**:** Newly approved Chandrayaan 5 LUPEX mission will drill for water on the Moon and aid Artemis - [**Indian Space Progress #24**](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-24/)**:** High on docking, low on navigation. Cool new projects, same old budget ### Moon Monday #227: Proposed cuts, cancellations, continuations, and changes to NASA’s lunar missions URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-227/ Last updated: 2025-06-03T11:11:25.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/06/artemis-ii-sls-rocket-core-stage.jpg) The Artemis II SLS rocket core stage being transported towards NASA’s Pegasus ferry barge near the agency’s Michoud Assembly Facility. [Image: NASA / Eric Bordelon / Michael DeMocker](https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/artemis-ii-core-stage-on-the-move/) The US Trump administration has [released details](https://www.nasa.gov/fy-2026-budget-request/) of the FY2026 presidential budget request for NASA, which proposes a [historic \~25% cut](https://www.planetary.org/press-releases/the-planetary-society-reissues-urgent-call-to-reject-disastrous-budget-proposal-for-nasa) overall but continues support for the crewed [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii) and [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/) missions and most of its associated science elements—though [purely because](https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/President-Trumps-Fiscal-Year-2026-Discretionary-Funding-Request-Overview.pdf) the US wants to land on the Moon before China attempts the same [by 2030](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/). I’ve compiled and contextualized a detailed rundown of the specific proposed cuts, cancellations, continuations, and changes to NASA’s Moon missions through this budget request from across its documents while also highlighting notable additional details from them. [Support my writing](https://jatan.space/support) if you appreciate my efforts and find it useful. ### Proposed cuts and cancellations - Cancel the “[grossly expensive](https://whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/Fiscal-year-2026-discretionary-budget-request.pdf)” SLS rocket and Orion spacecraft from [Artemis IV](https://www.nasa.gov/general/nasas-artemis-iv-building-first-lunar-space-station/) onward in favor of commercial alternatives—whose exact form is as-yet unknown. The “Budget Request Summary” document [notes](https://www.nasa.gov/fy-2026-budget-request/) that the “>$3 billion a year in savings from the transition to commercial systems will be reinvested in Moon to Mars activities.” To enable said commercial transportation systems, formally called the Commercial Moon to Mars (M2M) Infrastructure and Transportation Program, NASA wants to ingest $864 million this year and next—and then quickly ramp up their funding by end of decade. These funds would essentially come from redirecting existing NASA budgets for crew and experiments at the International Space Station. - NASA aims to cancel the agency-led international [Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) lunar orbital habitat. The budget request’s “Mission Facts Sheets” [state](https://www.nasa.gov/fy-2026-budget-request/) that NASA will “close out the current contracts while alternative uses of the Gateway hardware are evaluated by commercial and international partners.” Considering that many hardware elements are already built or are in production, this would essentially leave NASA’s partners to figure out by themselves what to do with the parts. The “Budget Request Summary” [notes](https://www.nasa.gov/fy-2026-budget-request/) that NASA is requesting $304 million from the US Congress to conduct an orderly closeout of the Gateway program in 2026, without specifying what that entails. - As per the “Mission Facts Sheet”, NASA is [not requesting funds](https://www.nasa.gov/fy-2026-budget-request/) for its [LIFT-1 mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-153/) to extract oxygen from lunar soil. It was intended to demonstrate a technology critical for enabling long-term lunar exploration and living. Prior to this budget request drop, NASA had said it would fund [$200-250 million](https://nspires.nasaprs.com/external/viewrepositorydocument/cmdocumentid=967421/solicitationId=%7B23D0FE0E-099D-77A8-3E06-2C516D900762%7D/viewSolicitationDocument=1/LIFT-1%20RFI%20STMD%20Rvw%20v7.0.pdf) in total for this mission. NASA now says it will “prioritize ground-based high-fidelity systems testing” instead.. 🤷🏻‍♂️ - Continuing [the decision from the prior Biden administration](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-225/#artemis-and-clps-updates), NASA is upholding the cancellation of its already-built [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) by requesting no budget for the mission. VIPER was originally meant to reveal the first set of hard facts about [water ice deposits](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s south pole, [which has been missing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-221/) from the US [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/artemis/) program. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/06/nasa-stmd-lunar-surface-tech-demo-strategy.jpg) A NASA chart from 2023 showing maturation of lunar surface infrastructure capabilities, and its precursor missions, as strategized by NASA’s Space Technology Mission Directorate. But with the VIPER and LIFT missions now proposed to be gone, and two past CLPS missions failing, the chart falls apart. [Image: NASA](https://nspires.nasaprs.com/external/viewrepositorydocument/cmdocumentid=967421/solicitationId=%7B23D0FE0E-099D-77A8-3E06-2C516D900762%7D/viewSolicitationDocument=1/LIFT-1%20RFI%20STMD%20Rvw%20v7.0.pdf) - The budget request proposes reducing funding for the [DALI program](https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/space/pesto/investment-areas/dali/) from $15 million to $10 million. DALI’s job has been to mature the flight-readiness levels of advanced lunar instruments for future missions. - Likewise, support for future, community-identified, high impact [Decadal lunar science missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-74/) is proposed to be drastically reduced. Scoping of such missions usually takes place under NASA’s “Lunar Future” program or division. For 2026, NASA is proposing its funding to go from $10 million to $0\. Although the “Budget Technical Supplement” document [notes](https://www.nasa.gov/fy-2026-budget-request/) that it’s so because of “higher priorities in the Science portfolio.” And that “as funding becomes available in future years, NASA will perform studies to address these potential strategic missions as defined in the Decadal alongside other strategic goals for science near and on the Moon.” - NASA wishes to stop operating the THEMIS-ARTEMIS set of five small spacecraft. Since 2011, [two of these](https://artemis.igpp.ucla.edu/overview.shtml) have been studying how [the Sun’s wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) of radiation and charged particles interact with the Moon, something crucial to understanding parts of the radiation environment on and around Luna to safely send and return future astronauts. Data from the ARTEMIS pair have been consistently producing [published scientific results](https://artemis.igpp.ucla.edu/pubs/2023%5Frefereed/artemisref%5F2023.htm) even in this decade but the approximate $1 million per craft is an operations cost NASA no longer wishes to bear. Between this and Gateway’s proposed cancellation also depriving the agency and its international partners of information on what [long-term deep space radiation](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-162/#a-gist-of-gateway-science) would do to astronauts, it would be ironic to see a greater push for human spaceflight while defunding some of the science that enables it. ### Newly proposed changes ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/06/firefly-blue-ghost-clps-lander-with-logos.jpg) The first ‘Blue Ghost’ lunar lander pre-launch. [Image: Firefly](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-aerospace-blue-ghost-mission-1-to-the-moon-readies-for-launch/) - NASA wants to move the [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) from its [Science Mission Directorate](https://science.nasa.gov/about-us/science-strategy/) to the [Exploration](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration-systems-development-mission-directorate/) mission directorate. The “Budget Request Summary” [notes](https://www.nasa.gov/fy-2026-budget-request/) that NASA is continuing to request the planned $250 million for CLPS for 2026, and that the agency will continue operating the program the same way as before. However, when you consider that even when the Science directorate managed CLPS, we saw abrupt changes like [landing site swaps](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-151/) on missions due to other directorates taking priority. As such, CLPS being managed under the Exploration directorate would likely reduce the program’s scientific value in favor of purely technological and human spaceflight driven goals. - As planned during the previous Biden administration, NASA is indeed intent on introducing the [PRISM-SALSA](https://nspires.nasaprs.com/external/solicitations/summary.do?solId=%7b383AAAC1-8CEF-F372-7DA6-4D6A3279A820%7d&path=&method=init) program with a $10 million annual budget to fly scientific and technological instruments whose goals are not strictly tied to any particular landing location on the Moon. The “Budget Technical Supplement” [notes](https://www.nasa.gov/fy-2026-budget-request/) that NASA expects to have four such instruments on the Moon circa 2028 through CLPS landers—or even on other missions by NASA or its international partners as per available flight opportunities. ### Proposed continuations - Keep funding the crewed Human Landing Systems [by SpaceX](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-spacex-second-contract-option-for-artemis-moon-landing-0) and [Blue Origin](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/) at a total of $1.7 billion, and continue the combined $642 million towards developing the surface elements of the [Artemis spacesuit](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-198/), the versatile [Artemis Lunar Terrain Vehicle](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-171/), and collaborator [JAXA’s advanced pressurized rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-172/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/06/spacex-lunar-starship-and-blue-origin-blue-moon-landers-for-nasa-artemis-crewed-landings.jpg) Illustrations of SpaceX’s Lunar Starship and Blue Origin’s Blue Moon landers respectively, with which NASA hopes to land Artemis astronauts on the Moon this decade and beyond. Images: [SpaceX](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-spacex-second-contract-option-for-artemis-moon-landing-0) / [Blue Origin](https://www.blueorigin.com/news/nasa-selects-blue-origin-for-mission-to-moon) - NASA’s [Lunar Discovery and Exploration Program](https://science.nasa.gov/lunar-science/) (LDEP)—which has been formulating an integrated lunar science strategy and funding development of instruments for CLPS and Artemis missions—will continue to be funded at $137 million. It might seem like a drastic dip from the prior budgets thrice that amount but between VIPER’s cancellation and funds for CLPS now accounted for within its new home at the Exploration directorate, the proposed funding for the rest of the program elements is roughly on the same scale as before. And it’s projected to increase in the coming years too. Lunar science is not seeing [the deep cuts](https://www.planetary.org/advocacy-action-center#/55) of the rest of NASA’s science portfolio [purely because](https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/President-Trumps-Fiscal-Year-2026-Discretionary-Funding-Request-Overview.pdf) the US wants to land on the Moon before China attempts the same [by 2030](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/), and that its robotic missions lag far behind the Chinese. - NASA is requesting $56 million for its [Space Technology Mission Directorate](https://www.nasa.gov/space-technology-mission-directorate/) to develop foundational surface infrastructure capabilities for the Moon and Mars. Particularly, the “Budget Request Summary” [notes](https://www.nasa.gov/fy-2026-budget-request/) that the directorate “will perform \[sic\] advanced non-nuclear power in support of lunar and Mars missions.” - The budget request continues funding the operations of NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lro/) (LRO) to support scientific investigations and landing site characterizations for Artemis and CLPS landing missions. But the 2009-launched LRO has gracefully aged now, is due for its final mission extension evaluation with limited capabilities left, and can no longer maintain an orbit that can study the Moon’s poles heads down in any case. Recognizing these constraints, a specialized team of US scientists [released a report](https://web.archive.org/web/20230307045441/https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag/reports/CLOC-SAT%5FReport.pdf) in 2022 [urging NASA to plan an LRO replacement](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-116/). Three years since, NASA has not approved any LRO successor despite the [LExSO mission](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lexso/) being proposed by members from the LRO team itself. The FY2026 budget request too does not ask for any funding for the same. - NASA is thankfully continuing its funding to send and operate instruments on two missions by international partners. NASA will provide a neutron spectrometer for the upcoming joint ISRO-JAXA [Chandrayaan 5/ LUPEX](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/) mission to study [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s south pole. The agency will also support ongoing operations of its ultra-sensitive [ShadowCam](https://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/about) imager onboard South Korea’s 2022-launched [KPLO](https://jatan.space/kplo/) lunar orbiter. ShadowCam is trying to locate water ice deposits in the Moon’s polar [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/). ### Repercussions Over and above the proposed cuts and changes, NASA not allocating or requesting any funds for missions to directly find and study [lunar water ice deposits](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/), despite the US [failing at this central goal of Artemis](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-221/), will make dealing with the already bad situation for Artemis worse. Next up, the US Congress will review all the budget proposals in the coming months for appropriations or changes. Although Marcia Smith [explains](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-copes-with-details-of-6-billion-budget-cut-leadership-uncertainty/) how this process will not get done before October at best, until which a continuing resolution is in place for funds made available last year. In the meanwhile, shortly after [Elon Musk formally left DOGE](https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cz9y4exj822o) last week, the Trump administration [withdrew the nomination](https://spacenews.com/white-house-to-withdraw-isaacman-nomination-to-lead-nasa/) of Musk-allied Jared Isaacman as NASA Administrator, citing his lack of “complete alignment with President Trump’s America First agenda” as well as unspecified [prior associations](https://truthsocial.com/@realDonaldTrump/posts/114605559474286180). While the Trump administration will propose a replacement for the US Senate to consider confirming again, this move essentially gives the White House even more freedom to overhaul NASA in the time being. That’s because even though Isaacman was [actually publicly aligned with Trump](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-221/#the-moon-and-mars-in-parallel), the current Acting Administrator Janet Petro has fully [embraced the challenge](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-215/#resources-to-follow-blue-ghost) in resisting virtually nothing ever since the new US administration came in and selected her for the role. Under Petro, and through Presidential executive orders and other means, NASA has [closed the offices](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/rifs-at-nasa-headquarters-begin/) of the *Chief Scientist* and *Technology, Policy, and Strategy*, [removed critical scientific documents](https://jatan.space/scientific-documents-go-missing-from-nasa-lunar-community-website/) from agency-backed community websites, and also [deleted inclusive language](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-218/#nasa-removes-inclusive-language-from-artemis) from the leading webpage of its Artemis program, among other changes. --- *Many thanks to* [***Catalyx Space***](https://catalyx.space) *and* [***Arun Raghavan***](https://arunraghavan.net) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday!* *Today’s Moon Monday involved a lot of work to capture adequate context for each of NASA’s proposed changes to its Moon missions. If you find my article and its dozens of links to be useful, and you appreciate my efforts to publish* [*Moon Mondays*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) *as a curated community resource for free and without ads, kindly* [***support my independent writing***](https://jatan.space/support). 🌙 --- ## More mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/06/ispace-m2-mission-milestrones-resilience-lander.jpg) Mission milestones and success criteria as stated by ispace Japan for its second Moon landing mission. ispace’s RESILIENCE lander has achieved eight of the ten milestones to date. [Image: ispace](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7578) ispace Japan’s second Moon lander [RESILIENCE](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=6734) successfully [circularized its lunar orbit](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7578) on May 28 with a roughly 10-minute main engine burn. The lander [launched in January](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-209/) on a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket, and then followed a [multi-month low energy trajectory](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/gettingToTheMoon.html) to the Moon. It [entered lunar orbit](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7327) on May 7 with a roughly nine-minute main engine burn. ispace is targeting June 5, 19:24 UTC as the Moon landing date and time for RESILIENCE. ispace says the lander will begin its descent to the lunar surface from its current circular orbit only, which makes its \~100-kilometer altitude a much higher starting point than those of contemporary landers such as [India’s Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) and the US-based Firefly’s [Blue Ghost](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-215/)—which began their descent from 30 and 20 kilometers above the lunar surface respectively. **Resources to follow RESILIENCE:** 1. [Watch the livestream](https://www.ispace-inc.com/landing) on June 5 an hour prior to the aforementioned landing time 2. Check ispace’s [News blog](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en) and subscribe to it in an [RSS reader](https://journal.jatan.space/why-use-rss/) 3. Browse and [search](https://jatan.space/search) my recent past coverage on [Japanese Moon missions](https://jatan.space/tag/japan-and-selene/) for context 4. [Subscribe for free](https://jatan.space/subscribe) to my globally read [Moon Monday](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) blog+newsletter to receive mission updates with context 🌝 --- - The ninth launch of SpaceX’s [Starship Super Heavy](https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/starship) rocket on May 29 [failed as well](https://spacenews.com/starship-breaks-up-on-reentry-after-loss-of-attitude-control/)—due to a fuel leak and loss of attitude control on the upper stage, and the anomalous engine re-lighting of the booster stage leading to its explosion. The test flight did avoid the engine problems which had caused the upper stage to fail during its ascent itself on the [previous two flights](https://arstechnica.com/science/2025/03/the-starship-program-hits-another-speed-bump-with-second-consecutive-failure/) but the mission couldn’t achieve any of its key objectives: from opening the payload bay door and ejecting simulated satellites to [testing heat shield tile reentry experiments](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/05/spacex-may-have-solved-one-problem-only-to-find-more-on-latest-starship-flight/) to safely bringing back a previously flown booster. As such, NASA’s long road to putting humans on the Moon with [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/), which has been [inching through Starship](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-197/), has slowed down further with this failed flight. - NASA, ISRO, and KARI continue [coordinating lunar traffic](https://jatan.space/a-registry-of-moon-missions/) for their respective orbiters. ISRO released its internal Space Situational Assessment Report for the year 2024 this April, and whose [public executive summary](https://www.isro.gov.in/ISSAR%5F2024.html) notes the following: > 14 OMs \[Orbital Maneuvers\] were carried out for the Chandrayaan-2 Orbiter, the plans were adjusted on 8 occasions. On one occasion, a scheduled orbit maintenance manoeuvre was advanced to avoid a close conjunction with Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter of NASA. \[...\] An orbit maintenance manoeuvre was originally scheduled on 26 Nov 2024 but advanced to 11 Nov to mitigate conjunctions with LRO which were predicted to occur on 15-16 Nov. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/06/ch2-lro-orbiters-trajectory-close-passes-and-cam.jpg) ****Left:** Illustrations of the ISRO Chandrayaan 2 and NASA LRO orbiters around the Moon; ****Right:** Increase in separation between their orbits after Chandrayaan 2 performed a diversion maneuver in 2021\. Images: [ISRO](https://web.archive.org/web/20220725175353/https://www.isro.gov.in/update/15-nov-2021/chandrayaan-2-orbiter-ch2o-performs-evasive-manoeuvre-to-mitigate-critically) / [NASA / GSFC / Chris Meaney](https://web.archive.org/web/20210318045928/https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/images/lithos/LRO%20litho1%5Ffinal.pdf) - I could glean one mission update from NASA’s FY2026 presidential request’s “[Budget Technical Supplement](https://www.nasa.gov/fy-2026-budget-request/)” document discussed above. Blue Origin’s upcoming robotic lander called [Blue Moon Mark I](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-226/) will carry at least one more NASA payload: a [retroreflector](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/how-nasa-uses-simple-technology-to-track-lunar-missions/) for lunar satellite ranging and navigation studies. ## More Moon - On May 29, China [launched its Tianwen-2 mission](https://www.china-in-space.com/p/chinas-tianwen-2-asteroid-sample) to fetch samples from a \~100-meter near-Earth asteroid named Kamoʻoalewa. Earth-based spectroscopic observations and orbital simulations suggest that Kamoʻoalewa is likely to be a [piece of the Moon](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41550-024-02258-z), ejected during a crater formation. Chinese researchers [have identified](http://doi.org/10.26464/epp2025015) that comparing samples of this asteroid to the plethora of lunar samples will lend unique insights into [our Moon’s origin](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/) and [evolution](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). - In order to enable planning for ESA’s future exploration of the Moon’s surface using [Argonaut](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Exploration/Argonaut) landers and other means, the agency is [asking its scientific community](https://ideas.esa.int/m3#object%5Fafe430c165f6ad565be81af80b177525) to propose and make the case for exploring specific lunar locations or regions which can be considered for mission planning. ### Moon Monday #226: Blue Origin aims to launch its first two Moon missions by next year—with nearly no NASA payloads URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-226/ Last updated: 2025-09-22T07:08:30.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/05/blue-origin-blue-moon-mark-1-lander-illustration.jpg) Illustration of the Blue Moon Mark 1 lander. [Image: Blue Origin](https://www.blueorigin.com/blue-moon/mark-1) Jeff Foust [reports](https://spacenews.com/blue-origin-updates-work-on-transporter-for-blue-moon-lunar-lander/) that Blue Origin indeed aims to launch its robotic [Blue Moon Mark I](https://www.blueorigin.com/blue-moon/mark-1) lander later this year on a New Glenn rocket. The trip to the Moon will take seven days, and the landing site will be somewhere on the Moon’s south pole. The region is known to have [water ice deposits](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) based on orbital remote sensing measurements but it’s unclear what payloads the Mark I will carry on this flight, and if any are related to lunar water. Blue Origin will launch another Mark I lander next year, incorporating lessons based on how the first “Pathfinder” flight performs. It also gives the company another shot at landing on the Moon in the near future should the first Mark I fail. One payload the Pathfinder Mark I will certainly carry is NASA’s third version of the [multi-camera SCALPSS](https://www.nasa.gov/general/nasa-cameras-to-capture-interaction-between-blue-ghost-moons-surface/) payload. The second SCALPPS, which flew on [Firefly’s first Moon lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-218/#firefly-deserves-an-unusual-kudos) called Blue Ghost earlier this year, snapped [close-up images](https://www.nasa.gov/general/nasa-cameras-on-blue-ghost-capture-first-of-its-kind-moon-landing-footage/) of the Moon’s surface as the lander’s thruster plumes [vigorously kicked up lunar dust, soil, and rocks](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=emebSgs1f2w)—collectively called regolith. Collectively, these measurements will help lunar scientists and engineers better understand how rocket plumes [blast out lunar regolith and affect the local lunar environment](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-180/), and thus how to best protect future astronauts, critical hardware, and long-term habitats on the Moon. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/05/firefly-blue-ghost-clps-lander-plume-lunar-regolith-interactions-by-scalpss.jpg) Thruster-engine-plume and regolith interactions as seen from two of the six NASA SCALPSS cameras onboard Firefly’s Blue Ghost lander when 12 and 8 meters above the Moon respectively. Note how dust kick up dramatically increased within a small altitude change. [Images: NASA / Olivia Tyrrell](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=emebSgs1f2w) NASA is re-flying SCALPPS on a Mark I because unlike smaller landers like Blue Ghost, Mark I will generate high enough trust to allow NASA to gauge engine plume effects at the scale of large crewed (Artemis) landers. That is what allowed NASA to [award the payload flight](https://sam.gov/opp/bc53a5b240d5469da1b23e8184f4d999/view) to Blue Origin last year under a $6.1 million [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) contract without holding a competition. Although NASA [did not publicly announce](https://spacenews.com/nasa-payload-to-fly-on-first-blue-origin-lunar-lander-mission/) the contract itself at the time. The only other payload onboard seems to be a small [retroreflector](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/how-nasa-uses-simple-technology-to-track-lunar-missions/) for lunar satellite ranging and navigation studies. Note that the Mark I lander has a large payload capacity of 3,000 kilograms. That’s more than the entire fueled mass of smaller landers like Firefly’s Blue Ghost and India’s [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/)! And yet NASA hasn’t stated any plans to fly any other scientific instruments on either of the two Mark I flights. Considering that [the US has been failing to explore lunar water](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-221/) as the principal goal of Artemis, and that the Mark I’s landing site is the lunar south pole, it would be remiss for NASA to skip flying any lunar water related payloads on the Mark Is as a bare minimum. Whether that be through Artemis, CLPS, or other funding sources does not ultimately matter. For Blue Origin though, the Mark I is a key technology demonstrator for crewed missions in more ways than flying related NASA instruments. With the two [self-funded](https://spacenews.com/blue-origin-aims-to-launch-first-lunar-lander-in-2025/) robotic Mark 1 flights, Blue Origin wants to test and refine critical landing and associated systems before graduating them to the Mark 2 lander, which aims to land astronauts on the Moon for NASA with [Artemis V](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/) by end of decade. Competitor SpaceX is targeting landing lunar astronauts for NASA with earlier [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/) and [Artemis IV](https://www.nasa.gov/general/nasas-artemis-iv-building-first-lunar-space-station/) missions through a [Lunar Starship](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-spacex-second-contract-option-for-artemis-moon-landing-0). Note that NASA requires crewed landers from both Blue Origin and SpaceX to touchdown within 100 meters of their targeted spots on the Moon’s [rocky south pole](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/Slope%20map%5FSouth%20Pole%5F85%20to%2090%20deg%20S%5Fv2.pdf). This is something the robotic Mark 1 will attempt as a precursor to the crewed Blue Moon. The ability is also precisely what JAXA’s robotic SLIM lander [achieved last year](https://jatan.space/precision-moon-landings-and-the-future/). Relatedly for Artemis V, Blue Origin [has revealed](https://www.leonarddavid.com/blue-origin-lunar-plans-detailed/) that the mission’s “Transporter” vehicle will launch on a single New Glenn rocket. It will be fueled with leftover propellant from multiple New Glenn second stages though. Once fully fueled, it can carry the liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen to lunar orbit to enable the crewed Blue Moon to touchdown on Luna and return to lunar orbit. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/05/blue-moon-nasa-sustainable-lander-2-labeled.jpg) A labeled illustration of the crewed Blue Moon lander. Image: [Blue Origin](https://www.blueorigin.com/news/nasa-selects-blue-origin-for-mission-to-moon) / Labels: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) --- *Many thanks to* [***The Orbital Index***](https://orbitalindex.com) *and* [***Kris Zacny***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/kris-zacny-8a71ba1) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource for free and without ads,* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*. 🌙* --- ## Firefly to carry second UAE lunar rover and more ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/05/firefly-blue-ghost-2-moon-mission-elements.jpg) Lander and orbital elements of the Blue Ghost lunar spacecraft stack. [Image: Firefly](https://fireflyspace.com/blue-ghost/) [Last week](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-225/) I wrote that UAE would not specify which Moon lander would carry the country’s [second Rashid rover](https://iafastro.directory/iac/paper/id/92294/abstract-pdf/GLEX-2025,2,4,2,x92294.brief.pdf?2025-01-06.11:34:53) next year. Later in the week, Firefly and the UAE space agency MBRSC [announced](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-aerospace-adds-uaes-rashid-2-rover-to-blue-ghost-mission-to-the-far-side-of-the-moon/) that the former’s [second Blue Ghost lander](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-picks-firefly-aerospace-for-robotic-delivery-to-far-side-of-moon) part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) will do so. UAE’s near-identical Rashid rover 1 launched in 2023 but it couldn’t operate on the Moon since [ispace Japan’s first Moon lander](https://jatan.space/ispace-japan-m1-moon-mission/) carrying the rover [crashed](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-129/). The Rashid 2 rover will have largely the [same science & technology goals](https://jatan.space/ispace-japan-m1-moon-mission/#the-robotic-rashid-rover). For Firefly and NASA, Blue Ghost 2 carrying the Rashid rover to the Moon would be a milestone in flying actual commercial payloads instead of those funded by the US government or its longtime allies. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/05/firefly-blue-ghost-2-uae-rashid-rover-2-illustration.jpg) Illustration of the Blue Ghost 2 lander and Rashid rover on the Moon’s farside. [Image: Firefly](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-aerospace-adds-uaes-rashid-2-rover-to-blue-ghost-mission-to-the-far-side-of-the-moon/) With Blue Ghost 2, Firefly aims to deliver an orbiter and surface payloads to the Moon in 2026\. The company will leverage a similar lander design as its [successful first CLPS Moon mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-218/#firefly-deserves-an-unusual-kudos) but will add an orbital transfer stage called [Elytra Dark](https://fireflyspace.com/elytra/). The latter will help deliver the 280-kilogram [Lunar Pathfinder](https://jatan.space/nasa-esa-collaborate-on-lunar-pathfinder/) spacecraft for ESA in lunar orbit. Pathfinder is a stepping stone towards [Moonlight](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-198/#moonlight-in-motion-and-contrasting-queqiao), ESA’s upcoming navigation and communications constellation in support of lunar surface missions. The Blue Ghost lander itself will attempt a touchdown on the Moon’s farside. Once on the surface, it will deploy the NASA-funded [LuSEE-Night](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-department-of-energy-join-forces-on-innovative-lunar-experiment) instrument. It’s a first of its kind, aiming to [measure faint but unique radio signals](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-118/) from our Universe’s ‘Dark Age’—a slice of time right before the first stars were born. LuSEE-Night will [help us characterize](https://web.archive.org/web/20230204183038/https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/bale4lusee.pdf) the Moon’s radio emissions for [future farside radio telescopes](http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/May21/radio-astronomy-from-Moon.html). Firefly has also won an extended [$18 million contract](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-awarded-18-million-nasa-contract-to-provide-radio-frequency-calibration-services-from-lunar-orbit) from NASA for Elytra Dark to provide communications and radio frequency calibration services for LuSEE-Night. Blue Ghost 2 will [also carry](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-announces-agreement-with-fleet-space-to-deliver-payload-to-the-moon) a commercial seismometer from Australia-based Fleet Space Technologies. Once deployed, it will operate by tapping into lander-provided power and communications services—much the same as how the [seismometer](https://www.isro.gov.in/Ch3%5FILSA%5FListens%5FLanding%5FSite.html) deployed by India’s [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) lander operated. Part of the larger global effort to [study Moonquakes](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-199/), SPIDER will offer scientists insights into the physical structure and nature of the local crust and subsurface. It might also provide hints of resources such as [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/), depending on the chosen landing site which is as yet unannounced. ## More mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/05/nasa-sls-rocket-rolls-to-the-pad-before-artemis-i-with-moon-bg.jpg) The SLS rocket is seen here heading to the launchpad from its assembly building in March 2022\. [Image: NASA / Kim Shiflett](https://images.nasa.gov/details-KSC-20220317-PH-KLS04%5F0087) - The [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/reference/space-launch-system/) for NASA’s upcoming crewed [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii) circumlunar mission will also deploy four CubeSats from other countries in high Earth orbit: one each from [Germany](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2024/09/20/nasa-to-fly-international-cubesats-aboard-artemis-ii-test-flight/), [South Korea](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2025/05/02/nasa-set-to-fly-south-korean-cubesat-on-artemis-ii-test-flight/), [Argentina](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2025/05/20/nasa-signs-agreement-with-argentinas-space-agency-for-artemis-ii-cubesat/), and [Saudi Arabia](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2025/05/13/nasa-to-fly-saudi-arabia-cubesat-aboard-artemis-ii-test-flight/). These will largely perform radiation measurements and some technology demonstrations. - After announcing earlier this month that ispace Japan has taken [$35 million more in loan financing](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7466), the company has announced an [additional $70 million loan](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7514) from Sumitomo Mitsui Trust Bank to continue developing its next set of Moon missions. This includes ispace’s US subsidiary’s [first CLPS mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-184/) for NASA through Draper, which is targeting landing on the Moon’s farside [in 2027](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7366). The loans also include funding for the next mission, to be conducted by ispace Japan. The development continues to highlight [the intersection of CLPS, funding, and science](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-184/). - Interestingly, ispace also announced indirectly that said first CLPS mission by ispace US through Draper will also carry a [rover from ispace Europe](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7495). ## More Moon - Astrobotic [says it has completed](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-lunar-wireless-charger-system-qualified-for-flight/) the standard but critical set of [space environmental tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-moon-landers/) for their upcoming [commercial wireless charging system](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-96/#astrobotic-reveals-plans-for-first-ever-power-grid-on-the-moon) for hardware operating on the Moon. The offering aims to enable lunar night survival for polar rovers and other such mobile exploratory hardware, ideally by end of decade. - The Planetary Society has [launched an online petition](https://www.planetary.org/advocacy-action-center#/55) to oppose the [proposed 47% budget cut](https://www.planetary.org/press-releases/the-planetary-society-condemns-damaging-cuts-to-nasa-budget) for NASA space science and exploration in the coming year. The society will deliver the signed petition to members of the US Congress next month just as they start assessing the proposed cuts to appropriate, revoke or reinstate specific funds for NASA and its programs. Note that [NASA’s FY2026 presidential budget request](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-224/#artemis-updates) does not allocate any funds or missions to directly find and study [water ice deposits](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon even though the US has been [failing at this central goal of Artemis](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-221/). Ensuring continued space science funding for NASA would prevent the already bad situation for Artemis science from getting worse. The petition can be signed by non-US citizens too, and so I’ve done the same. Maybe you can too. ### Why Moon missions need their own Wikipedia and beyond URL: https://jatan.space/a-registry-of-moon-missions/ Last updated: 2025-08-22T09:20:35.000Z Our Moon may be one of the largest satellites in the Solar System but its exploration has been concentrated on select areas. One of these is low lunar orbit, where mapping spacecraft from three countries have been concurrently flying from pole to pole between 50 to 150 kilometers above the Moon’s surface for three years. These are the US’ [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lro/about/) (LRO), India’s [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/), and South Korea’s [KPLO](https://jatan.space/kplo/) spacecraft. The Moon’s gravity [being uneven](https://jatan.space/the-moons-lumpy-gravity-field/) means they operate in [select orbital planes](https://web.archive.org/web/20211204040014/https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2006/06nov%5Floworbit/) to maintain their mapping orbits and avoid crashing into the Moon. But that also means their orbits often overlap, increasing the chances of these orbiters running into each other at high velocities. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/05/ch2-lro-orbiters-trajectory-close-passes.jpg) ****Left:** Illustrations of the ISRO Chandrayaan 2 and NASA LRO orbiters around the Moon; ****Right:** Increase in separation between their orbits after Chandrayaan 2 performed a diversion maneuver. Images: [ISRO](https://web.archive.org/web/20220725175353/https://www.isro.gov.in/update/15-nov-2021/chandrayaan-2-orbiter-ch2o-performs-evasive-manoeuvre-to-mitigate-critically) / [NASA / GSFC / Chris Meaney](https://web.archive.org/web/20210318045928/https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/images/lithos/LRO%20litho1%5Ffinal.pdf) The situation has compelled their three space agencies—NASA, ISRO, and KARI—to [coordinate and share](https://spacenews.com/lunar-spacecraft-receive-dozens-of-collision-warnings/) precise trajectory information of the lunar satellites with each other, and even conduct diversion maneuvers to avoid uncomfortably close passes. Last July at the Secure World Foundation’s [Summit for Space Sustainability](https://swfound.org/events/2024/6th-summit-for-space-sustainability), a KARI researcher [presented](https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/2024/Technical%5FPresentations/21AM/2%5FItem%5F15%5FKPLO%5FLessons%5FLearned%5FMoon-Jin%5FJeon%5Fas%5Fof%5F20%5FJune.pdf) how the three agencies are using NASA’s [MADCAP](https://www.nasa.gov/cara/madcap/) software to predict and alert operators of potential close approaches between the orbiters, after which a decision can be taken for either craft to divert. In October 2021, ISRO commanded the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter to [slightly change its orbit](https://web.archive.org/web/20220725175353/https://www.isro.gov.in/update/15-nov-2021/chandrayaan-2-orbiter-ch2o-performs-evasive-manoeuvre-to-mitigate-critically) to avoid a three-kilometer close approach to NASA’s LRO. Similarly, LRO [postponed a maneuver](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/Monthly%5Fsummary/MonthlySummary%5FMay2023%5FEnglish.pdf) in 2023 to avoid more such close conjunctions. An August 2023 [blog post](https://www.isro.gov.in/Current%5FSpace%5FSituation%5Faround%5FMoon%5FAssessment.html) by ISRO specifically on the importance of managing growing lunar traffic mentioned the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter [maneuvering](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/Monthly%5Fsummary/Monthly%5FSummary%5FMay2024.pdf) to avoid close approaches to KPLO. In turn, KPLO too has performed multiple such maneuvers. These will only grow in number in the coming years as more reconnaissance orbiters become operational amid [increasing Moon missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-206/) worldwide. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/05/kplo-cam-kari-presentation.jpg) [Slide](https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/2024/Technical%5FPresentations/21AM/2%5FItem%5F15%5FKPLO%5FLessons%5FLearned%5FMoon-Jin%5FJeon%5Fas%5Fof%5F20%5FJune.pdf) from KARI’s presentation at SWF’s Summit for Space Sustainability in July 2024\. Credit: Moon-Jin Jeon of KARI, who leads KPLO mission operations ## Enter the Registry Unfortunately, these largely manual coordination efforts from NASA, ISRO, and KARI can’t scale adequately for future exploration—given that there’s no global lunar traffic management system agreed upon or in place. Even spacecraft briefly passing by lunar orbit on their way to the Moon’s surface can trigger alarms. Last year, KPLO avoided a close approach to Japan’s [SLIM spacecraft](https://jatan.space/precision-moon-landings-and-the-future/) before the latter’s Moon landing. The decision had to be taken within a day. The risks of cascading accidental collisions within the tight orbital mapping spaces our Moon’s gravity allows is increasing. “If you announce a launch date, you should publish trajectory information”, says [Mehak Sarang](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/welcoming-director-industry-integration), Director of Industry Integration at the Open Lunar Foundation. Sarang has experience working on Moon missions, having last worked at ispace-US, a subsidiary of ispace Japan [building a lunar lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-184/) with US-based Draper to carry scientific payloads for NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). If all organizations operating at the Moon could securely access trajectory information of others in sufficient detail at a trusted node, it would not only reduce collision risks for everyone but also save on complex operational and analysis costs. It’s to this end that the Open Lunar Foundation is building the [Lunar Registry](https://www.openlunar.org/projects/a-global-registry-of-lunar-objects-and-activities), an accessible platform and database of public as well as appropriately private information on Moon missions worldwide. “Commercial actors could better benefit from sharing trajectory information”, says [Sam Jardine](https://www.linkedin.com/in/samuel-jardine-5496a6ab/), who leads stakeholder engagement for the Lunar Registry. During the [initial scoping](https://www.openlunar.org/publications/bright-moon-creating-a-global-registry-of-lunar-activities) of what [such a lunar registry](https://www.openlunar.org/publications/prototyping-a-lunar-registry-of-missions-objects-and-activities) needs to account for, Open Lunar learnt that creating the Registry would be more a political challenge than a technical one. To that end, Jardine [engaged over 150 government, industry, civil society, and scientific stakeholders](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/2024-registry-update) last year through one-on-ones and workshops to gather valuable feedback and gauge their interests. This included [hosting events](https://www.linkedin.com/posts/openlunarfoundation%5Flunar-registry-workshop-at-iac-ugcPost-7255639255677382656--PBI?utm%5Fsource=share&utm%5Fmedium=member%5Fdesktop) on the sidelines of the [International Astronautical Congress 2024](https://www.iafastro.org/events/iac/international-astronautical-congress-2024/), and participating in the [2024 UN Conference on Space Law and Policy](https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/2024-un-conference-on-space-law-and-policy.html). A common takeaway was that information sharing is widely considered to be critical for effective governance at the Moon. Stakeholders are keen on a UN-aligned global registry created by an apolitical NGO—since that would invite the least objection globally. That’s why the Open Lunar Registry aims to operate as a non-profit which transparently collects an objective set of mission information. ## A page from history “The reality of space is that it’s very polarized”, says [Rachel Williams](https://www.linkedin.com/in/rachel-williams-67b38810a/), Acting Executive Director of Open Lunar. Information flow and exchange about missions navigates complex political and national security blockers [like with US export controls](https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2023/03/forging-a-high-technology-partnership-between-the-united-states-and-india-in-the-age-of-export-controls?lang=en). The competitive landscape further discourages information sharing even for mission aspects that aren’t sensitive. To that end, the Registry will encourage and incentivize collecting information that can indeed be shared for the benefit of all. “Having a third party, neutral, independent organization transparently handling mission information will benefit all actors across safety, cost, and trust,” notes Williams. There’s also precedent in the space industry for this. Shortly after the advent of the Space Age, the [UN Registration Convention](https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/introregistration-convention.html) required countries to provide basic information about objects being launched to space. It helped reduce tensions during the Cold War—especially to avoid misassumptions about rocket launches and their not-always-present military intentions. Said registry [continues in operation](https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/spaceobjectregister/index.html) today, although the UN recognizes [challenges with getting sufficient levels of information](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2017.11.042) in the registry as global space activity compounds. Likewise, the Antarctic Treaty System—though considered imperfect by all involved—has [resolved many challenges](https://doi.org/10.1080/2154896X.2023.2205237) for decades. The bottomline is that trust enabled by transparency [decreases political escalation and conflict](https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Issues/Expression/IntOrganizations/SvetlanaYordonova.pdf). Other than lunar orbit, such transparency will also be needed on the Moon’s south pole, [a region of convergence and potential contest](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/as-moon-missions-mount-globally-we-need-to-preserve-future-exploration-and-science) for future missions to access [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other resources. If the [unintended impact on the Moon’s farside](https://skyandtelescope.org/astronomy-news/impact-crater-farside-moon/) in 2022—by what was likely a defunct Chinese spacecraft—had been near the south pole instead during active missions or astronauts in the future, it would’ve triggered major alarms. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/05/march-2022-rocket-body-impact-lunar-farside.jpg) A rocket body impacted the Moon’s farside on March 4, 2022, creating a 28-meter long double crater. [Image: NASA / LROC / GSFC / ASU](https://www.lroc.asu.edu/images/1261) ## The crescent of trust Despite the prohibitive Wolf Amendment, NASA recently [successfully sought a US Congressional exception](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-156/) to allow US scientists to apply to study [valuable Moon samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-201/) brought by China’s Chang’e missions to Earth. While we wait for its fruits to bear, two US universities have [already gotten selected](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-223/) to study Chang’e 5 samples in their labs with self funding. Such scientifically beneficial, low-risk environments present opportunities to build elements of collaborative trust. It also sets [better norms](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/building-lunar-security-and-cooperation-through-an-astropolitical-lens-why-normative-behaviours-are-needed-for-lunar-activity) to constrain the depths and divisions of political competition while yielding better trust in future activities—something especially important when building something as complex [as a Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/). It’s that element of trust building in opportunistic environments that Open Lunar hopes to facilitate with the Lunar Registry. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/05/chang-e-6-lander-on-the-moon.jpg) A panorama from the Chang’e 6 lander on the Moon’s farside, showing one of its legs and the scoop sampling arm near its surface digs. [Image: CNSA / CLEP](https://x.com/SegerYu/status/1798688466026594539) A successful registry will include private and national missions, the former group especially benefiting from the safety and visibility perks of participating in the Registry. Open Lunar has already tested Registry Prototypes with over 100 users across various organizations, and is gearing up for a public release later this year. “Our goal is to build trust with the first group of users by making them see the value, which can then lead to a snowball effect,” says Williams. “Due to competition in CLPS and lack of incentive, the market also lacks credible information about potential customers and competitors”, says Sarang. But with a trusted registry, “it could be lucrative to punch yourself in, even if just to find potential customers”. “It could be a way to incentivize more commercial companies to share their landing site areas if not coordinates,” added Jardine. The core challenge here would be to “nail down the minimum number of core mandated fields,” so that every public mission page in the Registry comes with assured benefits for all while simultaneously allowing the next layer of information to be private as appropriate. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/05/open-lunar-registry-process-flow-diagram.jpg) A basic visualization of the Open Lunar Registry’s process flow ## Wikipedia for the Moon Involving space enthusiasts around the world is also the Lunar Registry’s key goal. Community-oriented works the likes of [CelesTrak](https://celestrak.org/) and [Jonathan’s Space Reports](https://planet4589.org/space/jsr/jsr.html) are well known for providing uniquely useful and reliable information about space missions for public benefit. With the Registry, there’s an opportunity to pool such credible utilities in one place for all things lunar exploration globally. The Registry can thereby enable community verification while also adequately delineating information and its sources as coming from either mission operators or community volunteers. [Jonathan McDowell](https://planet4589.org/jcm/index.html), an astronomer as well as creator of the aforementioned Jonathan’s Space Reports, is an advisor for the Lunar Registry. McDowell [has stressed](https://www.openlunar.org/publications/bright-moon-creating-a-global-registry-of-lunar-activities-executive-summary) the importance of multi-stakeholder-reported data verification: “With all registries, traceability is trust. Retaining original information is crucial in building a registry, but allowing a complementary verifiable mechanism is key.” [Christine Tiballi](https://www.linkedin.com/in/christinetiballi/), the Lunar Registry Lead says, “We'll need to develop data standards so that we end up with harmonized inputs & outputs in ways that don’t stifle interest from different stakeholders.” The Registry’s operations will be paired with a multi-stakeholder advisory group, a process [known to increase engagement and cooperation](https://web.archive.org/web/20211004102210/https://gcbhr.org/backoffice/resources/white-paper-msis-24p.pdf) through inclusiveness. In fact, the internet’s own open registry stands as an excellent example. The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), an international non-profit managing the global domain name system (DNS), has [successfully implemented a multi-stakeholder model](https://brill.com/view/journals/gg/27/2/article-p298%5F7.xml?language=en.) by having governments, businesses, technical communities, and civil society participate in the decision-making processes. A Registry that allows space enthusiasts and organizations worldwide to contribute information and review its credibility can help everyone better explore and track past, active, and future Moon missions from across the globe. Wikipedia is perhaps the best demonstration of the power of such collective public knowledge banks. “Having a Wikipedia style community of enthusiastic contributors, curators, and editors would be fantastic”, remarks Jardine. Looking ahead, the Registry would advance Open Lunar’s [own mission](https://www.openlunar.org/about) to promote cooperative and peaceful exploration of our Moon based on equitable technical and policy building blocks. “It allows us to see and think deeply about interoperability from multiple mission and program perspectives”, notes Sarang. --- [*Originally published*](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/registry-info) *by me on the blog of Open Lunar Foundation (a* [*Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) *sponsor) as their* [*Science Communications Lead*](https://jatan.space/joining-open-lunar-as-their-science-communications-lead/)*. The article is republished here on* [*my blog*](https://jatan.space/about) *because of its relevance to my Moon Monday readers as well as for archival.* ### Moon Monday #225: Lots of global lunar mission updates 🌙 URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-225/ Last updated: 2026-09-14T07:18:44.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/05/queqiao-navcom-constellation-illustration.jpg) Illustration showing satellite elements of China’s Queqiao lunar navigation and communications constellation. [Image: CNSA / CASC](https://space.skyrocket.de/doc%5Fsdat/tiandu-1.htm) **Key news of the month:** China has [achieved](https://www.space.com/astronomy/moon/lunar-laser-china-makes-1st-daytime-laser-ranging-measurement-from-earth-to-the-moon) daytime Earth-Moon distance measurement wherein a 1.2-meter telescope reflected an infrared laser off of a small retroreflector on the 61-kilogram [Tiandu 1](https://space.skyrocket.de/doc%5Fsdat/tiandu-1.htm) lunar orbiter. This was the first ever daytime laser distance measurement using an orbiter, accomplished despite massive interference from our Sun. Tiandu 1 was launched [alongside Queqiao 2](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-169/) last year in March. Between this development, other Chinese satellites recently [demonstrating automated navigation](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-222/) at the Moon, and the Queqiao 1 & 2 orbiters having enabled humanity’s first two lunar farside missions with [Chang’e 4](https://www.eoportal.org/satellite-missions/chang-e-4) and [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-182/) respectively, China has cemented and further advanced its lead in building a [lunar communications and navigation network](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-185/). The [CASC release](http://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4334001/content.html) about the daytime laser-based distance measurements states that the demonstration will “support the argumentation and implementation of major deep-space exploration projects in the future, such as the International Lunar Research Station” (ILRS). The latter is the China-led effort to build and operate a [long-term Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/). ## Notable exploration updates from GLEX 2025 ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/05/zhongmin-wang-china-ilrs-international-cooperation-glex-2025.jpg) Zhongmin Wang, Director of international cooperation for China’s lunar and deep space missions, speaking at GLEX 2025 on international cooperation in the Sino-led ILRS Moonbase project. [Image: CNSA / DSEL / IAF](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EKLKugBolFE) The IAF organized the latest international Global Space Exploration Conference ([GLEX](https://www.iafastro.org/events/global-series-conferences/global-conference-on-space-exploration-2025/)) in New Delhi, India this month, which ISRO hosted. I attended as well as spoke at the conference. Below are notable updates of wider interest from GLEX—which saw active participation from over a dozen national space agencies, including their heads & program leads, astronauts, technical mission leads, space scientists, etc. - China formally invited India to cooperate on Moon missions. Wu Weiren, the Chief Designer of China’s extremely successful Chang’e lunar exploration program as well as the Director General of China’s Deep Space Exploration Laboratory (DSEL), [said during a panel](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lKMeWNwhW4Q) of various national space agency heads that China “especially welcomes India to participate in cooperating and collaborating on the ILRS” [Moonbase project](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/). Considering the not-so-great relations between China and India, and their mutual space activities being nearly nil, China’s invitation can be interpreted to be likely a formality. Nevertheless, it’s good to have the invitation explicitly said than not. During the same panel, Weiren also stated: > The Moon belongs to all human beings. Therefore we welcome all scientists in the world to participate into the ILRS. \[...\] We welcome international cooperation on our deep space exploration missions. Every country can apply. - Zhongmin Wang, Director of International Cooperation at DSEL, reiterated and expanded on those intentions [during his presentation](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EKLKugBolFE) on China’s lunar and deep space exploration missions. As China has publicly stated before, such cooperation and collaboration [can be on multiple levels](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-205/): from flying payloads to conducting joint scientific studies to contributing spacecraft systems and subsystems and so on. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/05/uae-rashid-rover.jpg) A graphic showing UAE’s Rashid rover 2 and its instruments. [Image: MBRSC](https://www.mbrsc.ae/rashid-rover/) - Salem Al Marri, Director General of UAE’s space agency MBRSC, [said during another panel](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b3nJ%5F3%5Ft3Is) of space agency leads that the country’s [second Rashid lunar rover](https://iafastro.directory/iac/paper/id/92294/abstract-pdf/GLEX-2025,2,4,2,x92294.brief.pdf?2025-01-06.11:34:53) will launch next year. However, there continues to be no word from the UAE on which lander will carry the rover to the Moon. Some unvetted sources indicate it might be China’s [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#the-instrumental-and-increasingly-international-7) lander that does so. UAE’s near-identical Rashid rover 1 launched in 2023 couldn’t operate on the Moon since [ispace Japan’s first Moon lander](https://jatan.space/ispace-japan-m1-moon-mission/) carrying the rover [crashed](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-129/). On the same GLEX panel as Al Marri was on, Arif Karabeyoğlu of the Turkish space agency said that the country’s first lunar mission, an orbiter, is being targeted for launch in late 2026 or early 2027\. It will use an indigenous propulsion system, which itself will gain space heritage later this year on an Earth orbiter. He added: > “The Moon is so close it’s hard to ignore.” - ISRO and ESA are [enhancing their cooperation](https://www.esa.int/Newsroom/Press%5FReleases/European%5FSpace%5FAgency%5Fannounces%5Fnew%5Fcooperation%5Fwith%5FIndian%5FSpace%5FResearch%5FOrganisation) in space exploration. For the Moon in particular, the agencies are discussing “alignment on payloads and robotic scientific missions”. Nigar Shaji, Associate Director of ISRO’s key satellite integration and testing center URSC, [told during her GLEX panel](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eyiEWeZDIRk) that ISRO is open to flying ESA payloads on India’s [upcoming lunar missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/). - **Related:** [*ESA and JAXA move ahead on lunar collaborations*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-218/#esa-and-jaxa-move-ahead-on-lunar-collaborations) - Notably, NASA was the only major space agency missing at GLEX due to the Trump administration’s policies limiting use of federal budgets for travel, which have curbed the space agency’s representation at multiple national and international forums. Anjali Marar [reports](https://indianexpress.com/article/india/nasa-members-forced-to-skip-meet-in-delhi-9989524/) that anonymous sources from GLEX’s organizing committee said that at least a dozen NASA officials were expected to attend GLEX but the same did not materialize. On a personal note, I had fun moderating a [rather stellar panel](https://www.iafastro.org/events/global-series-conferences/global-conference-on-space-exploration-2025/programme/plenary-programme/friday-9-may/iaf-gnf-session-iloa-ilewg-galaxy-forum-international-newspace-to-the-moon.html) at GLEX on current themes and challenges in global Moon exploration. [Watch the video](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4mWvT1o-hQ4). 🌙 ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/05/glex-2025-global-lunar-exploration-panel.jpg) [Yours truly](https://jatan.space/about) speaking at GLEX 2025. --- *Many thanks to* [***Catalyx Space***](https://catalyx.space) *and* [***Gurbir Singh***](https://gurbir.co.uk) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource for free and without ads,* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*. 🌙* --- ## Artemis and CLPS updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/05/viper-rover-thermovac-testing.jpeg) NASA’s VIPER lunar rover after passing thermal vacuum testing. [Image: Anthony Colaprete / NASA](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/viper-passes-all-its-tests-but-future-still-uncertain/) - Marcia Smith [reports](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/glaze-artemis-ii-could-launch-as-early-as-february-2026/) that NASA is trying to launch the crewed [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii) Moon mission in February 2026\. In the meanwhile, NASA announced that the Artemis II launch will also [carry a CubeSat from Saudi Arabia](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2025/05/13/nasa-to-fly-saudi-arabia-cubesat-aboard-artemis-ii-test-flight/) in addition to the previously announced ones [from Germany](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2024/09/20/nasa-to-fly-international-cubesats-aboard-artemis-ii-test-flight/) and [South Korea](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2025/05/02/nasa-set-to-fly-south-korean-cubesat-on-artemis-ii-test-flight/). - NASA’s [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) cannot catch a break. Originally meant to reveal the first set of hard facts about [water ice deposits](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s south pole, NASA instead [questionably cancelled](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-186/) VIPER’s flight as part of the agency’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) last year citing cost challenges. The agency [then scrambled](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-212/) to find a private company that will fly and operate the rover at its own cost, an approach many argued [decidedly fails at VIPER’s original goal](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-188/) because asking a commercial entity to fulfill the mission’s scientific objectives at its own cost is a non-starter. NASA seems to have come to the same conclusion, [now saying](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2025/05/07/nasa-to-explore-additional-methods-to-send-viper-to-moon/) that after evaluating the [proposals submitted by private companies](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-evaluating-11-viper-proposals-as-congress-asks-questions/), the agency deems none to be acceptable. NASA added that it [needs to re-structure the solicitation](https://spacenews.com/nasa-backtracks-on-viper-commercial-partnership/) such that it elicits stronger proposals that hopefully stay closer to VIPER’s [original science goals](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/). In that context, ditching VIPER’s purely private flight is a good decision but at the same time it’s costing the agency [even more delays](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-221/) in knowing the ground truth about lunar water—which is critical in planning sustainable exploration of our Moon but is also what [the US has been failing at for years](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-221/) now. - In March, Intuitive Machines’ [second CLPS lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-215/#intuitive-machines-launches-second-moon-lander) for NASA called Athena hard landed on the Moon’s south pole and came to rest on its side, which led to [the mission being unsuccessful](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-216/#tipped-intuitive-mooncraft-dies-with-none-of-the-net-130-million-worth-of-payloads-deployed) across all of NASA’s primary goals related to learning about local water ice. Following a [failure analysis](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/im-2s-imperfect-landing-due-to-altimeter-interference-south-pole-lighting-conditions/), Intuitive says that other than the non-working laser altimeter leaving the lander half-blind about its distance from the lunar surface, Athena hard-landed because its image-based crater-and-feature recognition system was not adequately trained. It relied on images taken from orbit by NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-224/) (LRO), which doesn’t accurately represent how those craters look up close at increasingly lower altitudes. However, one should also note here that the holistic nature of the lunar environment in and around the targeted landing site is usually accounted for in the planning of a Moon mission and its contingency scenarios. In any case, Intuitive says it will fix these and other issues identified during the mission failure analysis while preparing its [third CLPS mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-189/#nasa-clps-mission-to-a-magnetic-swirl-also-delayed) for NASA targeting launch next year. - Zeno Power has [raised $50 million in Series B funding](https://spacenews.com/nuclear-battery-startup-zeno-power-raises-50-million-to-expand-in-space-and-at-sea/), a major chunk of which will go towards developing and demonstrating the company’s [nuclear electric power system](https://spacenews.com/nasa-selects-companies-to-advance-lunar-power-and-other-technologies) on the Moon by 2027\. In 2023, NASA [funded eight advanced exploration technologies](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-138/) which could contribute towards sustained robotic and crewed exploration of our Moon. As part of it, NASA awarded $15 million to a Zeno-led team for demonstrating nuclear electrical power on the Moon. Specifically, the team aims to demonstrate a radioisotope generator which uses a Stirling engine instead of traditional thermocouples to convert radioactive heat into electrical power. The system will be based on the Americium-241 isotope, which is more readily available than the conventionally used Plutonium-238. - On May 15, Norway [became the 55th country](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-welcomes-norway-as-55th-nation-to-sign-artemis-accords/) and 22nd European nation to sign the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords) for cooperative lunar exploration. ## Mission updates from ispace ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/05/ispace-us-apex-moon-lander-illustration.jpg) Illustration of the APEX 1.0 lunar lander design by ispace US. [Image: ispace](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4781) - ispace Japan’s second Moon lander [RESILIENCE](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=6734) successfully [entered lunar orbit](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7327) on May 7 with a roughly nine-minute main engine burn. The lander [launched in January](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-209/) on a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket, and then followed a [multi-month low energy trajectory](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/gettingToTheMoon.html) to the Moon. ispace is [targeting June 5](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7097) as the landing date for RESILIENCE. - ispace Japan’s US subsidiary announced that its [first CLPS mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-184/) for NASA through Draper targeting landing on the Moon’s farside [will now launch in 2027](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7366) instead of 2026 due to an engine swap on the mission’s APEX lander and changes associated with it. - Relatedly, ispace Japan has taken [$35 million more in loan financing](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7466) to continue developing said ispace US’ CLPS lander as well as the next mission from ispace Japan. Earlier this year, ispace [secured a $10 million loan](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7173) from Sumitomo Mitsui Trust Bank to the same ends. This development continues to highlight [the intersection of CLPS, funding, and science](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-184/). ## More Moon - Alexandra Witze [reports](https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-025-01438-9) that even more NASA-related lunar and planetary science community documents online have been taken down, specifically from websites organized by the Lunar and Planetary Institute (LPI) and its NASA-backed parent organization called the Universities Space Research Association (USRA) who [cite an executive order](https://www.usra.edu/posts/removal-of-dei-content-from-lpi-websites/) from US President Donald Trump as the reason for doing so. This follows [critical scientific documents going missing](https://jatan.space/scientific-documents-go-missing-from-nasa-lunar-community-website/) from another NASA-backed community website since over three months now. NASA has also [removed inclusive language](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-218/#nasa-removes-inclusive-language-from-artemis) from the leading webpage of its Artemis program. - I wrote the following article for the Open Lunar Foundation (a Moon Monday sponsor) about the Lunar Registry they’re building: [**Moon missions need their own Wikipedia and beyond**](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/registry-info) ### Moon Monday #224: A curious find from Chandrayaan 3, Artemis updates, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-224/ Last updated: 2026-08-31T10:04:54.000Z ***Two announcements before we begin:*** 1. *I’m honored to be* [*moderating a fantastic panel*](https://www.iafastro.org/events/global-series-conferences/global-conference-on-space-exploration-2025/programme/plenary-programme/friday-9-may/iaf-gnf-session-iloa-ilewg-galaxy-forum-international-newspace-to-the-moon.html) *on modern themes in global lunar exploration at the international Global Space Exploration Conference (*[*GLEX*](https://www.iafastro.org/events/global-series-conferences/global-conference-on-space-exploration-2025/)*) on Friday, May 9\. If you’re attending GLEX in New Delhi, join us for the session. And, if you’re in India’s space hub Bangalore on Monday, May 12, I’m speaking at the Nehru Planetarium about recent scientific results from India’s Chandrayaan 2 and 3 missions as part of* [*Galaxy Forum India*](https://galaxyforum.org/galaxy-forums-2025/#GFbengaluru25)*.* 🚀 2. *Moon Monday will be off the coming Monday since I’m attending as well as speaking at these two back-to-back conferences in two cities. Naturally, May 19’s Moon Monday will cover all major global lunar exploration updates between now and then so you won’t miss anything. I will also share any notable updates from said conferences that may be of wider interest.* 🌗 ## India’s Chandrayaan 3 rover may or may not have stumbled upon the Moon’s mantle material ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/05/ch3-rover-apxs-measurements-of-lunar-crust-and-landing-site.jpg) ****Top left:** Locations of samples collected by previous nearside Moon missions. The Chandrayaan 3 landing site marked down south lies far from these sites, which are either within or close enough to the Procellarum KREEP Terrane region (red dashed outline)—thus containing more [heat-producing and radioactive elements](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KREEP) and therefore representing a distinct lunar interior source than for the rest of the Moon; ****Bottom left:** The co-added X-ray spectrum from all 23 lunar surface soil and rock measurements by the Chandrayaan 3 rover; ****Right:** An artist’s concept of our Moon shortly after its formation, with a magma ocean and a newly forming rocky crust. Images: [Rishitosh Sinha, et al.](https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-025-02305-1) / [Santosh Vadawale, et al.](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07870-7.epdf?sharing%5Ftoken=4ZQFD5zK9GT9acs31FeVNNRgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0MR1M6jsWV0QR20SmA7k7Hvrkyl3GgMk99HFFb15nD09447WpwTLcpEaBgvj9C4YhThW7GJgQ7WgMAckZYS0fZ6FTf8RdEwv0eX%5FN4HvzLxBwhFq2fqKCzi0YsrWI%5FcfAQ%3D) / [NASA Goddard](https://www.dlr.de/content/en/articles/news/2020/03/20200710%5Fa-slightly-younger-moon.html) Scientists analyzing the elemental composition of our Moon’s southern high-latitude surface as [measured by ISRO’s Chandrayaan 3 rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-190/) have concluded that the excess sulfur detected in the landing site’s soil and rocks compared to other regions [likely originated in the Moon’s mantle](https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-025-02305-1). After rejecting or accommodating other mechanisms known to enhance sulfur in the lunar soil, the authors of the paper published in Nature surmise that the majority of these sulfur-enhanced materials would’ve likely gotten deposited in the Chandrayaan 3 landing region by the massive [South-Pole Aitken (SPA) basin](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2008/pdf/1626.pdf) impact [roughly 200 million years after](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-218/) our Moon’s formation. The SPA’s impactor is thought to have excavated material from more than 100 kilometers below the Moon’s surface, altering [the evolution of our Moon’s farside](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) and south pole. Note that unlike [media](https://scienmag.com/primitive-lunar-mantle-found-at-chandrayaan-3-site/) [reports](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/science/india-china-find-ancient-moon-mantle-materials-key-to-early-formation/articleshow/120810721.cms) calling the Chandrayaan 3 rover’s curious finds as definitively being material from the Moon’s mantle, it’s not a certainty. Even if the materials may have originated from the lunar interior, they might be from the lower crust instead of the mantle, for example. We need direct sample collection and analysis to confirm or constrain their origin. Either way, it’s important to remember that ISRO optimized the Chandrayaan 3 rover’s traverse path heavily for engineering safety rather than scientific return, more so than your typical tradeoff in a planetary science mission due it being India’s first extraterrestrial rover. Furthermore, having faced more roving difficulties than expected due to the high-latitude lunar environment and uneven local topography, the rover moved only about 100 meters from the lander, which is shorter than the originally expected drive of 300–400 meters. There’s no doubt that more elemental measurements from [distinct areas in the landing region](https://doi.org/10.1093/mnrasl/slad106) would’ve increased Chandrayaan 3’s scientific oomph. With India’s lunar landing and roving technological foundations set though, measurements from the upcoming complex and capable [Chandrayaan 4](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-194/) and [Chandrayaan 5 / LUPEX](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/) missions should be very exciting from a scientific standpoint. In any case, finding the sulfur-enhanced materials certainly add the [Chandrayaan 3 landing region](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/#the-moment-of-touchdown) to the list of [potential mantle sampling locations](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-39/) on the Moon, expanding said scope. The findings are also important in another way as explained in the paper: > Prior to ISRO’s Chandrayaan-3 mission, there were no in-situ volatile abundance measurements from the lunar southern high-latitude highlands. Consequently, our understanding of the variations in the concentrations of volatiles across the lunar surface is constrained by the limited scope of measurements obtained primarily from lunar samples collected from equatorial regions. This points to a substantial gap in our understanding of the mechanisms governing enrichment-depletion of volatiles such as sodium (Na), potassium (K) and sulfur (S) on the Moon. Relatedly, the first geological map of Chandrayaan 3’s landing region was [published recently](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asr.2025.01.020). It revealed the region to be 3.7 billion years old, and that it has been significantly altered since its formation by subsequent crater impacts and their material ejections. [Another paper](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2024.116329) posited specifically that [Chandrayaan 3’s landing site](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/#the-moment-of-touchdown) lies atop an ancient crater spanning about 160 kilometers across and being up to 4.4 kilometers deep. This inference is primarily based on ejecta trails around the landing site as imaged by the mission’s [Pragyan rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-190/) coupled with high-resolution views of the larger region from the [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/). A related study of [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) Moon samples [published in Nature](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-08870-x) recently added to the [long march of notable scientific results](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-211/) from the Chinese mission and continued [anchoring events in our Moon’s evolution](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-218/). This study involved analyzing 578 particles weighing a total of 5 grams. It revealed for the first time that the Moon’s farside mantle contains less water than within the nearside, adding to [the debate on the topic](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-85/) by lending firm and unique credence to the hypothesis that our Moon indeed lost most of its water [during its fiery formation](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/). CASC’s [news release](https://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4305200/content.html) on the study noted how [Francis McCubbin](https://ares.jsc.nasa.gov/people/bios/francis-m-mccubbin/), NASA’s Astromaterials Curator and a peer reviewer of the paper, called the work “a landmark study on the water abundance of the lunar farside.” ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/05/chang-e-6-farside-water-mantle-abundance.jpg) Locations of samples collected by nearside Moon missions are both farther away and geologically distinct from the Chang’e 6 landing site inside the SPA basin on the Moon’s farside. The sizes of outer circles around location dots reflect the estimated maximum water abundance in the mantle sources beneath the sampled sites. The inset image shows how measurements of farside Chang’e 6 samples indicate lower mantle water abundance than the nearside Apollo, Luna, and Chang’e 5 ones. [Images: Yangtin Lin, et al.](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-08870-x) --- *Many thanks to* [***Open Lunar Foundation***](https://www.openlunar.org/) *and* [***Astrolab***](https://astrolab.space) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource for free and without ads,* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*. 🌙* --- ## Artemis updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/05/nasa-orion-capsule-artemis-ii.jpg) The Orion capsule for the crewed Artemis II Moon mission being transported. [Image: NASA / Kim Shiflett](https://images.nasa.gov/details/KSC-20250503-PH-KLS01%5F0023) On May 2, the Trump administration released its [Presidential budget request for NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/fy-2026-budget-request/) for FY 2026, proposing a [historic \~25% cut](https://www.planetary.org/press-releases/the-planetary-society-condemns-damaging-cuts-to-nasa-budget) to NASA’s budget but which continues support for crewed [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii) and [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/) missions as planned [so as to](https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/President-Trumps-Fiscal-Year-2026-Discretionary-Funding-Request-Overview.pdf) try landing on the Moon before China attempts the same [by 2030](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/). Notably, the budget request [proposes](https://whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/Fiscal-year-2026-discretionary-budget-request.pdf) cancelling the “grossly expensive” [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/reference/space-launch-system/) and [Orion crew capsule](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) from [Artemis IV](https://www.nasa.gov/general/nasas-artemis-iv-building-first-lunar-space-station/) onward in favor of as-yet-unspecified commercial alternatives. It also proposes canceling the NASA-led international [Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) lunar orbital habitat, suggesting that its already-developed elements by the US and its international partners be repurposed for other \[unspecified\] missions. The budget request essentially wants to redirect existing funds from the International Space Station and elements of Artemis that are being proposed for cancellation towards commercial Moon and Mars missions instead. The US Congress will review these proposals in the coming months and will need to approve them to become reality. These updates fall in line with the recent insistence by Jared Isaacman, Trump’s nominee for the NASA Administrator position, that the US should [pursue the Moon and Mars in parallel](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-221/#the-moon-and-mars-in-parallel). Notably, NASA’s FY2026 presidential budget request does not allocate any funds or missions to directly find and study lunar water even though [the US has been failing at this central goal of Artemis](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-221/). In the meanwhile, preparations continue to fly [the four Artemis II astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) around the Moon and back next year. Technicians working at NASA [completed integrating](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2025/05/02/rocket-upper-stage-integrated-as-preparations-for-artemis-ii-continue/) the SLS rocket’s upper stage atop the core stage on May 1\. On March 23, technicians had [joined](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2025/03/24/nasas-artemis-ii-core-stage-integration-complete-at-kennedy/) the [twin solid rocket boosters](https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/artemis-ii-rocket-booster-stacking-complete/) to either side of the SLS’s core stage. Also on May 1, Lockheed Martin [delivered the mission’s Orion crew capsule](https://spacenews.com/lockheed-martin-delivers-completed-orion-to-nasa-for-artemis-2/) to NASA for further processing and assembly. As a mildly interesting aside, Stephen Clark [reports](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/04/nasa-just-swapped-a-10-year-old-artemis-ii-engine-with-one-nearly-twice-its-age/) that NASA swapped one of the four core stage engines on the Artemis II SLS rocket after discovering a hydraulic leak in the engine’s oxidizer valve actuator. Another aside: Artemis II will also fly a CubeSat each [from Germany](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2024/09/20/nasa-to-fly-international-cubesats-aboard-artemis-ii-test-flight/) and [South Korea](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2025/05/02/nasa-set-to-fly-south-korean-cubesat-on-artemis-ii-test-flight/). ## More mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/05/astrobotic-griffin-lunar-lander-illustration.jpg) A rendering of the Griffin lander on the Moon. [Image: Astrobotic](https://www.astrobotic.com/media-kit/images/) - By flying lunar sensors and associated computing units on a helicopter as well as the Xodiac vertical-takeoff vertical-landing rocket system over a simulated lunar terrain, Astrobotic [completed testing](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-tech-passes-critical-tests-for-safe-moon-landings/) their lunar navigation and guidance systems that will fly to the Moon on the company’s upcoming [Griffin lander](https://www.astrobotic.com/lunar-delivery/landers/griffin-lander/) as part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). The large lander’s primary payload will be the [FLIP rover](https://www.astrolab.space/flip-rover/) by Astrolab (a Moon Monday sponsor), which got [manifested recently](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-212/) after NASA [decided not to fly](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-188/) the [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) aboard Griffin. - TASS [reports](https://tass.com/science/1950875) that as part of a meeting of the space agency heads of BRICS countries, the Roscosmos Chief Dmitry Bakanov stated that Russia’s lunar exploration plans involve launching the polar reconnaissance orbiters of [Luna 26](https://www.laspace.ru/en/activities/projects/luna-resurs-oa/?ELEMENT%5FCODE=luna-resurs-oa) and Luna 29 respectively as well as the Moon landers of [Luna 27](https://www.laspace.ru/en/activities/projects/luna-resurs-pa/), [28](https://www.laspace.ru/en/activities/projects/luna-grunt/) and 30\. Bakanov added that Russia plans on contributing an electric power station to the China-led [ILRS Moonbase](https://spacenews.com/china-russia-open-moon-base-project-to-international-partners-early-details-emerge/) project. Luna 26’s primary goal after launching circa 2027 is to map our Moon’s surface in multiple wavelengths at high resolutions from altitudes as low as 50 to 80 kilometers. This will particularly help scientists better grasp the distribution of [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s poles, which is useful data to help plan the China-led ILRS Moonbase project with Russia as a member. Another major goal of Luna 26 is to measure and characterize the radiation and plasma environment around the Moon. The list of Luna 26’s instruments is given below. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/05/luna-26-instruments-andrei-sadovski-galaxy-forum.jpg) Slide presented at the [2024 Galaxy Forum, China](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-205/). Slide credit: Andrei Sadovski / IKI / RAS - ispace [has been selected](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7317) as part of Japan’s 1-trillion yen “Space Strategy Fund” initiative to deploy a lunar orbiter which will use a terahertz wave sensor system to locate and map [water ice deposits](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s poles. Data from this orbiter will be analyzed in tandem with direct surface and subsurface measurements made by the upcoming Indo-Japanese [LUPEX rover mission](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/). ### Indian Space Progress #27: Three months of mission updates, and fixing ISRO’s monthly summaries URL: https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-27/ Last updated: 2025-09-04T11:38:24.000Z ISRO has been publishing [monthly summaries](https://www.isro.gov.in/MonthlySummary.html) of the varied activities and programs of India’s Department of Space (DOS) for years. Lately though, there have been consistent delays in publishing them by a month or two, and [sometimes even more](https://www.reddit.com/r/ISRO/comments/1itwlw0/monthly%5Fsummary%5Fof%5Fdepartment%5Fof%5Fspace%5Ffor/). The summaries have been trimmed too, now conveying [less than half the information](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/Monthly%5Fsummary/Monthly%5FSummary%5FFeb2025.pdf) they once did whereas India is doing more in space than ever before across an increasing number of domains. As it is ISRO doesn’t invest as much in comprehensive public communications via its website and social channels like ESA, NASA or JAXA do. With the last published summary [being for February](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/Monthly%5Fsummary/Monthly%5FSummary%5FFeb2025.pdf), the final leg of finer, official, public information about India’s space missions is becoming inaccessible for the taxpayers as well as global space enthusiasts. It’s partly due to such issues that I started writing monthly [Indian Space Progress](https://jatan.space/tag/indian-space-progress) reports over two years ago, compiling and contextualizing our space activities while reflecting on trajectories of key developments. To that end, with this 27th edition, I aim to fill another gap and provide a contextualized overview of the last three months in Indian space. It’s organized by section, and touts [links to everything](https://jatan.space/i-write-for-you/) to learn more. If you appreciate my efforts, kindly [support](https://jatan.space/support) as an individual or organization to keep these reports going. 🚀 ## Mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/05/spadex-satellites-prelaunch-photo-and-renders.jpg) Pre-launch photo and renders of the SPADEX satellites. ISRO designed the satellites such that either could act as the chaser and the other as target for docking. [Images: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/mission%5FSpaDeX.html) - On April 20, ISRO [successfully docked](https://www.isro.gov.in/Spadex%5FSuccessful%5Fdemonstration%5Fof%5FSecond%5FDocking%5Fand%5FPower%5FTransfer.html) the twin [SPADEX](https://www.isro.gov.in/mission%5FSpaDeX.html) (**spa**ce **d**ocking **ex**periment) satellites for the second time, this time with better precision and control while also demonstrating power transfer between the satellites [unlike](https://www.reddit.com/r/ISRO/comments/1k52z0n/misalignment%5Fbetween%5Fspadex%5Fsatellites%5Fafter/) the [last time](https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/2025/Feb/07/technical-issues-delay-undocking-of-isros-spadex-mission-spacecraft). ISRO is using the [$14 million](https://www.deccanherald.com/india/first-step-for-chandrayaan-4-to-be-taken-by-year-end-isro-3082088) mission—sans the launch cost—and its two upcoming namesake successors as practice before the agency can launch and execute the complex [Chandrayaan 4 spacecraft](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-194/) stack meant to bring samples from the Moon. Chandrayaan 4 will feature multiple large robotic modules that dock remotely in Earth as well as lunar orbit, the latter being a feat only China has achieved so far with its [Chang’e 5](https://jatan.space/change-5-landing-site/) and [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-182/) sample return missions. SPADEX is also [reducing risk](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/orbit-for-docking-satellites-chosen-keeping-human-missions-in-mind/articleshow/117323903.cms) for the [upcoming set of Gaganyaan human spaceflights](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/)—especially so for two end-of-decade planned cargo flights, one to the International Space Station and one to India’s first space station module. The first SPADEX mission will continue docking and undocking attempts under varied conditions to maximize learning value and help master this technology key to many ambitions in space. - After ISRO’s latest navigation satellite NVS-02 [failed earlier this year](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-24/), leaving India’s [NavIC](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-05/) navigation constellation of a handful of satellites operating below expected performance levels, ISRO’s Chief V. Narayanan [told the media](https://www.rediff.com/news/report/pyro-valve-failure-big-setback-for-isro/20250203.htm) that “we will be raising the \[NVS-02 satellite’s\] orbit using the thrusters with the available propellant. The satellite’s condition is healthy.” In a [later interview](https://youtu.be/fKnO8sE4mZM?feature=shared&t=1194) with Chethan Kumar of the Times of India, the ISRO Chief went back on that plan. As such, the $35 million NVS-02 satellite–without the launch cost—will unfortunately certainly not reach its final [inclined geosynchronous orbit](https://celestrak.org/columns/v04n07/) (IGSO), leaving its utility limited to testing a handful of new technologies onboard. It’s a [setback](https://adithyapani.substack.com/p/analyzing-effects-of-isros-nvs-02) for the NavIC program. ## An Indian to the ISS ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/05/axiom-space-ax-4-iss-crew.jpg) The Ax-4 Mission crew flying to the International Space Station aboard a SpaceX Crew Dragon capsule. Images: [Axiom](https://www.axiomspace.com/news/ax4-countries-crew)[Space](https://brandfolder.com/axiomspace/missions) - Having completed [planned](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/ax-4-crew-including-indias-shubhanshu-shukla-begin-training-in-germany/articleshow/115482278.cms) [astronaut training](https://www.isro.gov.in/Training%5FGaganyatris%5FISRO-NASA%5FMission.html), India’s Shubhanshu Shukla will fly to the International Space Station (ISS) on [May 29](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/science/indias-shubhanshu-shukla-to-fly-to-iss-on-may-29/articleshow/120736747.cms) through the [Ax-4 Axiom Space mission](https://www.axiomspace.com/missions/ax4) aboard a SpaceX Crew Dragon capsule as Mission Pilot. As part of the 14-day mission arranged under a NASA-ISRO partnership, ISRO and Shukla will conduct [seven](https://www.isro.gov.in/Indian%5Fmicrogravity%5Fresearch%5FAxiom4%5Fmission.html) out of [sixty experiments](https://www.axiomspace.com/missions/ax4#research) aboard Ax-4\. As part of a [broader ISRO-ESA agreement](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Operations/ESA%5Fto%5Fsupport%5FIndian%5Fhuman%5Fspaceflight%5Fmissions), Indian institutes will [conduct two joint microgravity experiments](https://www.isro.gov.in/ISRO-ESA%5Fcollaboration%5Fin%5Fmicrogravity%5Fresearch%5Fin%5Fupcoming%5FAxiom-4%5FMission.html) with ESA. Chethan Kumar reported the ISS mission’s cost to ISRO being at least [$68 million](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/india-has-spent-rs-413-crore-on-sending-astronaut-to-iss-rs-135-crore-more-to-go-this-year/articleshow/119670434.cms). ISRO seeks to leverage this experience into India’s ambition to [indigenously send humans](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-13/) to Earth orbit. The next major milestone to enable that end is Gaganyaan G1, the first of three uncrewed test flights required to be successful before ISRO deems all systems being safe enough to launch astronauts. ISRO is targeting G1’s launch later this year although timelines have been uncertain until now. - Chethan Kumar [made a compelling case](https://x.com/Chethan%5FDash/status/1901854131729412227) for the Indian government and ISRO to let astronaut elects engage with the public instead of barring them from the same. - In the meanwhile, ISRO continues testing Gaganyaan crew capsule parachutes on rail sleds, with the [latest test](https://x.com/DRDO%5FIndia/status/1888933050483933619) simulating simultaneous firing of two drogue chutes in a way that mimics their deployment during the steepest atmospheric descent expected of the crew capsule. ## Continuing Chandrayaan ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/05/illustration-chandrayaan-3-spacecraft-stack-in-orbit.jpg) Illustration of the Chandrayaan 3 lander and orbiter stack in lunar orbit. [Image: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan3%5Fcurtainraiser%5Fvideo.html) - India approved the joint ISRO-JAXA [Chandrayaan 5 / LUPEX](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/) mission to drill and analyze water ice on the Moon. I’ve collated, contextualized, and linked to every mission specific we know of. I also explain how Chandrayaan 5 LUPEX will be a giant leap for ISRO and JAXA, and how it can provide NASA with data critical for Artemis planning: [🧊 Every detail on Chandrayaan 5 / LUPEX 🌗](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/) - The Chandrayaan 2 orbiter has helped produce a [galore of lunar science results](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-220/#lunar-science-galore-from-chandrayaan-2) recently. - [Chandrayaan 3’s thermal probe experiment will benefit future missions eyeing lunar water](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-219/) - On April 16, ISRO [gathered about 50 scientists](https://www.isro.gov.in/ISRO%5FNationalsciencemeet%5Fch4.html) from across India to deliberate on and help determine next steps for storage and scientific studies of lunar samples to be brought to Earth by India’s upcoming [Chandrayaan 4 mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-194/). --- *Many thanks to the* [***Takshashila Institution***](https://takshashila.org.in)*,* [***PierSight***](https://piersight.space) *and* [***Gurbir Singh***](https://gurbir.co.uk) *for sponsoring this month’s Indian Space Progress edition. If you too appreciate my efforts to capture true trajectories of Indian space,* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*.* 🚀 --- ## Private and commercial space updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/05/skyroot-vikram-i-rocket-third-stage-test-fire.jpg) Test fire of the third stage solid rocket motor of the Vikram-I launch vehicle. [Image: Skyroot](https://www.linkedin.com/posts/skyroot-aerospace%5Fskyroots-vikram-1-mission-milestone-kalam-activity-7314825766267981825-ohkr) - Hyderabad-based Skyroot test fired the [third](https://www.linkedin.com/posts/skyroot-aerospace%5Fskyroots-vikram-1-mission-milestone-kalam-activity-7314825766267981825-ohkr) and [fourth stage](https://www.linkedin.com/posts/skyroot-aerospace%5Fhot-engines-cool-engineering-our-engineers-activity-7318872842660466688-VFgJ) engines of its upcoming Vikram-I rocket targeted for an orbital test launch sometime next year. The company also [tested actuators](https://www.linkedin.com/posts/skyroot-aerospace%5Fgreat-power-demands-precise-control-activity-7322456835112763392-mcLg) of Vikram-I’s first stage engine nozzle. Other recent Vikram-I milestones include [proof pressure testing](https://x.com/SkyrootA/status/1812683676871778566) all three stages of Vikram-I, [flight qualifying](https://twitter.com/SkyrootA/status/1671416833579286529) the Raman-I engine which will provide roll attitude control, and [test firing](https://twitter.com/SkyrootA/status/1773253058476036453) the rocket’s second stage motor. Unfortunately, despite these advances, Skyroot and its Indian competitor Agnikul [face an uphill battle](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-16/) to survive and be profitable this decade, facing competition from [ISRO’s own nimble SSLV rocket](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-19/). A lot will ride on the first orbital demonstration going well for Skyroot. - The Indian government through IN-SPACe has [launched](https://www.reuters.com/technology/space/indias-space-regulator-launches-58-million-fund-boost-startups-cut-reliance-2025-02-19/) a \~$57 million “[Technology Adoption Fund](https://www.inspace.gov.in/inspace?id=inspace%5Ftaf)” to encourage the private sector to develop and manufacture space components that can help India reduce its reliance on foreign imports while commercializing them. These funds will be on a co-investment basis. The move follows a separate pool of [$120 million in venture capital funding](https://www.isro.gov.in/UnionCabinetapprovesestablishment%5FINSPACe.html) that the Indian government announced last year, which industry experts are [cautiously optimistic about](https://web.archive.org/web/20240807214305/https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/18-hike-for-department-of-space-in-union-budget-lions-share-for-development-of-space-technologies/article68436318.ece). - After [conducting their first orbital demonstration](https://www.financialexpress.com/business/defence/skyserve-leads-earth-observation-revolution-with-smartphone-moment-in-space/3490753/) of edge-computing-based smart Earth imaging last year, Bengaluru- and Cupertino-based SkyServe recently [tested NASA JPL’s AI models](https://spacenews.com/skyserve-tests-ai-models-with-jpl-and-d-orbit/) in space through their software platform on a partner satellite. - Bengaluru-based Bellatrix Aerospace is [creating a US subsidiary](https://bellatrix.aero/updates/bellatrix-aerospace-expands-to-us-with-new-subsidiary) to better position the sales of their [green propulsion systems](https://bellatrix.aero/updates/arka-shines-rudra-roars). So far, the company [has tested](https://www.linkedin.com/posts/bellatrix-aerospace%5Fhat-trick-in-space-rudra-roars-activity-7280251808894144513-xT9x) several small demonstrators in space. - HEX20 [launched](https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2025/Mar/26/spacex-launches-nila-satellite-marks-major-milestone-for-keralas-space-startup-hex20) the “Nila” demonstrator CubeSat on March 15. - Kolkata-based Sisir Radar raised [$1.5 million in seed funding](https://inc42.com/buzz/spacetech-startup-sisir-radar-bags-funding-to-offer-imaging-solutions/) to develop and launch the world’s highest resolution L-band SAR satellite later this decade. ## More rocket tech investments from ISRO ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/05/test-semi-cryogenic-engine-lvm3.jpg) Hot test of India’s upcoming semi-cryogenic engine Power Head Test Article, comprising all systems except the thrust chamber. [Image: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/ISRO%5Fshort%5Fduration%5Fhot%5Ftest%5Fsemicryogenic%5Fengine.html) Producing rocket engines and stages involves complex pipelines. ISRO has continued investments in optimizing the performance and production of parts of its [family of rockets](https://www.isro.gov.in/Launchers.html), with this year seeing some notable advances. - Over a year later than expected, ISRO has finally made [headway into testing](https://www.isro.gov.in/ISRO%5Fshort%5Fduration%5Fhot%5Ftest%5Fsemicryogenic%5Fengine.html) its upcoming [semi-cryogenic kerolox engine](https://www.isro.gov.in/ISRO%5Fachieves%5Fbreakthrough%5Fin%5FSemicryo%5Fengine%5Fdevelopment%5FMar%5F2025%5FFinal.html). Many more milestones remain before ISRO can integrate the engine into the [Launch Vehicle Mark III](https://www.isro.gov.in/GSLVmk3%5FCON.html) (LVM3), India’s most powerful rocket. The engine will increase LVM3’s [mass to GTO orbit](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-18/) lifting capacity from \~4,000 kilograms to \~5,000. - In the meanwhile, ISRO is [increasing the delivery rate](https://www.isro.gov.in/CE20%5FCryogenic%5FEngine%5Fflight%5Facceptance%5Fhot%5Ftest%5Fsuccessful%5FLVM3-M6%5FMission.html) of its upper stage cryogenic engines and stages for operational missions of LVM3\. This is part of the agency’s efforts to [increase the production capacity](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-16/#preparing-for-human-spaceflight) of the rocket from the currently two a year to four and then six. Moreover, with [successful ignition trials](https://www.isro.gov.in/LVM3%5FCE20%5Fvacuum%5Fignition%5Ftrial%5Fcryogenic%5Fengine%5Fsuccessful.html), ISRO is also progressing on having engine restart capability on LVM3’s upper stage, which will allow more complex satellite deployments. - Relatedly, the recently-approved [heavy-lift NGLV rocket](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-20/#human-spaceflight-plans)—which will succeed the LVM3 next decade—will [also have engine restart capabilities](https://www.isro.gov.in/ISROsuccessfullycarriedoutSparkTorchIgniter.html). This will the case for its booster for returning to Earth for launch reuse, and so for its upper stages to perform complex orbital maneuvers and deployments. - Efforts continue to approach near-100% self-sufficiency in India’s building of its rockets, with the latest addition and modernization coming in [the form of a 32-bit microprocessor](https://www.isro.gov.in/vikram3201.html). - Solid rocket motors are a staple element across ISRO’s entire [rocket family](https://www.isro.gov.in/Launchers.html). ISRO’s pace of producing them is also getting a boost thanks to the realization and operational availability of the [world’s largest solid propellent mixer](https://www.isro.gov.in/Development%5FRealisation%5F10ton%5FPropellant%5FMixer%5Ffor%5FSolid%5FMotors.html). - ISRO [successfully fired](https://www.isro.gov.in/ISRO%5Fsuccessfully%5Fconducts%5F1000hrs%5Flife%5Ftest%5Fof%5FSPT.html) its 300-millinewton Xenon-based electric plasma propulsion system for a long duration to qualify it for use on an upcoming test satellite. These engines will save mass on heavy geostationary satellites, allowing increase in performance of their other systems like communications. Electric propulsion also has applications for deep space planetary exploration as was utilized by NASA’s [Dawn mission](https://astrobiology.nasa.gov/missions/dawn/) to explore the asteroid belt. - ISRO [inaugurated a modern landing gear facility](https://www.isro.gov.in/ISRO%5FAdvanced%5FLanding%5FGear%5FTest%5FFacility.html) at its Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC) campus to comprehensively test and qualify landing legs and associated systems for its upcoming [reusable spaceplane](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-14/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/05/rlv-td-landing-3-1.jpg) ISRO’s spaceplane test vehicle called RLV-TD autonomously landing on a runway. [Image: ISRO](https://x.com/isro/status/1804703778467443089) ## More Indian space - Former ISRO Chief K. Kasturirangan passed away on April 25\. His [numerous contributions to India’s space program](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/ex-isro-chief-national-education-policy-architect-k-kasturirangan-dies-at-84-in-bengaluru/articleshow/120612171.cms) span astrophysics, Earth observation and communications satellites, operationalization of the PSLV rocket, the first GLSV flight test, and laying the foundations for India’s first planetary mission and space telescope with Chandrayaan 1 and AstroSat respectively. - India’s newest space-based telescopes [Aditya-L1](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-08/) and [XPoSat](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-12/) continue observing [solar explosions](https://www.isro.gov.in/SUIT%5FAditya-L1%5FCaptures%5FSolarFlare.html) and [cosmic bursts](https://www.ursc.gov.in/xspect%5Fburst.jsp) respectively. It was in January that ISRO [released the first datasets](https://www.isro.gov.in/ISRO%5FNationalmeet%5FAdityaL1.html) from Aditya-L1’s observations at the agency’s [ISSDC](https://www.issdc.gov.in/adityal1.html) and [PRADAN](https://pradan.issdc.gov.in/al1) portals. XPoSat data is not available the same way yet but will come online later this year on [its ISSDC page](https://www.issdc.gov.in/xposat.html). - **Related:** [ISRO’s plan to study Venus alongside NASA and ESA](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-20/) - [Cool new space projects approved while budgets stay the same](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-24/#cool-new-projects-same-old-budget).. ### Moon Monday #223: International researchers to study Chang’e lunar samples, including US ones but without NASA funding URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-223/ Last updated: 2025-11-24T07:32:27.000Z *I’m delighted to share that one of my favorite space outlets* [*The Orbital Index*](https://orbitalindex.com/) *is continuing to be a sponsor of my* [*Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) *blog+newsletter for the fourth year in a row!* 🚀 *Not sponsored: Other than the* [*crisp & curated technical space overviews*](https://orbitalindex.com/archive) *that the Orbital Index dispatches every week, I particularly love how* [*Andrew*](https://www.linkedin.com/in/cantino/)*,* [*Ben*](https://www.linkedin.com/in/blachman/) *and* [*Sarajane*](https://www.linkedin.com/in/sarajane-crawford/) *have recently published birds-eye-views of space activities in the under-covered regions of* [*Africa*](https://orbitalindex.com/archive/2025-02-19-Issue-306/#regional-space-activities-part-ii-africa)*,* [*South America*](https://orbitalindex.com/archive/2024-09-04-Issue-284/#regional-space-activities-south-america)*, and* [*South East Asia*](https://orbitalindex.com/archive/2025-04-02-Issue-312/#regional-space-activities-part-iii-southeast-asia)*. If you follow only the popular western space media outlets and “influencers”, your view of the global space industry is guaranteed to be wrong by light years. But with outlets like Moon Monday and the Orbital Index striving to cover truly global updates, it’s possible to elevate what you’re tuned into.* 🛰️ ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/04/chang-e-5-lander-and-sample.jpg) ****Top:** A panorama of the Moon’s surface shot by the Chang’e 5 lander, which shows its robotic sampling arm and marks made in lunar soil by its scoop; ****Bottom:** A close look at a Chang’e 5 lunar sample, labelled CE5C0000YJYX03501GP. Images: [CLEP](https://x.com/SegerYu/status/1798688466026594539) / [CNSA](https://moon.bao.ac.cn/moonSampleMode/infoDetail.html?sampleId=CE5C0000YJYX03501GP) | Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) China [announced selecting proposals](https://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4320481/content.html) from seven international universities to study [unique Moon samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-50/) brought to Earth by CNSA’s [Chang’e 5 mission](https://jatan.space/change-5-landing-site/) in 2020\. So far Chinese researchers have had first, exclusive access to the samples—a standard followed by most organizations worldwide for their missions or telescopes. The researchers have already produced several notable science results. To briefly summarize a [review paper](https://doi.org/10.11728/cjss2024.04.2024-yg10) to that end: > Chang’e 5 samples have helped scientists [determine truer ages](https://english.cas.cn/newsroom/research%5Fnews/phys/202202/t20220214%5F300776.shtml) of lunar features, refine [the nature of impacts over the last two billion years](https://doi.org/10.59717/j.xinn-geo.2023.100014) in the inner Solar System, and shed light on [young lunar volcanism](https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abl7957) while also finding [120-million-year young volcanic beads](https://english.cas.cn/newsroom/research%5Fnews/earth/202409/t20240904%5F684803.shtml)—which collectively [opened up](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-04107-9) more [enigmas](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-04119-5) about the Moon’s interior and [its evolution](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). It was in late 2023 that China [opened up sample research applications](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465652/n6465653/c10086003/content.html) to foreign scientists. The process has taken longer than expected but the international researchers whose proposals have been finally selected are from universities in the UK, Japan, France, Germany, Pakistan, and the US. The UK’s Open University (OU) is [thrilled with its selection](https://www.open.ac.uk/blogs/news/science-mct/ou-space-expert-among-worlds-first-to-receive-moon-rock-samples-for-research/) and eager to do science: > The Chang’e 5 samples will be analyzed using the OU’s state-of-the-art laboratories located on its Milton Keynes campus, where Professor Mahesh Anand and his team will carry out their research. The loan agreement is for a year, and during that time, the OU team is planning to determine the amount and isotopic composition of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and noble gases in Chang’e 5 samples, results from which will be used to evaluate the giant-impact origin of the Moon and develop new insights into the history of volatiles such as carbon and nitrogen in the Earth-Moon system. The proposal selections of two US universities—Brown and Stony Brook—are notable as well albeit for an underwhelming reason not tied to the universities themselves. Recall that in late 2023, NASA [secured a US Congressional exception](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-156/) for researchers funded by the US government to be able to apply to study Chang’e samples despite the prohibitive Wolf Amendment. US scientists then [applied for the same](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3258530/china-hear-pitches-nasa-scientist-other-researchers-study-change-5-lunar-samples) last April, including a proposal by lunar geochemist and Apollo sample curator [Ryan Zeigler](https://ares.jsc.nasa.gov/people/bios/ryan-a-zeigler/). But as Leonard David [reports](https://www.leonarddavid.com/china-grants-moon-sample-access-to-u-s-scientists-international-collaboration-eyed-for-mars-return-sample-program/) on his blog *Inside Outer Space,* the selections of Brown and Stony Brook are not a result of NASA’s efforts: > Timothy Glotch is a professor of geosciences at Stony Brook University in New York. He told Inside Outer Space that NASA and CNSA were unable to come to terms on the loan agreement for the Chang’e 5 samples. “As a result, due to the Wolf amendment, I am not able to use any NASA funds to carry out the work my team and I proposed to do on the Chang’e 5 samples,” Glotch said. “However, the Stony Brook University administration has provided me with internal funds for travel and to conduct our proposed analyses, which is exciting.” Glotch added that the Stony Brook contracts office still has to sign off on the loan agreement, and has been in touch with the CNSA representative about this. The US and China had been [taking long to finalize terms](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3285725/hopes-dim-china-and-us-space-agencies-exchange-moon-samples) for US researchers to access Chang’e 5 samples after NASA got the aforementioned Congressional exception. And so it would seem that the desired deal hasn’t gone through—whatever it was. For US researchers, this is not an ideal outcome because it would likely also restrict or minimize access to the even more valuable [Chang’e 6 samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-201/), which CNSA brought from our Moon’s [enigmatic farside](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) last year. 🌗 In the meanwhile, another study of Chang’e 6 lunar samples was [published in Nature](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-08870-x) recently, adding to the [long march of notable scientific results](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-211/) from the mission which have been [anchoring events in our Moon’s evolution](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-218/). The latest study involved analyzing 578 particles weighing a total of 5 grams. It revealed for the first time that the Moon’s farside mantle contains less water than within the nearside, adding to [the debate on the topic](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-85/) by lending firm and unique credence to the hypothesis that our Moon indeed lost most of its water [during its fiery formation](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/). CASC’s [news release](https://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4305200/content.html) on the study noted how [Francis McCubbin](https://ares.jsc.nasa.gov/people/bios/francis-m-mccubbin/), NASA’s Astromaterials Curator and a peer reviewer of the paper, called the work “a landmark study on the water abundance of the lunar far side.” ## Catalyzing the international long march to Luna ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/04/change-6-launch.jpg) Launch of the Chang’e 6 sample return Moon mission by a Long March 5 rocket. The launch [attracted](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465652/n6465653/c10522480/content.html) hundreds of thousands of excited spectators at and around the coastal Wenchang Space Launch Center. [Images: CNSA / Xinhua](https://english.news.cn/20240503/12266387c16d4859a376bf5cbddc1798/c.html) CNSA [announced even more international payloads](https://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4320459/content.html) that will be onboard their upcoming [Chang’e 8](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/#prepare-for-crew-and-double-down-with-mission-eight) mission to explore the Moon’s south pole for [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other resources. Other than the [previously known payloads](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/#prepare-for-crew-and-double-down-with-mission-eight), the new ones comprise: - a radio astronomy array from South Africa and Peru - a retroreflector from Italy - Russia’s lunar environmental radiation and charged dust monitors - a hyperspectral mineral mapping camera from Egypt and Bahrain, and - a “lunar potential monitor” from Iran For many of these countries, it’s their first Moon mission, which is great. The currently targeted landing site for Chang’e 8 is in the [Mons Mouton region](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?prjExtent=67602.3878467%2C130531.0649024%2C99379.0803614%2C148524.2775442&layerListFilter=permanently&shadowsType=all&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypZaOAThhYRWXQA4tF8iaqApODhRY2JMGSd0EiX2LlqU8AHY5vQotpS4cZD1xaB1JRSA&proj=17) at roughly 85°S. CNSA also [announced](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-205/) that 17 countries & international organizations as well as over 50 international institutions have joined the China-led [International Lunar Research Station](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/) (ILRS) Moonbase project. Between April 24 to May 5, China is [hosting](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465652/n6465653/c10660697/content.html) an ILRS Developers’ Conference as well as the second lunar sample research symposium. Overall, these developments of international researchers studying Chang’e samples, numerous foreign payloads flying on Chang’e 8, and sufficient global interest in ILRS are clear signs that [China’s approach to scientific cooperation and collaboration](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-205/) at the Moon is working well. --- *Many thanks to* [***The Orbital Index***](https://orbitalindex.com) *and *Arun Raghavan* for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource for free and without ads,* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*. 🌙* --- ## More mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/04/ispace-m2-lander-resilience.jpg) ispace Japan’s second Moon lander, named RESILIENCE, at JAXA’s Tsukuba Space Center before launch. Also seen integrated into the lander is ispace’s first rover TENACIOUS. [Image: ispace](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=6120) - With a [successful engine burn](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7292) on April 24, ispace Japan’s second Moon lander [RESILIENCE](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=6734) continues to be on its [multi-month low energy trajectory](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/gettingToTheMoon.html) to the Moon. RESILIENCE will target entering lunar orbit on May 7\. Originally launched [on January 15](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-209/), ispace is [targeting June 6–8](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7097) as the landing date(s) for RESILIENCE. - On April 16, ISRO [gathered about 50 scientists](https://www.isro.gov.in/ISRO%5FNationalsciencemeet%5Fch4.html) from across India to deliberate on and help determine next steps for storage and scientific studies of lunar samples to be brought by India’s upcoming [Chandrayaan 4 mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-194/). - Following US DARPA’s [selection of 14 companies](https://www.darpa.mil/news-events/2023-12-05) over a year ago to conduct [lunar infrastructure studies](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-157/#prepping-for-lunar-infrastructure-galore) with a focus on [surface access technologies](https://arstechnica.com/space/2024/03/the-us-government-seems-serious-about-developing-a-lunar-economy/), the organization is now [seeking proposals for a small orbiter](https://spacenews.com/darpa-requests-proposals-for-water-prospecting-lunar-orbiter/) that would hunt for substantial [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) hosting locations on the Moon’s south pole by mapping areas from as low as 10 kilometer altitudes. This is similar to Advanced Space’s [SLALOM](https://advancedspace.com/space-resources-roundtable-2023/) concept. Per DARPA’s solicitation milestones, such a spacecraft is not intended to fly until at least three years though, and its funding allocation is as yet unknown. If and when it does fly, it would finally allow the US to stop [failing to meaningfully exploring lunar water](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-221/) as the central theme of Artemis. ## More Moon - Building on [measurements made during Firefly’s Moon landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-217/), NASA continues upping its efforts to understand exactly [how spacecraft rocket engine plumes blow off lunar soil and rocks](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-180/) to inform future mission safety planning. The agency’s [latest investment](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/marshall/nasa-marshall-fires-up-hybrid-rocket-motor-to-prep-for-moon-landings/) comes from its Langley center: > We’re bringing back the capability to characterize the effects of rocket engines interacting with the lunar surface through ground testing in a large vacuum chamber—last done in this facility for the Apollo and Viking programs. The landers going to the Moon through Artemis are much larger and more powerful, so we need new data to understand the complex physics of landing and ascent. We’ll use the hybrid motor in the second phase of testing to capture data with conditions closely simulating those from a real rocket engine. Our research will reduce risk to the crew, lander, payloads, and surface assets. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/04/esa-luna-flex-hab.jpg) The FLEXhab astronaut habitat module outside ESA’s Moon-simulating LUNA hall. [Image: DLR / ESA](https://www.dlr.de/en/blog/archive/2026/the-flexhab-space-habitat-moon-living-on-earth) - A [simulated habitat module](https://www.dlr.de/en/blog/archive/2026/the-flexhab-space-habitat-moon-living-on-earth) now adjoins ESA’s recently operationalized Moon-simulating [LUNA facility](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-195/) to better test complex mission scenarios where humans and robots are interacting in varied ways across prolonged periods. - China continues to show a keen interest in engaging and inspiring the general public on lunar exploration. The Shanghai World Expo Exhibition and Convention Center is [hosting a 10-day space exhibit](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465652/n6465653/c10660697/content.html) for the public, including showcasing Chang’e 5 and 6 samples. The National Museum of China in Beijing is currently hosting a [two-month exhibit](https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202504/1331322.shtml) on the extremely successful Chang’e lunar exploration program, with sample displays here as well. Last year, China [showcased Chang’e 5 samples](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FbDNnaTO2qI) at the Beijing Planetarium. Moreover, China evaluated over 9,000 entries from the public to then [announce](http://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4265697/content.html) in February the names of the [spacesuit](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-195/#a-sino-suit-for-luna) and [rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-200/) to be used on [crewed Moon landing missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/) as being *Wangyu* and *Tansuo* respectively. Wangyu means “gazing into the cosmos” and Tansuo means “to explore the unknown”. ### Moon Monday #222: How China navigated failure to nail down lunar navigation success URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-222/ Last updated: 2025-04-21T18:19:14.000Z *I’m thrilled to welcome* [*Catalyx Space*](https://www.catalyx.space) *as the latest sponsor of my* [*Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) *blog+newsletter.* 🌗 *Having* [*raised $1.7 million*](https://www.linkedin.com/posts/riftron%5Fits-been-a-long-time-coming-catalyx-space-activity-7285400563616292867-EJhx/) *in pre-seed funding, Catalyx is building fully integrated autonomous labs and re-entry capsules for microgravity and hypersonic sci-tech studies. The company is* [*hiring*](https://www.catalyx.space/careers) *for* [*multiple positions*](https://www.linkedin.com/posts/saqh%5Fcatalyx-space-is-hiring-top-tier-engineers-activity-7300376113912913920-vdsm/)*.* 🚀 ## Despite odds, China achieves an Earth-Moon navigation link ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/04/dro-a-b-l-lunar-satellites-cas.jpg) ****Top left:** Illustration of the attached DRO-A and DRO-B small lunar satellites; ****Bottom left:** A schematic diagram of DRO-A, DRO-B, and Earthbound DRO-L spacecraft testing laser-based navigation between Earth and the Moon; ****Right:** DRO-A and DRO-B as imaged by the other spacecraft after entering lunar orbit showing their bent solar panels. Images: [CAS / CSU](https://danielmarin.naukas.com/2025/04/17/123-dias-de-rescate-en-el-espacio-cislunar-la-aventura-de-las-sondas-chinas-dro-a-y-dro-b/) / [Journal of Deep Space Exploration / SCMP](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3275415/china-space-engineers-kick-doomed-satellite-pair-life-lunar-orbit) Qiu Chenhui of China Youth Daily [reports](https://zqb.cyol.com/pad/content/202504/16/content%5F409832.html) based on an April 15 presentation by a Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) researcher Zhang Hao on how the latter’s team managed to put the twin DRO-A and DRO-B spacecraft into their intended lunar distant retrograde orbits (DRO) last year [despite a failure](https://spacenews.com/surprise-chinese-lunar-mission-hit-by-launch-anomaly/) of the upper stage of their launch vehicle Long March 2C. The upper stage deployed the attached DRO-A-B craft with a high spin rate of once every 1.8 seconds, which bent and damaged their solar panels. While the satellite operators quickly stabilized the craft and figured out optimal dynamic solar panel orientations to stay power positive, the anomalous launch had also left the small satellites much more distant from the Moon than intended. Within days, the team took a key decision to not separate the twin spacecraft and to alternately use either craft’s engines to perform precisely timed orbital maneuvers which conserve and balance fuel availability. It worked. Combined with a fuel-efficient, low energy trajectory to the Moon generated as contingency, the still attached DRO-A-B craft entered lunar orbit in August 2024\. The two craft separated from each other shortly after. It was only days later that DRO-A and DRO-B fulfilled their primary mission objective: establish a laser-based navigation, timing, and communications link between the DRO craft at the Moon and the Earth-orbiting [DRO-L](https://spacenews.com/china-launches-20-satellites-on-separate-inland-and-sea-rocket-launches/#:~:text=Little%20is%20known,satellite%20around%20March.) satellite. Since then, the three craft have been able to track each other and navigate autonomously instead of relying heavily on or [choking](https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/08/nasas-artemis-i-mission-nearly-broke-the-deep-space-network) terrestrial ground stations. This is a notable world first. And with it, not only did China avoid a mission failure but it cemented its lead in building a [lunar communications and navigation network](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-185/). The NASA-funded and Advanced Space-led [CAPSTONE](https://www.nasa.gov/smallspacecraft/capstone/) lunar orbiter has been [making progress](https://web.archive.org/web/20240326143654/https://advancedspace.com/advanced-spaces-resilient-capstone-mission-for-nasa-is-operating-at-the-moon-for-445-days-continues-to-transform-exploration-with-cutting-edge-technology/) in cross-communicating with NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lro/about/) (LRO) since over two years to perform similar Moon-to-Moon demonstrations but with a relatively limited scope than the Earth-Moon DRO trio. As an unrelated but interesting tangent, Andrew Jones [reports](https://spacenews.com/mission-team-details-complex-rescue-of-chinese-lunar-spacecraft/) that DRO-A also carries an all-sky detector to monitor gamma-ray bursts from highly energetic cosmic objects. The instrument is thus enabling extended mission objectives, and continues the trend of China [maximizing spacecraft capacity and time](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-193/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/04/farside-moon-and-earth-change-5-t1.jpg) Earth and our Moon as seen from beyond the lunar farside by China’s Chang’e 5 T1 test spacecraft on October 28, 2014\. [Image: CAST](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/earth-and-the-moon-from-change5t1) ## A lit lunar water source A [NASA-funded study](https://doi.org/10.1029/2024JE008334) used a particle accelerator to bombard Apollo 17 Moon samples for simulating long-term effects of the [radiating solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) on lunar soil. It [found](https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/moon/can-solar-wind-make-water-on-moon/) that the solar wind could indeed be a potent source for creating [lunar water](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). Relatedly, a [February 2022 study](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-28289-6) analyzed water and other volatiles detected by NASA’s [LCROSS spacecraft](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=2009-031B) to determine the likelihood of their source being volcanoes, comets, [micrometeorites](https://jatan.space/the-tiniest-of-impact-craters/), the solar wind, or even our [Earth’s atmosphere](https://www.gi.alaska.edu/news/earths-atmosphere-may-be-source-some-lunar-water). The volatile ratios in the study suggested comets to be the most abundant lunar water source, followed by micrometeorites. A [related 2020 study](https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GL089509) supported this view since it found that even temporary atmospheres created by the peak volcanic Moon over 3 billion years ago were likely inefficient in transferring and depositing lots of water and other volatiles to [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s poles. On the other hand, a [study last year](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/#the-search-for-lunar-water-deepens) as well as a [review paper from 2022](https://doi.org/10.3847/PSJ/ac649c) suggested based on various factors that the Moon’s past volcanism is the primary source of subsurface lunar water. Scientists figuring out ratios of lunar water sources and other Moon mysteries tied to it will help us know not only [how our Moon evolved](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) but also what kinds of processes drive the evolution of airless planetary bodies across the Solar System. --- *Many thanks to* [***Catalyx Space***](https://catalyx.space) *and* [***Craig Hardgrove***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/craig-hardgrove-707bbb33/) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource for free and without ads, kindly* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*. 🌙* --- ## A small step for South Korea ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/04/taebaek-korean-mine-used-to-test-lunar-rovers.jpeg) Lunar rover demonstrations in the abandoned Taebaek mine in South Korea. [Image: KIGAM](https://pulse.mk.co.kr/news/all/11279380) Choi Won-seok and Minu Kim [report](https://pulse.mk.co.kr/news/all/11279380) that in a notable world first, South Korea is transforming the former mining site of Taebaek into a testing ground for advanced mobile lunar exploration technologies. This is partly due to the mine’s environmental resemblance to the darkness, coldness, and ruggedness of the Moon’s south pole. Korean institutions began testing rover prototypes there. This move follows the [development in February](https://spacenews.com/south-korea-approves-strategic-plans-for-space/) when South Korea’s National Space Council [approved](https://spacenews.com/south-korea-approves-strategic-plans-for-space/) plans for a Moon lander made by the country’s [newly forged space agency](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-181/) KASA as part of a broader investment in indigenous space technologies. In January, Kim Na-young [reported](https://en.yna.co.kr/view/AEN20250122002400320?section=news) that KASA is budgeting about $31 million this year towards building [the lunar lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-181/) by 2032\. In an approach similar to what ISRO takes for its planetary missions like [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/), South Korea is also indigenously developing the rocket to launch its Moon lander. The rocket’s budget line is also separately approved. KASA also plans to send a lunar environment monitoring payload through NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) onboard Intuitive Machines’ [third Moon lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-189/#nasa-clps-mission-to-a-magnetic-swirl-also-delayed) for about $5 million. All of these investments are part of South Korea’s FY2025 space budget of $562.5 million, pushed with the aim of becoming a global space power in the coming decades. Kim Na-young has [also reported](https://en.yna.co.kr/view/AEN20250121003500320?section=search) that other than the US, KASA seeks to strengthen partnerships with Japan and Europe too, including through multilateral participation in NASA’s [Artemis program](https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/artemis/) and as a signee of the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords) which promotes cooperative lunar exploration. ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/04/gateway-lunar-orbital-habitat-esa-i-hab.jpg) An illustration showing the Gateway lunar orbital station’s ESA-provided ‘I-hab’ astronaut hosting module (highlighted with a red outline). Seen are its two active docking regions. [Image: ESA / K. Lochtenberg](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Gateway%5FLunar%5FI-Hab) - Thales Alenia Space has [contracted Redwire’s Belgian subsidiary](https://ir.redwirespace.com/news-events/press-releases/detail/168/redwire-awarded-contract-from-thales-alenia-space-to) to build and provide the docking & berthing mechanisms and ports for ESA’s [Lunar I-Hab](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Gateway%5FLunar%5FI-Hab) astronaut habitat module, which will be part of the upcoming NASA-led [Gateway international orbital habitat](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/gateway). Last year, ESA and NASA astronauts [provided feedback](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/New%5Fmilestone%5Ffor%5Fthe%5FGateway%5Flife%5Finside%5FLunar%5FI-Hab) on the usability of initial interior mockups of I-Hab. This exercise allowed accommodating changes before the upcoming critical design review phase, after which assembly and integration of Lunar I-Hab can begin. - A [NASA article](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/johnson/she-speaks-for-the-samples-meet-dr-juliane-gross-artemis-campaign-sample-curation-lead/) on Dr. Juliane Gross, the Sample Curation Lead for Artemis missions, succinctly summarizes the complex scope of her work: > Her multifaceted role includes preparing the Johnson facility that will receive new lunar samples, developing curation strategies, and collaborating with mission teams to plan sampling operations, which encompass collection, handling, transport, and storage processes for all stages of Artemis missions. She trains program managers and engineers on the importance of sample return and teaches crew members how to identify lunar samples and collect them without contamination. She also works with the different programs and teams that oversee the vehicles used at different stages of lunar missions – collaborating with the human landing system team around tool storage and delivery to the lunar surface, the Orion Program to coordinate sample stowage for the return to Earth, and Exploration Ground Systems to plan sample recovery after splashdown. > > Once samples are returned to Earth, Gross and the ARES curation team will conduct a preliminary examination of the materials and release a sample catalog from which members of the global scientific community may request loans to carry out their respective research. - **Related:* How NASA has been* [*incrementally planning Artemis science*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-170/) ### Moon Monday #221: The US is failing to explore lunar water as the principal goal of Artemis URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-221/ Last updated: 2025-10-23T13:17:39.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/04/permanently-shadowed-regions-moon-south-pole-elevation-map.jpg) Illustration showing the distribution of [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) (in blue) on the Moon’s south pole, superimposed on a digital elevation map. [Image: NASA / GSFC / Timothy McClanahan / LOLA](https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/moon/nasas-lro-lunar-ice-deposits-are-widespread/) It’s now been more than seven years since NASA officially started its [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/artemis/) program to fulfill the US government’s [Space Policy Directive](https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/presidential-actions/presidential-memorandum-reinvigorating-americas-human-space-exploration-program/) of sustaining a human presence on or around the Moon. And it’s been nearly two decades since the [NASA Authorization Act of 2005](https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-109publ155/pdf/PLAW-109publ155.pdf) legislated a mandate to such end: > The Administrator shall establish a program to develop a sustained human presence on the Moon, including a robust precursor program, to promote exploration, science, commerce, and United States preeminence in space, and as a stepping-stone to future exploration of Mars and other destinations. The Administrator is further authorized to develop and conduct appropriate international collaborations in pursuit of these goals. The [National Space Policy](https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/National-Space-Policy.pdf) adopted by the US White House in 2020 added the following: > The United States shall extend human economic activity into deep space by establishing a permanent human presence on the Moon, and, in cooperation with private industry and international partners, develop infrastructure and services that will enable science-driven exploration, space resource utilization, and human missions to Mars. Last decade’s joint Indo-US [discovery of water ice](https://jatan.space/how-nasa-and-chandrayaan-discovered-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s poles by India’s [Chandrayaan 1](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/) orbiter not only catalyzed [the world’s heightened interest](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-206/) in our Moon but also provided a possible path to have future lunar astronauts stay for long periods by utilizing these [water deposits](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). However, planning and executing a sustained human presence on our Moon hinges greatly on what we learn about the ground truth of these deposits in terms of their nature, abundance, exact locations, and ease of utilization. Especially as they are sequestered inside extremely harsh [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) on the poles. The US has spent nearly [$100 billion](https://oig.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/IG-22-003.pdf) so far via Artemis and other related programs but has failed to meaningfully progress our understanding of lunar water, much less how to use it. A review of the current states and unfortunate outcomes of US Moon missions across orbit and the surface reveals the direness of the situation. Delays in similar missions by international allies of the US add to the problem. ### Lunar orbit mission failures ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/04/lunar-trailblazer-poster.jpg) Concept image showing how the Lunar Trailblazer orbiter’s remote sensing measurements would’ve distinguished between lunar water in the form of ice crystals and mineral-bound states. [Image: Jasper Miura / Lockheed Martin](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/gallery.html) - The NASA-funded [Lunar Trailblazer](https://jatan.space/nasa-lunar-trailblazer/) spacecraft, which [launched](https://blogs.nasa.gov/trailblazer/2025/02/26/nasas-lunar-trailblazer-spacecraft-separates-from-falcon-9-second-stage/) in February 2025, was supposed to provide scientists with unprecedented, high-resolution global maps of the amount, distribution, and state of water across our Moon from orbit. However, control over the spacecraft [was lost](https://blogs.nasa.gov/trailblazer/2025/02/27/nasa-working-to-reestablish-communications-with-lunar-trailblazer/) shortly after launch, with subsequent efforts being unsuccessful. Trailblazer will no longer be able to enter its planned lunar orbit, and the original mission is dead. - Four independent NASA-funded small satellites—namely [LunaH-Map](https://spacenews.com/artemis-1-cubesat-nearing-end-of-mission/), [Lunar Flashlight](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/jpl/nasa-calls-end-to-lunar-flashlight-after-some-tech-successes), [Lunar IceCube and LunIR](https://spacenews.com/deep-space-smallsats-face-big-challenges/)—which launched to the Moon in 2022 also failed at their primary missions. You can follow the links to know what specifically went wrong with each but essentially they couldn’t achieve their desired orbits to study aspects of lunar water and its polar ice deposits as scientists had hoped for. - Data from NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lro/about/) (LRO) has uniquely aided many NASA and international Moon landing missions in technical analysis of landing site selections. It has also helped scientists produce many [results relevant to lunar water](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-196/). But the 2009-launched LRO has gracefully aged now, is due for its final mission extension evaluation with limited capabilities left, and can no longer maintain an orbit that can study the lunar poles heads down in any case. Recognizing these constraints, a specialized team of US scientists [released a report](https://web.archive.org/web/20230307045441/https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag/reports/CLOC-SAT%5FReport.pdf) in 2022 [urging NASA to plan an LRO replacement](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-116/) so as to support the increasingly complex upcoming [robotic](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) and [crewed](https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/artemis/) Moon missions. Three years since, NASA has not approved any LRO successor despite the [LExSO mission](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lexso/) being proposed by members from the LRO team itself. - The upcoming NASA-led international [Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) lunar orbital habitat [will conduct scientific experiments](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-162/#a-gist-of-gateway-science) to help us understand long-term effects of space radiation on prolonged human stays outside the protection of Earth’s magnetic field. The results would be relevant for sustained stays on the lunar surface too. But [Gateway’s orbit](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway-frequently-asked-questions/#Gateway-Orbit) brings it only up to 1500 kilometers above the Moon’s north pole for a brief period and then takes it almost 70,000 kilometers over the south pole. As such, the Gateway’s not-at-all low lunar orbit is unsuitable to perform meaningful mapping studies of polar water ice and other resources or be of aid in landing site selections. In any case, Gateway’s launch has been delayed by years and its inaugural elements aren’t taking off for the Moon [until around 2028](https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-24-106878). ### Lunar surface missions not taking off or landing ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/04/astrobotic-griffin-lander-with-nasa-viper-rover-onboard-illustration.jpg) An illustration showing NASA’s VIPER rover onboard the Griffin Moon lander. [Image: Astrobotic](https://www.astrobotic.com/media-kit/images) The one NASA mission that was supposed to reveal the first set of hard facts about the Moon’s polar water ice deposits was the [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) part of the agency’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). But last year NASA undertook a [questionable cancellation](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-186/) of VIPER, and is [now scrambling](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-212/) to find a commercial company that will fly and operate the rover at its own cost. This approach [decidedly fails at VIPER’s original goal](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-188/) because asking a commercial entity to fulfill the mission’s scientific objectives at its own cost is a non-starter. [Thomas Zurbuchen](https://www.thomaszurbuchen.com/), a former NASA associate administrator for science and the co-creator of CLPS [has said](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/nasa-losing-viper-rover-defangs-the-science-from-planned-moon-landings/) that NASA losing VIPER “pulls the scientific teeth from the Artemis program in an irreversible way.” Planetary scientist [Brett Denevi](https://hub.jhu.edu/experts/profiles/brett-denevi), who leads an [Artemis Geology Team](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-selects-geology-team-for-the-first-crewed-artemis-lunar-landing) for NASA, [said in a US Congressional hearing](https://spacenews.com/clps-companies-seek-expanded-opportunities-for-commercial-lunar-landers/) that “we should not expect VIPER science to happen by hoping that someone will offer to fly and operate it on their own dime.” Denevi stressed that the Congress should at least fund existing VIPER science and operations teams, which are at risk of being disbanded even if NASA selects a commercial company to fly VIPER. Even if the US Congress does do that, VIPER’s launch is now delayed anyway. - Earlier this year, Intuitive Machines’ [second CLPS lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-215/#intuitive-machines-launches-second-moon-lander) called Athena hard landed on the Moon’s south pole and came to rest on its side, which led to [the mission being unsuccessful](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-216/#tipped-intuitive-mooncraft-dies-with-none-of-the-net-130-million-worth-of-payloads-deployed). NASA’s primary goal with Athena was to drill the lunar polar surface to find and study water ice deposits. The agency had also funded a hopper onboard which was to detach and fly over a [permanently shadowed region](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) looking for signs of water ice. Athena’s anomalous landing meant none of those experiments could take place. And, results from these experiments were supposed to inform VIPER’s strategy, thus now resulting in having learnt nothing. - The only other NASA-funded CLPS flight heading for the Moon’s south pole is Intuitive’s [IM-4 mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-191/), which isn’t scheduled to fly earlier than 2027, and has limited ways to study water ice in any case. The ESA-provided [PROSPECT](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Prospect%5Fsearching%5Ffor%5Fwater%5Fat%5Fthe%5Flunar%5Fpoles) payload suite onboard to study water ice and extract oxygen from lunar soil is certainly intriguing but is being sent in a demonstrative capacity. - To advance over PROSPECT, NASA has been planning to send an enhanced [pilot plant that extracts oxygen](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-153/) from lunar soil too. Extracting sufficient oxygen from either watery or dry lunar regolith has advantages for sustaining long-term human stays on the Moon. During the extractor mission’s announcement in 2023, NASA said it aims to send the hardware in 2027 but there have been no major updates since then. Based on the announced manifest of NASA payloads on upcoming CLPS and Artemis missions so far, NASA’s oxygen extractor is almost certainly delayed beyond 2027. - The [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/) crewed Moon landing mission targeting exploration of the south pole is [also delayed](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-205/#more-artemis-delays). It looks like it will very likely not launch before 2028 at the earliest, given the [gradual pace of SpaceX’s Starship progress](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-197/) as the mission’s [landing system element](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) as well as delays in Axiom Space developing the [lunar surface spacesuit](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-198/). Most importantly, all of the missions mentioned above that have failed were supposed to inform and enhance science investigations on Artemis III, which will now have to be conducted half-blind. - The versatile, crew-capable [Lunar Terrain Vehicle](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-171/) rover is supposed to be available across Artemis missions and have a large capacity for NASA to host experiments. But it will not launch before 2030 at the earliest. ### Missions by US allies facing delays ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/04/lupex-lander-rover-illustration-and-logo-1.jpg) Illustration of the Indian Chandrayaan 5 lander and Japanese LUPEX rover, and a mission graphic. [Images: JAXA / ISRO](https://humans-in-space.jaxa.jp/en/biz-lab/tech/lupex/) - NASA’s ultra-sensitive [ShadowCam](https://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/about) imager onboard South Korea’s 2022-launched [KPLO](https://jatan.space/kplo/) lunar orbiter was designed to [optically](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-moon-camera-mosaic-sheds-light-on-lunar-south-pole) [image](http://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/images/1288) and locate water ice deposits inside permanently shadowed regions with higher resolution. However, it has [found no reflectance differences](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2024/pdf/1622.pdf) that can be uniquely attributed to surface water ice in most of the areas it has mapped so far. To be clear, this isn’t a failure of ShadowCam the instrument. But given that the KPLO orbiter [will likely end this year](https://www.kari.re.kr/kplo/danuri/news/newsView.do?nttId=8785&pageIndex=1&searchCnd=&searchWrd=), the dull outcome highlights the pressing need for higher-resolution studies from orbit and the surface neither of which are taking place substantially. - To be fair to ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/), its better optical and radar mapping capabilities than LRO have been producing [a trickle](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-220/) of this next layer of [lunar water results](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/#the-search-for-lunar-water-deepens). In fact, NASA [has been collaborating with ISRO](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/#isro-aids-artemis) to have the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter aid Artemis landing site selections with lunar polar water prospecting and hazard classifications. But the orbiter’s infrared spectrometer’s output [has been lacking](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-220/#the-case-of-iirs), and NASA’s leveraging of the orbiter’s optical and radar capabilities has been limited in scope. - Ultimately though, knowing the truth about the Moon’s water ice deposits from the surface is necessary to systematically plan sustained lunar missions. With NASA’s now-shaky VIPER rover likely not enabling this critical outcome as intended, the upcoming joint Indo-Japanese [Chandrayaan 5 LUPEX mission](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/) stands to provide NASA a chance to obtain the desired information. Japan is a [key Artemis partner](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-172) of NASA, and has signed the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords) for cooperative lunar exploration. India too has [signed the Accords](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-133/), and ISRO is already aiding NASA as outlined above. All of these mechanisms encourage scientific data sharing. However, LUPEX was originally intended to launch mid-decade, and is now targeting take off only by end of decade instead. - [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown) landed in a high-latitude but non-polar region and as such [only one of its instruments had relevance](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-219/) to the search for polar water ice. - Australia’s [first lunar rover](https://www.space.gov.au/meet-roo-ver) called Roo-ver, which will launch on a NASA-funded CLPS lander to [explore the Moon’s south pole](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2024/pdf/1682.pdf) for water ice, has also [gotten delayed](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-197/#australian-lunar-roo-ver-delayed) to 2028—two years later than originally intended. Similarly, Canada’s [first lunar rover](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronomy/moon-exploration/first-canadian-rover-to-explore-the-moon.asp) to explore south polar water ice has been delayed. It too was supposed to launch on a NASA-funded CLPS lander in 2026 but has not been assigned a lander yet—or whose manifest status has not yet been made public. ### China to gain lead in lunar water too ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/04/change-7-lander-orbiter-illustration.jpg) Illustration of China’s Chang’e 7 lander and orbiter. [Image: CMG](https://news.cgtn.com/news/2023-06-05/China-sets-record-in-sixth-rocket-engine-trial-of-crewed-lunar-mission-1knNhdQYU6I/index.html) While the US and its allies have been failing to advance swiftly and meaningfully in exploring and understanding water ice on the Moon, China has been preparing two Moon landing missions to that end. CNSA is preparing to launch the [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#the-instrumental-and-increasingly-international-7) mission next year to advance the understanding of the accessibility, movement, and storage of surface and near-surface polar water ice. The same theme will be advanced by [Chang’e 8](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/#prepare-for-crew-and-double-down-with-mission-eight) in 2028, which will also start utilizing lunar soil by melting it to 3D-print bricks from. China’s track record of virtually no failure despite undertaking increasingly complex lunar missions is exceptional. There’s little reason to doubt that Chang’e 7 and Chang’e 8 will not be successes, giving China a lead in that aspect of lunar exploration as well. China is poised to prepare well for an eventual sustained lunar presence [with crew](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/) and robots under the Sino-led project called the [International Lunar Research Station](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/). ### What can the US bloc do? To alleviate its failure to substantially understand lunar polar water ice, the US could take a number of steps: - The US Congress could reinvigorate VIPER by mandating that its scientific goals be executed for as originally planned and appropriating relevant funds for the same. - NASA and ISRO could tighten their use of the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter for Artemis-related studies, using it as a de facto LRO replacement. - In parallel, NASA could get the US Congress to approve the LRO successor mission LExSO and launch it as soon as feasible. - Having done it before, NASA could direct a couple of upcoming CLPS flights to land on the Moon’s south pole instead on their current target landing sites. However, this would come at the expense of the different lunar science goals the missions are currently aiming for, and could make the landings riskier. - NASA could enhance its investment in the Indo-Japanese LUPEX rover for the mutual benefit of all involved. - NASA could continue investing in small lunar orbiters but with changes that ensure better resource availability to significantly improve chances of mission success while the satellites still cost a fraction of big programs by definition. Now, these or other recourses could prove challenging in a tightening budgetary environment for NASA and the US at large, especially with planetary sciences facing deeper cuts under the current Trump administration. --- *Many thanks to* [***Open Lunar Foundation***](https://www.openlunar.org/) *and* [***Gurbir Singh***](https://gurbir.co.uk/) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday!* *Today’s special Moon Monday edition took me a lot of work to get the breadth, depth, and accuracy right across the global spectrum of missions related to lunar water. If you found my article and its dozens of links useful, and you appreciate my efforts to publish* [*Moon Mondays*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) *as a curated community resource for free and without ads, kindly* [***support my independent writing***](https://jatan.space/support). 🌙 --- ## The Moon and Mars in parallel ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/04/jared-isaacman-nasa-administrator-confirmation-hearing.jpg) Jared Isaacman during his US Senate confirmation hearing for the position of the NASA Administrator. [Image: NASA / Bill Ingalls](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/04/isaacman-sls-and-orion-are-not-a-long-term-solution-for-nasa/) During his [US Congressional confirmation hearing](https://www.youtube.com/live/tqejrlbfB84?feature=shared&t=1727), Trump’s nominee for the NASA Administrator position Jared Isaacman insisted on a parallel Moon & Mars approach with the existing NASA budget instead of choosing one over another. Marcia Smith though [points out](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/isaacman-insists-nasa-can-pursue-moon-and-mars-goals-simultaneously/): > If confirmed to lead the agency, he may discover money is, in fact, part of the problem. The nation’s investment in NASA today, about $25 billion a year, is a fraction of what the country was spending in the 1960s. The Apollo program alone cost $25.8 billion over the years 1960-1973, which is $257 billion when adjusted to 2020 dollars according to [The Planetary Society](https://www.planetary.org/space-policy/cost-of-apollo). That didn’t include NASA’s science or aeronautics programs. During the hearing, Isaacman endorsed landing US astronauts on the Moon with [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/) before China does [by 2030](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/). The latter is an event in itself that the entire US Congress is scared of. Isaacman said NASA’s existing plan with the SLS rocket is the fastest way to land Artemis III. Although he [would not clarify](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/04/isaacman-sls-and-orion-are-not-a-long-term-solution-for-nasa/) why the Moon’s “scientific, economic, and strategic value” to the US is yet to be determined but that of Mars somehow is pre-known. Notably, in the context of Isaacman’s deep ties with Elon Musk and SpaceX, Isaacman [repeatedly avoided answering a simple yes/no question](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/isaacman-insists-nasa-can-pursue-moon-and-mars-goals-simultaneously/) about whether Musk was in the room when US President Trump offered him the administrator position. Relatedly, last month Isaacman [sent a letter to the Ethics Official at NASA](https://static01.nyt.com/newsgraphics/documenttools/bbdae8a26e62760d/3edd888b-full.pdf) about his plans to disentangle his actual and apparent conflicts of interest with SpaceX should the US Senate vote and confirm his NASA Administrator position by next month. ## More Moon - On April 8, Bangladesh [became the 54th nation](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-welcomes-bangladesh-as-newest-artemis-accords-signatory/) to sign the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords) for cooperative lunar exploration, [joining its neighbor India](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-133/) who became an Accords signee in 2023. - Intuitive Machines [announced](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/intuitive-machines-selects-spacex-to-launch-its-fourth-lunar-lander-mission-and-lunar-data-relay-sat) that it will launch [its fourth Moon mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-191/) on a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket, with a liftoff target of 2027. - ispace Japan’s US subsidiary [is partnering with Redwire Space](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7232) to compete for [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) contracts to send NASA’s scientific & technological payloads to the Moon. ispace US currently is part of [one CLPS contract through Draper](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-184/), wherein ispace US is building the lander to carry NASA payloads to the Moon’s farside. - Over at its new Moon-simulating [LUNA facility](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-195/), ESA is [testing modern tools and equipments](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2025/04/Moon%5Ftools%5Fto%5Fthe%5Ftest%5Fat%5FLUNA) future astronauts could use to optimize which rocks to collect during future Moonwalks to yield better science. ### Moon Monday #220: Lunar science galore from the Chandrayaans URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-220/ Last updated: 2026-06-08T06:43:08.000Z ## Mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/04/chandrayaan-5lupex-rover-instruments-1.jpg) Multi-agency instruments planned to be on the LUPEX rover. [Image: JAXA / M. Ohtake, et al.](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/1918.pdf) - India approved the joint ISRO-JAXA [Chandrayaan 5 / LUPEX](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/) mission to drill and analyze water ice on the Moon. I’ve collated, contextualized, and linked to every mission specific we know of. I also explain how Chandrayaan 5 LUPEX will be a giant leap for ISRO and JAXA, and how it can provide NASA with data critical for Artemis planning: [🧊 Every detail on Chandrayaan 5 / LUPEX 🌗](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/) - As hardware elements of the crewed [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii/) Moon mission are [coming along](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2025/03/24/nasas-artemis-ii-core-stage-integration-complete-at-kennedy/) slowly for the targeted launch next year, teams and the crew are [practicing crew capsule related sea recovery procedures](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/nasa-trains-for-orion-water-recovery-ahead-of-artemis-ii-launch/) for when the mission nears its end with a splash on Earth. - Progress continues slowly on the NASA-led [Gateway lunar orbital habitat](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/gateway). After passing [various](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/gateway/gateway-stands-tall-for-stress-test/) space environmental [tests](https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/a-home-for-astronauts-around-the-moon/), the core pressurized structure of Gateway’s [HALO](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-northrop-grumman-finalize-moon-outpost-living-quarters-contract/) habitat module built by Thales Alenia Space was [shipped from Europe to the US](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/nasa-welcomes-gateway-lunar-space-stations-halo-module-to-us/) as of April 1\. It will now undergo outfitting at lead HALO contractor Northrop Grumman’s facility, and then be mated to Gateway’s also-in-assembly [Power and Propulsion Element](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/nasa-prepares-gateway-lunar-space-station-for-journey-to-moon/) ahead of a SpaceX Falcon Heavy rocket launch no earlier than [December 2027](https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-24-106878). ## Lunar science galore from Chandrayaan 2 ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/04/ch-2-orbiter-cover.jpg) Illustration of the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter. Image: ISRO - With another [joint analysis](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/2401.pdf) specifically identifying a possible landing area, ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) continues [aiding NASA](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/#isro-aids-artemis) in landing site selection for the crewed [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/) Moon mission targeting launch later this decade. - In February 2024, the UK Space Agency [funded](https://www.gov.uk/government/news/new-funding-ensures-uk-role-in-global-exploration-to-the-moon-mars-and-venus) Royal Holloway, University of London (RHUL) with £306,000 to develop software for the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter to help its multi-band radar better [detect underground water ice](https://arxiv.org/abs/2104.14259) on the Moon’s poles. [Initial results are now out](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/1580.pdf), showing some headway. The orbiter’s radar data is [also aiding geological studies](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/1910.pdf). - *Update from Nov 2025 and May 2026:* The orbiter [continues characterizing the lunar poles](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-250/#mission-updates) using its advanced radar to map potential [water ice deposits](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and gauge surface roughness, densities, and porosities. A [new study](https://doi.org/10.1038/s44453-026-00038-9) also found particularly strong hints of water ice deposits in doubly shadowed craters lying within [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) on the lunar south pole. - Analyzing how two-way radio signals between the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter and an [Indian Deep Space Network](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian%5FDeep%5FSpace%5FNetwork) antenna were affected, scientists have inferred the first electron density profile of the Moon’s ionosphere for when the Moon passes through Earth’s geomagnetic tail, [finding the density to be substantially higher](https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/adb3a7) than expected. - Stereo images from the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter’s TMC-2 payload are being used to [study volcanic domes](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/2020.pdf). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/04/lunar-elemental-abundances-from-class-spectrometer-chandrayaan-2-orbiter.jpg) High resolution surface elemental abundance maps of various regions on the Moon, based on X-ray detections by the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter’s CLASS spectrometer; Clockwise from the left: Abundances of Magnesium and Iron, Aluminum, and Iron respectively. Images: ISRO / [S. Narendranath](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/pdf/2191.pdf), [Thejas Suresh](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/2496.pdf), et al. - The [CLASS spectrometer](http://oro.open.ac.uk/29976/1/CLASS%5F2011%5FLunar%5FPlanetary%5FScience%5FConf.pdf) on the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter [has provided](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2023.115898) the largest and highest-resolution X-ray [mapping](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/pdf/2191.pdf) of the Moon’s surface elements using orbital data collected over the first three years of its operation. This previously led to the first ever [global-scale sodium maps](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-98/) of the Moon, and [identifying Chromium](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2021/pdf/2230.pdf) in volcanic lunar soil. Now, with more studies based on CLASS data, the instrument continues [assisting](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/2548.pdf) in detailed geological and volcanic analysis of several lunar features, including [Mare Imbrium](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/1945.pdf), [Mare Crisium](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/2496.pdf), and the [puzzling nature](https://jatan.space/ina-irregular-mare-patch/) of [Irregular Mare Patches](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/2309.pdf). Studying these datasets is unraveling specifics of [how our Moon evolved](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) and helping scientists constrain the lunar crust’s composition. - Researchers have been using the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter’s high-resolution camera, which is the world’s sharpest lunar imager, to [identify sub-resolution tracks of Chandrayaan 3’s rover](https://www.currentscience.ac.in/Volumes/128/06/0558.pdf) based on illumination changes. Scientists are also using the imager to [study interactions](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/2277.pdf) between the lander’s [engine plumes and lunar regolith](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-180/) during when [Chandrayaan 3’s lander hopped](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-143/) towards the end of its surface mission. ### The case of IIRS - The [IIRS infrared spectrometer](http://dx.doi.org/10.18520/cs/v118/i3/368-375) on the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter is the successor to the M3 instrument on [Chandrayaan 1](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/) which [discovered lunar water](https://jatan.space/how-nasa-and-chandrayaan-discovered-water-on-the-moon/). IIRS was supposed to advance the next phase of lunar exploration by helping locate and quantify [water ice deposits](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s poles. However, the expected results haven’t come due to issues with calibration of IIRS data. The team is [still slowly progressing](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/1876.pdf) on making its data products useful, and there’s some usage demonstrated with [mineral compositional studies](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/2055.pdf). But the lack of firm, expected results from IIRS are made poignant by the fact that it’s been in lunar orbit for over five years since Chandrayaan 2’s launch in 2019\. There may be a silver lining. Recently a team of US scientists [calibrated IIRS datasets on their own](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/1644.pdf) to be able to leverage the spectrometer’s potency: > Observations from the Chandrayaan-2 Imaging Infrared Spectrometer (IIRS) present a unique opportunity to study lunar hydration, given the instrument’s spectral range of 0.9–5.3 μm, spectral resolution of 20 nm, and spatial resolution of \~80 m. This instrument is similar to the Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3) on Chandrayaan-1 but the longer spectral range allows for direct removal of the lunar thermal emission which affects the 3 µm band. After five years in orbit, IIRS has accumulated enough observations to include the same surface regions under different lighting conditions. \[...\] We use the IIRS data to analyze the spatial and temporal variability of the 3 µm absorption feature on the lunar surface to explore the effect of temperature/illumination conditions on the presence of hydration. **Related:** [*How Chandrayaan 1, 2 and 3 leveraged their view from the Moon*](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-22/) *to image a solar eclipse, study the Sun’s flares, and observe Earth as an exoplanet* --- *Thank you to* [***Astrolab***](https://astrolab.space) *and* [***GalaxEye Space***](https://galaxeye.space) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource for free and without ads,* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*. 🌙* --- ## More lunar science ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/04/spa-basin-unar-basic-melt-sheet-and-structure-chang-e-6-samples.jpg) Formation of the lunar South Pole-Aitken basin’s impact melt sheet and layered structure as identified based on Chang’e 6 sample studies. [Image: SU Bin, et al.](https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwaf103) - Our Moon’s [massive South Pole-Aitken basin got an age](https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwaf103) thanks to China’s Chang’e 6 mission but people and media in the West have barely talked about it. If this was a NASA mission, they’d be screaming on all channels and everyone spacey would share it like it’s the biggest thing right now—which in the lunar world it is! I [covered it on Moon Monday](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-218/) to do my part. - The National Museum of China in Beijing is hosting a [two-month exhibit](https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202504/1331322.shtml) on China’s extremely successful Chang’e lunar exploration program to educate and inspire the public at large. As part of it, CNSA is also displaying Moon samples brought to Earth by its [Chang’e 5](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-156/) and [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-201/) missions. A few months ago, China [exhibited Chang’e 5 lunar samples](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FbDNnaTO2qI) at the Beijing Planetarium. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/04/national-museum-of-china-beijing-cnsa-chang-e-exhibition.jpg) A visitor exploring the lunar exhibition at the National Museum of China in Beijing. [Image: Li Hao / Global Times](https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202504/1331322.shtml) - The first geological map of Chandrayaan 3’s landing region [reveals it to be 3.7 billion years old](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asr.2025.01.020). The region has been significantly altered since its formation by subsequent crater impacts and their material ejections. - The [composition of high-latitude lunar soil](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-190/) measured by Chandrayaan 3 is [being used to create lunar soil simulants](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/1861.pdf) from Moon-like anorthositic rocks in the UAE. - ispace Japan’s US subsidiary has [formed a scientific advisory board](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7214), featuring well known names in the lunar community, with the aim of strengthening its lunar exploration approach and competitiveness in NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/04/esa-luna-facility-rover-nav-test.jpg) A rover navigating in ESA’s Moon-like LUNA facility in orchestration with other hardware sensors positioned across the simulated surface. [Image: DLR](https://www.dlr.de/en/latest/news/2024/a-swarm-of-sensors-rovers-and-astronauts-explore-the-moon) - Jeff Foust [reports](https://spacenews.com/clps-companies-seek-expanded-opportunities-for-commercial-lunar-landers/) that several CLPS lunar lander companies expressed asking for large delivery contracts, block buys of missions, investment in testing facilities and communications services, and non-NASA US government buyers in a US Congressional hearing. - ESA’s new Moon-simulating [LUNA facility](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-195/) continues being used by researchers for honing future exploration development, with the latest tests seeing multiple hardware devices and rovers [working in tandem](https://www.dlr.de/en/latest/news/2024/a-swarm-of-sensors-rovers-and-astronauts-explore-the-moon) to autonomously map and navigate unknown terrain. - A group of researchers at the Indian Institute of Science have been [progressing on bacteria-based lunar regolith simulant bricks](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/science/now-iisc-team-develops-lunar-brick-repair-solution-using-bacteria/articleshow/119861258.cms) that are repairable. - Moon missions can be both cheaper and safer if more countries share navigation infrastructure. I wrote on [how its implementation details matter](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/the-road-to-a-moonbase-goes-through-advanced-navigation-based-on-open-standards) for the Open Lunar Foundation (a Moon Monday sponsor) and why they’ve taken up this research scope. ### Newly approved Chandrayaan 5 LUPEX mission will drill for water on the Moon and aid Artemis | Indian Space Progress #25-26 URL: https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/ Last updated: 2025-04-07T06:37:33.000Z India has formally approved the joint ISRO-JAXA Chandrayaan 5 ([LUPEX](https://humans-in-space.jaxa.jp/en/biz-lab/tech/lupex/)) mission to study [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s south pole. The mission and its approval are notable in many ways as we’ll see below. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/04/lupex-lander-rover-illustration-and-logo.jpg) Illustration of the Chandrayaan 5 lander and rover, and a mission graphic. [Images: JAXA / ISRO](https://humans-in-space.jaxa.jp/en/biz-lab/tech/lupex/) ### First, on the confusion about the mission’s approval and development The Japanese government had approved the **LU**nar **P**olar **EX**ploration (LUPEX) mission on their end [for years](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2021/pdf/1840.pdf), and had been waiting on India to do the same. ISRO’s new Chief V. Narayanan [said](https://www.deccanherald.com/india/centre-has-accorded-approval-for-chandrayaan-5-mission-isro-chief-3448873) the Indian Government’s Union Cabinet approved the Chandrayaan 5/LUPEX mission on March 13\. It finally ends the [unnecessary confusion](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-196/#the-actual-status-of-lupex) stemming from ISRO not clearly communicating official information about the mission’s approval status. The approval also resolves statements made by both ISRO and JAXA which [wrongly conveyed LUPEX’s launch being in mid-decade](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-152/) for years. Note that not everything is clear just yet since no budget seems to have been announced for the mission so far. However, one can gauge from ISRO’s [Demand for Grants for 2025-26](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/RTI/DDG%5F2025%5F2026.pdf) document that work on Chandrayaan 5 will continue in the background while the [Chandrayaan 4](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-194/) sample return mission takes center stage. Also, confusion about LUPEX thickened recently as the ISRO Chief [seems to have erroneously quoted](https://www.deccanherald.com/india/centre-has-accorded-approval-for-chandrayaan-5-mission-isro-chief-3448873) that its rover’s mass will be 250 kilograms instead of 350\. ISRO and JAXA have been consistently quoting the latter number for years, and that is very likely the correct mass range. ### The water-hunting mission of LUPEX ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/04/lunar-south-pole-illumination-map-lro-perspective-view-labeled.jpg) Aggregated solar illumination map of the Moon’s south pole made from stacked observations by NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, shown in perspective view. The brightest spots are topographic highs that are maximally sunlit whereas the pitch black areas are [permanently shadowed](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/)—within which water ice deposits are thought to exist. [Image: NASA](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/271) The Chandrayaan 5 lander carrying the LUPEX rover on top of it will launch on Japan’s H3 rocket by end of decade, following India’s launch of [Chandrayaan 4](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-194/) which is targeted by 2028\. The \~6,000-kilogram ISRO-developed Chandrayaan 5 lander will deploy the JAXA-provided \~350-kilogram LUPEX rover on the Moon’s south pole to directly study the nature, abundance, and accessibility of [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). As part of its exploration spanning at least 3.5 months, the LUPEX rover will enter [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) seeking water ice and other such volatiles. In terms of [hardware development](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/1918.pdf), JAXA and Mitsubishi have been validating the LUPEX rover design through a series of tests using qualification and engineering models. Engineering models for several rover instruments have also been built and tested. To safely and precisely land LUPEX amid the [dangerously rocky terrain](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/Slope%20map%5FSouth%20Pole%5F85%20to%2090%20deg%20S%5Fv2.pdf) at the Moon’s south pole, ISRO is building the Chandrayaan 5 lander with input from both [Chandrayaan 3’s success](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) and [that of JAXA’s SLIM lander](https://jatan.space/precision-moon-landings-and-the-future/). LUPEX builds on the previous Indo-Japanese collaboration of ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter helping JAXA](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/) nail SLIM’s goal of precision lunar landing. Landing site [selection studies](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2024/pdf/1898.pdf) for LUPEX have been ongoing, feeding into as well as building on [ISRO’s ongoing aid to NASA](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/#isro-aids-artemis) for planning crewed [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/artemis/) missions. A [2024 IAC talk by Chandrayaan 3’s Project Director](https://www.youtube.com/live/bfV%5F1Y%5FhZDM?feature=shared&t=32835) Palanivel Veeramuthuvel suggests that Chandrayaan 5’s landing site could be [89.45°S, 222.85°E](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?prjExtent=-104448.3865876%2C-58709.254334%2C71628.9957133%2C40992.6822253&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=222.85000000%2C-89.45000000&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFOOZLRfImqnioA&proj=17), which lies on an elevated ridge connecting the large Shackleton and de Gerlache craters. A key criteria for selecting Chandrayaan 5’s landing site is that it should have several 100-meter-scale [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) nearby so that the LUPEX rover can directly study any potential water ice and other volatile deposits they might host. LUPEX will power through one of the harshest planetary environments in the solar system. Between cryogenic temperatures during major investigations, a rocky terrain [riddled with steep slopes](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/Slope%20map%5FSouth%20Pole%5F85%20to%2090%20deg%20S%5Fv2.pdf), and a near-horizon Sun causing long, moving shadows that the rover needs to keep avoiding, we’re sending LUPEX to lunar hell. Despite facing much colder temperatures than NASA’s [flagship Mars missions](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/perseverance), LUPEX is not currently planned to have a radioisotope heater unit (RHU) for warmth. Instead, the solar-powered rover will rely on its battery and heat pipes to keep itself from freezing. LUPEX will periodically park at pre-identified high-altitude polar spots during the mission where local nights last only 3 to 5 Earth days instead of the longer 14 Earth days worth of equatorial lunar nights. ### LUPEX instruments ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/04/chandrayaan-5lupex-rover-instruments.jpg) Multi-agency instruments planned to be on the LUPEX rover. [Image: JAXA / M. Ohtake, et al.](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/1918.pdf) The LUPEX rover will feature [instruments from both Japan and India](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/1918.pdf) as well as a contribution each from NASA and ESA. A defining capability of LUPEX will be the ISRO-provided [ground penetrating radar](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/1970.pdf), which will tell scientists about the Moon’s polar underground structure and its water ice locations up to 3 meters depth. To complement these observations, a NASA-led neutron spectrometer onboard will detect hydrogen—as an indirect sign of water—up to a meter below the surface. Together, the two instruments will help mission scientists identify the most favorable drill locations to access water-containing soil samples. JAXA’s drill on LUPEX will fetch samples from up to a depth of 1.5 meters, which will be analyzed by at least five complementary spectrometers from JAXA and ISRO onboard the rover. Since volatiles evaporate even at moderately warm temperatures, some of them would escape the soil and drilled samples before LUPEX’s spectrometer suite can detect them. To that end, ESA is [contributing](https://twitter.com/AschbacherJosef/status/1511091280327200773) a [mass spectrometer](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2020/08/Sensing%5Fthe%5FMoon) onboard the rover to identify escaped volatiles that pass through it. It will also study the Moon’s exosphere. Lastly, an ISRO-provided thermal probe on the rover will help quantify water ice within soil samples. Things on the lander side are still murky. ISRO is yet to finalize, or announce, the instruments that will be on the large lander. Given its mass budget, it also has the potential for substantial science. ISRO has been considering adding an RHU on the lander to demonstrate lunar night survival but it’s not confirmed yet. ### International context and Indo-Japanese aid to Artemis The Chandrayaan 5 mission’s goal is thus similar to China’s [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#the-instrumental-and-increasingly-international-7) mission, which CNSA aims to launch next year to substantially advance our understanding of the accessibility, movement and storage of surface and near-surface polar [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). In the meanwhile, NASA undertook a [questionable cancellation](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-186/) of its [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/), which had a similar goal, and so the US is [now scrambling](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-212/) to find another opportunity to fly VIPER—an approach which [decidedly fails at the mission’s original goal](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-188/). Planetary scientist [Brett Denevi](https://hub.jhu.edu/experts/profiles/brett-denevi), who leads the [Artemis III Geology Team](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-selects-geology-team-for-the-first-crewed-artemis-lunar-landing) for NASA, [said](https://spacenews.com/clps-companies-seek-expanded-opportunities-for-commercial-lunar-landers/) “We should not expect VIPER science to happen by hoping that someone will offer to fly and operate it on their own dime.” She added that the US Congress should at least fund existing VIPER science and operations teams, which are at risk of being disbanded even if NASA selects a company to fly VIPER. Knowing the ground truth about the Moon’s water ice deposits is necessary to systematically plan sustained robotic and crewed lunar missions, and India and Japan are keen to be strategic knowledge providers of the same. As such, Chandrayaan 5 LUPEX stands to provide NASA a chance to obtain the desired information about lunar polar water without the US space agency pursuing another time-consuming mission. Japan is a [key partner](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-172) of NASA in the [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/artemis/) campaign, and has signed the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords) for cooperative lunar exploration. India too has [signed the Accords](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-133/), and ISRO is already [aiding NASA](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/#isro-aids-artemis) with lunar polar resource prospecting and hazard classification of landing sites for crewed Artemis missions. All of these mechanisms encourage scientific data sharing. It’s also how the US bloc of countries can catch up with [China’s lead in lunar exploration](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-206/#china). There are also other areas where LUPEX will help leapfrog technological developments. For India, building the large Chandrayaan 5 lander will enable a foundational element for [more complex robotic and crewed missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/). On the Japanese side, building and operating the LUPEX rover [will contribute directly](https://toyotatimes.jp/en/toyota%5Fnews/1039.html) to the development of Japan’s [advanced pressurized rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-172/) for Artemis, which targets a launch and lunar delivery next decade. ## Lunar science galore from Chandrayaan 2 ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/04/ch-2-orbiter-cover.jpg) Illustration of the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter. Image: ISRO - With another [joint analysis](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/2401.pdf) specifically identifying a possible landing area, ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) continues [aiding NASA](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/#isro-aids-artemis) in landing site selection for the crewed [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/) Moon mission targeting launch later this decade. - In February 2024, the UK Space Agency [funded](https://www.gov.uk/government/news/new-funding-ensures-uk-role-in-global-exploration-to-the-moon-mars-and-venus) Royal Holloway, University of London (RHUL) with £306,000 to develop software for the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter to help its multi-band radar better [detect underground water ice](https://arxiv.org/abs/2104.14259) on the Moon’s poles. [Initial results are now out](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/1580.pdf), showing some headway. The orbiter’s radar data is [also aiding geological studies](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/1910.pdf). - Analyzing how two-way radio signals between the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter and an [Indian Deep Space Network](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian%5FDeep%5FSpace%5FNetwork) antenna were affected, scientists have inferred the first electron density profile of the Moon’s ionosphere for when the Moon passes through Earth’s geomagnetic tail, [finding the density to be substantially higher](https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/adb3a7) than expected. - Stereo images from the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter’s TMC-2 payload are being used to [study volcanic domes](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/2020.pdf). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/04/lunar-elemental-abundances-from-class-spectrometer-chandrayaan-2-orbiter.jpg) High resolution surface elemental abundance maps of various regions on the Moon, based on X-ray detections by the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter’s CLASS spectrometer; Clockwise from the left: Abundances of Magnesium and Iron, Aluminum, and Iron respectively. Images: ISRO / [S. Narendranath](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/pdf/2191.pdf), [Thejas Suresh](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/2496.pdf), et al. - The [CLASS spectrometer](http://oro.open.ac.uk/29976/1/CLASS%5F2011%5FLunar%5FPlanetary%5FScience%5FConf.pdf) on the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter [has provided](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2023.115898) the largest and highest-resolution X-ray [mapping](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/pdf/2191.pdf) of the Moon’s surface elements using orbital data collected over the first three years of its operation. This previously led to the first ever [global-scale sodium maps](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-98/) of the Moon, and [identifying Chromium](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2021/pdf/2230.pdf) in volcanic lunar soil. Now, with more studies based on CLASS data, the instrument continues [assisting](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/2548.pdf) in detailed geological and volcanic analysis of several lunar features, including [Mare Imbrium](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/1945.pdf), [Mare Crisium](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/2496.pdf), and the [puzzling nature](https://jatan.space/ina-irregular-mare-patch/) of [Irregular Mare Patches](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/2309.pdf). Studying these datasets is unraveling specifics of [how our Moon evolved](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) and helping scientists constrain the lunar crust’s composition. - Researchers have been using the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter’s high-resolution camera, which is the world’s sharpest lunar imager, to [identify sub-resolution tracks of Chandrayaan 3’s rover](https://www.currentscience.ac.in/Volumes/128/06/0558.pdf) based on illumination changes. Scientists are also using the imager to [study interactions](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/2277.pdf) between the lander’s [engine plumes and lunar regolith](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-180/) during when [Chandrayaan 3’s lander hopped](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-143/) towards the end of its surface mission. - The [IIRS infrared spectrometer](http://dx.doi.org/10.18520/cs/v118/i3/368-375) on the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter is the successor to the M3 instrument on [Chandrayaan 1](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/) which [discovered lunar water](https://jatan.space/how-nasa-and-chandrayaan-discovered-water-on-the-moon/). IIRS was supposed to advance the next phase of lunar exploration by helping locate and quantify [water ice deposits](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s poles. However, the expected results haven’t come due to issues with calibration of IIRS data. The team is [still slowly progressing](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/1876.pdf) on making its data products useful, and there’s some usage demonstrated with [mineral compositional studies](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/2055.pdf). But the lack of firm, expected results from IIRS are made poignant by the fact that it’s been in lunar orbit for over five years since Chandrayaan 2’s launch in 2019\. There may be a silver lining. Recently a team of US scientists [calibrated IIRS datasets on their own](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/1644.pdf) to be able to leverage the spectrometer’s potency: > Observations from the Chandrayaan-2 Imaging Infrared Spectrometer (IIRS) present a unique opportunity to study lunar hydration, given the instrument’s spectral range of 0.9–5.3 μm, spectral resolution of 20 nm, and spatial resolution of \~80 m. This instrument is similar to the Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3) on Chandrayaan-1 but the longer spectral range allows for direct removal of the lunar thermal emission which affects the 3 µm band. After five years in orbit, IIRS has accumulated enough observations to include the same surface regions under different lighting conditions. \[...\] We use the IIRS data to analyze the spatial and temporal variability of the 3 µm absorption feature on the lunar surface to explore the effect of temperature/illumination conditions on the presence of hydration. **Related:** [*How Chandrayaan 1, 2 and 3 leveraged their view from the Moon*](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-22/) *to image a solar eclipse, study the Sun’s flares, and observe Earth as an exoplanet* --- *Many thanks to the* [***Takshashila Institution***](https://takshashila.org.in)*,* [***PierSight***](https://piersight.space)*,* [***Catalyx Space***](https://catalyx.space) *and* [***Gurbir Singh***](https://gurbir.co.uk) *for sponsoring this Chandrayaan-special edition of Indian Space Progress. If you too appreciate my efforts to capture true trajectories of Indian space,* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*.* 🚀 --- ## Results from India’s Chandrayaan 3 experiment to benefit future missions eyeing lunar water ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/03/chandrayaan-3-lander-pragyaan-rover-chaste-deployed.jpg) The Chandrayaan 3 lander on the Moon with its ChaSTE thermal probe deployed. [Image: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/chandrayaan3%5Fgallery.html) The [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown) lander touted a thermal probe called [ChaSTE](https://www.spl.gov.in/SPLv2/index.php/advanced-technologies/chandrayaan-3/ChaSTE-ch3.html) developed jointly by two ISRO-affiliated institutions [SPL](https://www.spl.gov.in/) and [PRL](https://www.prl.res.in/prl-eng/). The lander deployed and inserted ChaSTE almost 10 centimeters into the lunar soil to take pristine temperature measurements across the lunar day using ten spaced-out sensors. A new study [published in *Nature*](https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-025-02114-6) shows how the measurements are helping scientists learn exactly how the Sun’s heat propagates down from the Moon’s surface, which has notable implications for planning future polar missions scouting for [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). ChaSTE sensors noticed a rather large temperature difference of 50–80°C between the two ends of the probe, owing to the Moon’s soil being a poor conductor of heat. ChaSTE’s measurements from Chandrayaan 3’s [near-polar landing site of 69°S](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/#the-moment-of-touchdown) are unique because heat flow experiments [on earlier Apollo missions](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2018/pdf/1470.pdf) and most recently [on Firefly’s Blue Ghost](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-217/) lander were in near-equatorial locations, thus tailoring to different objectives that aren’t related to understanding water ice deposits on the Moon’s poles. “ChaSTE is the first ever in-situ thermal profiling of the Moon’s near subsurface,” [said](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) PRL planetary scientist [K. Durga Prasad](https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=4qKqMy4AAAAJ&view%5Fop=list%5Fworks&sortby=pubdate) who is one of the experiment leads. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/03/chandrayaan-3-chaste-sensors-temperature-measurements.jpg) ****Left:** Temperature profiles measured by the ten ChaSTE sensors at different depths; ****Right:** Structural diagram of the ChaSTE probe with mounting positions of the sensors and heater. [Image: K. Durga Prasad, et al.](https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-025-02114-6) A heater just above the probe’s tip later warmed up the subsurface soil, which let scientists [determine its thermal conductivity](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-91866-4), and from it infer its density and physical properties. Future missions operating at or near the Moon’s poles need to account for these characteristics. Likewise, even though the ChaSTE experiment did not directly study water ice, its results have relevant implications for future missions looking for said icy deposits. Combining multiple measurements and [extensive modeling](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/1941.pdf) that accounted for Chandrayaan 3’s landed geometry, local topography, and actual observational conditions, the ChaSTE study derived high-resolution surface and subsurface temperatures at the landed region that were more accurate than those inferred coarsely from orbit using the [Diviner radiometer](https://www.diviner.ucla.edu) on NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lro/about/). This led to a conclusion relevant to future water-ice hunting missions on or near the Moon’s poles: > ChaSTE observations have shown that at high-latitudes, sunward slopes are considerably warmer and poleward slopes just about a meter apart could be much cooler, providing an environment conducive for the presence of water-ice within the shallow sub-surface. > \[...\] > A relationship between the local slope and expected surface peak temperature has been derived. The interesting outcome is that the high latitude sites with local slope greater than 14° in poleward direction might offer similar environment as polar sites for accumulating water ice at shallow depths. The ChaSTE experiment thus suggests that the local terrain and slopes play an outsized role in the ability of near-polar and polar areas to “[pump](https://doi.org/10.1088/0004-637X/788/2/169)” and [accumulate](https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/ac5a48) water ice deposits in their subsurfaces. “Temperatures dictate the presence, stability, and mobility of water on the Moon,” said Durga. More on that in the paper: > Modeling studies showed that surface temperatures ranging from 110 K to 114 K \[-163°C to -159°C\] are suitable conditions for cold-trapping of water ice, particularly at polar regions. It is also suggested that water-ice can migrate to the subsurface due to strong thermal pumping, if the diurnal maximum temperature (Tmax) is above 120 K \[-153°C\] and the mean temperature (Tmin + (Tmax-Tmin/π)) is below 105 K. \[-168°C\] Also, the presence of a dry regolith layer can reduce sublimation rates, potentially burying water ice deposits (due to any transport mechanisms) under a few centimeters thick layer. Such buried water-ice can remain stay put as long as the temperatures are maintained below cold-trapping limits, especially during lunar nights. Considering that local surface temperatures at the Chandrayaan 3 landing site hovered around -168°C by nighttime, it’s possible that several larger poleward sloping regions around Chandrayaan 3’s landing site are hosting subsurface water ice. More crucially, the findings lend mission planners a broader area for water ice prospecting instead of being limited to the [treacherously rocky regions](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/Slope%20map%5FSouth%20Pole%5F85%20to%2090%20deg%20S%5Fv2.pdf) of 86-90°S. From the paper: > High-latitude regions with larger poleward slopes can also be potential sites for water-ice prospecting for future exploration and in-situ resource utilization. Such sites would be technically less challenging for exploration in comparison to extreme polar sites, but scientifically equally interesting for enhancing our understanding about the water ice quantification, distribution and migration. While exploring high-latitude lunar regions between 70–85°S is more challenging—in terms of terrain, slopes, temperature ranges, and access to the Sun and Earth—compared to the relatively benign near-equatorial and mid-latitude regions, the high-latitudes are still not [as extreme as 86–90°S](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/Slope%20map%5FSouth%20Pole%5F85%20to%2090%20deg%20S%5Fv2.pdf). The Moon’s peak polar areas demand [100-meter precision landings](https://jatan.space/precision-moon-landings-and-the-future/) as well as operations during local summers to survive and enable full-duration missions. As such, ChaSTE’s results suggest that future missions with relatively lower budgets and lower risk appetites could still explore water ice in either the less extreme near-polar areas or in peak polar areas despite shorter mission durations. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/03/lunar-south-pole-slope-map.jpg) The rather scary slope map of the Moon’s south pole (85–90°S). [Image: CLSE / LPI](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/Slope%20map%5FSouth%20Pole%5F85%20to%2090%20deg%20S%5Fv2.pdf) “Future studies and even extraction operations of lunar soil will benefit from ChaSTE’s data,” said Durga. The data is publicly available on ISRO’s [ISSDC portal](https://pradan.issdc.gov.in/ch3/). The datasets and model codes used in the study are available on [PRL’s website](https://www.prl.res.in/~durgaprasad/ChaSTE%5FData%5FModel.html). ## More lunar advances from India ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/04/chandrayaan-3-landing-region-geology-map.jpg) Geological map of the Chandrayaan 3 landing region showing geological units, secondary crater chains (blue), and boulders (bright yellow). [Image: R.K. Sinha, et al.](https://www.nature.com/articles/d44151-025-00018-0) - The first geological map of Chandrayaan 3’s landing region [reveals it to be 3.7 billion years old](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asr.2025.01.020). The region has been significantly altered since its formation by subsequent crater impacts and their material ejections. - On March 13, India’s SPADEX satellites [achieved successful undocking](https://www.isro.gov.in/spadex%5Fundocking%5Fsuccessful.html) in Earth orbit, nearly two months after [the docking in January](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-24/). SPADEX is paving the way for ISRO to undertake the [Chandrayaan 4](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-194/) sample return mission, which will involve remote docking and undocking in Earth and lunar orbit. - The [composition of high-latitude lunar soil](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-190/) measured by Chandrayaan 3 is [being used to create lunar soil simulants](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/1861.pdf) from Moon-like anorthositic rocks in the UAE. - A group at the Indian Institute of Science has been [progressing on bacteria-based lunar regolith simulant bricks](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/science/now-iisc-team-develops-lunar-brick-repair-solution-using-bacteria/articleshow/119861258.cms) that are repairable. --- *That was a long piece! If you liked my compilation, commentary, and analysis to provide you with a true sense of advances that India is making with its Chandrayaan missions, kindly* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*. 🌙* ### Moon Monday #219: Results from India’s Chandrayaan 3 experiment to benefit future missions eyeing lunar water URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-219/ Last updated: 2025-04-05T11:42:48.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/03/chandrayaan-3-lander-pragyaan-rover-chaste-deployed.jpg) The Chandrayaan 3 lander on the Moon with its ChaSTE thermal probe deployed. [Image: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/chandrayaan3%5Fgallery.html) The [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown) lander touted a thermal probe called [ChaSTE](https://www.spl.gov.in/SPLv2/index.php/advanced-technologies/chandrayaan-3/ChaSTE-ch3.html) developed jointly by two ISRO-affiliated institutions [SPL](https://www.spl.gov.in/) and [PRL](https://www.prl.res.in/prl-eng/). The lander deployed and inserted ChaSTE almost 10 centimeters into the lunar soil to take pristine temperature measurements across the lunar day using ten spaced-out sensors. A new study [published in *Nature*](https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-025-02114-6) shows how the measurements are helping scientists learn exactly how the Sun’s heat propagates down from the Moon’s surface, which has notable implications for planning future polar missions scouting for [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). ChaSTE sensors noticed a rather large temperature difference of 50–80°C between the two ends of the probe, owing to the Moon’s soil being a poor conductor of heat. ChaSTE’s measurements from Chandrayaan 3’s [near-polar landing site of 69°S](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/#the-moment-of-touchdown) are unique because heat flow experiments [on earlier Apollo missions](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2018/pdf/1470.pdf) and most recently [on Firefly’s Blue Ghost](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-217/) lander were in near-equatorial locations, thus tailoring to different objectives that aren’t related to understanding water ice deposits on the Moon’s poles. “ChaSTE is the first ever in-situ thermal profiling of the Moon’s near subsurface,” [said](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) PRL planetary scientist [K. Durga Prasad](https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=4qKqMy4AAAAJ&view%5Fop=list%5Fworks&sortby=pubdate) who is one of the experiment leads. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/03/chandrayaan-3-chaste-sensors-temperature-measurements.jpg) ****Left:** Temperature profiles measured by the ten ChaSTE sensors at different depths; ****Right:** Structural diagram of the ChaSTE probe with mounting positions of the sensors and heater. [Image: K. Durga Prasad, et al.](https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-025-02114-6) A heater just above the probe’s tip later warmed up the subsurface soil, which let scientists [determine its thermal conductivity](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-91866-4), and from it infer its density and physical properties. Future missions operating at or near the Moon’s poles need to account for these characteristics. Likewise, even though the ChaSTE experiment did not directly study water ice, its results have relevant implications for future missions looking for said icy deposits. Combining multiple measurements and [extensive modeling](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/1941.pdf) that accounted for Chandrayaan 3’s landed geometry, local topography, and actual observational conditions, the ChaSTE study derived high-resolution surface and subsurface temperatures at the landed region that were more accurate than those inferred coarsely from orbit using the [Diviner radiometer](https://www.diviner.ucla.edu) on NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lro/about/). This led to a conclusion relevant to future water-ice hunting missions on or near the Moon’s poles: > ChaSTE observations have shown that at high-latitudes, sunward slopes are considerably warmer and poleward slopes just about a meter apart could be much cooler, providing an environment conducive for the presence of water-ice within the shallow sub-surface. > \[...\] > A relationship between the local slope and expected surface peak temperature has been derived. The interesting outcome is that the high latitude sites with local slope greater than 14° in poleward direction might offer similar environment as polar sites for accumulating water ice at shallow depths. The ChaSTE experiment thus suggests that the local terrain and slopes play an outsized role in the ability of near-polar and polar areas to “[pump](https://doi.org/10.1088/0004-637X/788/2/169)” and [accumulate](https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/ac5a48) water ice deposits in their subsurfaces. “Temperatures dictate the presence, stability, and mobility of water on the Moon,” said Durga. More on that in the paper: > Modeling studies showed that surface temperatures ranging from 110 K to 114 K \[-163°C to -159°C\] are suitable conditions for cold-trapping of water ice, particularly at polar regions. It is also suggested that water-ice can migrate to the subsurface due to strong thermal pumping, if the diurnal maximum temperature (Tmax) is above 120 K \[-153°C\] and the mean temperature (Tmin + (Tmax-Tmin/π)) is below 105 K. \[-168°C\] Also, the presence of a dry regolith layer can reduce sublimation rates, potentially burying water ice deposits (due to any transport mechanisms) under a few centimeters thick layer. Such buried water-ice can remain stay put as long as the temperatures are maintained below cold-trapping limits, especially during lunar nights. Considering that local surface temperatures at the Chandrayaan 3 landing site hovered around -168°C by nighttime, it’s possible that several larger poleward sloping regions around Chandrayaan 3’s landing site are hosting subsurface water ice. More crucially, the findings lend mission planners a broader area for water ice prospecting instead of being limited to the [treacherously rocky regions](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/Slope%20map%5FSouth%20Pole%5F85%20to%2090%20deg%20S%5Fv2.pdf) of 86-90°S. From the paper: > High-latitude regions with larger poleward slopes can also be potential sites for water-ice prospecting for future exploration and in-situ resource utilization. Such sites would be technically less challenging for exploration in comparison to extreme polar sites, but scientifically equally interesting for enhancing our understanding about the water ice quantification, distribution and migration. While exploring high-latitude lunar regions between 70–85°S is more challenging—in terms of terrain, slopes, temperature ranges, and access to the Sun and Earth—compared to the relatively benign near-equatorial and mid-latitude regions, the high-latitudes are still not [as extreme as 86–90°S](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/Slope%20map%5FSouth%20Pole%5F85%20to%2090%20deg%20S%5Fv2.pdf). The Moon’s peak polar areas demand [100-meter precision landings](https://jatan.space/precision-moon-landings-and-the-future/) as well as operations during local summers to survive and enable full-duration missions. As such, ChaSTE’s results suggest that future missions with relatively lower budgets and lower risk appetites could still explore water ice in either the less extreme near-polar areas or in peak polar areas despite shorter mission durations. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/03/lunar-south-pole-slope-map.jpg) The rather scary slope map of the Moon’s south pole (85–90°S). [Image: CLSE / LPI](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/Slope%20map%5FSouth%20Pole%5F85%20to%2090%20deg%20S%5Fv2.pdf) “Future studies and even extraction operations of lunar soil will benefit from ChaSTE’s data,” said Durga. The data is publicly available on ISRO’s [ISSDC portal](https://pradan.issdc.gov.in/ch3/). The datasets and model codes used in the study are available on [PRL’s website](https://www.prl.res.in/~durgaprasad/ChaSTE%5FData%5FModel.html). India’s next Moon mission [Chandrayaan 4](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-194/) aims to launch by 2028 and bring lunar samples from a landing site somewhere between 84-85°S. And the follow-on joint ISRO-JAXA [Chandrayaan 5/LUPEX](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/) rover mission is considering landing sites around 89°S to directly study the nature, accessibility, and abundance of lunar water ice. **Also see:** [*Composition of high-latitude lunar soil by the Chandrayaan 3 rover and its importance*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-190/) --- *Many thanks to* [***The Orbital Index***](https://orbitalindex.com)*,* [***Astrolab***](https://astrolab.space) *and* [***Open Lunar Foundation***](https://www.openlunar.org/) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource for free and without ads,* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*. 🌙* --- ## More mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/03/artemis-ii-sls-rocket-core-stage.jpg) The SLS rocket core stage and twin boosters inside NASA’s Vehicle Assembly Building. [Image: NASA / Frank Michaux](https://images.nasa.gov/details/KSC-20250323-PH-FMX01%5F0207) - On March 23, technicians at NASA [joined](https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2025/03/24/nasas-artemis-ii-core-stage-integration-complete-at-kennedy/) the [twin solid rocket boosters](https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/artemis-ii-rocket-booster-stacking-complete/) to either side of the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/reference/space-launch-system/)’s core stage in preparation towards launching the crewed [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii/) Moon mission next year. On March 9, ULA [delivered to NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/artemis-ii-upper-stage-delivered-to-kennedy/) the upper stage of SLS, which technicians will fuel and later stack it atop the core stage via an adapter. - Jeff Foust [reports](https://spacenews.com/intuitive-machines-emphasizes-diversification-beyond-lunar-landers/) that lunar lander builder Intuitive Machines aims to diversify its offerings with [orbital lunar communications](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-195/#a-sino-suit-for-luna) and deployment services. This comes after the company faced [another unsuccessful mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-216/#tipped-intuitive-mooncraft-dies-with-none-of-the-net-130-million-worth-of-payloads-deployed) with IM-2 as part of [NASA CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). - To continue the development of its next two Moon missions, ispace Japan has [secured a $10 million loan](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7173) from Sumitomo Mitsui Trust Bank. This enables funding for the company’s US subsidiary’s [first NASA CLPS mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-184/) through Draper—which interestingly highlights [an intersection of CLPS, funding, and science](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-184/). ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/03/apollo-heat-flow-experiments-pictures-and-data-status.jpg) ****Top:** The Apollo 15 and 17 thermal probes inserted into the lunar surface by astronauts; ****Bottom:** The current archival status of data from their experiments. [Images: NASA / James Irwin / Harrison Schmidt / S. Nagihara, et al.](https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JE005579) - A [new study](https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JE005579) which recovered and restored previously unarchived data from the [heat flow experiments](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2018/pdf/1470.pdf) on Apollo 15 and 17 found that the subsurface warming recorded during 1974–1977 was ultimately a result of [prior astronaut surface activities slightly darkening the soil](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/features/061318/moon-mystery/), which increased their absorption of the Sun’s heat. - As background work to realize advanced technologies in the 2030s or 2040s, China has been working on aspects of [versatile mining robots](https://www.leonarddavid.com/china-research-team-evaluates-robotic-moon-asteroid-mining-technology/) and [giant lunar farside telescopes](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3302926/chinese-scientists-propose-giant-telescope-far-side-moon-understand-early-cosmos?module=perpetual%5Fscroll%5F0&pgtype=article) while Japan is eyeing [self-adapting multi-robot explorers](https://robo.japanstep.jp/learn/2025/03/970/). ### Fun with Moon exploration headlines URL: https://jatan.space/fun-with-moon-exploration-headlines/ Last updated: 2025-10-28T05:36:23.000Z I’ve been having so much fun with headlines on my [Moon Monday](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) blog+newsletter lately: - [Not the fault in our stars but certainly stressful faults on our Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-199/) - [Little LUNA on Earth](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-195/) - [A bao-burrito-bhel of global lunar updates](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-202/) - [Suit up to walk under Moonlight](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-198/) - [Let’s be high on launch and low on provocation](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-209/) - [UNO Skip, then UNO Flip, ft. VIPER and Artemis](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-212/) - [Blue Ghost preps for lunar landing, gets its fix in lunar orbit](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-214/) - [An Amazon delivery for NASA’s VIPER rover?](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-243/) - [Red A-CLPS](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-217/) - Headlines like episode titles of “[Friends](https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0108778/)”: - [The one with no tying theme, like a VIPER-less Artemis](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-204/) - [The one where Chandrayaan and Gaganyaan converge](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/) - [The one from Wenchang!](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-205/) - [The one that starts with a meme](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-248/) *Related:* [*Fun with serious SLS rocket headlines*](https://jatan.space/fun-with-serious-sls-rocket-headlines/) Why such non-traditional headlines, you ask? Because [I write for you](https://jatan.space/i-write-for-you/), not social media or SEO. ### Moon Monday #218: A molten Moon, a date for the SPA, sunset for Blue Ghost as well as inclusive Artemis language, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-218/ Last updated: 2025-03-24T18:18:03.000Z *There’s a lot in this Moon Monday edition to unpack. Grab yourself a coffee or another mild drug of choice and let’s get started.* 🤓 ## Chang’e 6 samples produce two more big results ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/03/magma-ocean-and-solidifying-crust-on-the-early-moon.jpg) An artist's concept of our Moon shortly after its formation, with a mag­ma ocean and a newly forming rocky crust. [Image: NASA Goddard](https://www.dlr.de/content/en/articles/news/2020/03/20200710%5Fa-slightly-younger-moon.html) Until now, all the direct evidence of our Moon being covered in a [global magma ocean](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/) shortly after its formation has come from lunar samples brought by Apollo and Luna missions from equatorial and near-equatorial regions on the nearside. Surface measurements made by Chandrayaan 3’s Pragyan rover in 2023 [extended this hypothesis’ validity](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-190/) to nearside high-latitude regions. But we had no such tactile measurements from the Moon’s farside until recently. Last year, China’s [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) mission brought the first [lunar farside samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-201/) to Earth, allowing scientists to test if the hypothesis holds true for whole of Luna. Now, scientists from various institutes in Beijing studying two grams of Chang’e 6 volcanic samples have [confirmed](https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adt3332) the presence of key chemical elements that are compatible with a young fully molten Moon, lending unequivocal credence to the idea. The [CNSA release](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465652/n6465653/c10650772/content.html) about the study notes that finer deviations in the composition of farside and nearside basalts as revealed by the analysis will help scientists further constrain [how our Moon evolved](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/): > The lead isotope evolution paths in basalt from the far and near sides are different. This suggests that different regions of the Moon evolved differently after the magma ocean crystallized. Giant impact events, especially the one that created the SPA Basin, likely changed the physical and chemical properties of the Moon's mantle. In another critical study published on March 20, scientists from Beijing analyzed five grams of Chang’e 6 samples to [determine the truest age yet](https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwaf103) of the massive [South-Pole Aitken (SPA) basin](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2008/pdf/1626.pdf) within which the spacecraft landed. Spanning 2500 kilometers, SPA is the Moon’s largest, deepest, and oldest impact crater, and its age and formation nature has huge implications for [our Moon’s evolution](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). Chang’e 6 landed within SPA at [153.99° W, 41.64° S](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?prjExtent=-5221688.1665765%2C-1467732.4084261%2C-3942620.3673887%2C-743473.9323902&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&isCesiumEntityDetailsEnabled=true&showCompass=true&trailType=1&wideTrail=true&features=206.01455000%2C-41.63839000%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Chang’e+6+landing+site%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKWbJYNOZLRfImq3ioA&proj=16), near the southern rim of the 500-kilometer wide [Apollo](https://jatan.space/peak-ringed-apollo-crater/) crater. While the vast majority of Chang’e 6 samples represent much younger volcanic material, the researchers meticulously examined 1600 fragments from those 5 grams to identify 20 pieces that relate to an SPA-like impact-created origin. Precise lead-lead dating of the fragments finds the SPA to have formed 4.25 billion years ago. 💥 ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/03/chang-e-6-samples-provide-age-of-spa-lunar-basin.jpg) Illustration showing ancient impact melt rock fragments collected among Change’e 6 samples at the mission’s landing site within the South-Pole Aitken (SPA) basin. [Image: CAS](https://english.cas.cn/newsroom/research%5Fnews/earth/202503/t20250321%5F908490.shtml) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/03/spa-lunar-basic-melt-sheet-and-structure-chang-e-6-samples.jpg) Formation of the SPA basin’s impact melt sheet and layered structure as identified based on Chang’e 6 sample studies. [Image: SU Bin, et al.](https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwaf103) The [CNSA release](http://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4289299/content.html) about the study notes: > This finding provides the first direct, sample-based evidence that the Moon's largest impact basin formed approximately 320 million years after the beginning of Solar System. The definitive age of 4.25 billion years for the SPA basin can serve as a crucial anchor point for refining the lunar cratering chronology and establishing a more complete temporal sequence of the Moon's early evolution. With these discoveries, Chang’e 6 is continuing to live up to its bold promises of the mission samples helping scientists [solve a whole host of Moon mysteries](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2024/pdf/1873.pdf) such as understanding the [distinct lunar farside volcanism](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2024.118737), [determining its age](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-202/), and learning why the farside is so [enigmatically different](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) from the familiar nearside—which is necessary to understand not just Luna’s evolution but [that of our Solar System](https://jatan.space/solar-system-history-101/). *I have more coverage of other notable recent results from Chinese lunar missions in the link below:* [A long march of lunar papers from China 🌗](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-211/) ## The Sun sets for Blue Ghost ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/03/firefly-blue-ghost-clps-lander-captures-lunar-sunset-earth-and-venus.jpg) A beautiful lunar sunset captured by the Blue Ghost lander, with our Earth and Venus seen near the horizon. [Image: Firefly Aerospace](https://www.flickr.com/photos/fireflyspace/54395222634/in/album-72177720313239766) Capturing a [lunar sunset and associated glow](https://www.flickr.com/photos/fireflyspace/54395222634/in/album-72177720313239766) on March 16 was one of the final acts of the [Blue Ghost Moon lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-215/) before US-based Firefly Aerospace sunset the mission part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/)—as intended. NASA scientists will study the sunset imagery from multiple cameras as well as surface dust photographed by another instrument [SCALPSS](https://www.nasa.gov/general/nasa-cameras-on-blue-ghost-capture-first-of-its-kind-moon-landing-footage/) during that time to try and determine if electrically charged and levitating dust really is the cause of the lunar horizon glow or not. In the meanwhile, Firefly has [chosen Honeybee Robotics](https://www.honeybeerobotics.com/news-events/firefly-aerospace-selects-blue-origins-honeybee-robotics-to-provide-rover-for-lunar-mission-to-gruithuisen-domes/) to provide the rover for the company’s [third CLPS mission](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/more-nasa-science-tech-will-fly-to-moon-aboard-future-firefly-flight/). Honeybee successfully operated instruments on Blue Ghost’s Mission 1\. Firefly’s third CLPS flight will carry six NASA-funded science & technology payload suites, including some on the rover, to one of the two [Gruithuisen Domes](https://jatan.space/unique-volcanic-domes-of-gruithuisen/), a unique volcanic site on the Moon’s nearside. **An informative correction:** Last week on [Moon Monday #217](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-217/), I wrote that Blue Ghost was the first to capture a solar eclipse from the Moon. I was wrong. The first to do so was NASA’s Surveyor 3 lander on April 24, 1967\. It not only photographed the eclipse crown ring but did so on its 114th day on the Moon! Thank you [Mark Robinson](https://search.asu.edu/profile/957914) of the LRO fame for pointing this out. Upon checking the [associated paper](https://doi.org/10.1029/JB073i012p03989), a cool fact is that Surveyor 3 used a mirror to bring the Earth in view from its local landed geometry to be able to image the solar eclipse. 🪞✨ ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/03/nasa-surveyor-3-solar-eclipse-capture-from-the-moon.jpg) ****Top panel:** The total solar eclipse of April 24, 1967 as captured by NASA’s Surveyor 3 lander using red, green, and blue filters respectively; ****Bottom panel:** Distribution of light in the refraction halo of Earth for two sets of superimposed eclipse pictures, shown here as an inner circle and an outer circle. [Images: NASA / E. M. Shoemaker, et al.](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/resources/mapcatalog/Surveyor/press%5Freleases/surveyor%5FIII/) --- *Many thanks to* [***Catalyx Space***](https://catalyx.space) *and* [***Gordon Roesler***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/gordon-roesler-687a0426) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource for free and without ads,* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*. 🌙* --- ## Firefly deserves an unusual kudos ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/03/firefly-blue-ghost-nasa-clps-mission-1.jpg) Blue Ghost Mission 1\. [Images: Firefly Aerospace](https://www.flickr.com/photos/fireflyspace/albums/72177720313239766/) Following China’s lead in successful modern lunar surface missions, and joining [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) as the only other such mission that went as planned, Firefly has executed a rare, supremely nominal Moon mission with Blue Ghost. Firefly brought the first true soft landing for the US in the 21st century, bounties of knowledge from its science & technology payloads, a precision landing demonstration, the first GPS/GNSS lock on the Moon, a stunning solar eclipse capture, and humble brags despite it all. Immense congratulations are in order to the entire Firefly team, NASA, and all the payload people for pulling this off. 🔥🌗 If you want to learn about how Blue Ghost fits into the larger picture of [global lunar exploration](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-206/), I’ve been covering its lunar activities in context that’s not limited to the US. Follow the four links below for the full rundown: 1. [How Firefly approached and achieved a Moon landing in the first attempt with rigor and abundant caution](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-215/) (includes insights from Blue Ghost’s Chief Lander engineer) 2. [Blue Ghost achieved third most precise robotic planetary landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-216/) 3. [A busy lunar morning with lots of payload operations and GPS signals](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-216/#a-busy-lunar-morning) 4. [Drilling on the Moon , images of flying regolith, and operating more payloads](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-217/) ## NASA removes inclusive language from Artemis ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/03/nasa-artemis-landing-page-language-change-2024-2025.jpg) NASA [Artemis webpage](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis/) screenshots before and after the language change. NASA has deleted the following language previously prominently presented on the [Artemis landing page](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis/) on its website: > With the Artemis campaign, NASA will land the first woman and first person of color on the Moon, using innovative technologies to explore more of the lunar surface than ever before. A previous version of the page hosting said language can be found [on the Internet Archive](https://web.archive.org/web/20241203222819/https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis/). Eric Berger [reported](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/03/trump-white-house-drops-diversity-plan-for-moon-landing-it-created-back-in-2019/) NASA’s response to the change as conveyed via an agency spokesperson: > In keeping with the President’s Executive Order, we’re updating our language regarding plans to send crew to the lunar surface as part of NASA’s Artemis campaign. We look forward to learning more from about the Trump Administration’s plans for our agency and expanding exploration at the Moon and Mars for the benefit of all. Many are inferring and reporting this as a change of mission crew plans but that’s not the case—not yet anyway. The reasonably diverse [Artemis astronaut corps of 18 people](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-names-artemis-team-of-astronauts-eligible-for-early-moon-missions/) hasn’t changed. It incudes women and people of color. Of course, the selection criteria and preference of choosing from within the corps could very well change going ahead given the US-wide [inclusion purge](https://archive.is/fxNQP). **Related reminder:** [*Critical scientific documents go missing from NASA-backed lunar community website*](https://jatan.space/scientific-documents-go-missing-from-nasa-lunar-community-website/) *(they’re still missing two months later)* ## ESA and JAXA move ahead on lunar collaborations ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/03/esa-moonlight-graphic.jpg) [Image: ESA](https://www.esa.int/About%5FUs/Corporate%5Fnews/ESA%5Fadvances%5Fits%5Fplan%5Ffor%5Fsatellites%5Faround%5Fthe%5FMoon) In November 2024, ESA and JAXA [announced](https://global.jaxa.jp/press/2024/11/20241120-1%5Fe.html) that the two agencies will keenly examine opportunities for cooperation and collaboration across a whole range of space projects, including lunar exploration. Now they’ve [identified various areas](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/ESA%5Fand%5FJAXA%5Fstrengthen%5Fties%5Fon%5FMoon%5Fand%5FMars%5Fexploration) across the lunar spectrum to evaluate in detail: - Coordinating ESA’s upcoming [Moonlight constellation](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-198/#moonlight-in-motion-and-contrasting-queqiao) and JAXA’s [LunaNET test mission](https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/icg/2023/ICG-17/icg17%5Fwgb%5F04.pdf) for communications and navigation satellites ([navcom](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-185/)) - Payload flight opportunities on missions by both organizations, including upcoming [Gateway science](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-162/#a-gist-of-gateway-science) by both agencies - ESA’s existing analog mission testing with [LUNA](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-195/) and astronaut training with [Pangaea](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/CAVES%5Fand%5FPangaea/What%5Fis%5FPangaea) - Joint studies on future surface missions, particularly how JAXA’s [upcoming pressurized habitable rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-172/) for Artemis astronauts could work in tandem with ESA’s [Argonaut cargo lander](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Exploration/Argonaut) in the 2030s within the Artemis framework. - Developing technological synergies in power systems, robots, and working on interoperability at system and sub-system levels. This sounds promising! 🚀 ## More Moon ispace Japan is [partnering with SpaceData Inc.](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7143) to build a system which replicates physical elements of the lunar environment such as lunar gravity and communications delays. This will accelerate testing and qualification of Moonbound hardware ahead of real flights. The duo will also build a high-resolution topographical model of the Moon based on data acquired by ispace’s lunar missions. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/03/esa-dlr-luna-test-facility-infographic.jpg) The LUNA test facility for lunar exploration hardware and operations. [Image: ESA](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2024/09/LUNA%5Finfographics) ESA started operating a similarly driven, expansive [LUNA facility](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-195/) since late last year. And, South Korea has developed a [full-scale dirty thermovac chamber](https://www.kict.re.kr/researchResultWeb/getResearchResultView.es?mid=a20301000000&id=250) that accurately [simulates the dynamic electrostatic environment](https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/11/1/69) on the Moon’s surface. Such facilities also help scientists and engineers understand how to mitigate long-term damage to lunar hardware and astronaut suits from [notoriously sticky moondust](https://orbitalindex.com/archive/2024-06-19-Issue-274/). --- *If you like my efforts to bring you* [*Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) *every week as a curated community resource compiling and contextualizing all things lunar exploration worldwide for free and without ads,* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*. 🌙* ### Moon Monday #217: Red A-CLPS 🔥💍 URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-217/ Last updated: 2025-05-29T11:19:02.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/03/firefly-blue-ghost-clps-lander-solar-eclipse-from-the-moon.jpg) The Blue Ghost lander captured the roughly five-hour long March 14 total solar eclipse from the Moon. You can see the glowing ring of light from the third, latter picture emerging in earlier images in the solar panel reflections. [Images: Firefly Aerospace](https://www.flickr.com/photos/fireflyspace/54385792941/in/album-72177720313239766/) US-based Firefly Aerospace’s [Blue Ghost Moon lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-215/) part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) continued its [nominal streak of payload operations](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-216/) until just after the [end of lunar day](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-aerospace-successfully-completes-14-days-of-surface-operations-on-the-moon/) on March 16, achieving virtually all of the mission goals it set out on. On March 14, Blue Ghost [captured a total solar eclipse](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M2P-z%5FcXsOs) from the Moon, a mesmerizing [world’s second recording](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-218/#the-sun-sets-for-blue-ghost) of this celestial clockwork that humans have otherwise only observed from Earth as lunar eclipses. Many people are assuming the eclipse ring to be from the Earth’s surface edges but that’s wrong. Earth is much bigger than our Moon, and so the ring glow is from sunlight refracting through our Earth’s outer atmosphere. What’s remarkable is that Blue Ghost made these observations across five hours on battery power amid surrounding surface temperatures dropping far below 0°C and [peaking to a frigid -170°C](https://fireflyspace.com/news/blue-ghost-mission-1-live-updates/). In a way, this was a mini demonstration of Blue Ghost trying to work into a lunar night, something the spacecraft [repeated](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-aerospace-successfully-completes-14-days-of-surface-operations-on-the-moon/) at the end of the local day on March 16 for about 5 hours as planned. --- **Related:** [*How Chandrayaan 1 captured a terrestrial solar eclipse from Luna*](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-22/) --- Since March 3, Blue Ghost was also intermittently [operating](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n7ZP2y9Yo60) the [LISTER drill](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/nasa-payload-aims-to-probe-moons-depths-to-study-heat-flow/), which is jointly developed by Honeybee Robotics & Texas Tech University and flight-funded by NASA. While LISTER’s intended drilling depth was up to three meters underground, according to Firefly’s [latest release](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-aerospace-successfully-completes-14-days-of-surface-operations-on-the-moon/) the drill went up to about a meter into the surface. Data from LISTER will help scientists characterize heat flow in the Moon’s interior as well as other thermal properties, and from it ascertain our knowledge of [how our Moon evolved](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). ISRO’s Chandrayaan 3 Moon lander [performed](https://www.isro.gov.in/Ch3%5Ffirst%5Fobservation%5FChaSTE%5FVikram%5FLander.html) a similar but complementary experiment in 2023 [using a thermal probe](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/#a-lunar-region-never-explored), and whose first set of results have been [published in *Nature*](https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-025-02114-6) earlier this month. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/03/firefly-blue-ghost-clps-lander-plume-lunar-regolith-interactions-by-scalpss.jpg) Thruster-engine-plume and regolith interactions as seen from two of the six NASA SCALPSS cameras onboard Blue Ghost at 12 and 8 meters above the Moon respectively. Note how dust kick up dramatically increased within a small altitude change. [Images: NASA / Olivia Tyrrell](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=emebSgs1f2w) NASA has [released](https://www.nasa.gov/general/nasa-cameras-on-blue-ghost-capture-first-of-its-kind-moon-landing-footage/) initial pictures taken by the agency’s [multi-camera SCALPSS](https://www.nasa.gov/general/nasa-cameras-to-capture-interaction-between-blue-ghost-moons-surface/) payload onboard Blue Ghost during the lander’s last 28 meters of its lunar descent. Blue Ghost’s thruster plumes [vigorously kicked up lunar dust, soil, and rocks](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=emebSgs1f2w)—collectively called regolith. The full suite of up-close SCALPPS images will help lunar scientists and engineers better understand how rocket plumes [blast out lunar soil and affect the local lunar environment](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-180/), and thus how best to protect future astronauts, critical hardware, and long-term habitats on the Moon. NASA aims to make the payload’s data public within six months. The [first version](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/clps/tiny-nasa-cameras-to-picture-interaction-between-lander-moons-surface/) of SCALPSS flew on Intuitive Machines’ [first CLPS lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-165/) last year but [couldn’t work](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/clps/nasa-collects-first-surface-science-in-decades-via-commercial-moon-mission/) because the spacecraft had an [anomalously hard landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-166/). NASA [is sending](https://spacenews.com/nasa-payload-to-fly-on-first-blue-origin-lunar-lander-mission/) the third version of SCALPPS on Blue Origin’s [Blue Moon Mark I lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-188/#a-clps-contract-for-blue-out-of-the-blue) targeted for launch later this year. NASA says the new SCALPPS will be delivered to Blue Origin by end of March. The agency is interested in this flight because unlike smaller landers like Blue Ghost, the massive Mark I will generate high enough trust to allow NASA to gauge plume effects at the scale of large crewed (Artemis) landers. Firefly [says](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-aerospace-successfully-completes-14-days-of-surface-operations-on-the-moon/) the rest of the NASA payloads onboard performed well too . The [retroreflector](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/nasa-anticipates-lunar-findings-from-next-generation-retroreflector/) atop Blue Ghost successfully reflected laser pulses from Earth-based ranging observatories. [LEXI](https://science.nasa.gov/science-research/heliophysics/nasas-lexi-will-provide-x-ray-vision-of-earths-magnetosphere/) captured X-ray images to study how [the solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) interacts with Earth’s magnetic field. The [RAC instrument](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/nasa-science-payload-to-study-sticky-lunar-dust-challenge/) noted how lunar regolith sticks differently to different materials on the Moon, which will better inform scientists and engineers on how to [better protect](https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2102.12312) future human and robotic explorers from notoriously sticky and jagged lunar dust. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/03/firefly-blue-ghost-sunset-time-crescent-earth.jpg) Blue Ghost’s view from the Moon during sunset with lovely crescent Earth in the sky to reflect on. You did well little firefly. [Image: Firefly](https://www.flickr.com/photos/fireflyspace/54392802264/in/album-72177720313239766) --- *Many thanks to* [***The Orbital Index***](https://orbitalindex.com)*,* [***Kris Zacny***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/kris-zacny-8a71ba1) *and* [***Ben Hockman***](https://www-robotics.jpl.nasa.gov/who-we-are/people/benjamin%5Fhockman/) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource for free and without ads,* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*. 🌙* --- ## Still a hard landing for IM-2? ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/03/intuitive-machines-im-2-clps-lander-images-by-lro.jpg) The Athena CLPS lander lying sideways inside a crater on the Moon, captured from orbit by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter. Note the whitish trail from south of the image leading up to the lander. [Image: NASA / LRO / GSFC / ASU](https://www.lroc.asu.edu/images/1409) On March 6, Intuitive Machines’ [second CLPS lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-215/#intuitive-machines-launches-second-moon-lander) called Athena [landed](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/im-2?questionId=6c76a9f0-e2a3-42e5-bad1-3ca4c31ecd74&appDefId=14c92d28-031e-7910-c9a8-a670011e062d) on the Moon’s south pole [around 85°S](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/images/1401) but ended up resting on its side and inside a cold crater such that it couldn’t generate enough solar power for a single Earth day and [died without accomplishing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-216/#tipped-intuitive-mooncraft-dies-with-none-of-the-net-130-million-worth-of-payloads-deployed) the vast majority of its IM-2 mission objectives. It turns out Athena’s landing might not have been much better than last year’s [hard-landed IM-1](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-165/) either based on multiple reports. A blog post by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera team [mentions](https://www.lroc.asu.edu/images/1408) that Athena “hit the surface faster than intended”. While Japanese company Dymon’s tiny [YAOKI rover](https://dymon.co.jp/en/yaoki/) onboard Athena [couldn’t be deployed](https://dymon.co.jp/en/news/yaoki%5Fon%5Fthe%5Fmoon%5F20250307/) due to the lander being sideways, it [took images](https://dymon.co.jp/en/news/whatdidyaokisee%5F202503/) from its hosted position which suggest that a lander leg might have broken off this time too. While that inference is speculative, YAOKI showcases how independent payloads enable more transparency on a mission by offering all they know. [Analysis by Scott Manley](https://youtu.be/ISZTTEtHcTg?feature=shared&t=310) using YAOKI images and other pieces of data also suggests that Athena may have come in laterally faster than expected just before hitting the Moon and toppling over. Well, for a nominal landing scenario, a lander could in principle leave a fine trail while laterally diverting to a safe landing spot using its hazard avoidance system but with Athena’s [altimeters not working](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-216/#tipped-intuitive-mooncraft-dies-with-none-of-the-net-130-million-worth-of-payloads-deployed), the lander wouldn’t have known with good certainty how far off ground it is. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/03/intuitive-machines-im-2-lander-leg-by-yaoki-rover.jpg) Athena’s lander leg pictured by the YAOKI rover. [Images: Dymon](https://dymon.co.jp/en/news/yaoki%5Fon%5Fthe%5Fmoon%5F20250307/) / [Phil Stooke](https://web.archive.org/web/20250317115225/https://forum.nasaspaceflight.com/index.php?PHPSESSID=1blb8j64dc398nd9i6pnmvrjra&topic=62540.msg2671642#msg2671642) Eric Berger [reports](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/03/athena-landed-in-a-dark-crater-where-the-temperature-was-minus-280-f/) that Athena toppled over upon hitting the surface, and skid and rotated along the ground, gathering some regolith over itself and its solar panels before coming to a stop [in a shadowed crater](https://www.lroc.asu.edu/images/1409) as cold as -173° Celsius. Now, many people are attributing the coldness as the reason for the mission failure. While that’s not false, it’s also not primarily relevant because broad ranges of pre-cryogenic and sub-cryogenic temperatures at the Moon’s poles are a [well known fact](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/SPole%5F85S%5FDLREallT%5Fv20190829.pdf). The environment is accounted for in mission planning and its contingencies. Sadly, all of the issues discussed above is something the [intentionally fuzzy](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/im-2-the-southernmost-step-in-human-exploration) language used by Intuitive as a publicly traded company will never tell you clearly and upfront through their direct communications, even though the mission hosted [more than $100 million](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-216/#tipped-intuitive-mooncraft-dies-with-none-of-the-net-130-million-worth-of-payloads-deployed) worth of US taxpayer money through NASA. The lander technically made it to the Moon and conducted very limited operations, and that’s something to acknowledge—but [the mission itself failed](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-216/#tipped-intuitive-mooncraft-dies-with-none-of-the-net-130-million-worth-of-payloads-deployed), something to also acknowledge and certainly [not forget](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-208/) when writing or talking about it in the future. ## More mission updates - Without providing any role-specific explanation, NASA has [closed its offices](https://nasawatch.com/ask-the-administrator/the-nasa-rif-has-begun/) of the ‘Chief Scientist’ and ‘Technology, Policy, and Strategy’, citing only broader workforce reduction orders under the new US administration. Both offices led and enabled [cross-cutting work](https://www.nasa.gov/otps/otps-publications/) across NASA centers crucial to the agency’s and country’s scientific, technological, and geopolitical space goals, including those under Artemis. Marcia Smith has best covered [the move’s impact](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/rifs-at-nasa-headquarters-begin/). - On March 9, ULA [delivered to NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/artemis-ii-upper-stage-delivered-to-kennedy/) the upper stage of the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/reference/space-launch-system/) for the crewed [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii/) Moon mission targeting launch next year. Technicians will next fuel the upper stage and later stack it atop the rocket’s core stage via an adapter. On February 19, NASA [completed stacking the twin solid rocket boosters](https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/artemis-ii-rocket-booster-stacking-complete/) that will be attached to the rocket’s core stage. - The four lunar navigation satellites part of ESA’s upcoming [Moonlight navcom constellation](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-198/#moonlight-in-motion-and-contrasting-queqiao) will be [built by Thales Alenia Space](https://www.thalesaleniaspace.com/en/press-releases/moonlight-thales-alenia-space-develop-space-segment-navigation-system-orbiting) as part of the Telespazio-led consortium, which won ESA’s competed selection [last year](https://www.esa.int/Applications/Connectivity%5Fand%5FSecure%5FCommunications/ESA%5Fs%5FMoonlight%5Fprogramme%5FPioneering%5Fthe%5Fpath%5Ffor%5Flunar%5Fexploration) for \~$134 million. Moonlight will majorly serve hardware on the lunar south pole region. The launch of UK’s SSTL-built, 280-kilogram [Lunar Pathfinder](https://jatan.space/nasa-esa-collaborate-on-lunar-pathfinder/) communications orbiter in 2026 [onboard Firefly’s second CLPS lander](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-picks-firefly-aerospace-for-robotic-delivery-to-far-side-of-moon) will constitute ESA’s first Moonlight element. ESA [signed a $23.5 million contract](https://spacenews.com/esa-to-be-anchor-customer-on-commercial-lunar-satellite/) with SSTL in September 2021 to get communications services from Lunar Pathfinder. As such, ESA will be Moonlight’s [anchor customer](https://www.esa.int/Applications/Telecommunications%5FIntegrated%5FApplications/Wanted%5Ffirms%5Fto%5Fconnect%5Fand%5Fguide%5FMoon%5Fmissions) but expects the consortium to seek lunar navcom customers globally. ESA is targeting end of decade for the full Moonlight constellation to be operational. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/03/esa-moonlight-navigation-satellites-illustration.jpg) Illustration of ESA’s Moonlight navigation satellites operating in lunar orbit. [Image: Thales Alenia Space / Briot](https://www.thalesaleniaspace.com/en/press-releases/moonlight-thales-alenia-space-develop-space-segment-navigation-system-orbiting) ## More Moon - ESA is [requesting research proposals](https://bsgn.esa.int/2025/03/05/call-for-ideas-financial-and-business-modelling-for-the-space-resources-value-chain/) by April 21 to assess the economic viability of local resource utilization on the Moon. ESA will co-fund the research in partnership with academia or industry. The research output must include a reference financial model ESA can use for its own strategic lunar exploration planning. - I wrote this piece for the Open Lunar Foundation (a Moon Monday sponsor): [As Moon missions mount globally, we need to preserve future exploration and science](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/as-moon-missions-mount-globally-we-need-to-preserve-future-exploration-and-science) - If you’re in Bangalore this Sunday, March 23, come over for the [inclusive open discussion on all things space](https://tally.so/r/mYx2Mv) organized by [WoAA India](https://woaaindia.org) (Women Of Aeronautics & Astronautics India). ### If nasaspaceflight.com and its forum are blocked for you too, here’s how to access them URL: https://jatan.space/how-to-access-blocked-nasaspaceflight-and-its-forum-websites/ Last updated: 2025-05-31T15:59:08.000Z Sometime last year, [nasaspaceflight.com](https://nasaspaceflight.com) (NSF) stopped loading for me. I could not access any page on its website, all of which said “Sorry, you have been blocked” no matter which browser I tried. Since then I’ve been accessing the NSF site in alternate ways because of their valuable space journalism and their [active forum](https://forum.nasaspaceflight.com). Lately, the issue seems to have grown. Multiple people in India have been noting that they’re unable to access the NSF site or its forum. Some of them reached out to me asking for a solution. I shared multiple solutions with them, and they found it useful. As such, I’m sharing those here on my blog hoping to help all who may be affected the same way with this or another such useful website. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/03/Screenshot-2025-03-14-at-6.57.41-PM.png) The error page [nasaspaceflight.com](https://nasaspaceflight.com) shows to many readers in India A VPN is the obvious thing people try when a website isn’t accessible. But the thing is it may or may not work reliably for [nasaspaceflight.com](https://nasaspaceflight.com) because it’s actually the [Cloudflare](https://www.cloudflare.com) service they use as the site traffic intermediary that’s blocking access for certain visitors based on its blackbox-esque security implementation. It doesn’t provide anything in the way of a human fix, not even the hated CAPTCHA nor a contact email on the error page. The bottomline is even if the NSF site loads for you through a VPN today, it may not tomorrow. I doubt NASASpaceflight folks are even notified of these blocks by Cloudflare. ### More reliable solutions to access NSF’s website 1. To follow NSF’s coverage and forum discussions, subscribe to their RSS feeds. These work because [feed readers](https://journal.jatan.space/why-use-rss/) fetch website content using a different mechanism and usually from server locations different than yours. Here are the links to the NSF website’s [RSS feed](https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/feed) and [its forum](https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/news/artemis/feed/). If like me you’re interested in continually following only a particular category on their website, each of them have RSS feeds too—such as their [Artemis coverage feed](https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/news/artemis/feed/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/03/nasaspaceflight-rss-feed-reader.jpg) Accessing [nasaspaceflight.com](https://nasaspaceflight.com)’s Artemis category of posts in my [feed reader](https://journal.jatan.space/why-use-rss/) 1. Use the [Internet Archive](https://web.archive.org/) and its browser extension to access specific pages you come across from NSF. If a page is not archived and service shows you no results, it can still work. If you initiate saving a new copy from there itself, it usually is able to save one because their servers are elsewhere than yours and so can access the site to grab a copy. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/03/nasaspaceflight-dot-com-post-on-internet-archive.jpg) Accessing [an article](https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2025/02/china-roundup-022225/) on nasaspaceflight.com through an [Internet Archive copy](https://web.archive.org/web/20250225225423/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2025/02/china-roundup-022225/) 1. Add the “[Instapaper Text](https://www.instapaper.com/save)” bookmarklet to my browser. When you come across a NSF site page, clicking on the bookmarklet will access the article through Instapaper and parse the text and media for you. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/03/nasaspaceflight-dot-com-post-on-instapaper.jpg) Accessing [an article](https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2025/02/china-roundup-022225/) on nasaspaceflight.com [on Instapaper](https://www.instapaper.com/text?u=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasaspaceflight.com%2F2025%2F02%2Fchina-roundup-022225%2F) using the latter’s bookmarklet 1. **Update:** A reader suggested that using the [Tor Browser](https://www.torproject.org) or the Tor Network through other means also works many times. --- I hope these solutions help. Feel free to [get in touch](https://jatan.space/connect) if you’d like guidance on enabling these solutions. ### Moon Monday #216: Firefly Blue Ghost brings precision landing and lunar sci-tech bounties URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-216/ Last updated: 2025-05-29T07:53:39.000Z *Last week in lunar exploration was eventful and bittersweet to say the least, with multiple US spacecraft at the Moon. At over 2500 words, this Moon Monday edition unpacks a lot of context on Firefly’s successful CLPS mission as well as on IM-2’s failure for Intuitive Machines and NASA so as to strive to provide you with a true, PR-less sense of the state of US robotic Moon exploration as it stands right now. If you like my compilation, commentary, and analysis, kindly* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*. 🌙* ## Blue Ghost achieved third most precise robotic planetary landing ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/03/firefly-blue-ghost-clps-lander-final-descent-and-touchdown.jpg) Shadow of the Firefly Blue Ghost Moon lander performing final descent and having touched down on the lunar surface, the latter captured before the kicked up lunar dust settled. [Images: Blue Ghost landing video](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NpHhEybJdxg) The lunar touchdown of the [Blue Ghost](https://fireflyspace.com/missions/blue-ghost-mission-1/) spacecraft on March 2, which the US-based Firefly [approached and achieved with rigor](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-215/), not only brought the first soft robotic Moon landing for the US in this century but also elevated the country to the [era of precision landings](https://jatan.space/precision-moon-landings-and-the-future/) crucial for future space exploration and science. Blue Ghost, part of and funded by NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), landed [about 118 meters](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?prjExtent=1874053.3150744%2C562701.2653225%2C1874459.0819514%2C562931.0264815&shadowsType=all&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFOOZLRfImqnioA&proj=16&features=61.8103%2C18.5623%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Firefly+Blue+Ghost+1+landing+site%22%7D%7C61.807%2C18.56%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Targeted+Firefly+Blue+Ghost+1+landing+site%22%7D%7C61.807001%2C18.56%2C61.8103%2C18.5623) away from its target landing site in Mare Crisium—a remarkably close distance against the vast expanse of our Moon. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/03/firefly-blue-ghost-clps-lander-on-the-moon-images-by-lro.jpg.jpg) Blue Ghost seen from orbit by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter. [Image: NASA / LRO / ASU / GSFC](https://www.lroc.asu.edu/images/1407) | Minor annotations: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) On March 3, NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) [imaged the lander](https://www.lroc.asu.edu/images/1407) from orbit, finding its resting location on the Moon to be 18.5623°N, 61.8103°E. Recall from Blue Ghost’s [landing site selection process](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2022/pdf/1390.pdf) that its targeted landing spot was 18.560°N, 61.807°E, with a circular “[landing ellipse](https://jatan.space/precision-moon-landings-and-the-future/)” diameter of just 100 meters. Shortly after landing, Firefly [said](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-aerospace-becomes-first-commercial-company-to-successfully-land-on-the-moon/) that Blue Ghost “touched down within its 100-meter landing target.” Assuming the actual targeted coordinates didn’t change by more than 18 meters, and which Firefly hasn’t specified, it does mean that technically Blue Ghost landed a little outside of its landing ellipse. This might be due to the last minute divert maneuver that Blue Ghost made, as can be inferred from its [surreal landing video](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NpHhEybJdxg), wherein its hazard avoidance system prioritized a safe spot for touchdown. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/03/firefly-blue-ghost-clps-lander-targeted-and-achieved-landing-site.jpg) Blue Ghost’s target and landed site within Mare Crisium on the Moon. Image: [LROC Quickmap](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?prjExtent=1874053.3150744%2C562701.2653225%2C1874459.0819514%2C562931.0264815&shadowsType=all&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFOOZLRfImqnioA&proj=16&features=61.8103%2C18.5623%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Firefly+Blue+Ghost+1+landing+site%22%7D%7C61.807%2C18.56%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Targeted+Firefly+Blue+Ghost+1+landing+site%22%7D%7C61.807001%2C18.56%2C61.8103%2C18.5623) / [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) In any case, Blue Ghost’s achieved landing precision allows it to be classified squarely in a small but growing global league of lunar landers that are [enabling future polar crewed exploration, precision science, and cargo supplies](https://jatan.space/precision-moon-landings-and-the-future/). Blue Ghost proudly follows the lead of JAXA’s [SLIM](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/en/outreach/announcements/files/SLIM-pressconf-20240125.pdf) and CNSA’s [Chang’e 3](https://www.eoportal.org/satellite-missions/chang-e-3) craft, which touched down about [55 meters](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=25.1936969%2C-13.348254%2C25.2931201%2C-13.2942446&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&trailType=0&features=25.25074900%2C-13.31603100%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22SLIM+landing+site%22%7D%7C25.24890200%2C-13.31551000%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22SLIM+target+landing+site%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFOOZLRfImqnioA&proj=10) and [90 meters](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284345092%5FGuidance%5FSummary%5Fand%5FAssessment%5Fof%5Fthe%5FChang'e-3%5FPowered%5FDescent%5Fand%5FLanding) away from their respective target spots on the Moon. ## A busy lunar morning In the half a lunar day since its local morning landing, Firefly has [operated](https://fireflyspace.com/news/blue-ghost-mission-1-live-updates/) most of the [ten NASA payloads](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/liftoff-nasa-sends-science-tech-to-moon-on-firefly-spacex-flight/) onboard Blue Ghost. - The [Electrodynamic Dust Shield (EDS)](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/electrodynamic-dust-shield-heading-to-moon-on-firefly-lander/) successfully lifted, repositioned, and [removed](https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/nasas-dust-shield-successfully-repels-lunar-regolith-on-moon/) lunar regolith from glass and thermal radiator surfaces using electrical forces, demonstrating its potential to enable safe, dust-free long-term lunar living for future astronauts. - Blue Ghost’s ‘Surface Access Arm’ deployed the [PlanetVac](https://www.planetary.org/sci-tech/planetvac) payload along one of the lander’s legs. Developed by Honeybee Robotics, managed by NASA, and partially funded by The Planetary Society, PlanetVac is a low-cost and efficient soil collection technology which uses pressurized nitrogen gas to suck in samples like a vacuum cleaner instead of bothering with sample-grabbing arms. It [did its job](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5drBYiUCCsg). PlanetVac [can enable](https://www.planetary.org/sci-tech/planetvac) swift, low-cost future sample return missions from the Moon, Mars and other planetary bodies. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/03/planetvac-in-action-on-firefly-blue-ghost-clps-lander.jpg) PlanetVac in action near a Blue Ghost leg. Seen in the image are rocks flinging as PlanetVac operates. [Image: Firefly](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5drBYiUCCsg) - Blue Ghost has also deployed—[threw, really](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mjsT99ergfA)!—four tethered Lunar Magnetotelluric Sounder (LMS) electrodes whose data is expected to help scientists learn more about our Moon’s interior, and from it gain better insights on [how Luna evolved](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). - On March 3, the joint US-Italian [LuGRE receiver payload](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/nasa-and-italian-space-agency-test-future-lunar-navigation-technology/) onboard Blue Ghost [got navigation signal fixes](https://www.asi.it/en/2025/03/lugre-achieves-historic-lunar-radionavigation-milestone/) on the Moon. LuGRE previously achieved GNSS fixes [in lunar orbit](https://www.asi.it/en/2025/02/lugre-sets-another-record-first-gnss-signals-detected-in-lunar-orbit/). It has proved that Earth-based GNSS satellite constellations can help future spacecraft autonomously navigate at Luna without relying on Earth-based tracking. It’s again through the Italian Space Agency (ASI) that we get [more details](https://www.asi.it/en/2025/03/lugre-achieves-historic-lunar-radionavigation-milestone/) of LuGRE’s surface operations: > Prior to activating LuGRE, the lander underwent a series of system checks to ensure that its onboard systems and scientific instruments were fully operational. A vital step involved calibrating the gimbal, which precisely orients the antennas toward Earth. Only after confirming this alignment could LuGRE be activated to search for GNSS signals. The first GPS G25 signal on L1 and L5 frequencies was received at 7:48 AM, a moment of excitement for the control team, confirming that the receiver had come through landing unscathed and was functioning well. The orientation was confirmed as correct, and operations were as expected. The real breakthrough came shortly after: upon analyzing the initial received data, it was shown that LuGRE locked and traced onto four satellites—two from GPS (G18, G25) and two from the Galileo system (E2, E3). This achievement enabled the first calculation of Position, Velocity, and Time (PVT) fixes on the lunar surface. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/03/illustration-lunar-spacecraft-using-side-lobe-gnss-signals-1.jpg) LuGRE on Blue Ghost utilized the weaker side lobe signals from GNSS satellites on the other side of Earth. [Image: NASA / Danny Baird](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/nasa-explores-upper-limits-of-global-navigation-systems-for-artemis/) ### Resources to follow Blue Ghost 1. Firefly’s [Live Updates blog](https://fireflyspace.com/news/blue-ghost-mission-1-live-updates/) for Blue Ghost 2. [NASA-funded payloads](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/liftoff-nasa-sends-science-tech-to-moon-on-firefly-spacex-flight/) onboard, amassing nearly 100 kilograms 3. NASA’s [Artemis blog](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/) rather than the inactive [official CLPS blog](https://blogs.nasa.gov/clps) 4. Browse my dedicated [CLPS coverage](https://jatan.space/tag/clps/) webpage and the [Moon Monday archive](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) 5. My guide on [how to follow CLPS updates](https://jatan.space/how-to-follow-nasa-clps-updates/) 6. [Subscribe for free](https://jatan.space/subscribe) to Moon Monday to receive mission updates with context 🌝 --- *Many thanks to* [***Open Lunar Foundation***](https://www.openlunar.org/)*,* [***Arun Raghavan***](https://arunraghavan.net/) *and* [***Mia North***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/mia-north/) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource for free and without ads,* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*. 🌙* --- ## Tipped Intuitive Mooncraft dies with none of the net $130-million worth of payloads deployed ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/03/im-2-athena-clps-lander-in-lunar-orbit-and-on-the-surface.jpg) The Athena CLPS lander in lunar orbit and on the Moon’s south pole from one of its navigation cameras. Our Earth can be seen in both frames. Images: [Intuitive](https://www.flickr.com/photos/intuitivemachines/54364313950/in/photostream/) [Machines](https://www.flickr.com/photos/intuitivemachines/54370792577/in/photostream/) On March 6, Intuitive Machines’ [second CLPS lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-215/#intuitive-machines-launches-second-moon-lander) called Athena [landed](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/im-2?questionId=6c76a9f0-e2a3-42e5-bad1-3ca4c31ecd74&appDefId=14c92d28-031e-7910-c9a8-a670011e062d) on the Moon’s south pole [around 85°S](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/images/1401) but ended up resting on its side and inside a cold crater such that it couldn’t generate enough solar power for a single Earth day [and died](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-receives-some-data-before-intuitive-machines-ends-lunar-mission/). The lander’s state, including limited communications, prevented any intended operations of the [multiple payloads onboard](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/liftoff-nasa-tech-science-en-route-to-moon-with-intuitive-machines/). The mission, called [IM-2](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/im-2), has cost NASA [$62.4 million](https://oig.nasa.gov/office-of-inspector-general-oig/audit-reports/nasas-commercial-lunar-payload-services-initiative/) for the CLPS flight award, [$41.6 million](https://www.nasa.gov/technology/2020-nasa-tipping-point-selections/) for the Intuitive-built and NASA-funded [hopper](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/intuitive-machines-and-nasa-finalize-contract-for-extreme-lunar-mobility-spacecraft), and [$14.1 million](https://www.nasa.gov/technology/2020-nasa-tipping-point-selections/) for sending a [test 4G/LTE network](https://www.nokia.com/networks/insights/network-on-the-moon) on the Moon. Non-NASA payloads onboard Athena beared their own development costs and losses, such as the unspecified [multi-million dollar](https://www.lunaroutpost.com/post/lunar-outpost-announces-12-million-seed-investment-to-scale-mobility-technology-enabling-commercial) rover from US-based [Lunar Outpost](https://www.lunaroutpost.com/lunar-voyage-1) and Japan-based Dymon’s [tiny rover](https://dymon.co.jp/en/yaoki/). Following the mission’s end, Intuitive’s shares as a publicly traded company [fell by nearly 40%](https://mailchi.mp/thespaceinvestor/tsi%5Fwe%5F030725) at the end of the week. NASA [said in a release](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-receives-some-data-before-intuitive-machines-ends-lunar-mission/) that the agency-funded, Honeybee-Robotics-developed [PRIME-1 drill](https://web.archive.org/web/20240719035934/https://www.nasa.gov/polar-resources-ice-mining-experiment-1/) onboard Athena demonstrated “the hardware’s full range of motion”. Of course, it could not drill the surface as intended because of Athena being sideways. Athena’s [MSOLO spectrometer](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/viper/rover-and-instruments#MSolo), which was to detect [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) in the drilled samples, ended up only detecting elements likely from gases emitted from the lander’s propulsion system. Recall that the primary goal NASA stated for IM-2’s CLPS contract was to encounter and study [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). It is thus not met. Other than the rovers by Lunar Outpost and Dymon, the NASA-funded [hopper](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/intuitive-machines-and-nasa-finalize-contract-for-extreme-lunar-mobility-spacecraft) from Intuitive couldn’t be deployed either. The “operations” of all these payloads [were limited](https://www.lunaroutpost.com/post/lunar-voyage-1-update) to commanding them in [static modes](https://dymon.co.jp/en/news/yaoki%5Fon%5Fthe%5Fmoon%5F20250307/), primarily proving that their space avionics package worked on the Moon and the structures survived. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/03/prime-1-trident-drill-and-msolo-mass-spectrometer-labels.jpg) Components of the Honeybee Robotics provided TRIDENT drill. [Image: NASA Langley](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cKHrRvhAQgY) ### Context of IM-2’s failure Note that IM-2’s landing can be presumed to have been [relatively softer](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-217/#still-a-hard-landing-for-im-2) compared to the [hard-landed IM-1](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-165/) because it seems that all of Athena’s legs are intact. Crucially, all IM-2 payloads survived to be in a position to operate whereas on IM-1 the aforementioned SCALPPS cameras, for example, [couldn’t image](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/clps/nasa-collects-first-surface-science-in-decades-via-commercial-moon-mission/) landing plume effects due to the anomalously hard landing. That the also sideways and also power-limited IM-1 lander happened to work on the surface for an Earth week while IM-2 lasted less than a day is merely a function of the orientation, attitude, and local topography combinations each lander happened to have, especially due to going in half blind with their laser rangefinders [not working in either case](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/03/intuitive-machines-second-attempt-to-land-on-the-moon-also-went-sideways/). The laser rangefinders were supposed to be one of the 65 odd improvements Intuitive made for IM-2 with [lessons learnt from IM-1](https://spacenews.com/intuitive-machines-making-upgrades-to-second-lunar-lander/). The company even [touted its thoroughness](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/03/after-skidding-into-the-moon-intuitive-machines-hopes-to-stick-second-landing/) pre-landing. On IM-1, the laser rangefinders didn’t work because Intuitive’s engineers [forgot to turn off their physical safety switch](https://spacenews.com/im-1-lunar-lander-tipped-over-on-its-side/) before launch. On IM-2, it was taken care of along with several tests of the instruments. Per Intuitive, they were [“tripled checked”](https://97e97b55-dd53-4bc9-92cd-8e2cbfc75af8.usrfiles.com/ugd/97e97b%5F5c02c547fc4040138934e263a3ee0eda.pdf) this time. Yet the landed outcome has been essentially the same, made worse for the mission and NASA only by the fact that this was supposed to be a second, informed landing attempt for Intuitive. However, IM-2’s lander lacked something from IM-1, the NASA [LiDAR](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/langley/nasas-laser-navigation-tech-enables-commercial-lunar-exploration) payload which was developed specifically for precision navigation—as is needed at the Moon’s poles. On IM-1, Intuitive and NASA were [prompt to praise](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-tech-contributes-to-soft-moon-landing-agency-science-underway) the LiDAR for its last-minute role as a mission savior but which actually [did not assist the landing](https://arstechnica.com/space/2024/02/it-turns-out-that-odysseus-landed-on-the-moon-without-any-altimetry-data/) in the last 15 kilometers of descent due to [delays in processing its data](https://spacenews.com/intuitive-machines-and-nasa-call-im-1-lunar-lander-a-success-as-mission-winds-down/). That was partly because it was a last-day hot patch. However, the NASA LiDAR flying on IM-2 with pre-preparations could’ve offered Athena dissimilar redundancy for its laser rangefinders, which have once again jeopardized the mission. Given all of the above points, it’s hard to take the positive spin put on IM-2 by the Intuitive Machines CEO Steve Altemus in the [post-landing media briefing](https://www.youtube.com/live/q-mMJxIttBc?feature=shared&t=211): > Anytime that you ship a spacecraft to Florida for flight, and end up a week later operating on the Moon, I declare that a success. Before Athena’s landing attempt, I had hoped that if it does not touchdown nominally, Intuitive would remember [what makes a Moon landing “successful”](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-208/) this time around. Unfortunately, I was wrong. It’s also baffling how media outlets like Ars Technica can [continue calling IM-1 a soft landing](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/03/after-skidding-into-the-moon-intuitive-machines-hopes-to-stick-second-landing/) even in [their IM-2 coverage](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/03/after-less-than-a-day-the-athena-lander-is-dead-on-the-moon/). To NASA’s credit, the agency has been acknowledging IM-2’s outcome upfront, [unlike IM-1’s case](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-166/) where NASA disappointingly [skewed the success criteria](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-208/) and continued to at various space events and channels when talking of the mission. But for IM-2, Joel Kearns, a leading CLPS executive at NASA HQ, [said](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-receives-some-data-before-intuitive-machines-ends-lunar-mission/) (emphasis mine): > While we’re **disappointed** in the outcome of the IM-2 mission, we remain committed to supporting our commercial vendors as they navigate the very difficult task of landing and operating on the Moon. For NASA, Firefly’s Blue Ghost represents the only objective and nominal success from the four CLPS missions flown thus far. Here’s hoping that the IM-2 review process results in recommendations and implementations that see successful landings and actual scientific operations on Intuitive’s upcoming [third](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-189/#nasa-clps-mission-to-a-magnetic-swirl-also-delayed) and [fourth](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-191/) CLPS missions for NASA as well as for the company’s future. ## Lunar Trailblazer issues add to the pile of small US spacecraft failing to explore the Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/03/lunar-trailblazer-illustration.jpg) Render of the Lunar Trailblazer orbiter at the Moon. [Image: Lockheed Martin](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/gallery.html) The NASA-funded [Lunar Trailblazer](https://jatan.space/nasa-lunar-trailblazer/) spacecraft, which [launched alongside Athena](https://blogs.nasa.gov/trailblazer/2025/02/26/nasas-lunar-trailblazer-spacecraft-separates-from-falcon-9-second-stage/) as a rocket rideshare, is also seeming like a failure. The [first set of telemetry](https://blogs.nasa.gov/trailblazer/2025/02/26/initial-signal-acquired-nasas-lunar-trailblazer-powered-up/) from Trailblazer on February 26 indicated that the small spacecraft was facing power issues. NASA [lost communications](https://blogs.nasa.gov/trailblazer/2025/02/27/nasa-working-to-reestablish-communications-with-lunar-trailblazer/) with Trailblazer a day later. Based on ground-based radar data collected on March 2, engineers [think](https://blogs.nasa.gov/trailblazer/2025/03/04/nasa-continuing-efforts-to-contact-command-lunar-trailblazer/) that the spacecraft is spinning slowly in a low-power state. Efforts to restore receiving telemetry from the craft and thereafter establishing commanding have failed so far. In the process, Trailblazer has missed performing key trajectory maneuvers necessary to execute the [original path plan](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/how-nasas-lunar-trailblazer-will-make-a-looping-voyage-to-the-moon/). As such, Trailblazer will no longer be able to enter its planned lunar orbit, ending the original mission. The [$72 million](https://spacenews.com/nasa-to-continue-lunar-trailblazer-despite-cost-overrun/) Lunar Trailblazer was supposed to provide scientists with unprecedented, high-resolution global maps of the amount, distribution, and state of [water](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) across our Moon from orbit. It was to also help us better understand [several other key scientific aspects](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/lunarGeologicSettings.html) of Luna. Trailblazer unfortunately adds to the growing list of NASA-led or NASA-aided small lunar-craft that have failed recently, namely [LunaH-Map](https://spacenews.com/artemis-1-cubesat-nearing-end-of-mission/), [Lunar Flashlight](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/jpl/nasa-calls-end-to-lunar-flashlight-after-some-tech-successes), [Lunar IceCube and LunIR](https://spacenews.com/deep-space-smallsats-face-big-challenges/). :( ## More Moon - In a déjà vu event, SpaceX’s [eighth launch](https://arstechnica.com/science/2025/03/the-starship-program-hits-another-speed-bump-with-second-consecutive-failure/) of its [Starship Super Heavy](https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/starship) rocket on March 6 went essentially the same as the [seventh one](https://spacenews.com/starship-upper-stage-lost-on-seventh-test-flight/) did in January. The eighth flight saw another successful booster stage catch but the upper Starship stage [exploded](https://www.spacex.com/launches/mission/?missionId=starship-flight-8), with its debris showering outside the designated areas and over the Atlantic Ocean and the Bahamas islands. This caused the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to again divert and delay many flights, and will now lead to the organization conducting yet another Starship flight anomaly investigation. As such, NASA’s long road to putting humans on the Moon with [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/), which has been [inching through Starship](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-197/), has slowed down further with this failed flight. - ispace is [targeting June 6–8, 2025 as the landing date(s)](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7097) for its second Moon lander [RESILIENCE](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=6734), which is currently en-route to Luna via a [multi-month, energy-efficient trajectory](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/gettingToTheMoon.html) after [launching on January 15](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-209/) this year. ispace says every single one of its seven major subsystems have been working nominally so far—as are the [payloads](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=6734). The lander will attempt to enter lunar orbit on May 6. - On March 3, technicians with ESA and Airbus [installed the four solar array wings](https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/engineers-install-orion-solar-array-wings-for-artemis-ii/) on NASA’s [Orion](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) spacecraft in preparation for the crewed [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii/) Moon mission launching next year. Relatedly, NASA is [seeking design ideas from creators globally](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-invites-creators-to-design-mascot-for-artemis-moon-mission/) for which plush toy should the agency fly on Orion to act as a zero gravity indicator. A [plush Snoopy](https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/snoopy-to-fly-on-nasas-artemis-i-moon-mission/) flew on Artemis I. ### Moon Monday #215: Firefly performs first actual soft lunar landing for the US in the 21st century, bags key firsts URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-215/ Last updated: 2025-03-03T16:54:41.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/03/firefly-blue-ghost-clps-lander-at-mare-crisium-and-on-earth.jpg.001.jpeg) The Blue Ghost lander’s shadow standing tall on the Moon, lying under a black sky with our Earth hanging by the distance; ****Inset left:** Blue Ghost with its X-band antenna deployed; ****Inset right:** The Blue Ghost lander on Earth prior to launch. [Images: Firefly](https://www.flickr.com/photos/fireflyspace/albums/72177720313239766/with/54359866846/) On March 2 at 8:34 UTC, Firefly Aerospace’s [Blue Ghost](https://fireflyspace.com/missions/blue-ghost-mission-1/) spacecraft part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) successfully completed its [12-minute descent](https://fireflyspace.com/news/blue-ghost-mission-1-live-updates/) from a 20-kilometer altitude point in its orbit to autonomously guide itself to a soft, upright touchdown on the Moon amid the lava plains of Mare Crisium. Notably, the lander [only used its thrusters](https://fireflyspace.com/news/blue-ghost-mission-1-live-updates/) and not the main engine for the final hundred seconds or so of its descent. Shortly after landing, Firefly began commanding the spacecraft, including deploying the high-bandwidth X-band communications antenna. Until March 16, the end of the local lunar day, Firefly will operate the [10 NASA payloads](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/liftoff-nasa-sends-science-tech-to-moon-on-firefly-spacex-flight/) onboard Blue Ghost and send us high-definition pictures and videos. ✨ The [$101 million](https://edition.cnn.com/2025/03/01/science/blue-ghost-mission-moon-landing/index.html) CLPS contracted Blue Ghost makes Firefly the first private company in the world to soft land on the Moon for real since Intuitive Machines’ [falsely regarded soft landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-208/) was a rather hard one that literally broke a leg, tipped the spacecraft over, and didn’t meet majority of the mission’s technical and scientific objectives. Firefly has been careful with their communications, calling itself “the first commercial company in history to achieve a fully successful Moon landing” so that it may humbly flaunt Blue Ghost’s success without stepping on Intuitive’s or NASA’s toes. Note however that even Firefly’s statement isn’t entirely accurate. None of the CLPS missions flown so far [have been actually commercial](https://www.thespacereview.com/article/4898/1) since US-tax-funded NASA is their sole enabler by a long shot. Regardless, Blue Ghost is the first truly successful NASA CLPS mission with the only private soft lunar landing yet. It could be the start 0f the tide that turns CLPS around. For Firefly, Blue Ghost’s success is incredible news as the company has two more CLPS landing missions contracted by NASA: 1. [One to the Moon’s farside](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-picks-firefly-aerospace-for-robotic-delivery-to-far-side-of-moon), for scientists to conduct [unique radio astronomy observations](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-118/). On the same mission, targeting launch next year, Firefly will also deploy the [Lunar Pathfinder](https://jatan.space/nasa-esa-collaborate-on-lunar-pathfinder/) spacecraft in lunar orbit for ESA to kickoff its navigation and communications constellation called [Moonlight](https://www.esa.int/Applications/Connectivity%5Fand%5FSecure%5FCommunications/ESA%5Fs%5FMoonlight%5Fprogramme%5FPioneering%5Fthe%5Fpath%5Ffor%5Flunar%5Fexploration). The total contract value across these services is about $130 million. 2. [$179 million](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/more-nasa-science-tech-will-fly-to-moon-aboard-future-firefly-flight/) to carry six NASA-funded science & technology payload suites to one of the [Gruithuisen Domes](https://jatan.space/unique-volcanic-domes-of-gruithuisen/), a unique volcanic site on the Moon’s nearside. ### Test like you fly, test when you fly ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/03/firefly-blue-ghost-clps-mission-1-landing-site-analysis-1.jpg) ****Left:** The yellow dot on the top left shows the Blue Ghost spacecraft’s target landing region within the lava plains of Mare Crisium on the Moon. Yellow polygons mark areas of low rock concentrations and fewer large craters based on data from NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) and Earth’s Arecibo radar observatory. ****Right:** The green circle shows Blue Ghost’s tight 100-meter landing ellipse. Red circles are fresh, more rocky craters to avoid. In similar vein, Firefly identified areas with gentle slopes of less than 5°. Images: Firefly’s [landing site selection process](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2022/pdf/1390.pdf) document; minor annotations: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) Firefly approached its first Moon mission with rigor. The company invested more into [lander testing](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-moon-landers/) than its lunar competitors, carefully studied all recent [Moon mission failures](https://jatan.space/past-lunar-mission-mistakes-to-avoid/), did not underbid on its CLPS contract, and chose a cautious trajectory to the Moon regardless. Instead of skipping on propulsion system qualification, Firefly “qualified Blue Ghost’s propulsion system beyond the total firing duration expected on the mission”, said [William Coogan](https://www.linkedin.com/in/william-coogan-a01334a9), Firefly’s chief lunar lander engineer in a conversation last year explaining the company’s comprehensive approach. More insightful quotes from the conversation below: > Firefly conducted nearly 100 drop tests on lunar soil simulants to [qualify the legs](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-aerospace-completes-blue-ghost-lunar-lander-structure-ahead-of-moon-landing-for-nasa) of the lander. We even tested drops on concrete because it’s harder than anything we’ll land on. > A lot of the LRO \[Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter\] imagery is from disparate times of the day. We worked with the NASA LRO team to get imagery for the same time of the day as the landing to help test our models. > We tested loads on the lander structure with a 60-foot \[18-meter\] test structure originally made for squishing and bending rockets. As a launch company, we leveraged our diverse portfolio which might otherwise be prohibitive for companies only building Moon landers. > Unsuccessful missions can be very expensive to a company. We recognized that and intentionally did not go for the lowest value proposal for our CLPS bids so we can do what’s necessary \[in terms of testing, etc\]. > We also tested lander leg drops on sand, particularly to know what loads will be imparted on the payloads. We can’t land so hard that it potentially breaks our payloads because they’re the whole point of the mission. Clearly, the efforts paid off. Despite such rigorous testing on Earth, [you can only know your spacecraft’s behavior once it is in space](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-moon-landers/), including things like the precise performance of your spacecraft’s attitude control and effects of propellant sloshing on the craft. That’s why Firefly chose a slower, more cautious trajectory design that provided its engineers and mission operators several weeks in space to thoroughly characterize Blue Ghost’s systems and adapt to unexpected changes—[Chandrayaan 3 style](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/). In fact, Firefly’s approach to testing Blue Ghost’s hardware and vision-based navigation has also [mimicked Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/kalpana-kalahasti-chandrayaan-3-nature/)’s for good. Like ISRO, Firefly built a one-acre moonscape on Earth to test via a heavy-lift drone the lander’s vision-based ability to avoid hazards and navigate with respect to the terrain it sees, which helped ensure a safe touchdown for Blue Ghost. Firefly [says](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-aerospace-becomes-first-commercial-company-to-successfully-land-on-the-moon/) Blue Ghost “touched down within its 100-meter landing target.” Recall that Blue Ghost’s [landing ellipse](https://jatan.space/precision-moon-landings-and-the-future/) was supposed to be centered at [18.56°N, 61.81°E](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?prjExtent=1000383.9060269%2C258798.977193%2C1839891.2440603%2C734161.0382589&shadowsType=all&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFOOZLRfImqnioA&proj=10&features=61.81%2C18.56%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Tentative+Firefly+Blue+Ghost+1+landing+site%22%7D). We’re awaiting the final landing coordinates to know the achieved precision. If Firefly’s statement is confirmed, Blue Ghost would proudly follow [JAXA SLIM lunar lander](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/en/outreach/announcements/files/SLIM-pressconf-20240125.pdf)’s lead in sparking [an era of precision landings](https://jatan.space/precision-moon-landings-and-the-future/) crucial for future crewed exploration. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/03/firefly-blue-ghost-clps-lander-in-lunar-orbit.jpg) Blue Ghost’s view of our Moon from orbit. [Image: Firefly](https://www.flickr.com/photos/fireflyspace/54359535525/in/album-72177720313239766/) --- *Many thanks to* [***Astrolab***](https://astrolab.space) *and* [***Gurbir Singh***](https://gurbir.co.uk) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource for free and without ads,* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*. 🌙* --- ### Resources to follow Blue Ghost 1. Firefly’s [Live Updates blog](https://fireflyspace.com/news/blue-ghost-mission-1-live-updates/) for Blue Ghost 2. [NASA-funded payloads](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/liftoff-nasa-sends-science-tech-to-moon-on-firefly-spacex-flight/) onboard, amassing nearly 100 kilograms 3. NASA’s [Artemis blog](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/) rather than the inactive [official CLPS blog](https://blogs.nasa.gov/clps) 4. Browse my dedicated [CLPS coverage](https://jatan.space/tag/clps/) webpage and the [Moon Monday archive](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) 5. My guide on [how to follow CLPS updates](https://jatan.space/how-to-follow-nasa-clps-updates/) 6. [Subscribe for free](https://jatan.space/subscribe) to Moon Monday to receive mission updates with context 🌝 ### In the meanwhile, the US wants to “dominate” on the Moon.. Blue Ghost provided the US with its first soft Moon landing in the 21st century as the country tries to counter’s [China’s lead](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-206/#china) in lunar surface exploration. Since 2013, China has had four on four consecutive successful lunar surface missions, each one increasingly complex and cresting \[for now\] at the [farside sample return](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-201/) by Chang’e 6 last year. For the US, three tries over the two years have resulted in [one failure](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-159/) with Astrobotic Peregrine, one [partial success](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-208/) with Intuitive Machines IM-1, and one success with Firefly Blue Ghost. Yet NASA’s Acting Administrator Janet Petro had this to say [during Firefly’s livestream](https://www.youtube.com/live/ChEuA1AUJAY?feature=shared&t=3600): > I think this \[new US\] administration really wants to keep America first, and I think the way that we keep America first is by dominating in all the domains of space. And the domain of space we’re going to capture, recently tonight, is going to be on the surface of the Moon, and around the Moon. So as long as we keep dominating that space, I think we're going to be putting America first. Had the word dominate been uttered by a Chinese entity for a Chang’e mission, it would’ve likely triggered a series of sharp reactions from western media and industry folks at large about China’s intentions at the Moon. Of course, there would be reactionary social media posts too but let’s keep the argument civil. In this case, it’s *the NASA Administrator* using the word “dominate”—twice—instead of a softer option like “lead”. Virtually no media outlets questioned its intent while quoting it, including but not limited to [Space.com](https://www.space.com/space-exploration/america-first-on-the-moon-us-must-dominate-in-space-acting-nasa-chief-says-during-lunar-landing) and [Scientific American](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/blue-ghost-a-private-u-s-spacecraft-successfully-lands-on-the-moon/). English is the first language of the United States. ## Intuitive Machines launches second Moon lander ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/03/intuitive-machines-im-2-athena-clps-lander-in-space-earth.jpg) View of our Earth from the IM-2 Athena lander in space. [Image: Intuitive Machines](https://www.flickr.com/photos/intuitivemachines/54354410505/) On February 26, a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket [launched and deployed](https://spacenews.com/falcon-9-launches-second-intuitive-machines-lunar-lander/) Intuitive Machines’ [second CLPS lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-189/) called Athena towards the Moon. The mission, called [IM-2](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/im-2), hosts [many payloads](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/liftoff-nasa-tech-science-en-route-to-moon-with-intuitive-machines/), including a NASA-funded [drill and spectrometer](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/polar-resources-ice-mining-experiment-1-prime-1/) to hunt for [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/), a rover each by US-based [Lunar Outpost](https://www.lunaroutpost.com/lunar-voyage-1) and Japan-based [Dymon](https://dymon.co.jp/en/yaoki/), a NASA-funded [hopper](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/intuitive-machines-and-nasa-finalize-contract-for-extreme-lunar-mobility-spacecraft) from Intuitive, and a [retroreflector](https://science.nasa.gov/lunar-science/clps-deliveries/prime-1-im/). Today, March 3, Athena performed a [492-second main engine burn](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/im-2) to successfully put itself in lunar orbit. Athena will attempt to land on the Moon [around 85°S](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/images/1401) on March 6\. See press kits [by Intuitive](https://97e97b55-dd53-4bc9-92cd-8e2cbfc75af8.usrfiles.com/ugd/97e97b%5F5c02c547fc4040138934e263a3ee0eda.pdf) and [NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/general/intuitive-machines-im-2-mission/) for more mission details. Based on Intuitive’s experience with its first Moon mission IM-1, the company [has refined](https://spacenews.com/intuitive-machines-making-upgrades-to-second-lunar-lander/) several lander systems with the hope of bagging full success this time around instead of a hard landing and tip over—which NASA and Intuitive disappointingly [skewed the success criteria of](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-208/) and continue to at various space events and channels when talking of the mission. As Athena approaches its nerve-racking lunar descent and landing, I’m optimistic that this time around Intuitive will achieve a soft touchdown. But I also sincerely hope that if it does not, Intuitive remembers [what makes a Moon landing “successful”](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-208/) this time around. ## Lunar Trailblazer launches for Luna too ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/03/lunar-trailblazer-poster.jpg) Concept image showing how Lunar Trailblazer’s remote sensing data will be able to distinguish between lunar water in the form of ice crystals and that in mineral-bound states. [Image: Jasper Miura / Lockheed Martin](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/gallery.html) [Launching alongside Athena](https://blogs.nasa.gov/trailblazer/2025/02/26/nasas-lunar-trailblazer-spacecraft-separates-from-falcon-9-second-stage/) as a rocket rideshare was the also NASA-funded [Lunar Trailblazer](https://jatan.space/nasa-lunar-trailblazer/) orbiter. Unlike Athena, Lunar Trailblazer will spend four to seven months in a [low-energy, fuel-efficient transfer trajectory](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/how-nasas-lunar-trailblazer-will-make-a-looping-voyage-to-the-moon/) before entering lunar orbit—similar to ispace Japan’s [recently launched](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-209/) Moon mission. Unfortunately, the [first set of telemetry](https://blogs.nasa.gov/trailblazer/2025/02/26/initial-signal-acquired-nasas-lunar-trailblazer-powered-up/) from Trailblazer on February 26 has indicated that the small spacecraft is facing power issues. NASA [lost communications](https://blogs.nasa.gov/trailblazer/2025/02/27/nasa-working-to-reestablish-communications-with-lunar-trailblazer/) with Trailblazer on February 27\. The agency is working to restore telemetry and then establish commanding of the craft to better understand and address the power issues. Lunar Trailblazer was launched to provide scientists with unprecedented, high-resolution global maps of the amount, distribution, and state of [water](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) across our Moon from orbit. It will also help us better understand [several other key scientific aspects](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/lunarGeologicSettings.html) of Luna. Here’s hoping that this key scientific spacecraft is back online and in control soon. ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/03/earth-moon-horizon-kplo-2.jpg) Our Earth on the Moon’s horizon as imaged by South Korea’s KPLO lunar orbiter. [Image: KARI](https://www.kari.re.kr/kplo/danuri/news/newsView.do?nttId=8597&pageIndex=1&searchCnd=&searchWrd=) - Andrew Jones [reports](https://spacenews.com/south-korea-approves-strategic-plans-for-space/) that South Korea’s National Space Council approved plans made by the country’s [newly forged space agency](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-181/) KASA to build a Moon lander as part of a broader investment in indigenous space technologies. In January, Kim Na-young [reported](https://en.yna.co.kr/view/AEN20250122002400320?section=news) that KASA is budgeting about $31 million this year towards the country’s [goal of building a Moon lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-181/) by 2032\. In an approach similar to what ISRO takes for its planetary missions like [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/), South Korea is also indigenously developing the rocket that will launch its Moon lander. The rocket’s budget line is separate. KASA also plans to send a lunar environment monitoring payload through NASA onboard Intuitive Machines’ [third CLPS Moon lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-189/) for about $5 million. All of these investments are part of South Korea’s FY2025 space budget of $562.5 million. - ESA is [requesting scientific proposals](https://spacefinland.fi/documents/60305973/0/ESA%20Science%20newsletter%20issue%2002-2025.pdf/513d914a-0342-2fcc-8466-94828247712c/ESA%20Science%20newsletter%20issue%2002-2025.pdf?t=1740558533447) from its community as helpful for the agency’s involvement in science payloads onboard upcoming [NASA CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) Moon landing missions. - The Open University is [hiring a postdoctorate](https://jobs.open.ac.uk/job/Post-Doctoral-Research-Associate-%28Lunar-Volatiles%29/630-en%5FGB/) to conduct mineralogical and isotopic studies of lunar samples. ### Joining Open Lunar’s orbit as their Science Communications Lead URL: https://jatan.space/joining-open-lunar-as-their-science-communications-lead/ Last updated: 2026-03-15T10:07:08.000Z I’m thrilled to share that over and above my flagship [Moon Monday](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) blog+newsletter, I’ve joined the [Open Lunar Foundation](https://www.openlunar.org/) as their ‘Science & Tech Communications Lead’. In that role, I’ll help communicate Open Lunar’s [research work](https://www.openlunar.org/work) on technical and policy building blocks towards cooperative and sustainable lunar exploration for all. Keep an eye out on Open Lunar’s [newsletter](https://www.openlunar.org/newsletter) and [blog](https://www.openlunar.org/blog) in the coming months. 🚀 Read my articles and posts for Open Lunar here: [Articles & Posts for Open Lunar](https://jatan.space/openlunararticles) [My profile on Open Lunar](https://www.openlunar.org/jatan) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/03/open-lunar-scicomm-lead.jpg) I’m very excited for this new phase in my partnership with Open Lunar, for it works towards a mission that has so much in common with Moon Monday, and so alongside people and a community I deeply admire. Thanks to [Jessy](https://www.linkedin.com/in/jessykateschingler/), [Chelsea](https://www.linkedin.com/in/chelsea-robinson-nz/), [Rachel](https://www.linkedin.com/in/rachel-williams-67b38810a/), and the team for doing what they have done. 🌙 --- **Disclaimer for transparency:* Open Lunar has been one of* [*the sponsors*](https://jatan.space/about/#sponsors-and-supporters) *of Moon Monday for almost four years now. As such, my public* [*Editorial Independence Policy*](https://jatan.space/ethics) *has applied to Open Lunar and my coverage of them throughout, and will continue to. This includes continuing to state about them being a sponsor of any kind in parentheses every single time I mention their work in my coverage or writing, just as I* [*recently did with Astrolab’s coverage*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-212/)*. 🌗* ### Moon Monday #214: Blue Ghost preps for lunar landing, gets its fix in lunar orbit URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-214/ Last updated: 2025-03-07T15:59:04.000Z **Announcement:* I’m thrilled to share that I’ll be communicating the* [*Open Lunar Foundation*](https://www.openlunar.org/)*’s research work on building blocks of* [*cooperative and sustainable global lunar exploration*](https://www.openlunar.org/work) *as their ‘Science Communications Lead’. Keep an eye out on Open Lunar’s* [*newsletter*](https://openlunarfoundation.myflodesk.com/besi7sgv4n) *and* [*blog*](https://www.openlunar.org/blog) *in the coming months.* 🚀 *I’m very excited for this new phase in my partnership with Open Lunar, for it works towards a mission that has so much in common with Moon Monday, and so alongside people and a community I deeply admire. Thanks to* [*Jessy*](https://www.linkedin.com/in/jessykateschingler/)*,* [*Chelsea*](https://www.linkedin.com/in/chelsea-robinson-nz/)*,* [*Rachel*](https://www.linkedin.com/in/rachel-williams-67b38810a/)*, and the team for doing what they have done.* 🌙 **Disclaimer:* Open Lunar Foundation has been one of* [*the sponsors*](https://jatan.space/about/#sponsors-and-supporters) *of my* [*Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) *blog+newsletter for almost four years now. As such, my public* [*Editorial Independence Policy*](https://jatan.space/ethics) *has applied to Open Lunar and my coverage of them throughout, and will continue to. This includes continuing to state about them being a sponsor of any kind in parentheses every single time I mention their work in my coverage or writing, just as I* [*recently did with Astrolab’s coverage*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-212/)*.* 🌗 ## The next Moon lander arrives ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/02/firefly-blue-ghost-clps-lander-learth-set-and-rise-from-lunar-orbit-1.jpg) Our Earth (in the background) before setting and after rising in lunar orbit as captured by Firefly’s Blue Ghost lander. Snapshots from [timelapse by Firefly](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kB66ECu4kL8). On February 18, Firefly Aerospace’s [Blue Ghost](https://fireflyspace.com/missions/blue-ghost-mission-1/) Moon lander part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) successfully fired its engines for [about three minutes](https://fireflyspace.com/news/blue-ghost-mission-1-live-updates/) to lower its lunar orbit. Scott Tilley’s enthusiastic tracking found this orbit to be about [150 by 100 kilometers](https://x.com/coastal8049/status/1891809894732276046), down from the roughly [150 by 5673 kilometers](https://x.com/coastal8049/status/1890350008727212032) it was after lunar orbital insertion on February 13\. Today, February 24, Firefly nearly circularized Blue Ghost’s orbit with a [16-second burn](https://x.com/Firefly%5FSpace/status/1894044670570762301). Blue Ghost can now attempt descending on the Moon on [March 2](https://fireflyspace.com/missions/blue-ghost-mission-1/) to land amid the lava plains of Mare Crisium with the [landing ellipse](https://jatan.space/precision-moon-landings-and-the-future/) centered at [18.56°N, 61.81°E](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?prjExtent=1000383.9060269%2C258798.977193%2C1839891.2440603%2C734161.0382589&shadowsType=all&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFOOZLRfImqnioA&proj=10&features=61.81%2C18.56%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Tentative+Firefly+Blue+Ghost+1+landing+site%22%7D). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/02/firefly-blue-ghost-clps-landing-region-mare-crisium-from-lro.jpg) Firefly Blue Ghost’s landing region (white box) in the cratered lava plains of Mare Crisium. [Image: NASA / LROC / GSFC / ASU](https://www.lroc.asu.edu/images/1400) The [landing site selection process](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2022/pdf/1390.pdf) for Blue Ghost involved down-selecting sites within Mare Crisium based on some of the following main criteria: - Analyze data from NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lro/about/) (LRO) and Earth’s Arecibo radar observatory to find areas with the lowest density of large craters (> 2 meters), gentle slopes of less than 5°, and no boulders at the 1-2-meter scale for a safe landing - Take into account engineering requirements like having a direct line of sight from the lander to the Sun and Earth for power and communications - Balancing (as is usual) several conflicting requirements from various scientific instruments onboard For the mission’s [lander testing aspect](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-moon-landers/), Firefly previously conducted nearly 100 drop tests on lunar soil simulants and sand to [qualify the legs](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-aerospace-completes-blue-ghost-lunar-lander-structure-ahead-of-moon-landing-for-nasa) of the lander. [William Coogan](https://www.linkedin.com/in/william-coogan-a01334a9), Firefly’s chief lunar lander engineer [told me last year](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-moon-landers/) that the team “even tested leg drops on concrete because it’s harder than anything we’ll land on.” Firefly also built a one-acre moonscape to test via a heavy-lift drone the lander’s hazard avoidance and terrain-relative navigation capabilities to ensure a safe landing for Blue Ghost during the final descent. As Firefly reaches for this nerve wracking moment, here’s a reminder of [what makes a Moon landing “successful”](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-208/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/02/firefly-blue-ghost-first-clps-lander.jpg) The Blue Ghost Moon lander. [Image: Firefly](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-aerospace-shipped-blue-ghost-for-environmental-testing-ahead-of-mission-to-the-moon/) While in lunar orbit, Blue Ghost achieved a notable first. On February 19, the joint US-Italian [LuGRE receiver payload](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/nasa-and-italian-space-agency-test-future-lunar-navigation-technology/) onboard [got navigation signal fixes](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2025/02/21/blue-ghost-prepares-for-landing-nasa-instrument-breaks-record/) at distances past 400,000 kilometers, the farthest for any spacecraft, [reinforcing](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2025/01/21/blue-ghost-conducts-first-burn-science-operations-captures-eclipse/) the idea that Earth-based GNSS satellite constellations could help spacecraft navigate at the Moon. It’s through the Italian Space Agency (ASI) that we get [more details](https://www.asi.it/en/2025/02/lugre-sets-another-record-first-gnss-signals-detected-in-lunar-orbit/): > The signal acquisition occurred in the L1/E1 and L5/E5 bands throughout theBlue Ghost 1 lander's journey to the Moon. The most distant GNSS satellite signal received was from the Galileo constellation, at a distance of 67.79 Earth radii, about 432,384 kilometers from the LuGRE receiver. \[...\] > > Despite the significant distance and high speed, the position was calculated with very high accuracy, with an error margin of about 1.5 kilometers for position and about 2 meters per second for velocity. Signals were successfully acquired from four GPS satellites on the L1 and L5 frequencies and from one Galileo satellite on the E1-E5 frequency bands. ### Resources to follow Blue Ghost 1. Firefly’s [Live Updates blog](https://fireflyspace.com/news/blue-ghost-mission-1-live-updates/) for Blue Ghost 2. [NASA-funded payloads](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/liftoff-nasa-sends-science-tech-to-moon-on-firefly-spacex-flight/) onboard, amassing nearly 100 kilograms 3. NASA’s [Artemis blog](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/) rather than the inactive [official CLPS blog](https://blogs.nasa.gov/clps) 4. Browse my dedicated [CLPS coverage](https://jatan.space/tag/clps/) webpage and the [Moon Monday archive](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) 5. My guide on [how to follow CLPS updates](https://jatan.space/how-to-follow-nasa-clps-updates/) 6. [Subscribe for free](https://jatan.space/subscribe) to Moon Monday to receive mission updates with context 🌝 ## Intuitive Machines set for second launch to Luna ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/02/intuitive-machines-im-2-clps-lander-and-lunar-trailblazer-orbiter-falcon-9-fairing.jpg) Intuitive Machines’ second Moon lander Athena inside the protective fairing of a Falcon 9 rocket. [Image: SpaceX](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/intuitive-machines-im-2-mission-lunar-lander-encapsulated-and-scheduled-for-launch) Intuitive Machines’ [second CLPS Moon lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-189/), called Athena, has been encapsulated inside the fairing of a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket in Florida, targeting launch during a three-day window starting [February 26](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/intuitive-machines-im-2-mission-lunar-lander-encapsulated-and-scheduled-for-launch). The mission, called [IM-2](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/im-2), will carry a NASA-funded [drill and spectrometer](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/polar-resources-ice-mining-experiment-1-prime-1/), a rover by US-based Lunar Outpost and Japan-based Dymon, a hopper, and a [retroreflector](https://science.nasa.gov/lunar-science/clps-deliveries/prime-1-im/). Launching alongside Athena as a rocket rideshare is the also NASA-funded [Lunar Trailblazer](https://jatan.space/nasa-lunar-trailblazer/) orbiter. Trailblazer is expected to provide scientists with unprecedented, high-resolution global maps of the amount, distribution, and state of water across our Moon from orbit. It will also help us better understand [several other key scientific aspects](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/lunarGeologicSettings.html) of Luna. The Athena lander will head straight for the Moon post-launch. It will reach within a week, with Intuitive Machines targeting a landing no earlier than [March 6](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-sets-coverage-for-intuitive-machines-next-commercial-moon-launch/). On the other hand, Lunar Trailblazer will spend four to seven months in a [low-energy, fuel-efficient transfer trajectory](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/gettingToTheMoon.html) before entering lunar orbit—similar to ispace Japan’s [recently launched](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-209/) Moon mission. --- *Many thanks to* [***Open Lunar Foundation***](https://www.openlunar.org)*,* [***Nathan Price***](https://www.countdowntothemoon.org/went) *and* [***Frank Genin***](https://www.amazon.com/dp/2958293009) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource for free and without ads,* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*. 🌙* --- ## Australia continues investing in lunar technology components ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/02/australia-gday-moon.jpg) [Image: ASA](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9nW4V05OyQs) The Australian Space Agency (ASA) continues aiding local companies to build lunar technologies with funds from the nation’s [Moon to Mars Demonstrator Grants](https://business.gov.au/grants-and-programs/moon-to-mars-initiative-demonstrator-mission-grants/grant-recipients) program. On February 2, ASA [announced](https://www.minister.industry.gov.au/ministers/husic/media-releases/more-aussie-tech-destined-moon) supporting three more projects: - $0.63 million to EntX towards [building a radioisotope heater unit](https://www.space.gov.au/news-and-media/projects-in-action-aug-2024-entx) (RHU) with the goal of enabling future landers and rovers to survive frigid lunar nights from “several months to up to five years” - $0.63 million to Fleet Space to “develop a cutting-edge gravity measurement instrument that will improve exploration for critical minerals” - $0.16 million for Element Robotics to test and de-risk autonomous lunar systems in simulated lunar environments before sending them to space Notably, entX’s selection follows earlier ASA support to conduct a feasibility study and build an early prototype. entX is building the RHU with aid from the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organization (ANSTO). The ultimate intent is to fly the RHU on a US lunar surface mission, wherein the key challenge will be to navigate the US’ [Nuclear Flight Safety and Launch Approval](https://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc/regulatory/research/space-nuclear-safety.html) process. These grants represent the latest advance in Australia’s ongoing strategy to enter the US space industry supply chain with [NASA as the key enabling partner](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-97/). Here are some notable previously ASA-funded Moon to Mars projects. - $3.4 million to *Advanced Navigation* for providing US-based Intuitive Machines with a [LiDAV navigation sensor](https://www.advancednavigation.com/news/advanced-navigation-awarded-5-2m-in-funding-from-australian-space-agency-for-future-lunar-exploration) to aid the company’s [second or third CLPS mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-189/) with autonomous navigation. Since the sensor seems to be absent from Intuitive’s second Moon lander, it would appear the company’s third lander might carry it. - $3 million for a ground station to support NASA’s [Orion](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) capsule’s high bandwidth [optical laser communications terminal](https://esc.gsfc.nasa.gov/news/Lasers%5FLight%5Fthe%5FWay%5Ffor%5FArtemis%5FII%5FMoon%5FMission) in support of the crewed [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii) circumlunar flight. Relatedly, the US and Australia announced in May 2023 that Australia will [establish a new ground station](https://web.archive.org/web/20241006163827/https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2023/05/20/australia-united-states-joint-leaders-statement-an-alliance-for-our-times/) to support crewed Artemis missions. Conversely, Intuitive Machines utilizes commercial ground station services [from CSIRO](https://web.archive.org/web/20210331172826/https://www.csiro.au/en/news/News-releases/2021/CSIROs-Dish-to-support-one-of-the-first-commercial-Moon-landings)’s high-bandwidth [Parkes dish](https://www.csiro.au/en/about/facilities-collections/ATNF/Parkes-radio-telescope-Murriyang) in Australia for its robotic lunar missions. - $2.4 million to *Fleet Space* for building a [miniature seismic station](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-153/#another-seismometer-enters-the-moon-chat) called SPIDER, set to fly on Firefly’s [second CLPS Moon lander](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-picks-firefly-aerospace-for-robotic-delivery-to-far-side-of-moon) next year. In the context of major lunar faring nations, these efforts may not seem that sizable. But as [Douglas Gorman aptly put it](https://payloadspace.com/australias-lunar-plans-are-just-getting-started/), the idea with these grants is to “use short term investment to build out space competencies, thereby growing the pool of Australian companies competing on future lunar bids.” **Also see:* Australia’s* [*first lunar rover*](https://www.space.gov.au/meet-roo-ver) *called Roo-ver has* [*been delayed*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-197/#australian-lunar-roo-ver-delayed)*. It will be built by* [*the EPE & Lunar Outpost Oceania*](https://www.lunaroutpost.com/post/lunar-outpost-inc-co-leads-australia-s-first-lunar-rover-program)*.* ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/02/sls-rocket-stacked-boosters-for-artemis-ii.jpg) The upper end of the fully stacked SLS rocket boosters. [Image: NASA / Kim Shiflett](https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/artemis-ii-rocket-booster-stacking-complete/) - As of February 19, NASA has [completed stacking the twin solid rocket boosters](https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/artemis-ii-rocket-booster-stacking-complete/) part of the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/reference/space-launch-system/) that will send [four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) to the Moon as part of [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii) in 2026\. The crane-lifted stacking of the multi-segmented boosters took three months. - NASA’s Associate Administrator [Jim Free](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-associate-administrator-jim-free-to-retire-after-30-years-service/), an advocate of and chief contributor to the current crewed Artemis lunar exploration architecture, [retired out of the blue](https://spacenews.com/jim-free-nasa-associate-administrator-to-retire/) on February 22\. The agency hasn’t announced a replacement until now. - The NASA Engineering and Safety Center (NESC) is [conducting an agency- and community-wide assessment](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/nesc/lunar-cold-electronics-assessment-workshop/) of the state of “cold electronics” and their potential for space missions. The primary intent is to identify and close technology gaps, and subsequently develop and continually use cold electronics on future Moon missions with minimal thermal management for up to 20 years—something that will be particularly pertinent for sustaining activities in and around frigid [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s south pole that can host temperatures well below -200° Celsius. - APL is [hiring an experienced scientist](https://careers.jhuapl.edu/science/jobs/56687?lang=en-us) to join their 30-person ‘Moon and Rocky Planets Group’ for advancing planetary sample studies, which would include guiding future Moon missions to explore and sample the surface. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/02/moon-phases-artwork-ruchita-madhok-susmita-mohanty.jpg) What a wonderful gift from a Moon Monday reader and supporter. Artist [Ruchita Madhok](https://www.ruchitamadhok.com)’s work to track our Moon’s phases across the year! Thank you [Susmita Mohanty](https://themoonwalker.in/bio.php). 🌙 ### Moon Monday #213: Mission updates from the US, Japan, China, and this Indian URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-213/ Last updated: 2025-02-18T06:35:17.000Z ## CLPS and Artemis updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/02/blue-ghost-lander-moon-during-orbital-insertion-1.jpg) Our Moon as captured by the Blue Ghost lander after getting in lunar orbit. [Image: Firefly Aerospace](https://www.flickr.com/photos/fireflyspace/54327534953/in/album-72177720313239766) - On February 13, Firefly Aerospace’s [Blue Ghost](https://fireflyspace.com/missions/blue-ghost-mission-1/) Moon lander part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) successfully fired its engines for 4 minutes and 15 seconds to [enter an elliptical orbit](https://fireflyspace.com/news/blue-ghost-mission-1-live-updates/) around Luna. Over the rest of February, Blue Ghost will fire its engines multiple times for shorter durations to circularize its orbit before it can attempt a lunar landing on March 2\. Scott Tilley’s enthusiastic tracking finds Blue Ghost’s orbit to be about [150 by 5673 kilometers](https://x.com/coastal8049/status/1890350008727212032). - On February 9, NASA [delivered](https://www.nasa.gov/technology/nasas-mini-rover-team-is-packed-for-lunar-journey/) the trio of shoebox-sized, solar-powered [CADRE rovers](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/game%5Fchanging%5Fdevelopment/projects/CADRE) to Intuitive Machines for integration with the company’s [third CLPS lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-189/). Targeting launch next year, Intuitive’s lander will deploy the CADRE rovers on the Moon’s surface and relay their communications to and from Earth. CADRE’s aim is to collectively autonomously map the local surface more efficiently than an equivalent single rover would. Its engineers previously tested CADRE’s in-tandem driving abilities at JPL’s [Mars Yard](https://www-robotics.jpl.nasa.gov/gallery/mars-yard-tour-video/) with full-scale [engineering models](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/images/pia25667-cadre-mini-rover-drives-over-a-rock). - Marcia Smith [reports](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/new-space-subcommittee-chair-backs-moon-first-then-mars/) NASA’s Acting Administrator Janet Petro stating that any changes to the [Artemis program](https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/artemis/), including potentially to [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii) and [III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/) crewed orbital and landing missions respectively, will need to wait until a NASA administrator to serve under the new US administration is confirmed. Trump has formally nominated [Jared Isaacman](https://spacenews.com/demystifying-jared-isaacman-trumps-nasa-nominee/) to be the new NASA administrator but that’s pending formal confirmation by the US Congress. Jeff Foust [reports](https://spacenews.com/doge-to-examine-nasa-payments/) that Isaacman’s confirmation hearing is yet to be held because the complete paperwork for the same is not yet submitted by the relevant parties according to a Congressional Representative. **Also see:** [*Artemis policy changes on the horizon*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-212/#artemis-policy-changes-on-the-horizon) [More NASA CLPS updates →](https://jatan.space/tag/clps/) [More NASA Artemis updates →](https://jatan.space/tag/artemis/) ## Japanese lunar updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/02/ispace-m2-lander-moon-during-flyby.jpg) Our Moon as captured by the RESILIENCE lander on February 15 during its lunar flyby. [Image: ispace](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7032) - ispace Japan’s second Moon lander [RESILIENCE](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=6734), which [launched alongside](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-209/) Blue Ghost last month, successfully [flew past the Moon on February 15](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=7032) to continue its [energy-efficient trajectory](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/gettingToTheMoon.html) that loops back to the Moon in May for an orbital insertion opportunity. When flying past Luna on February 15, the lander’s closest approach to its surface was about 8400 kilometers. - Dymon, another Tokyo-based Japanese company, announced that their tiny 500-gram [YAOKI](https://dymon.co.jp/en/yaoki/) lunar rover [has been integrated](https://dymon.co.jp/en/news/2025final-integration-yaoki/) into Intuitive Machines’ [second CLPS Moon lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-189/) launching later this month or early next. - Relatedly, micro-class lunar rovers work with limited power, mobility, and thermal resources, and so under the stringent radiation and environmental constraints on the Moon. To enable their exploration, the also-Tokyo-based company JAOPS has been building a [lunar surface simulation suite](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/386223716%5FLunar%5FSurface%5FVisual%5FRendering%5FDynamics%5FSolar%5FPower%5Fand%5FThermal%5FSimulation%5Ffor%5Fthe%5FOperations%5Fof%5FLunar%5FRover%5FMissions) (open source on [GitHub](https://github.com/jaops-space/jaops-sim/)), aided by [simulated rover camera and sensor data](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/386223557%5FRobotics%5FSimulation%5Fand%5FContinuous%5FIntegration%5FPlatform%5Ffor%5FLunar%5FSurface%5FExploration%5FRovers%5Fand%5FOn-orbit%5FServices%5FMissions) for mission operations training. There’s even a video demonstration of a [simulated Chandrayaan 3 rover navigating](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z7fS4HvoUb8) on the Moon! ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/02/jaops-lunar-surface-and-hardware-simulatior.jpeg) Snapshot of JAOPS’ lunar surface simulator with spacecraft hardware. [Image: JAOPS](https://github.com/jaops-space/jaops-sim) [More Japan and Selene updates →](https://jatan.space/tag/japan-and-selene/) --- *Many thanks to* [***Astrolab***](https://astrolab.space)*,* [***Joseph Biernat***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/joseph-j-biernat-24858425) *and* [***Sean Gulick***](https://www.jsg.utexas.edu/researcher/sean%5Fgulick/) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource for free,* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*. 🌙* --- ## China and Luna ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/02/cmsa-lunar-spacesuit-prototype.jpg) A suited person demoing China’s new lunar spacesuit prototype. [Image: CMSA / CCTV / CMS](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UUH5YyRPPXE) - Following up on their recently announced intent, China and Pakistan [confirmed on February 5](https://www.app.com.pk/national/suparcos-indigenous-rover-ready-to-land-on-moons-surface-aboard-change-8-mission/) that the latter’s space agency SUPARCO will build its first lunar rover and that China’s upcoming [Chang’e 8](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/#prepare-for-crew-and-double-down-with-mission-eight) lander targeting a 2028 launch will carry it to explore the Moon’s south pole. One of the several payloads to be on SUPARCO’s \~35-kilogram rover will be jointly developed by Chinese and European researchers. - Andrew Jones [reports](https://spacenews.com/china-invites-bids-for-lunar-satellite-to-support-crewed-moon-landing-missions/) that on February 14**,** the China Manned Space Engineering Office (CMSEO) announced a [call for Chinese organizations](https://www.cmse.gov.cn/xwzx/202502/t20250214%5F56299.html) to bid for making a lunar mapping satellite in support of China’s [crewed Moon landing missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/) starting later this decade. The satellite’s mandate is to obtain high-precision mineral, topographic, and geomorphic data of the Moon’s low-latitude regions. - Relatedly, the China Manned Space Agency (CMSA) [announced](http://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4265697/content.html) the names of China’s [spacesuit](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-195/#a-sino-suit-for-luna) and [rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-200/) to be used on [crewed Moon landing missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/) as being *Wangyu* and *Tansuo* respectively. Wangyu means “gazing into the cosmos” and Tansuo means “to explore the unknown”. The names were selected after evaluating over 9,000 entries by the Chinese public. [More China and Luna updates →](https://jatan.space/tag/china-and-luna/) ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/02/lupex-rover-chandrayaan-4-lander-illustration-1.jpg) Illustration of JAXA’s LUPEX rover egressing from the ramp of ISRO’s Chandrayaan 5 lander. [Image: JAXA](https://global.jaxa.jp/activity/pr/jaxas/no092/02.html) - Based on a [parliamentary response](https://sansad.in/getFile/annex/267/AU1093%5F9v1luG.pdf?source=pqars) from February 13 in the Rajya Sabha, the Indian equivalent to the US Senate, it would seem that the Indian Government Union Cabinet must have approved the joint ISRO-JAXA [LUPEX mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/#the-indo-japanese-rover-mission) (Chandrayaan 5), following it being green-lit by the country’s National Space Commission late last year. However, ISRO is yet to formally announce the same. And so, the “[it’s complicated](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-196/#the-actual-status-of-lupex)” status of LUPEX remains for now. :/ - The seismometer at ESA’s new, versatile [LUNA](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-195/) analog facility for testing future mission hardware and operations is [now active](https://luna-analog-facility.de/en/recording-earthquakes-on-the-moon-mars-and-now-in-luna/). Its data will be publicly accessible. - NASA JPL’s Planetary Geosciences group is [hiring a postdoctorate](https://citjpl.wd5.myworkdayjobs.com/Jobs/job/JPL-Campus/Postdoc--Lunar-Volatiles%5FR5141) to study volatiles in lunar igneous rock samples. ## Meta Moon Monday - My coverage of “[Critical scientific documents missing from NASA-backed lunar community website](https://jatan.space/scientific-documents-go-missing-from-nasa-lunar-community-website/)” sadly landed [among the top posts on r/NASA subreddit](https://www.reddit.com/r/nasa/comments/1imche9/critical%5Fscientific%5Fdocuments%5Fgo%5Fmissing%5Ffrom/) for last week. It would’ve been nice if my other, positive coverage was also read by more people but I suppose given the situation, this is the new normal and the need of the hour. - My article on “[What makes a Moon landing mission successful?](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-208/)” has been republished on Jeff Foust’s revered publication [The Space Review](https://www.thespacereview.com/article/4933/1). 🚀 - I’m quoted in this timely [op-ed by Susmita Mohanty](https://www.friendsofeurope.org/insights/critical-thinking-time-for-esa-to-chart-its-own-course-and-reduce-nasa-dependency/), wherein she argues for Europe to reduce its NASA dependency and avoid becoming collateral damage every time NASA or the US government change their priorities. As someone who supports Europe independently doing good things on the Moon, I concur. - [Places I’ve published Moon Monday editions from](https://journal.jatan.space/published-moon-monday-from/) 🌙 ### Critical scientific documents go missing from NASA-backed lunar community website URL: https://jatan.space/scientific-documents-go-missing-from-nasa-lunar-community-website/ Last updated: 2025-02-10T17:55:23.000Z [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/02/leag-website-documents-inaccessible-1.jpeg)](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag/reports/) Screenshot of the inaccessible [document archive](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag/reports/) on LEAG’s website as of February 10, 2025. A whole host of documents presenting work and recommendations of US scientists and engineers in service of NASA’s Moon exploration goals have gone missing from [the website](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag) of the agency-backed Lunar Exploration Analysis Group (LEAG). The missing documents include but is not limited to the key [2023 CLOC-SAT report](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag/reports/CLOC-SAT%5FReport.pdf) by US lunar experts, which [urged NASA to plan a replacement](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-116/) for the 2009-launched [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lro/about/) (LRO) to support the increasingly important, upcoming NASA-funded [robotic](https://jatan.space/tag/clps/) and [crewed](https://jatan.space/tag/artemis/) Moon missions part of the US [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/artemis/) program. The link to the report now leads to a dead page with no fallback. Here’s an [archived version](https://web.archive.org/web/20230307045441/https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag/reports/CLOC-SAT%5FReport.pdf) of the report thanks to the [Internet Archive](https://web.archive.org). In fact, the whole [master list](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag/reports/) of LEAG’s annual meeting reports and other such high-level documents dating back two decades is gone. Here’s an [archived list](https://web.archive.org/web/20241014153852/https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag/reports/) of them. Similarly, the [document archive](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/exmag/documents/) of work by researchers contributing to the Extraterrestrial Materials Analysis Group ([ExMAG](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/exmag/)) in direct support of NASA’s Solar-System-wide sample return missions, which includes Artemis, is also a dead webpage now. Here’s an [archived link](https://web.archive.org/web/20240804172019/https://www.lpi.usra.edu/exmag/documents/) of the same. This global loss of accessible scientific information has happened because the new US administration with its [many](https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/01/ending-radical-and-wasteful-government-dei-programs-and-preferencing/) [recent](https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/01/defending-women-from-gender-ideology-extremism-and-restoring-biological-truth-to-the-federal-government/) [executive](https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/01/initial-rescissions-of-harmful-executive-orders-and-actions/) [orders](https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/01/unleashing-american-energy/)—in the name of ending Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI) and defending women—has imposed an [indefinite pause on activities, meetings, and communications](https://spacenews.com/nasa-pauses-work-of-science-groups-citing-trump-executive-orders/) of all such working groups supporting NASA’s science and exploration activities. In fact, the entire website of LEAG has been reduced to a single page stating but a single line: > The LEAG website is being reviewed in response to guidance given by NASA leadership. [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/02/leag-website-reduced-to-a-single-line-1.jpeg)](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag) Screenshot of the [LEAG website homepage](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag) as of February 10, 2025. Recall that LEAG’s [founding purpose](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag/LEAG%5FTOR-8-29-2014.pdf) was to help NASA forge and meet its Moon exploration objectives by providing analysis across scientific, technical, commercial, and operational aspects of space. One of these outcomes was LEAG’s [Artemis recommendations](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag/reports/LEAG2022AnnualMeetingFindings%5FFINAL.pdf). But you wouldn’t be able to know any of this now as all links currently point to a black hole for an indefinite period. Here’s the [archived webpage](https://web.archive.org/web/20240117152131/https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag/LEAG%5FTOR-8-29-2014.pdf) of LEAG’s founding purpose and the [archived copy](https://web.archive.org/web/20240109045718/https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag/reports/LEAG2022AnnualMeetingFindings%5FFINAL.pdf) of their Artemis recommendations. Regardless of your personal or public views on DEI, how is loss of access to publicly-funded scientific and technical work produced by LEAG and ExMAG in direct support of NASA’s exploration an acceptable outcome? All of this currently censored work was done and put up online in the past whereas the executive orders from the Trump administration have come in the present. How is a blind blanket takedown of *everything* justified? Heck, even the white paper titled [Continued Use of the Mean Earth (ME) Coordinate System for the Moon](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag/reports/ME-White-Paper%5FFinal.pdf) is not accessible (here’s the [archived copy](https://web.archive.org/web/20240304120929/https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag/reports/ME-White-Paper%5FFinal.pdf)). If one claims that things like thinking about lunar coordinate systems and urging an LRO replacement for the US’ own benefit is somehow tied to DEI, one is objectively wrong. More than 500 scientists from across the US are banding together to [communicate this and other degradations](https://sites.google.com/view/space-science-for-everyone/) of US science via an open letter to NASA leadership and the elected US Congressional representatives, asking them to take action and preserve the integrity and public access of the country’s scientific activities and its output. The [open letter](https://sites.google.com/view/space-science-for-everyone/) can be signed anonymously, including by people in other countries who would like to show their support. It was shortly after the US electoral outcome in November that I had [raised the importance](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-201/) of archiving key public documents and webpages to ensure they remain public. It’s sad to see the need to act on it has come about this early. Please archive key lunar and space exploration webpages using the free tools of the [Internet Archive](https://web.archive.org/), [archive.ph](https://archive.ph), [ArchiveBox](https://www.cloudron.io/store/io.archivebox.cloudronapp.html), [Perma.cc](https://perma.cc), [Conifer](https://conifer.rhizome.org), and more. --- *Originally published as part of* [*Moon Monday #212*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-212/) ### Moon Monday #212: UNO Skip, then UNO Flip, ft. VIPER and Artemis URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-212/ Last updated: 2025-03-02T17:49:16.000Z ## The scramble to save VIPER continues while Astrobotic performs an UNO FLIP ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/02/viper-rover-thermovac-testing.jpeg) NASA’s VIPER lunar rover after acing thermal vacuum testing. [Image: Anthony Colaprete / NASA](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/viper-passes-all-its-tests-but-future-still-uncertain/) Following the [questionable cancellation](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-186/) of NASA’s [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) to uniquely study the Moon’s [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) deposits, the agency [asked US organizations](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-presses-forward-search-for-viper-moon-rover-partner/) on February 3 to [formally propose](https://science.nasa.gov/lunar-science/volatiles-partnership/) a mission of their own that would fly and operate VIPER in partnership with but at virtually no cost to NASA: > As part of an agreement, NASA would contribute the existing VIPER rover as-is. Potential partners would need to arrange for the integration and successful landing of the rover on the Moon, conduct a science/exploration campaign, and disseminate VIPER-generated science data. The partner may not disassemble the rover and use its instruments or parts separately from the VIPER mission. NASA’s selection approach will favor proposals that enable data from the mission’s science instruments to be shared openly with anyone who wishes to use it. As we discussed last year when NASA put out the initial industry request to this end, the approach [decidedly fails at VIPER’s original goal](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-188/) of helping constrain the nature, accessibility, and potential quantities of surface and near-surface [water ice deposits](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s south pole. A company spending hundreds of millions of dollars to fly VIPER has little incentive to make its scientific data as fully available and accessible as NASA would. A [VIPER-less Artemis](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-204/) foregoes the agency and its associated national scientific community’s ability to systematically plan sustained robotic and crewed Moon missions in the near future. Last year NASA had also said it would separately explore flying VIPER through international partnerships but the agency hasn’t provided an update on that front. In the meanwhile, Astrobotic [announced](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrolabs-flip-rover-joins-astrobotics-griffin-1-to-the-moon/) on February 5 that its [Griffin lander](https://www.astrobotic.com/lunar-delivery/landers/griffin-lander/)—which was to carry VIPER to the Moon as part of the [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) before NASA pulled out the rover—will now instead carry the 500-kilogram [FLIP rover](https://www.astrolab.space/flip-rover/) from Astrolab (a Moon Monday sponsor). FLIP is a [scaled down](https://spacenews.com/astrolab-unveils-smaller-lunar-rover/) test model of Astrolab’s crew-capable [FLEX rover](https://www.astrolab.space/flex-rover/). By flying FLIP first, Astrolab hopes to raise the [technology readiness levels](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/somd/space-communications-navigation-program/technology-readiness-levels/) of multiple aspects of FLEX, including testing a number of [lunar dust protection technologies](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrolabs-flip-rover-joins-astrobotics-griffin-1-to-the-moon/). Astrolab leads one of the three competing teams NASA selected last year to mature their designs for a [versatile Lunar Terrain Vehicle](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-171/) for use across Artemis missions starting end of decade. ## Critical exploration documents go missing from NASA-backed lunar community website [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/02/leag-website-documents-inaccessible.jpeg)](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag/reports/) Screenshot of the inaccessible [document archive](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag/reports/) on LEAG’s website as of February 10, 2025. A whole host of documents presenting work and recommendations of US scientists and engineers in service of NASA’s Moon exploration goals have gone missing from [the website](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag) of the agency-backed Lunar Exploration Analysis Group (LEAG). The missing documents include but is not limited to the key [2023 CLOC-SAT report](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag/reports/CLOC-SAT%5FReport.pdf) by US lunar experts, which [urged NASA to plan a replacement](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-116/) for the 2009-launched [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lro/about/) (LRO) to support the increasingly important, upcoming NASA-funded [robotic](https://jatan.space/tag/clps/) and [crewed](https://jatan.space/tag/artemis/) Moon missions part of the US [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/artemis/) program. The link to the report now leads to a dead page with no fallback. Here’s an [archived version](https://web.archive.org/web/20230307045441/https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag/reports/CLOC-SAT%5FReport.pdf) of the report thanks to the [Internet Archive](https://web.archive.org). In fact, the whole [master list](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag/reports/) of LEAG’s annual meeting reports and other such high-level documents dating back two decades is gone. Here’s an [archived list](https://web.archive.org/web/20241014153852/https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag/reports/) of them. Similarly, the [document archive](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/exmag/documents/) of work by researchers contributing to the Extraterrestrial Materials Analysis Group ([ExMAG](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/exmag/)) in direct support of NASA’s Solar-System-wide sample return missions, which includes Artemis, is also a dead webpage now. Here’s an [archived link](https://web.archive.org/web/20240804172019/https://www.lpi.usra.edu/exmag/documents/) of the same. This global loss of accessible scientific information has happened because the new US administration with its [many](https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/01/ending-radical-and-wasteful-government-dei-programs-and-preferencing/) [recent](https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/01/defending-women-from-gender-ideology-extremism-and-restoring-biological-truth-to-the-federal-government/) [executive](https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/01/initial-rescissions-of-harmful-executive-orders-and-actions/) [orders](https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/01/unleashing-american-energy/)—in the name of ending Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI) and defending women—has imposed an [indefinite pause on activities, meetings, and communications](https://spacenews.com/nasa-pauses-work-of-science-groups-citing-trump-executive-orders/) of all such working groups supporting NASA’s science and exploration activities. In fact, the entire website of LEAG has been reduced to a single page stating but a single line: > The LEAG website is being reviewed in response to guidance given by NASA leadership. [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/02/leag-website-reduced-to-a-single-line.jpeg)](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag) Screenshot of the [LEAG website homepage](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag) as of February 10, 2025. Recall that LEAG’s [founding purpose](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag/LEAG%5FTOR-8-29-2014.pdf) was to help NASA forge and meet its Moon exploration objectives by providing analysis across scientific, technical, commercial, and operational aspects of space. One of these outcomes was LEAG’s [Artemis recommendations](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag/reports/LEAG2022AnnualMeetingFindings%5FFINAL.pdf). But you wouldn’t be able to know any of this now as all links currently point to a black hole for an indefinite period. Here’s the [archived webpage](https://web.archive.org/web/20240117152131/https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag/LEAG%5FTOR-8-29-2014.pdf) of LEAG’s founding purpose and the [archived copy](https://web.archive.org/web/20240109045718/https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag/reports/LEAG2022AnnualMeetingFindings%5FFINAL.pdf) of their Artemis recommendations. Regardless of your personal or public views on DEI, how is loss of access to publicly-funded scientific and technical work produced by LEAG and ExMAG in direct support of NASA’s exploration an acceptable outcome? All of this currently censored work was done and put up online in the past whereas the executive orders from the Trump administration have come in the present. How is a blind blanket takedown of *everything* justified? Heck, even the white paper titled [Continued Use of the Mean Earth (ME) Coordinate System for the Moon](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag/reports/ME-White-Paper%5FFinal.pdf) is not accessible (here’s the [archived copy](https://web.archive.org/web/20240304120929/https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag/reports/ME-White-Paper%5FFinal.pdf)). If one claims that things like thinking about lunar coordinate systems and urging an LRO replacement for the US’ own benefit is somehow tied to DEI, one is objectively wrong. More than 500 scientists from across the US are banding together to [communicate this and other degradations](https://sites.google.com/view/space-science-for-everyone/) of US science via an open letter to NASA leadership and the elected US Congressional representatives, asking them to take action and preserve the integrity and public access of the country’s scientific activities and its output. The [open letter](https://sites.google.com/view/space-science-for-everyone/) can be signed anonymously, including by people in other countries who would like to show their support. It was shortly after the US electoral outcome in November that I had [raised the importance](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-201/) of archiving key public documents and webpages to ensure they remain public. It’s sad to see the need to act on it has come about this early. Please archive key lunar and space exploration webpages using the free tools of the [Internet Archive](https://web.archive.org/), [archive.ph](https://archive.ph), [ArchiveBox](https://www.cloudron.io/store/io.archivebox.cloudronapp.html), [Perma.cc](https://perma.cc), [Conifer](https://conifer.rhizome.org), and more. --- *Many thanks to* [***Off Planet Research***](https://offplanetresearch.com)*,* [***Gordon Roesler***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/gordon-roesler-687a0426) *and* [***Sonia Tikoo***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/sonia-tikoo-86853452) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to publish this curated community resource for free,* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*. 🌙* --- ## Mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/02/firefly-blue-ghost-clps-lander-mission-progress-1.jpeg) Firefly’s Blue Ghost lander has completed the Earth-orbiting phase of its Moon landing mission, clearing seven of its self-defined milestones. [Image: Firefly](https://fireflyspace.com/news/blue-ghost-mission-1-live-updates/) - On February 8, Firefly [fired engines](https://fireflyspace.com/news/blue-ghost-mission-1-live-updates/) on its [Blue Ghost](https://fireflyspace.com/missions/blue-ghost-mission-1/) Moon lander part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) to put it on a trajectory that intercepts with the Moon so it can attempt lunar orbital insertion on February 12\. The six payloads Firefly and NASA [had switched on](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2025/01/16/moon-bound-blue-ghost-captures-first-image-performs-health-checks/) earlier aboard Blue Ghost will continue to collect and send data to Earth as the spacecraft reaches the Moon. - On February 4, Blue Origin [simulated two minutes of lunar gravity](https://www.blueorigin.com/news/new-shepard-ns-29-mission) in the New Shepard crew capsule by rotating it at about 11 revolutions a minute during the post-capsule-deployment phase of the New Shepard rocket’s suborbital mission. This represents a tenfold increase in the time available for testing experiments under low gravity compared to the 20 seconds or so achieved on parabolic plane flights. The order of magnitude improvement is why NASA [funded this project](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/armstrong/nasa-blue-origin-partner-to-bring-lunar-gravity-conditions-closer-to-earth/) and [tested 17 lunar-relevant payloads](https://www.nasa.gov/stmd-flight-opportunities/flight-summaries/lunar-gravity-simulation-via-suborbital-rocket/) onboard the capsule. On previous New Shepard flights, NASA has tested [autonomous lunar navigation](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/langley/nasa-tests-infuses-software-into-blue-origin-landing-tech) and [precision landing](https://www.blueorigin.com/news/new-shepard-mission-ns-13-launch-updates) technologies, and [an experiment](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/kennedy/nasa-experiment-sheds-light-on-highly-charged-moon-dust) to measure how Moon-like dust particles gain and accumulate electric charge in microgravity so as to [effectively protect](https://bigidea.nianet.org/past-competition-themes/2021-forum-results) astronauts, lunar hardware, and future habitats from the damaging effects of clingy Moondust. As such, NASA is leveraging New Shepard flights to help verify and refine the functioning of new lunar technologies at relatively low costs before they can be sent to the Moon. - Jeff Foust [reports](https://spacenews.com/thales-alenia-space-wins-contract-for-gateway-airlock/) that the UAE has selected Thales Alenia Space to build and help operate the airlock module for the NASA-led international [Gateway lunar orbital habitat](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/gateway). Intended to fly to the Gateway on Artemis VI early next decade, the airlock will allow astronauts to perform spacewalks—while around the Moon!—and deploy and manage scientific payloads on the Gateway’s exterior. The airlock will also provide an additional docking port on the Gateway for visiting spacecraft. It was in January 2024 that NASA and the Mohammed bin Rashid Space Centre (MBRSC) [announced](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-united-arab-emirates-announce-artemis-lunar-gateway-airlock) that the UAE will provide the Gateway’s airlock. Russia was originally [supposed to be the provider](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-roscosmos-sign-joint-statement-on-researching-exploring-deep-space) but the country later [pulled out](https://spacenews.com/russia-skeptical-about-participating-in-lunar-gateway). In return for this contribution, the UAE will get to send an astronaut to the Gateway aboard an Artemis flight. As for Thales Alenia Space, the company is now involved in producing five major elements of the Gateway including the airlock, the other four being the NASA [HALO](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-northrop-grumman-finalize-moon-outpost-living-quarters-contract/) and ESA-JAXA [Lunar I-Hab](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Gateway%5FLunar%5FI-Hab) habitat modules, ESA’s [Lunar Link](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Gateway%5FLunar%5FLink) communications module, and ESA’s [Lunar View](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Gateway%5FLunar%5FView) refueling and cargo module. The station might as well be called the Thales Lunar Gateway. ## Artemis policy changes on the horizon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/02/sls-rocket-sunrise.jpg) The SLS rocket at its launchpad on August 17, 2022\. The Sun could set on the rocket any day now. [Image: NASA / Joel Kowsky](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/sunrise-on-the-artemis-i-moon-rocket.html) Eric Berger [reports](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/02/boeing-has-informed-its-employees-that-nasa-may-cancel-sls-contracts/) that on February 7, Boeing notified 800 employees working on the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/reference/space-launch-system/) that the company is preparing for up to 400 job cuts by April due to impending [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/artemis/) program changes any month now. While there’s little doubt among US space industry followers that the SLS will go away somehow, from some point on, the transition to other rockets including [SpaceX’s Starship and Blue Origin’s New Glenn](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-209/#meter-by-meter-to-the-moon) is not going to be straightforward—as [Marcia Smith points out](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/boeing-warns-of-potential-sls-layoffs/). Note that no technical proposals for such a transition have been mentioned or discussed publicly so far by actors part of the new US administration although we should see some activity soon following the impending presidential budget proposal and the [onboarding of a new NASA administrator](https://spacenews.com/demystifying-jared-isaacman-trumps-nasa-nominee/). Jeff Foust [notes](https://spacenews.com/boeing-warns-sls-employees-of-potential-layoffs/) in his coverage that the Vice Chair of the commerce, justice and science subcommittee part of the US Congress House Appropriations Committee is Dale Strong, whose district includes NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center—the lead center for SLS. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/02/jaxa-toyota-lunar-cruiser-rover-illustration.jpg) Illustration of Japan’s crewed, pressurized rover for NASA’s Artemis program. A large solar panel covers [the other side](https://global.jaxa.jp/press/2019/03/images/20190312a%5F02%5Fen.png). Astronaut added for (rough) scale. [Image: JAXA / Toyota](https://global.toyota/en/album/images/27059582) In the meanwhile, a [joint statement](https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefings-statements/2025/02/united-states-japan-joint-leaders-statement/) between the US and Japan, following a meet of their national leaders, reaffirmed US-Japanese cooperation to explore the Moon’s surface. JAXA and NASA had agreed last year that Japan will provide an [advanced crewed pressurized rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-172/) for Artemis astronauts early next decade for use starting Artemis VII. In return for this critical contribution, NASA will land two Japanese astronauts on the Moon. The rover will be built by Toyota, JAXA, and Mitsubishi. Atsushi Nakajima, Project Manager of the Space Systems Division at Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, [previously said](https://toyotatimes.jp/en/toyota%5Fnews/1039.html) that building and operating the rover for the upcoming ISRO-JAXA [LUPEX mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/#the-indo-japanese-rover-mission) will contribute directly to the development of Japan’s pressurized rover for Artemis. Note how the aforementioned [joint statement](https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefings-statements/2025/02/united-states-japan-joint-leaders-statement/) makes no mention whatsoever of US-Japanese collaboration on the NASA-led [Gateway lunar orbital habitat](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/gateway) even though JAXA is making significant contributions to Artemis there as well. Japan has bagged an astronaut seat aboard the Gateway in return for JAXA providing critical life support systems and infrastructure components for the station’s [Lunar I-Hab](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Gateway%5FLunar%5FI-Hab) crew module. Japan is also developing the advanced [HTV-X(G)](https://humans-in-space.jaxa.jp/en/htv-x) spacecraft to supply cargo to the Gateway starting 2030, allowing the US to sustain crewed and uncrewed operations for longer periods. It’s quite possible the new joint statement’s omission of US-Japanese collaboration in lunar orbit wasn’t intentional, especially since the language was part of a broader announcement. But if it was intentional, expect to hear more on Gateway’s fate this year. --- **Editor’s note:* As you may have guessed in this UNO-themed Moon Monday edition, some players have way more cards at their disposal than others.* --- ### Sharing Moon Monday’s approach to avoiding (Artemis) hot takes and speculative coverage URL: https://jatan.space/how-i-avoid-hot-takes-and-speculations/ Last updated: 2025-02-09T12:32:21.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/02/moon-to-mars-artemis.jpg) [Image: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/nasa-australia-sign-agreement-to-add-rover-to-future-moon-mission/) Some of you have been wondering and asking why I haven’t covered potential Artemis changes in the new US administration on my [Moon Monday](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) blog+newsletter. So here’s the thing. In the nearly three months since the US electoral outcome, speculations on shifts in the Artemis program have come and gone, or even gotten superseded. As it is the space industry suffers from having more coverage of pre-launch and ongoing spaceflight than that of post spaceflight. As such, what many people and media outlets have been engaging in for the past two months is pre-pre-spaceflight and pre-policy! I’ve generally kept an editorial rule that I don’t discuss or proliferate something on [my blog](https://jatan.space/about) that’s more speculation or more incomplete than not. I prefer to wait for a tangible aspect of something to move in the present, and then pull related threads and coverage to get a better sense of what’s happening and where things are really going. My goal with Moon Monday is to [archive updates and efforts](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) that actually transpired, including [for Artemis](https://jatan.space/tag/artemis/). This way it can provide more long term value rather than be tied to just the news cycle. There can be good reasons to do speculative coverage, and I’ve done some in the past when I thought it was warranted or if it was something only I could’ve said. But for Artemis, there are so many doing and spreading the speculations already that I don’t feel the need to proliferate it all further. I’m quite tired of the transient way in which most space news is covered, and I’d like to keep Moon Monday away from all of that. To be clear, I’m not implying other media outlets should take the same approach as Moon Monday. Unlike what seems to be broadly assumed by people at large, the media is not a monolith. Not all media publications and journalists cover the same topics, and to the same depth or on comparable timescales. It holds true even within science and space journalism. In fact, if it wasn’t for many outlets providing space communities with daily coverage, my weekly Moon Monday editions wouldn’t have been able to build on it to provide a broader context. But there’s a difference between daily updates on actual developments versus transient speculations. Just as importantly, majority of the US-based and Europe-based media publications covering space have a [strong western bias](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-208/), which is something I explicitly try and avoid here. Moon Monday covers *global* lunar exploration. There are many other lunar developments happening right now in countries worldwide—and that doesn’t mean including only China—which don’t get covered well or enough. These developments are just as important too. With Moon Monday, my goal has been to provide a [larger global picture](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-206/) that complements the daily coverage in parts of the world, and use that to identify gaps and fill them if possible. In turn, this contextual coverage feeds back to journalists and daily reporters worldwide who are subscribed to Moon Monday. And so that is why you haven’t seen me spread Artemis speculations vis-à-vis the new US administration on Moon Monday. Having explained these things, now that the new US presidential term has officially begun and some space policy activity is unfolding, I look forward to covering all the tangible updates as well as share my perspectives along the way while retaining the approach above. To follow Artemis developments, [subscribe to my blog](https://jatan.space/subscribe) for free and check out the [dedicated Artemis page](https://jatan.space/tag/artemis/). Thoughts? ### Indian Space Progress #24: High on docking, low on navigation. Cool new projects, same old budget URL: https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-24/ Last updated: 2025-09-04T11:39:43.000Z *This edition marks two years of publishing the monthly* [*Indian Space Progress*](https://jatan.space/tag/indian-space-progress) *blog+newsletter. I started it with the goal of trying to compile, capture, and globally contextualize true trajectories of India’s evolving (civil) space capabilities. More than 7500 of you subscribers spread across the globe have found it interesting enough to have it on your radar. Thank you so much for reading and* [*supporting*](https://jatan.space/support)*! A special thanks also goes to the* [*Takshashila Institution*](https://takshashila.org.in) *for being the enabling sponsor of Indian Space Progress.* 🚀 ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/02/subscribers-distribution-map-nov-2024.jpg) Known geographical distribution of Indian Space Progress readers, spanning 100+ countries *India’s space program made great strides in* [*2023*](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-11/) *and* [*2024*](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-23/) *but there have also been several shortcomings and misses. This edition of Indian Space Progress discusses and contextually links to not just the highs but also the lows for India’s recent space missions and ambitions. The motivation is simple: there’s more work to do, and it all starts with accepting and discussing realities and constraints. It’s* [*what made Chandrayaan 3 so successful*](https://jatan.space/kalpana-kalahasti-chandrayaan-3-nature/) *after Chandrayaan 2’s failure. 🛰️* ## SPADEX paves the way for Chandrayaan 4 lunar sample return ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/02/spadex-satellites-prelaunch-photo-and-renders.jpg) Pre-launch photo and renders of the SPADEX satellites. ISRO designed the satellites such that either could act as the chaser and the other as target for docking. [Images: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/mission%5FSpaDeX.html) On January 16, India [successfully docked and then controlled](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/isro-successfully-docks-satellites-why-the-feat-is-crucial-for-future-missions/articleshow/117299987.cms) two twin satellites in circular low Earth orbit as part of mission [SPADEX](https://www.isro.gov.in/mission%5FSpaDeX.html) (**spa**ce **d**ocking **ex**periment). ISRO is using the [$14 million](https://www.deccanherald.com/india/first-step-for-chandrayaan-4-to-be-taken-by-year-end-isro-3082088) mission, sans the launch cost, as practice before the agency can launch the complex [Chandrayaan 4 spacecraft stack](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-194/) to bring samples from the Moon. Chandrayaan 4 will feature large robotic modules that dock remotely in Earth as well as in lunar orbit, the latter being a feat only China has achieved so far with its [Chang’e 5](https://jatan.space/change-5-landing-site/) and [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-182/) sample return missions. Chethan Kumar [reported](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/science/isro-preps-for-more-docking-trials-with-same-spadex-sats-to-perfect-precision-in-space/articleshow/117378839.cms) that ISRO will undock the SPADEX satellites and then conduct more docking trials with enhanced precision. The undocking was supposed to take place by late last month. In the absence of post-docking updates from ISRO, the New Indian Express [reports](https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/2025/Feb/07/technical-issues-delay-undocking-of-isros-spadex-mission-spacecraft) that the undocking of satellites is taking longer than expected due to issues like power generation differences between the two spacecraft. Now, the undocking might not happen before March at the earliest. Chandrayaan 3’s Project Director Palanivel Veeramuthuvel [noted in his talk](https://www.youtube.com/live/bfV%5F1Y%5FhZDM?feature=shared&t=32835) at the [2024 International Astronautical Congress](https://www.iafastro.org/events/iac/international-astronautical-congress-2024/) (IAC) that this mission is the first of three SPADEX missions ISRO will conduct. At least one of the next two SPADEX missions will demonstrate docking in an elliptical orbit, something that better simulates mission scenarios for Chandrayaan 4. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/02/chandrayaan-4-vs-3-module-stack.jpg) The in-consideration elongated Chandrayaan 4 spacecraft stack of five modules (left) versus the two modules which comprised Chandrayaan 3 (right). Images: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) | [ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan%5F3%5FModule%5FDynamic%5FTests.html) [Chandrayaan 4](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-194/)’s landing site will be somewhere between 85–90° on the Moon’s south pole, putting it squarely in the [water-hosting](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) polar region as opposed to the [70°S for Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/#the-moment-of-touchdown). Chandrayaan 4 is not the only reason for ISRO to conduct SPADEX missions. These will also [reduce risk](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/orbit-for-docking-satellites-chosen-keeping-human-missions-in-mind/articleshow/117323903.cms) for the [upcoming Gaganyaan human spaceflight missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/)—especially so for the end-of-decade cargo flight to the International Space Station and one to India’s first space station module. **Tangent:* ISRO provided ground tracking support for Intuitive Machines’ NASA CLPS Moon landing* [*but will not spell it*](https://jatan.space/isro-supported-ground-tracking-for-im-1-nasa-clps/) ## Next-generation ISRO navigation satellite stranded in space ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/02/nvs-02-thermovac-test.jpg) Loading of ISRO’s NSV-02 satellite into a thermovac chamber for space environmental testing pre-launch. [Image: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/NVS-02%5FAdvancing%5FNavigation%5FCapabilities.html) On January 29, a GSLV Mk II rocket [successfully launched and deployed](https://www.isro.gov.in/GSLV-F15%5FNVS-02%5FMission%5FLive%5FStreaming.html) the second of five [next-generation navigation satellites](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-05/) called [NVS-02](https://www.isro.gov.in/NVS-02%5FAdvancing%5FNavigation%5FCapabilities.html) into a geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO). The satellite though has been stuck there since. As is characteristic of the agency, ISRO tends to go silent when facing mission failures. ISRO made no press release, website blog post, or social media posts about the situation, and instead only quietly updated [the mission’s webpage](https://www.isro.gov.in/GSLV-F15%5FNVS-02%5FMission.html) to append the following note on February 2: > Subsequent to the launch, the solar panels on board the satellite were successfully deployed and power generation is nominal. Communication with the ground station has been established. But the orbit raising operations towards positioning the satellite to the designated orbital slot could not be carried out as the valves for admitting the oxidizer to fire the thrusters for orbit raising did not open. > > The satellite systems are healthy and the satellite is currently in elliptical orbit. Alternate mission strategies for utilising the satellite for navigation in an elliptical orbit is being worked out. Chethan Kumar [reported](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/science/key-valve-in-sat-launched-in-100th-mission-suffers-glitch-isro-weighing-options/articleshow/117864009.cms) that ISRO’s multiple attempts to fix the non-functioning valve have not achieved the “desired outcome”. And, since the orbit of NVS-02 is about [165 by 37,582 kilometers](https://spacenews.com/indian-navigation-satellite-stuck-in-transfer-orbit-after-propulsion-failure/), the low perigee will make the satellite reenter and burn up in Earth’s atmosphere due to air drag soon enough. Unless ISRO figures out some way to raise the satellite’s orbit, it will be lost. Either way, NVS-02 will not reach its final [inclined geosynchronous orbit](https://celestrak.org/columns/v04n07/) (IGSO) now, making it a setback for India’s GPS-GNSS–PNT constellation called *Navigation with Indian Constellation* (NavIC). NVS-02 was supposed to replace the old IRNSS-1E PNT satellite. A [parliamentary response](https://sansad.in/getFile/loksabhaquestions/annex/182/AU2548%5FZpuaoq.pdf?source=pqals) from August 2024 as well as an [October 2024 talk](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4Fy63bgQNGE&t=990s) by former ISRO Chief S. Somanath tell us that NavIC has been operating on minimum strength of four satellites. [Analysis of orbital operations](https://adithyapani.substack.com/p/analyzing-effects-of-isros-nvs-02) of functional NavIC satellites by Adithya Kothandhapani reveals that because the satellites need to be spread out in a certain geometry, fixing NVS-02’s failure is more than a matter of a single satellite replacement by NVS-03\. Kothandhapani [notes](https://adithyapani.substack.com/p/analyzing-effects-of-isros-nvs-02): > IRNSS-1E is starting to have wider E-W migration (\~10deg) in tracing an analemna at 111.75E (see the pink trace centered at 111.75E in the figure above). With no N-S station-keeping, the satellite will continue to go out of the orbital inclination specification, which is currently 34deg and rising. > > \[...\] > > The crucial takeaway here is that NVS-02’s failure has set the program back not just by one additional launch and a satellite, but also compounded the strain on operations of the existing satellites, majority of which are reaching the end of their stated lifespans. And, reddit user u/Ohsin has [pointed out](https://www.reddit.com/r/ISRO/comments/1emb910/parliamentary%5Fqa%5F7%5Faugust%5F2024%5Fqueries%5Fon%5Fnavic/) that ISRO has stopped publishing [NavIC performance reports](https://www.isro.gov.in/SatelliteNavigationServices.html) since Q4 2021. As such, other than a NavIC program review being in order, it will take ISRO a concerted effort over the next several years to bring NavIC to a place where it can function reliably and meet all of its desired objectives. ## The POEM continues On the same launch as SPADEX, ISRO once again uniquely repurposed the PSLV rocket’s fourth stage as a stabilized, solar-powered platform for onboard payloads. Called the PSLV Orbital Experimental Module (POEM), the platform affords organizations low-cost access to space for demonstrating their technologies ahead of use in future missions. This fourth launch of the POEM platform carried [24 payloads](https://www.isro.gov.in/POEM%5F4%5FPayloads%5Fspadex.html) from private, commercial, academic, and government organizations across India. Many of these payloads have already demonstrated their full primary mission objectives, including institutional ones growing [cowpea seeds](https://www.isro.gov.in/CROPS.html) and [spinach tissues](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/in-a-1st-indian-univ-grows-spinach-tissue-in-space/articleshow/117127062.cms?pcode=462) in space, and firing and space-qualifying of green fuel thrusters by private companies [Manastu Space](https://www.linkedin.com/posts/manastu-space%5Fspaceinnovation-100percentsuccess-pushingboundaries-activity-7284789480702550016-4mEc) and [Bellatrix](https://www.linkedin.com/posts/bellatrix-aerospace%5Fhat-trick-in-space-rudra-roars-activity-7280251808894144513-xT9x) respectively. However, many other payloads have yet to provide public updates on the progress being made on their objectives—or lack of it. The previous POEM launch last year hosted [nine payloads](https://www.isro.gov.in/POEM-3%5FMission%5Fachieves%5FPayload%5Fobjectives.html) from various organizations, including the [LEAP satellite platform demonstration](https://www.dhruvaspace.com/news/mission-success-dhruva-space-is-open-for-business-as-a-hosted-payload-provider-declares-success-of-leap-td-platform-onboard-isros-pslv-c58-poem-3) from the private company Dhruva Space, and ISRO’s own high density [Lithium-ion batteries](https://www.isro.gov.in/FlightDemonstration%5FSi-Gr%5Fanode.html) and a [fuel cell](https://www.isro.gov.in/FuelCellFlightTestedPSLVC58.html) with the hope of using their core technologies in future satellites and space stations. --- *Many thanks to the* [***Takshashila Institution***](https://takshashila.org.in)*,* [***PierSight***](https://piersight.space)*,* [***Gurbir Singh***](https://gurbir.co.uk) *and* [***Arun Raghavan***](https://arunraghavan.net) *for sponsoring this month’s Indian Space Progress edition. If you too appreciate my efforts to capture true trajectories of Indian space,* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*.* 🚀 --- ## Cool new projects; same old budget ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/02/lvm3-chandrayaan-3-launchpad.jpg) An LVM3 rocket hosting the Chandrayaan 3 spacecraft on the second launchpad at India’s Sriharikota spaceport. [Image: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/chandrayaan3%5Fgallery.html) On January 16, the Indian Government Union Cabinet [approved the establishment of a third launch pad](https://www.isro.gov.in/CabinetapprovesThirdLaunchPad.html) at India’s spaceport Sriharikota for $460 million. Targeting readiness before end of decade, the Third Launch Pad (TLP) will support [horizontal integration](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/science/isro-third-launch-pad-gets-cabinet-nod-to-cost-over-rs-39000000/articleshow/117299008.cms), testing, and launches of the also-recently-approved [heavy-lift NGLV rocket](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-20/#human-spaceflight-plans). Since the NGLV is not planned to be launched before 2030 though, the TLP will initially aid in increasing the launch capacity of India’s [Gaganyaan](https://www.isro.gov.in/Gaganyaan.html) human spaceflight missions vis-à-vis LVM3 rocket launches. Notably, ISRO is undertaking this and other upgrades for its spaceport [keeping in mind environmental constraints](https://indianexpress.com/article/long-reads/sriharikota-spaceport-isro-space-programme-9789159/) to prohibit flood damaging and erosion of the local ecosystem. Despite the recent approval of multiple ambitious space projects, including the aforementioned new launchpad and NGLV rocket, [Chandrayaan 4](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-194/), a [Venus orbiter](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-20/), and multiple [human spaceflight missions](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-20/#human-spaceflight-plans), the Indian government’s [space budget for FY 2025-26](https://www.indiabudget.gov.in/doc/eb/sbe95.pdf) essentially remains flat at about $1.5 billion, [continuing the trend and context](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-18/) from last year. It means that while India will develop these high-profile projects, the timelines for many will stretch out since the overall budget isn’t budging. Fixing NavIC will also need to come out of this same budget. That being said, there is one notable change in the new fiscal year budget announcement to encourage private space companies to commercialize Indian space technologies, as [noted](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/science/dept-of-space-gets-rs-13-4k-crore-up-from-rs-11-7k-crore-nsil-another-rs-1k-crore/articleshow/117828112.cms) by Chethan Kumar: > In a move that the industry had been batting for, the Centre has reduced customs duty on goods used in building of launch vehicles and launching of satellites to zero from the existing 5% and the same has been extended for ground installations for satellites, including space and consumables. > Goldie Dhama, partner, Deloitte India, said: “Reduction of custom duties to Nil for both should allow both global and domestic companies to make further investment for manufacturing in India and growth of the space sector.” ## Pixxel Space launches first batch of hyperspectral satellite constellation ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/02/pixxel-firefly-satellite-specs.jpeg) Pixxel Space’s Firefly satellite constellation specs. [Image: Pixxel](https://www.pixxel.space/firefly) The SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket’s [Transporter 12 launch](https://spacenews.com/spacex-launches-131-payloads-on-transporter-12-rideshare-mission/) on January 14 carried five payloads from private Indian companies, including [three hyperspectral satellites](https://www.linkedin.com/posts/pixxelspace%5Fa-monumental-18-hours-for-the-pixxel-team-activity-7285278563178614787-8KOg) for Earth observation from Pixxel Space called [Fireflies](https://www.pixxel.space/firefly), Digantara’s [SCOT](https://www.linkedin.com/posts/digantara%5Fmission-scot-has-successfully-established-activity-7285649361886232576-3V0J) satellite for space-based object tracking and situational awareness, and XDLINX Space Labs’ [Elevation-1](https://www.linkedin.com/posts/xdlinx-labs%5Fxdsatns-xdlinxlabs-xd-activity-7285333920076722176-hYSC) satellite touting an [advanced miniaturized communications](https://xdlinx.space/platform/#ns) payload. Last year in April, Bengaluru-based Digantara [opened up](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/bengaluru-gets-asias-1st-dedicated-space-domain-awareness-centre/articleshow/109438222.cms) Asia’s first dedicated center for space traffic monitoring. The center also allows the company to assemble their upcoming satellite constellation dedicated to space-based tracking of orbital objects—a world first. SCOT is an experimental demonstrator and prototype to that end. The company [raised $10 million](https://spacenews.com/indian-ssa-startup-raises-10-million) in June 2023 to build the constellation, followed by an additional [$2 million](https://www.digantara.co.in/blogs/aditya-birla-ventures-and-sidbi-backs-digantaras-extended-12m-series-a) last year. Pixxel Space, headquartered in the US but with a major Indian presence, aims to launch three additional Firefly satellites in the [second quarter of 2025](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/spacex-launches-3-indian-startups-high-tech-sats/articleshow/117278949.cms). The US company has notably [won a NASA contract](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/pixxel-wins-nasa-contract-for-hyperspectral-earth-observation-tech/articleshow/113197927.cms) to provide Earth observation data. Pixxel raised an additional [$24 million](https://payloadspace.com/pixxel-raises-24m-for-hyperspectral-data-biz/) last year, bringing the total funds raised by the company to at least [$95 million](https://www.crunchbase.com/organization/pixxel-81c6/company%5Ffinancials). Early last year, Pixxel [opened up](https://www.pixxel.space/blogs/pixxel-opens-first-of-its-kind-spacecraft-manufacturing-facility-in-bengaluru-india) a 2800 square-meter manufacturing and testing facility in Bengaluru with the hope of eventually building and qualifying dozens of satellites a year. Tigerfeathers has a [great deep dive](https://tigerfeathers.substack.com/p/pixxel-earths-honest-mirror) on Pixxel’s story, and YouTuber *Gareeb Scientist* gives us a [nice satellite tour](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fscOFB0QarA) of Pixxel’s facility in Bengaluru. However, I will also note here that I’m not a fan of Pixxel’s communications. They have broadcasted things like “[human eyes only see three wavelengths](https://x.com/PTI%5FNews/status/1809924939991949341)” in trying to sell the proposition of hyperspectral imagery. Such statements are disinformation spread from a science communications perspective, oversimplifying things to the point of becoming meaningless even for a lay audience. ## More Indian space - As [Indian astronaut training](https://www.isro.gov.in/Training%5FGaganyatris%5FISRO-NASA%5FMission.html) at NASA [continues](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/ax-4-crew-including-indias-shubhanshu-shukla-begin-training-in-germany/articleshow/115482278.cms) so as to fly Shubhanshu Shukla to the International Space Station (ISS) later this year through the [*Ax-4* Axiom Space private mission](https://www.axiomspace.com/missions/ax4) aboard a SpaceX Crew Dragon capsule as Mission Pilot, ISS partner nations [have approved](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-partners-to-welcome-fourth-axiom-space-mission-to-space-station/) for the Ax-4 crew of four to fly for a 14-day mission. As part of the mission and a [broader ISRO-ESA agreement](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Operations/ESA%5Fto%5Fsupport%5FIndian%5Fhuman%5Fspaceflight%5Fmissions), Indian institutes will [conduct two joint microgravity experiments](https://www.isro.gov.in/ISRO-ESA%5Fcollaboration%5Fin%5Fmicrogravity%5Fresearch%5Fin%5Fupcoming%5FAxiom-4%5FMission.html) with ESA. - ISRO has [released the first datasets](https://www.isro.gov.in/ISRO%5FNationalmeet%5FAdityaL1.html) from its [Aditya-L1](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-08/) solar telescope, which [began studying](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-12/#aditya-l1-begins-its-solar-staring) the Sun’s surface, atmosphere, its activities, and [the solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) since January last year [from a halo orbit](https://www.isro.gov.in/Aditya%5FL1%5FMission%5FCompletion%5Fof%5FFirst%5FHalo%5FOrbit.html) around the [first Sun-Earth Lagrangian point](https://www.isro.gov.in/Aditya%5FL1-MissionDetails.html) (L1). Aditya-L1 payload data is accessible from ISRO’s [ISSDC](https://www.issdc.gov.in/adityal1.html) and [PRADAN](https://pradan.issdc.gov.in/al1) portals. In the meanwhile, Chethan Kumar [reports](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/indian-institute-of-astrophysics-develops-method-to-predict-solar-storms-impact-on-earth/) on how IIA researchers have developed a new method to predict impacts of solar storms on Earth. - Dr. V. Narayanan is India’s new Secretary of the Department of Space (DOS) as well as the chief of ISRO as a DOS entity. He continues helming India’s premier space organization from the previous DOS Secretary and ISRO Chief S. Somanath. Narayanan has [contributed extensively](https://www.isro.gov.in/DrVNarayanan%5FAssumed%5FCharge%5FSecretary%5FDOS%5FChairman%5FSpace%5FCommission.html) to many high-profile Indian space missions and launch vehicle development programs, including cryogenic propulsion on India’s rockets, the Chandrayaan 3 lander, making the LVM3 rocket ready for Gaganyaan human spaceflights, developing propulsion systems for Gaganyaan, and much more. - **Job listing:** *InspeCity, which is building technologies to better sustain satellites, is hiring a* [*computer vision engineer*](https://www.inspecity.com/careers/vision-engineer)*, an* [*AOCS engineer*](https://www.inspecity.com/careers/aocs-engineer)*, an* [*embedded systems engineer*](https://www.inspecity.com/careers/embedded-systems-engineer)*, and* [*more*](https://www.inspecity.com/careers)*.* 🛰️ --- I’m pleased to share that [ISRO’s webpage](https://www.isro.gov.in/UnionCabinetApprovesIndiasMission.html) on details and scientific context of the Chandrayaan 4 lunar sample return mission plus their Venus orbiter cites my blog as well as my work for The Planetary Society as references! 🚀 ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/02/isro-chandrayaan-4-post-references-my-blog.jpg) Screenshot of [ISRO’s webpage](https://www.isro.gov.in/UnionCabinetApprovesIndiasMission.html) on the Chandrayaan 4 and Venus Orbiter missions. ### ISRO provided ground tracking support for Intuitive Machines’ NASA CLPS Moon landing URL: https://jatan.space/isro-supported-ground-tracking-for-im-1-nasa-clps/ Last updated: 2025-12-11T09:35:14.000Z Last week [I wrote](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-210/#more-mission-updates) how the [annual report](https://www.nsilindia.co.in/sites/default/files/u1/Annual%20Report-2023-24%20-%20English.pdf) of NSIL, an Indian government arm tasked with commercializing ISRO’s space technologies, notes that ISRO provided commercial ground tracking support for a lunar mission by another country in 2023\. For some reason, the NSIL report doesn’t specify the mission name. NSIL has not yet responded to queries regarding the same. As such, we are left to guess. Since the mentioned timeframe is 2023, my guess was the ground tracking support must have been for either Russia’s [Luna 25](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-141/) spacecraft or JAXA’s [SLIM](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/en/outreach/announcements/files/SLIM-pressconf-20240125.pdf). Although SLIM [landed in January](https://jatan.space/precision-moon-landings-and-the-future/) 2024, it [launched in September 2023](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-144/). India’s geography with respect to Japan and Europe would’ve made it a suitable gap-filler for continued communications. I excluded ispace Japan’s [first Moon mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-125/) as being the NSIL-ISRO customer on the assumed basis that ISRO doesn’t have publicly known cooperation arrangements with ispace like they do with JAXA and Roscosmos. Now, multiple ISRO sources, and [a public talk](https://www.youtube.com/live/QbtEf-HtNDQ?feature=shared&t=2485) by a program lead at ISRO’s spacecraft communications arm ISTRAC, independently suggest that it was only Intuitive Machines who commercially used ISRO’s ground tracking support for [IM-1](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-165/), the company’s first [NASA CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) Moon mission. This use would be as part of Intuitive’s global network of [commercially availed](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-93/) ground stations for its Moon missions, where ISRO’s presence was previously known. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/02/intuitive-machines-im-1-ground-stations.jpg) Ground stations used by Intuitive Machines for its first CLPS Moon mission IM-1\. Images: [Intuitive Machines](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/commercial-lunar-network-completed-ahead-of-im-1-moon-mission), [MSU](https://www.moreheadstate.edu/college-of-science/earth-and-space-sciences/space-science-center/laboratories-facilities/21m-space-tracking-antenna), [Goonhilly](https://www.goonhilly.org/ghy-6-32m-x/s-band), [CSIRO](https://www.csiro.au/en/news/News-releases/2021/CSIROs-Dish-to-support-one-of-the-first-commercial-Moon-landings) But there’s a catch. IM-1 happened in 2024, not 2023\. NSIL’s annual report may be for FY 2023-24 but it also clearly states the following: > NSIL has provided one Deep Space Mission Support for a Lunar Mission of an International Customer during 2023. The most likely thing here could be that the report made a writing mistake by not specifying the year as being fiscal. It makes one wonder how many other things across ISRO and ISRO-affiliated reports may have been inaccurate like this case? Anyway, ISRO will provide commercial ground tracking support for Intuitive Machines’ [second CLPS Moon landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-189/) mission as well. The IM-2 lander is set to launch late February on a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket. And I will cover its updates as usual on my [Moon Monday](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) blog+newsletter. --- *Tangent:* Here’s a [paper on how orbit determination went](https://s3.amazonaws.com/amz.xcdsystem.com/A464D031-C624-C138-7D0E208E29BC4EDD%5Fabstract%5FFile24217/FinalPaperUpload%5F282%5F0916021806.pdf) for the IM-1 mission. Ignoring that the paper’s very first line says “Intuitive Machines (IM) recently met its goal of softly landing a robotic spacecraft near the south pole of the Moon”, because it was [not a soft landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-208/) by any measure, the paper notes many interesting challenges. Here’s an example: > A common issue throughout the mission was a lack of real-time information on which station was being used as the transmitter and at what frequency the station was transmitting. The issue with determining the transmitting station mainly came from the fact that all tracking data produced was labeled as 2-way. In general, one station would be in 2-way as the transmitter and one or more other stations would be listening in 3-way configuration. Early in the mission, it was noted that it appeared that several of the LTN stations were not transmitting at the assumed requested frequency. No direct telemetry was available in the ground system to determine what the true transmit frequency was. In some cases, the transmit frequency for a specific station could change from pass to pass. This required significant effort to identify what the transmitting station was and at what frequency it was transmitting. ### Moon Monday #211: A long march of lunar papers from China, and mission updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-211/ Last updated: 2025-02-03T15:21:28.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/06/chang-e-6-lander-on-the-moon.jpg) A panorama from the Chang’e 6 lander on the Moon’s farside, showing one of its legs and the scoop sampling arm near its surface digs. [Image: CNSA / CLEP](https://x.com/SegerYu/status/1798688466026594539) Chinese researchers have published a whole range of papers lately on their recent lunar exploration outcomes as well as ongoing scoping of future ambitions. Here’s a contextualized compilation. 1. Studying rocks from the first [lunar farside samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-201/) brought to Earth by the Chang’e 6 mission has revealed that the Moon’s global magnetic field persisted longer than thought. Read: 1. [Release](https://scitechdaily.com/change-6-moon-mission-uncovers-secret-hidden-for-billions-of-years/) by CAS 2. Paper in [*Nature*](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-08526-2) 3. [Coverage](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3291734/moon-rocks-chinas-change-6-mission-test-apollo-views-lunar-magnetic-field) by Zhang Tong 2. The above finding comes shortly after Chinese scientists associated with the mission dated volcanic samples from Chang’e 6\. Read: 1. CAS Release [One](https://english.cas.cn/newsroom/research%5Fnews/earth/202411/t20241115%5F694360.shtml) and [Two](https://english.cas.cn/newsroom/research%5Fnews/earth/202411/t20241114%5F694224.shtml) 2. Papers in [*Nature*](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-08382-0) and [*Science*](https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adt1093) 3. [Moon Monday coverage](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-202/) 3. Chinese researchers at large can now apply for access to Chang’e 6 samples as of November last year, which came after [curation and storage of samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-201/) was complete. The first batch of Chang’e 6 samples to be dispatched were [approved late December](https://english.www.gov.cn/news/202412/29/content%5FWS67708530c6d0868f4e8ee57a.html) alongside the eight batch of Chang’e 5 samples—a total of 8.55 grams across 16 research institutions. However, the Chang’e 5 sample dispatch doesn’t yet include approvals for international proposals as was expected, which might be due to the fact the US and China are taking long to [finalize terms for US researchers to access Chang’e 5 samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-201/) after NASA sought and [secured a US Congressional exception](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-156/) for the same in late 2023. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/02/china-lunar-navcom-constellation-concept-f6135259f6bc927b.jpg) A three-stage concept of developing a cislunar navigation and communications constellation proposed by Chinese researchers. [Image: SCMP](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3270910/chinese-scientists-propose-information-superhighway-between-earth-and-moon) 1. The Journal of Deep Space Exploration published a special edition of papers (in Chinese) which take a systematic look at mapping lunar lava tubes to asses their potential as long-term astronaut habitats in the future. Read: 1. [The series of papers](https://jdse.bit.edu.cn/sktcxb/article/2024/4) 2. [Summary](https://spacenews.com/china-is-taking-a-keen-interest-in-lava-tubes-as-possible-lunar-habitats/) by Andrew Jones 3. [International efforts](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-187/) to study and explore lava tubes 2. The Chinese Journal of Space Science published a [review paper](https://doi.org/10.11728/cjss2024.04.2024-yg10) summarizing the scientific findings from Chang’e 4 and Chang’e 5. 1. To summarize the summary: Chang’e 4 greatly [helped constrain the nature of cosmic ray radiation](https://doi.org/10.11728/cjss2024.04.2024-yg10) on [our Moon’s farside](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/), which will help plan safer future crewed missions [leading to a Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/). Samples return to Earth by Chang’e 5 have helped scientists [determine truer ages](https://english.cas.cn/newsroom/research%5Fnews/phys/202202/t20220214%5F300776.shtml) of lunar features, refine [the nature of impacts over the last two billion years](https://doi.org/10.59717/j.xinn-geo.2023.100014) in the inner Solar System, and shed light on [young lunar volcanism](https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abl7957) while also finding [120-million-year young volcanic beads](https://english.cas.cn/newsroom/research%5Fnews/earth/202409/t20240904%5F684803.shtml)—which have collectively [opened up](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-04107-9) more [enigmas](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-04119-5) about the Moon’s interior and [its evolution](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). 3. Chinese researchers devised a method to produce water on the Moon by heating regolith containing the commonly found lunar mineral Ilmenite, a system that might provide a rather high output ratio of about 50 litres of water per ton (metric, obviously) of processed material for future astronauts at [Moonbases](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/). Read: - [Institute Release](http://english.nimte.cas.cn/rh/rp/202408/t20240819%5F683183.html) - Paper in [*The Innovation*](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xinn.2024.100690) - [Coverage](https://www.universetoday.com/168194/chinese-researchers-devise-new-strategy-for-producing-water-on-the-moon/) by Matt Williams 1. Last but most certainly not the least, China is conducting multiple independent studies to make a [lunar navigation and communications constellation](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-185/), building on last year’s launch and operationalization of [Queqiao 2](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-169/). Read: 1. Paper in the journal [*Chinese Space Science and Technology*](http://journal26.magtechjournal.com/kjkxjs/EN/10.16708/j.cnki.1000-758X.2024.0035) on a phased navcom constellation of 30+ satellites 2. Paper in [*Springer Nature*](https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4102-9%5F86) on a constellation that optimizes for the Moon’s south pole 3. Paper in the [*Chinese Journal of Space Science*](https://doi.org/10.11728/cjss2024.03.2023-0129) proposing integrating China’s Queqiao lunar satellites with the existing Earthbound Tianlian ones 4. Related coverage by [Ling Xin](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3270910/chinese-scientists-propose-information-superhighway-between-earth-and-moon) and [Andrew Jones](https://spacenews.com/china-could-develop-dual-relay-satellite-system-for-earth-moon-communications-to-reduce-geopolitical-risks/) 5. [Moon Monday coverage](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-185/) of how everything fits together [🌗 More China and Luna updates →](https://jatan.space/tag/china-and-luna/) ## Mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/02/intuitive-machines-nova-c-lander-im-2-lunar-outpost-rover-nokia-4g-antennae-1f72b3ad87f1647c.jpg) Illustration of Lunar Outpost’s rover on the Moon, with Intuitive Machines’ IM-2 lander that will deploy it in the image background. The rover is shown with deployed antennae for 4G/LTE network testing. [Image: Nokia / Lunar Outpost](https://www.bell-labs.com/institute/blog/a-network-like-no-other-how-nokias-moon-network-differs-from-any-on-earth) - Intuitive Machines has [delivered its Athena lander](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/intuitive-machines-delivers-second-lunar-mission-lander-to-cape-canaveral-florida) to SpaceX for the company’s [second Moon landing mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-189/) part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). Athena will launch on a Falcon 9 rocket no earlier than February 26, [carrying](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-189/) the agency’s payloads, a rover by Lunar Outpost, a hopper, and more. Launching alongside Athena as a rocket rideshare is the also NASA-funded [Lunar Trailblazer](https://jatan.space/nasa-lunar-trailblazer/) orbiter. Trailblazer will provide scientists with unprecedented, high-resolution global maps of the amount, distribution, and state of water across our Moon. It will also help us better understand [several other key scientific aspects](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/lunarGeologicSettings.html) of Luna. While Athena will head straight for the Moon post-launch and reach within a week, Lunar Trailblazer will spend four to seven months in a [low-energy, fuel-efficient transfer trajectory](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/gettingToTheMoon.html) before entering lunar orbit—similar to ispace Japan’s [recently launched](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-209/) Moon mission. - On February 1, NASA requested the agency-backed Lunar Exploration Analysis Group ([LEAG](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag)) to pause all of its meetings and activities while NASA conducts a review to ensure their compliance with the [many](https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/01/ending-radical-and-wasteful-government-dei-programs-and-preferencing/) [recent](https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/01/defending-women-from-gender-ideology-extremism-and-restoring-biological-truth-to-the-federal-government/) [executive](https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/01/initial-rescissions-of-harmful-executive-orders-and-actions/) [orders](https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/01/unleashing-american-energy/) passed by the US President under the new administration. NASA asked LEAG to communicate this update to community members. Recall that LEAG’s [founding purpose](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag/LEAG%5FTOR-8-29-2014.pdf) is to help NASA forge and meet its Moon exploration objectives [by providing analysis](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag/reports/LEAG2022AnnualMeetingFindings%5FFINAL.pdf) across scientific, technical, commercial, and operational aspects. - ESA is awarding a [$882 million contract](https://www.thalesaleniaspace.com/en/press-releases/thales-alenia-space-signs-contract-esa-develop-argonaut-lunar-lander-cargo-delivery) to a European consortium led by Thales Alenia Space for [developing the Lunar Descent Element](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Argonaut%5Fa%5Ffirst%5FEuropean%5Flunar%5Flander) technologically central to the continent’s upcoming large Moon lander called [Argonaut](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Exploration/Argonaut). ESA says it will select the entity managing Argonaut missions by end of 2026\. Launching no earlier than 2031 onboard an Ariane 64 rocket, Argonaut will be capable of deploying about 2,000 kilograms of payload on the Moon. With a planned launch cadence of two years, ESA hopes for Argonaut to support NASA’s Artemis crewed missions and its [eventual Moonbase](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept) with [navigation and communications equipment](https://europeanspaceflight.com/esa-awards-thales-alenia-space-e862m-argonaut-moon-lander-contract/), cargo supplies for astronauts, large rover deliveries, and habitat-related infrastructure such as [lunar oxygen extractors](https://www.thalesgroup.com/en/worldwide/space/press-release/thales-alenia-space-wins-study-contract-develop-payload-extract) and [solar arrays](https://europeanspaceflight.com/the-european-charging-station-for-the-moon/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/02/esa-argonaut-lander-illustration-thales-alenia-space-cb965fc40de8a70d.jpg) Illustration of ESA’s Argonaut Moon landers on the Moon’s south pole, aiding with astronaut supplies. [Image: Thales Alenia Space / Briot](https://www.thalesaleniaspace.com/en/press-releases/thales-alenia-space-signs-contract-esa-develop-argonaut-lunar-lander-cargo-delivery) --- *Many thanks to* [***The Orbital Index***](https://orbitalindex.com)*,* [***Henry Throop***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/henry-throop-a47a6a7) *and* [***Gurbir Singh***](https://gurbir.co.uk) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to publish this curated community resource for free,* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*. 🌙* --- ## The answer to which foreign Moon mission ISRO supported Last week I wrote how the [annual report](https://www.nsilindia.co.in/sites/default/files/u1/Annual%20Report-2023-24%20-%20English.pdf) of NSIL, an Indian government arm tasked with commercializing ISRO’s space technologies, notes that ISRO provided commercial ground tracking support for a lunar mission by another country in 2023\. For some reason, the NSIL report doesn’t specify the mission name. NSIL has not yet responded to queries regarding the same. As such, we are left to guess. Since the mentioned timeframe is 2023, my guess was the ground tracking support must have been for either Russia’s [Luna 25](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-141/) spacecraft or JAXA’s [SLIM](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/en/outreach/announcements/files/SLIM-pressconf-20240125.pdf). Although SLIM [landed in January](https://jatan.space/precision-moon-landings-and-the-future/) 2024, it [launched in September 2023](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-144/). India’s geography with respect to Japan and Europe would’ve made it a suitable gap-filler for continued communications. I excluded ispace Japan’s [first Moon mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-125/) as being the NSIL-ISRO customer on the assumed basis that ISRO doesn’t have publicly known cooperation arrangements with ispace like they do with JAXA and Roscosmos. Now, multiple ISRO sources, and [a public talk](https://www.youtube.com/live/QbtEf-HtNDQ?feature=shared&t=2485) by a program lead at ISRO’s spacecraft communications arm ISTRAC, independently suggest that it was only Intuitive Machines who commercially used ISRO’s ground tracking support for [IM-1](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-165/), the company’s first [NASA CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) Moon mission. This use would be as part of Intuitive’s global network of [commercially availed](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-93/) ground stations for its Moon missions, where ISRO’s presence was previously known. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/02/intuitive-machines-im-1-ground-stations-e6524c8df8d4ec78.jpg) Ground stations used by Intuitive Machines for its first CLPS Moon mission IM-1\. Images: [Intuitive Machines](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/commercial-lunar-network-completed-ahead-of-im-1-moon-mission), [MSU](https://www.moreheadstate.edu/college-of-science/earth-and-space-sciences/space-science-center/laboratories-facilities/21m-space-tracking-antenna), [Goonhilly](https://www.goonhilly.org/ghy-6-32m-x/s-band), [CSIRO](https://www.csiro.au/en/news/News-releases/2021/CSIROs-Dish-to-support-one-of-the-first-commercial-Moon-landings) But there’s a catch. IM-1 happened in 2024, not 2023\. NSIL’s annual report may be for FY 2023-24 but it also clearly states the following: > NSIL has provided one Deep Space Mission Support for a Lunar Mission of an International Customer during 2023. The most likely thing here could be that the report made a writing mistake by not specifying the year as being fiscal. It makes one wonder how many other things across ISRO and ISRO-affiliated reports may have been inaccurate like this case? *Tangent:* Here’s a [paper on how orbit determination went](https://s3.amazonaws.com/amz.xcdsystem.com/A464D031-C624-C138-7D0E208E29BC4EDD%5Fabstract%5FFile24217/FinalPaperUpload%5F282%5F0916021806.pdf) for IM-1\. Ignoring that the paper’s very first line says “Intuitive Machines (IM) recently met its goal of softly landing a robotic spacecraft near the south pole of the Moon”, because it was [not a soft landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-208/) by any measure, the paper notes many interesting challenges. Here’s an example: > A common issue throughout the mission was a lack of real-time information on which station was being used as the transmitter and at what frequency the station was transmitting. The issue with determining the transmitting station mainly came from the fact that all tracking data produced was labeled as 2-way. In general, one station would be in 2-way as the transmitter and one or more other stations would be listening in 3-way configuration. Early in the mission, it was noted that it appeared that several of the LTN stations were not transmitting at the assumed requested frequency. No direct telemetry was available in the ground system to determine what the true transmit frequency was. In some cases, the transmit frequency for a specific station could change from pass to pass. This required significant effort to identify what the transmitting station was and at what frequency it was transmitting. ## More Moon - Jeff Foust [reports](https://spacenews.com/safety-panel-urges-nasa-to-reassess-artemis-mission-objectives-to-reduce-risk/) that NASA’s Aerospace Safety Advisory Panel (ASAP) is requesting the agency to de-risk Artemis missions by simplifying them and essentially splitting them up such that each launch ties to fewer test objectives—Apollo style. - With the successful emplacement of 20,000 kilograms of [Moon-like anorthositic material](https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/space-technologies/articles/10.3389/frspt.2024.1510635/full) from Greenland, ESA nears completion of a [lunar dust mimicking lab](https://luna-analog-facility.de/en/luna-dust-lab-completes/) at its versatile new [LUNA analog facility](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-195/). Here Moonbound hardware can test the reliability of their operations under Moon-like dusty environment. - As human exploration and activities on the Moon [continue to increase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-206/), a research project led by MIT is inviting people to participate in an [anonymous survey](https://mit.co1.qualtrics.com/jfe/form/SV%5F6Eufm7HaycqDhbw?Q%5FCHL=email) by responding with what lunar sustainability means to them. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/02/puducherry-dusk-sky-moon-mars-fd06eae16e159fde.jpg) Our Moon, and Mars. At dusk, Puducherry, India. **Editor’s note of no consequence:* I’m publishing this edition of my* [*Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) *blog+newsletter from a beach in Puducherry, India. It’s quite nice right now after dusk. A dark windy seashore you can hear more than see. A crescent Moon, red Mars, bright Jupiter and Venus, and stellar Orion hang above. Moving wave crests are lightly lit by ambient light. What a lovely experience of breezy serenity. 🌊🌌* *Perhaps the only purpose of this editor’s note is to make those who read until all the way here reflect and smile a little.* ### Moon Monday #210: Mission updates from Japan, the US, China, South Korea, India, and Finland URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-210/ Last updated: 2025-01-27T16:04:38.000Z *A note before we start: Jonathan McDowell doesn’t need an introduction for his globally revered* [*Space Reports*](https://planet4589.org/space/jsr/jsr.html)*. To move his foundational space library to a new home, he’s seeking funds* [*through GoFundMe*](https://www.gofundme.com/f/fund-jonathans-space-report-library-transition)*. I’ve donated, and urge my dear readers to consider supporting him too to help meet the goal. The best part from his announcement is that post-retirement from his day job, Jonathan intends to do Space Report related work full-time. Can’t wait.* 🚀 ## Two Moon landers working in space ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/01/earth-captured-by-firefly-blue-ghost-moon-lander.jpg) Our Earth as captured by the Blue Ghost lunar lander from Earth orbit on January 23, 2025\. [Image: Firefly Aerospace](https://www.flickr.com/photos/fireflyspace/54283932532/in/album-72177720313239766/) - On [January 21](https://fireflyspace.com/news/blue-ghost-mission-1-live-updates/), the joint US-Italian [LuGRE payload](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/nasa-and-italian-space-agency-test-future-lunar-navigation-technology/) onboard Firefly’s [Blue Ghost](https://fireflyspace.com/missions/blue-ghost-mission-1/) Moon lander part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) became the first experiment ever to [get a GPS fix](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2025/01/21/blue-ghost-conducts-first-burn-science-operations-captures-eclipse/) at approximately 331,000 kilometers away from Earth. That’s close to the average Earth-Moon distance of 384,000 kilometers, indicating that Earth-based GNSS satellite constellations could help spacecraft navigate at the Moon. - On January 22, ispace Japan [turned on](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=6862) the radiation monitoring payload aboard its second Moon lander [Hakuto-R](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=6734), which [launched alongside](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-209/) Firefly’s lander on a shared SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket on January 15\. The radiation payload on Hakuto-R is developed by the National Central University of Taiwan. It’s flying commercially, and represents the country’s first instrument flown to deep space. The payload’s data about the nature of radiation on and around the Moon will contribute to a [larger effort](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-162/#a-gist-of-gateway-science) to [nail down on the same](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-1/artemis-i-radiation-measurements-validate-orion-safety-for-astronauts/), which will inform us on how to adequately protect astronauts and critical hardware on future long term lunar missions. ## More mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/01/chang-e-8-illustration.jpg) Illustration of the Chang’e 8 lander on the Moon’s south pole. [Image: CNSA](https://spacenews.com/china-outlines-change-8-resource-utilization-mission-to-the-lunar-south-pole) - Andrew Jones [reports](https://spacenews.com/china-embraces-commercial-participation-in-moon-mission-for-the-first-time/) that China’s upcoming [Chang’e 8](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/#prepare-for-crew-and-double-down-with-mission-eight) Moon landing mission will carry two five-kilogram mobile robots developed by the private Chinese company ‘STAR.VISION’ in collaboration with universities from China and Turkey. This would make it the first payload from a Chinese company flying commercially on a Chang’e spacecraft. Targeting launch on a Long March 5 rocket in 2028, Chang’e 8 will explore the nature of local lunar polar resources like its soil and [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and assess their utility with a [comprehensive suite of payloads](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/#prepare-for-crew-and-double-down-with-mission-eight). It was recently revealed that the Chang’e 8 payloads will include a multi-purpose, 100-kilogram [dextrous mobile robot](https://hkust.edu.hk/news/research-and-innovation/hkust-leads-change-8-international-cooperation-project) from group of institutions in Hong Kong, and a 35-kilogram [rover from Pakistan](https://tribune.com.pk/story/2509494/suparcos-rover-to-explore-lunar-surface). - Kim Na-young [reports](https://en.yna.co.kr/view/AEN20250122002400320?section=news) that South Korea’s [recently formed space agency](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-181/) called the Korea Aerospace Administration (KASA) is budgeting about $31 million this year towards the country’s [goal of building a Moon lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-181/). In an approach similar to what ISRO takes for its planetary missions like [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/), South Korea is also indigenously developing the rocket that will launch its Moon lander. The budget line for the rocket is separate. KASA will also send a lunar environment monitoring payload through NASA onboard Intuitive Machines’ [third CLPS Moon lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-189/) for about $5 million. All of these investments are part of South Korea’s space budget of $562.5 million pushed with the aim of becoming a global space power in the coming decades. Kim Na-young has [also reported](https://en.yna.co.kr/view/AEN20250121003500320?section=search) that KASA seeks to strengthen partnerships with Japan and Europe other than the US, including through participation in NASA’s Artemis program. - The [annual report](https://www.nsilindia.co.in/sites/default/files/u1/Annual%20Report-2023-24%20-%20English.pdf) of NSIL, an Indian government arm tasked with commercializing ISRO’s space technologies, notes that ISRO provided commercial ground tracking support for a lunar mission by another country in 2023\. For some reason, NSIL doesn’t mention which mission this was. Since the timeframe is 2023, the ground tracking support must have been for either Russia’s [Luna 25](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-141/) spacecraft or JAXA’s [SLIM](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/en/outreach/announcements/files/SLIM-pressconf-20240125.pdf). Although SLIM [landed in January](https://jatan.space/precision-moon-landings-and-the-future/) 2024, it [launched in September 2023](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-144/). India’s geography with respect to Japan and Europe would’ve made it a suitable gap-filler for continued communications. I’m excluding ispace Japan’s [first Moon mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-125/) being the NSIL-ISRO customer on the assumed basis that ISRO doesn’t seem to have cooperation arrangements in place with ispace like they do with JAXA and Roscosmos. Thoughts? ## Artemis updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/01/artemis-logistics-illustration.jpg) An artistic rendering of an imagined lunar architecture. [Image: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/general/nextstep-r-lunar-logistics-and-mobility-studies/) - NASA is awarding [$24 million across nine companies](https://www.nasa.gov/general/nextstep-r-lunar-logistics-and-mobility-studies/) to investigate and propose high autonomy logistics and mobility solutions for eventual use on the [Artemis Moonbase](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept). These will serve astronauts living on the Moon and exploring it for longer durations. Relatedly, as part of the [latest round](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-awards-2025-innovative-technology-concept-studies/) of the NASA Innovative Advanced Concepts (NIAC) program, the agency is funding [the LUNGS proposal](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/stmd/niac/lunar-glass-structure-lungs-enabling-construction-of-monolithic-habitats-in-low-gravity/) that will explore melting of glass compounds in lunar soil to create large spherical shell structures as potential astronaut habitats. - Finland [became the 53rd nation](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-welcomes-finland-as-newest-artemis-accords-signatory/) to sign the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords) for cooperative lunar exploration. Relatedly, Intuitive Machines’ [second CLPS Moon lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-189/) targeting a late February launch is slated to carry [4G/LTE communications systems](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/nokia-s-cellular-network-ready-for-moon-as-intuitive-machines-completes-final-lunar-lander-installat) from Nokia of America as a subsidiary of Nokia Finland. Jeff Foust [noted in his coverage](https://spacenews.com/finland-signs-artemis-accords/) that while Finland has signed the Accords, the country continues to consider the United Nations as the primary forum for the development and compliance of international space law. **Also see:** [*Artemis Accords strikes a chord*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-207/#artemis-accords-strikes-a-chord) - After NASA [transferred operations of two of its key lunar orbital imagers](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-202/#opaque-orbital-operations) to Intuitive Machines, the company is [now hiring](https://tinyurl.com/mrjx9vdr) someone who would support their remote sensing observations, derive its data products, and conduct scientific analyses on the same. This role is part of the company’s ‘Super Moon Science Operations Center’ in Phoenix, Arizona. --- *Many thanks to* [***Off Planet Research***](https://offplanetresearch.com)*,* [***Henry Throop***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/henry-throop-a47a6a7) *and* [***Frank Genin***](https://www.amazon.com/dp/2958293009) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to publish this curated community resource for free,* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*. 🌙* --- ## Sharing Moon Monday’s approach to speculative (Artemis) coverage ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/01/moon-to-mars-artemis.jpg) [Image: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/nasa-australia-sign-agreement-to-add-rover-to-future-moon-mission/) Some of you have been wondering and asking why I haven’t covered potential Artemis changes in the new US administration on this [Moon Monday](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) blog+newsletter. So here’s the thing: In the two months since the US electoral outcome, speculations on shifts in the Artemis program have come and gone, or even gotten superseded. As it is the space industry suffers from having more coverage of pre-launch and ongoing spaceflight than that of post spaceflight. As such, what many people and media outlets have been engaging in for the past two months is pre-pre-spaceflight and pre-policy! I’ve generally kept an editorial rule that I don’t discuss or proliferate something on [my blog](https://jatan.space/about) that’s more speculation or more incomplete than not. I prefer to wait for a tangible aspect of something to move in the present, and then pull related threads and coverage to get a better sense of what’s happening and where things are really going. My goal with Moon Monday is to [archive updates and efforts](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) that actually transpired. This way it can provide more long term value rather than be tied to just the news cycle. There can be good reasons to do speculative coverage, and I’ve done some in the past when I thought it was warranted or if it was something only I could’ve said. But for Artemis, there are so many doing and spreading the speculations already that I don’t feel the need to proliferate it all further. I’m quite tired of the transient way in which most space news is covered, and I’d like to keep Moon Monday away from all of that. To be clear, I’m not implying other media outlets should take the same approach as Moon Monday. Unlike what seems to be broadly assumed by people at large, the media is not a monolith. Not all media publications and journalists cover the same topics, and to the same depth or on comparable timescales. It holds true even within science and space journalism. In fact, if it wasn’t for many outlets providing space communities with daily coverage, my weekly Moon Monday editions wouldn’t have been able to build on it to provide a broader context. But there’s a difference between daily updates on actual developments versus transient speculations. Just as importantly, majority of the US-based and Europe-based media publications covering space have a [strong western bias](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-208/), which is something I explicitly try and avoid here. Moon Monday covers *global* lunar exploration. There are many other lunar developments happening right now in countries worldwide—and that doesn’t mean including only China—which don’t get covered well or enough. These developments are just as important too. With Moon Monday, my goal has been to provide a [larger global picture](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-206/) that complements the daily coverage in parts of the world, and use that to identify gaps and fill them if possible. In turn, this contextual coverage feeds back to journalists and daily reporters worldwide who are subscribed to Moon Monday. And so that is why you haven’t seen me spread Artemis speculations vis-à-vis the new US administration on Moon Monday. Having explained these things, now that the new US presidential term has officially begun, let’s see what tangible things unfold for Artemis, and I will surely cover them as well as share my perspectives along the way. Thoughts? ## More Moon - A new book [Optics of the Moon](https://shop.elsevier.com/books/optics-of-the-moon/shkuratov/978-0-12-817972-7) is out for students and early career researchers in lunar and planetary science. - [Fun with Moon exploration headlines](https://jatan.space/fun-with-moon-exploration-headlines/) 🌝 ### Moon Monday #209: Let’s be high on launch and low on provocation URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-209/ Last updated: 2025-02-24T07:54:41.000Z **Sponsored listing:* Open Lunar Foundation is now accepting applications for a* [*Co-Executive Director*](https://forms.gle/kUrZhrHKtt457NAL6) *and* [*Director of Operations*](https://forms.gle/fUBPW6FS7LGj7Dgy5) *to advance the non-profit’s ongoing projects on sustainable lunar governance and its goal to drive international collaboration.* [*Learn more and apply*](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/hiring-in-2025)*.* 🌙 ## Two Moon landers make it to space ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/01/falcon-9-firefly-blue-ghost-ispace-m2-launch.jpg) The SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket which launched Moon landers from Firefly and ispace respectively on January 15\. Images: [SpaceX](https://www.flickr.com/photos/fireflyspace/54267659435/in/album-72177720313239766/) / [NASA / Frank Michaux](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/liftoff-nasa-sends-science-tech-to-moon-on-firefly-spacex-flight/) On January 15, a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket [successfully launched](https://youtu.be/7jqWHtNv7YU?feature=shared&t=2996) and deployed two Moon landers in space: The US-based Firefly’s [Blue Ghost lander](https://fireflyspace.com/missions/blue-ghost-mission-1/), flying [10 NASA payloads](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/liftoff-nasa-sends-science-tech-to-moon-on-firefly-spacex-flight/) under the agency’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) in a company-first, and ispace Japan’s Hakuto-R lander, carrying [multiple commercial payloads](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=6734) and following up on its [first failed landing attempt](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-129/). Firefly and NASA [switched on six payloads](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2025/01/16/moon-bound-blue-ghost-captures-first-image-performs-health-checks/) on Blue Ghost, which have collected and sent initial data to Earth. On January 17, ispace verified operating Hakuto-R’s propulsion system by firing the main engine for [the first orbital maneuver](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=6818). As did Blue Ghost [on January 19](https://x.com/Firefly%5FSpace/status/1880997659818795148). Firefly aims to land Blue Ghost on the Moon in the first week of March in the [lava plains of Mare Crisium](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-70/#firefly-selects-goldilocks-landing-site-for-its-first-moon-mission) at 18.56°N, 61.81°E whereas ispace’s attempted touchdown after four months will be in the lava plains of Mare Frigoris targeting [60.5° N, 4.6° W](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?prjExtent=-193208.8151159%2C1414120.8709056%2C91768.6418938%2C1575486.3113064&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&isCesiumEntityDetailsEnabled=true&showCompass=true&trailType=1&wideTrail=true&features=-4.60000000%2C60.50000000%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22ispace+Japan+M2+mission+landing+site%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKWbJYNOZLRfImq3ioA&proj=10). ### Resources to follow these missions 1. My guide on [how to follow CLPS updates](https://jatan.space/how-to-follow-nasa-clps-updates/) 2. Firefly’s [Live Updates blog](https://fireflyspace.com/news/blue-ghost-mission-1-live-updates/) for Blue Ghost 3. ispace Japan’s [News section](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en) 4. Browse my dedicated [CLPS coverage](https://jatan.space/tag/clps/) webpage, and [search](https://jatan.space/search) the [Moon Monday archive](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) 5. [Subscribe for free](https://jatan.space/subscribe) to Moon Monday to receive mission updates with context 🌝 As Firefly and ispace reach for the Moon, here’s a reminder of [what makes a Moon landing “successful”](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-208/). I published it last week, and received *so many emails* from my readers agreeing with the critique as well as my disclaimer inside. And now I’m glad to share that the article has been [featured on Medium](https://medium.com/predict/what-makes-a-moon-landing-mission-successful-6ba3bee3fb35) by its Editorial. ✨ ## Meter by meter, to the Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/01/starship-superheavy-booster-ift-7.jpg) The Raptor engines powering the booster stage of the seventh Starship Super Heavy rocket. [Image: SpaceX](https://x.com/SpaceX/status/1880332005084471404) SpaceX’s [seventh launch](https://spacenews.com/starship-upper-stage-lost-on-seventh-test-flight/) of its [Starship Super Heavy](https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/starship) rocket on January 16 saw a second successful booster stage catch while the Starship upper stage exploded. While the company [asserted](https://www.spacex.com/launches/mission/?missionId=starship-flight-7) Starship debris to have fallen only “into the designated hazard area”, and Elon Musk [suggested no delays](https://x.com/elonmusk/status/1880060983734858130) for SpaceX to launch the next Starship, the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) [said](https://spacenews.com/faa-investigating-starship-debris-reports/) debris fell outside the designated areas, and that its danger led air traffic controllers to divert, reroute, or delay commercial flights over the Caribbean and the Atlantic Ocean. The media outlet Ars Technica [noted the following](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/01/fire-destroys-starship-on-its-seventh-test-flight-raining-debris-from-space/) as it listened to live audio from air traffic control in San Juan, Puerto Rico: > How long do you think this hold is going to be? We don't have a lot of gas to play with," one pilot asked air traffic control. "The sooner we can get on the ground, the better." The FAA and SpaceX will thus need to [conduct and close the flight anomaly investigation](https://spacenews.com/faa-investigating-starship-debris-reports/) before the next Starship Super Heavy can take off. As such, NASA’s road to putting humans on the Moon that has been [inching through Starship](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-197/) has slowed down with this failed flight. On January 16, Blue Origin [launched](https://www.youtube.com/live/KXysNxbGdCg?feature=shared&t=6864) its huge, heavy-lift New Glenn rocket, [achieving orbit in the very first try](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/blue-origins-new-glenn-reaches-orbit/) and demonstrating engine relight capability after getting in orbit. In 2023, NASA chose the Blue-Origin-led [Blue Moon spacecraft](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/) to land astronauts on the Moon for Artemis V by end of decade. Blue Moon will be lofted to space and refueled for its mission with New Glenn launches. As such, the successful launch of New Glenn has finally opened up a second line of pursuit for NASA to send astronauts to the lunar surface other than via Starship. But before a Blue Moon carries crew, Blue Origin plans for New Glenn to launch a [robotic Mark I Moon lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-188/#a-clps-contract-for-blue-out-of-the-blue) this year or next as a key technology demonstrator. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/01/bluemoon-nasa-sustainable-lander-2-labeled.jpg) A labeled illustration of the Blue Moon lander. Image: [Blue Origin](https://www.blueorigin.com/news/nasa-selects-blue-origin-for-mission-to-moon) / Labels: [Jatan Mehta](https://blog.jatan.space/about) --- *Many thanks to* [***Astrolab***](https://astrolab.space)*,* [***Henry Throop***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/henry-throop-a47a6a7) *and* [***Abhinav Yadav***](https://linktr.ee/particlewave) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to publish this curated community resource for free,* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*. 🌙* --- ## SPADEX paves the way for Chandrayaan 4 lunar sample return On January 16, India [successfully docked and then controlled](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/isro-successfully-docks-satellites-why-the-feat-is-crucial-for-future-missions/articleshow/117299987.cms) two twin satellites in circular low Earth orbit as part of mission [SPADEX](https://www.isro.gov.in/mission%5FSpaDeX.html) (**spa**ce **d**ocking **ex**periment). ISRO is using the [$14 million](https://www.deccanherald.com/india/first-step-for-chandrayaan-4-to-be-taken-by-year-end-isro-3082088) mission, sans the launch cost, as practice before the agency launches the complex [Chandrayaan 4](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-194/) for bringing samples from the Moon. Chandrayaan 4 will feature remotely docking robotic modules in Earth as well as in lunar orbit, the latter being a feat only China has achieved so far. Chethan Kumar [reports](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/science/isro-preps-for-more-docking-trials-with-same-spadex-sats-to-perfect-precision-in-space/articleshow/117378839.cms) that ISRO will soon undock the satellites and then conduct more docking trials with enhanced precision. This is only the first of three SPADEX missions by ISRO as Chandrayaan 3’s Project Director Palanivel Veeramuthuvel [noted in his talk](https://www.youtube.com/live/bfV%5F1Y%5FhZDM?feature=shared&t=32835) at the [2024 International Astronautical Congress](https://www.iafastro.org/events/iac/international-astronautical-congress-2024/) (IAC). At least one of the next two SPADEX missions will demonstrate docking in an elliptical orbit, something that better simulates scenarios for Chandrayaan 4. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/01/spadex-satellites-docked-illustration.jpg) Illustration of two SPADEX satellites docked to each other. [Image: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/mission%5FSpaDeX.html) Chandrayaan 4’s landing site will be somewhere between 85–90° on the Moon’s south pole, putting it squarely in the [water-hosting](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) polar region as opposed to the [70°S for Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/#the-moment-of-touchdown). Chandrayaan 4 is not the only reason for ISRO to conduct SPADEX missions as these will also [reduce risk](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/orbit-for-docking-satellites-chosen-keeping-human-missions-in-mind/articleshow/117323903.cms) for the [upcoming Gaganyaan human spaceflight missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/)—especially so for the end-of-decade cargo flight to the International Space Station and one to India’s first space station module. ## More mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/01/intuitive-machines-im-2-clps-lander-and-hopper.jpg) The IM-2 / Athena lander and attached hopper. [Image: Intuitive Machines, via ESA](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2025/01/Intuitive%5FMachines%5Flander%5Fand%5Fhopper%5Fhosts%5FPuli%5FLunar%5FWater%5FSnooper) - Intuitive Machines is [preparing the Athena lander](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/nokia-s-cellular-network-ready-for-moon-as-intuitive-machines-completes-final-lunar-lander-installat) for the company’s [second Moon landing mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-189/) part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) ahead of a late February Falcon 9 launch. Relatedly, ESA announced that [it will buy data](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Snooping%5Fscience%5Fon%5Fthe%5FMoon) from a Hungarian company whose neutron spectrometer will be aboard a [hopper](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-189/) that Intuitive’s Athena lander will deploy on the Moon’s south pole. The instrument will detect subsurface hydrogen as indirect signs of [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). This lunar exploration data buy agreement is a first for ESA, and the agency says it will standardize the data and make it public. - China’s [Yutu-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yutu-2) rover from the 2019-landed [Chang’e 4](https://www.eoportal.org/satellite-missions/chang-e-4) mission on the Moon’s farside hasn’t moved since March 2024, [leading to speculation](https://spacenews.com/yutu-2-rover-likely-immobile-on-the-moon-after-historic-lunar-far-side-mission/) that it may have become immobile. Either way, Yutu-2 has clinched the title of the longest operational lunar rover. - US-based Draper’s [first Moon landing mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-184/) part of [NASA CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) launching no earlier than 2026, whose lander is being developed by ispace US, will commercially [carry a retroreflector](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=6615) from the Italian Space Agency thanks to a deal via ispace Europe. Explaining how a single payload got on a lander in the new space age can be complicated. 😄 ## Calling it a “race” to hide implanting fear An article called [Moonshot Solution](https://pioneerworks.org/broadcast/lunar-mining-natasha-boyd) in the Pioneer Works magazine is a recent example of a questionably provocative piece in the name of lunar resource exploitation. While I think the broader concern expressed in the piece is generally valid, the article does not connect many dots well and gets basic facts wrong which makes you question its rigor and intent. Mistakes in the piece include: 1. Japan’s [SLIM lander](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/en/outreach/announcements/files/SLIM-pressconf-20240125.pdf) didn’t touchdown 34 miles off target; it was [55 meters](https://jatan.space/precision-moon-landings-and-the-future/).. 2. Apollo 17 landed over 50 years ago, not 40. 3. [Water ice deposits](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s polar surface and just below it *being accessible* is not a fact. We [need ground truth](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-196/) from multiple missions before we can truly know. 4. Rare earth elements on the Moon are not as accessible as implied. They are sparsely scattered, and aren’t mapped in high-enough resolution in areas where there may or may not be concentrated enough at lander and mission scales to economically make sense mining in the near future. It will likely not make sense to bring them to Earth in bulk in the near future because going to the Moon’s surface and coming back to Earth is very energy expensive. As for the parts concerning [LunA-10](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-157/#prepping-for-lunar-infrastructure-galore): While it’s an [ambitious](https://arstechnica.com/space/2024/03/the-us-government-seems-serious-about-developing-a-lunar-economy/) undertaking, LunA-10 is also at a nascent stage right now and does not concern only mining infrastructure but more mundane things as well such as solar power. Technologies associated with it are not going to be ready in the practically immediate timeframes asserted by the piece. And so, my problem with such pieces is that by skewing and extrapolating from fractional aspects of [lunar exploration developments](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday), they place information in ways that allude to fear of exploitation and distrust rather than actually engaging in productive discourse. Such articles are [not much better](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#:~:text=Forbes%20published%20an%20article%20) than [pieces that have suggested](https://www.forbes.com/sites/gregautry/2024/05/04/space-race-20-is-on-change-6-heads-to-the-moon/) that China chose to [land](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-178/) the [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) spacecraft for [sample return](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-182/) in the farside Apollo crater just to signal the US of a race [LOL](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#:~:text=Forbes%20published%20an%20article%20). ### How to follow CLPS Moon mission updates URL: https://jatan.space/how-to-follow-nasa-clps-updates/ Last updated: 2025-01-26T18:40:16.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/01/falcon-9-firefly-blue-ghost-ispace-m2-launch-1.jpg) A SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket launched Moon landers from Firefly and ispace respectively on January 15\. Images: [SpaceX](https://www.flickr.com/photos/fireflyspace/54267659435/in/album-72177720313239766/) / [NASA / Frank Michaux](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/liftoff-nasa-sends-science-tech-to-moon-on-firefly-spacex-flight/) With a fleet of NASA-supported robotic Moon landers part of the agency’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) launching throughout this decade, I’ve compiled an exhaustive rundown for you to be up to speed on these novel missions: [All about CLPS Moon landing missions 🌗](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) I update this page every month or two. Other than referencing everything high-level I can on there, whose more than one hundred links should help you get to places, there’s more you can do to keenly follow all things CLPS: 1. Check the new [NASA CLPS sub-site](https://science.nasa.gov/lunar-science/clps-deliveries). The agency updated a few pages lately, including adding Principal Investigators for VIPER payloads. At the same time, some already known high-level information from elsewhere on [nasa.gov](https://nasa.gov) is missing there! Some of that can be found on [nasa.gov’s CLPS page](https://www.nasa.gov/commercial-lunar-payload-services), which is different from the sub-site mentioned above, but hosts other information bits that are outdated. 2. Subscribe to blogs of all [CLPS vendors](https://www.nasa.gov/commercial-lunar-payload-services/clps-providers) in an [RSS reader](https://journal.jatan.space/why-use-rss/) and also manually check their sites. This is especially useful to find and know about the non-NASA-funded payloads aboard CLPS landers. If NASA wants to highlight progress on the “commercial” part of CLPS, listing non-NASA payloads on the official CLPS pages would be great. 3. NASA hasn’t posted on the [official CLPS blog](https://blogs.nasa.gov/clps) for more than a year but has been putting out a few CLPS updates on the [Artemis blog](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis). And yet the CLPS blog is the one currently linked on official CLPS pages. It’s quite confusing. 4. Since information about CLPS wouldn’t necessarily be restricted to these direct sources, use a feature similar to [Keyword Monitoring](https://www.inoreader.com/blog/2015/07/inoreader-how-to-monitor-hot-topics.html) *within your RSS reader* to create a feed of posts that match CLPS-specific search terms across all your added sources. 5. Browse my dedicated [CLPS coverage](https://jatan.space/tag/clps/) page and [search](https://jatan.space/search) the [Moon Monday archive](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday). [Subscribe for free](https://jatan.space/subscribe) to Moon Monday to receive mission updates with context 🙃. No, seriously, it’s one of the reasons I write this one-of-a-kind blog+newsletter! ### Moon Monday #208: What makes a lunar landing mission “successful”? URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-208/ Last updated: 2025-01-19T09:59:14.000Z *Before we begin, a note that my thoughts are with everyone* [*affected*](https://caltech.imodules.com/controls/email%5Fmarketing/view%5Fin%5Fbrowser.aspx?sid=1709&gid=3&sendId=5779747&ecatid=29&puid=84fbff86-9423-4e53-8fb9-7850e026e4c4) *by the* [*fires in southern California*](https://www.fire.ca.gov/incidents/2025/1/7/eaton-fire) *as well as by last week’s* [*6.8-magnitude earthquake*](http://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4252642/content.html) *in Xizang, China.* --- The [Moon lander duo](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-207/#cue-more-private-moon-landers) from ispace Japan and US-based Firefly Aerospace are being targeted for launch by SpaceX on [January 15](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=6678) as a shared Falcon 9 ride to space. Firefly noted on their [Live Updates](https://fireflyspace.com/news/blue-ghost-mission-1-live-updates/) blog that its Blue Ghost Moon lander has been fueled up and encapsulated in Falcon 9’s fairing as of January 10\. Today NASA [published a press kit](https://www.nasa.gov/general/fireflys-blue-ghost-mission-1/) for Firefly’s mission as part of the agency’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). One thing that is notable about both ispace’s and Firefly’s public communications is that they have clearly laid out the milestones and success criteria of their respective missions—([ispace](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=6565), [Firefly](https://fireflyspace.com/missions/blue-ghost-mission-1/))—in terms of specific events. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/01/ispace-japan-m2-moon-lander-success-milestones.jpg) Mission milestones and success criteria as stated by ispace Japan for its second Moon landing mission. [Image: ispace](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=6565) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/01/ispace-japan-m2-moon-rover-success-milestones.jpg) Mission milestones and success criteria set by ispace for the rover on its second Moon mission. [Image: ispace](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=6565) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/01/firefly-blue-ghost-mission-1-moon-lander-success-milestones.jpg) Mission milestones defined by Firefly for its Blue Ghost CLPS Moon landing mission. [Image: Firefly](https://fireflyspace.com/missions/blue-ghost-mission-1/) Note that ispace even went ahead and included a table which lists specific actions or criteria to be met for each of those milestones: ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/01/ispace-japan-m2-moon-lander-success-milestones-and-specific-criteria.jpg) Specific actions or criteria ispace desires to achieve against all major milestones of its second Moon mission. [Image: ispace](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=6565) This exercise is something the publicly traded company also did during its first Moon mission. It respectfully stuck to its success criteria despite the outcome of a [failed landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-129/). But this wasn’t the case when the Odysseus spacecraft from US-based Intuitive Machines attempted its [first Moon landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-165/) as part of NASA CLPS, wherein the publicly traded company as well as NASA retrospectively [skewed the success criteria](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-166/) for the mission and straight up falsely [proclaimed](https://spacenews.com/intuitive-machines-and-nasa-call-im-1-lunar-lander-a-success-as-mission-winds-down/) it as a “soft and safe landing” and an “unqualified success”. Breaking a lander leg does not constitute a soft landing no matter which dictionary you use, an utterly simple fact that most media outlets supposed to keep tax dollars accountable seem to have forgotten. Most of Odysseus’ payloads collecting [limited data](https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-00613-8) and [one collecting none](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/clps/nasa-collects-first-surface-science-in-decades-via-commercial-moon-mission/) due to the anomalous landing clearly means the majority of the scientific objectives weren’t met either. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/01/intuitive-machines-im-1-lander-on-the-moon-firing.jpg) A dramatic view of the Odysseus lunar lander still firing its main engine after making contact with the Moon. [Image: Intuitive Machines](https://twitter.com/Int%5FMachines/status/1762919217089720716/photo/1) In fact, by all technical measures, the also-hard-landing of JAXA’s [SLIM lunar lander](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/en/outreach/announcements/files/SLIM-pressconf-20240125.pdf) was more successful than Odysseus across the board: from the touchdown and the achieved landing precision to payload operations and deployments. SLIM [sparked an era of precision landings](https://jatan.space/precision-moon-landings-and-the-future/) crucial for future crewed exploration, which includes implications for Artemis through a JAXA-NASA partnership. Despite that, JAXA honored the explicit success criteria for SLIM it had [defined pre-launch](https://global.jaxa.jp/countdown/slim/SLIM-mediakit-EN%5F2310.pdf). Moreover, despite the SLIM lander also having tipped over post its lunar touchdown like Odysseus did, and that it [couldn’t even generate power](https://twitter.com/SLIM%5FJAXA/status/1749320575103995954) until the Sun circled to the other side over a week later in the future, JAXA nevertheless provided a [press update](https://www.youtube.com/live/nvXLt3ET9mE?feature=shared&t=11775) within two hours of the landing which sincerely accepted SLIM’s mixed bag of outcomes. And yet the western media at large [has perpetuated](https://arstechnica.com/space/2024/09/nasa-takes-a-giant-leap-toward-streaming-4k-video-back-from-the-moon/) Intuitive Machines’ first Moon landing attempt as being more successful than it really was while not crediting SLIM’s achievements even half as much. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/01/jaxa-slim-lander-on-the-moon-captured-by-isro-chandrayaan-2-orbiter-ohrc.jpg) Japan’s SLIM spacecraft on the Moon as imaged by India’s Chandrayaan 2 orbiter on March 16, 2024\. JAXA set an [ambitiously tight landing ellipse](https://jatan.space/precision-moon-landings-and-the-future/) of 100 by 100 meters for SLIM, and the spacecraft managed to achieve it by touching down about [55 meters](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=25.1936969%2C-13.348254%2C25.2931201%2C-13.2942446&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&trailType=0&features=25.25074900%2C-13.31603100%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22SLIM+landing+site%22%7D%7C25.24890200%2C-13.31551000%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22SLIM+target+landing+site%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFOOZLRfImqnioA&proj=10) from the center of this ellipse despite an anomalous last phase of its descent. [Image: ISRO / Chandra Tungathurthi](https://moonandbeyond.blog/how-slim-jaxa-landed-on-moon/) The hard-landing of Intuitive Machines’ Odysseus craft has also been incessantly touted as having created “commercial” success but that too is questionable. As a key example, Jeff Foust noted the following numbers in a November 2024 piece on [the search for a commercial lunar economy](https://www.thespacereview.com/article/4898/1): > In its 10-Q filing this month, Intuitive Machines noted that its IM-1 lander mission in February, along with its upcoming IM-2 and IM-3 missions—all part of CLPS—are considered “loss contracts” by the company as the cost of executing those missions exceeds the revenue expected from NASA and commercial customers, with $22.8 million in combined losses recorded on them this year alone. Even when working for the government, it can be hard to make money on the Moon. I wish I could say the issues above are limited to Odysseus. In [NASA’s plans](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-195/#a-sino-suit-for-luna) to gain lunar [navigation and communications](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-185/) (navcom) as a service for its crewed Artemis program, of which Intuitive Machines is a key element as a navcom provider, the agency [has been opaque](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-195/#a-sino-suit-for-luna) in publicly communicating its contract values and related specifics. This has also notably been the case for NASA [transferring operations of two of its key lunar orbital imagers](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-202/#opaque-orbital-operations) to Intuitive Machines. These traits should be concerning for the US space communities, who often are the first ones to call out other countries for lack of transparency. Don’t get me wrong. Even in my piece critiquing the Odysseus mission’s public communications, I’ve [admired](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-166/) the technical feats Intuitive objectively achieved, including Odysseus being the first to lunar land using cryogenic methalox engines and remarkably making it to Luna alive using only optical navigation and an IMU. I’ve also been covering Intuitive’s upcoming [second and third Moon landing missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-189/) contracted by NASA under CLPS, [the latter’s science](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-mission-to-reiner-gamma/), their recently contracted [fourth CLPS mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-191/), and several other related developments for years. I even [helped make a video](https://jatan.space/the-next-moon-missions-by-intuitive-machines-for-nasa/) on their upcoming missions! But that does not mean I will celebrate Intuitive’s first Moon landing as being more successful than it really was—even if it has been normalized now. Just like how ISRO [retrospectively calling](https://science.thewire.in/aerospace/if-chandrayaan-2-was-a-90-95-success-is-the-answer-whats-the-question/) the Chandrayaan 2 mission a “[98% success](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/98-success-rate-for-chandrayaan-2-not-my-words-it-was-panels-initial-assessment-isro-chief/articleshow/71366717.cms)” despite the crashed lander does not make it so, Intuitive and NASA redefining the mission doesn’t change the past. It’s my duty to share this with my readers. Another reason to raise the issue is that I have grown up being immensely inspired by NASA. I hold great admiration for many pioneering aspects of the agency. I’m often found urging ISRO officials to follow NASA’s long-standing example in communicating the science and technology aspects of civil space missions. But I don’t believe this recent facet of NASA vis-à-vis Artemis is healthy in the long run, especially when the US aims to be the country leading sustainable exploration at the Moon. If we truly want sustainable lunar exploration, we also need to be true to ourselves. Do we desire our Moonbase to be built on a house of cards or cemented concrete? And so I hope that with ispace’s and Firefly+NASA’s [upcoming Moon landing missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-207/#cue-more-private-moon-landers), the organizations will follow the honorable example of ispace’s own past communications in the event of a landing failure, or leave a [trail of transparency](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-159/) like [Astrobotic did](https://www.astrobotic.com/?s=peregrine&submit=) when its ailing lander precluded a lunar descent attempt altogether. Likewise, in the case of success, I hope they choose the outlook of SLIM’s humble embrace. To me, this is what makes a Moon mission successful other than the obviously needed technical execution. We carry both these choices into the future. On that note, I’d like to remind you—my dear readers—that as stated in my public [Editorial Independence Policy](https://jatan.space/ethics), I do not own shares of any space company, primarily to keep my writings unbiased. It doesn’t matter if the company is publicly listed like Intuitive Machines or ispace Japan, or if it offers private stock like many others in the industry. I own none of it. As such, any enthusiasm, neutrality, or criticism expressed in my coverage of lunar and space developments is intended to be genuine. I wish all publishers, writers, and creators in the space industry revealed beforehand if they have any such vested interests. How else can we know whose piece of praise to trust? I have exactly nothing to gain financially from private lunar companies whether they go public or commercial. My [Moon Monday](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) blog+newsletter is sustained purely through [organization sponsorships and individual reader donations](https://jatan.space/support). And so if you like my work aimed at a better future on our Moon for people worldwide, [support my writing](https://jatan.space/support). ## Artemis updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/01/artemis-ii-sls-rocket-ground-systems-tests.jpg) The eight high-level tests needed to prepare ground systems for the eventual launch of the SLS rocket for the crewed Artemis II Moon mission. [Image: NASA](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2025/01/10/artemis-teams-successfully-test-uninterruptable-power-on-mobile-launcher/) - As the seventh test in a [series of eight](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/kennedy/nasa-kennedy-ready-for-artemis-ii-moon-mission-ground-systems-testing-2/) ahead of the eventual second launch of the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/reference/space-launch-system) in [2026](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-shares-orion-heat-shield-findings-updates-artemis-moon-missions/), ground teams successfully tested that the rocket and its associated infrastructure will [receive uninterrupted power supply](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2025/01/10/artemis-teams-successfully-test-uninterruptable-power-on-mobile-launcher/) around liftoff. The second SLS launch will push [four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) in an [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) towards the Moon on the [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to) mission. For the final high-level test in preparing ground systems for the SLS launch, teams will practice flowing cryogenic liquid hydrogen from a new tank at the launch complex. - NASA continues [testing aspects of the Artemis I Orion spacecraft](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2025/01/08/artemis-i-orion-spacecraft-returns-to-florida/), which [returned to Earth](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-107/) after its mission, to better characterize and fine-tune the spacecraft’s configuration for future missions with crew. - To ensure tackling the [challenging lighting conditions](https://www.nasa.gov/ames/feature/the-dark-side-of-the-crater-how-light-looks-different-on-the-moon-and-what-nasa-is-doing) under which Artemis astronauts will operate on the Moon’s south pole, NASA is [revisiting the requirements](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/nesc/characterizing-the-visual-experience-of-astronauts-at-the-lunar-south-pole/) for achieving safe and functional vision for astronauts: > *Tasks expected of astronauts were not incorporated into system design requirements to enable system development that ensures functional vision in the expected lighting environment. Consequently, the spacesuit, for example, has flexibility requirements for allowing the astronauts to walk but not for ensuring they can see well enough to walk from brilliant Sun into a dark shadow and back without the risk of tripping or falling. Importantly, gaps were identified in allocation of requirements across programs to ensure that the role of the various programs is for each to understand functional vision. NESC recommendations were offered that made enabling functional vision in the harsh lighting environment a specific and new requirement for the system designers. The recommendations also included that lighting, window, and visor designs be integrated.* [More NASA Artemis updates →](https://jatan.space/tag/artemis/) --- *Many thanks to* [***Open Lunar Foundation***](https://www.openlunar.org)*,* [***Henry Throop***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/henry-throop-a47a6a7)*,* [***Gurbir Singh***](https://gurbir.co.uk) *and* [***Abhinav Yadav***](https://linktr.ee/particlewave) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday!* *If you too appreciate my efforts to publish this curated community resource for free,* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*. 🌙* --- ## More Moon - Intuitive Machines is [preparing parts of the Athena lander](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/nokia-s-cellular-network-ready-for-moon-as-intuitive-machines-completes-final-lunar-lander-installat) for its [second CLPS Moon landing mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-189/) with a target launch no earlier than late February on a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket. - [Shooting micro-spectrometers](https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20240007756/downloads/Space%20Resources%20Exploration%20v2.pdf) into the lunar soil could be a cool way to measure composition across a geological area or region of interest instead of having to walk or rove to each location within, Andy Tomaswick [reported](https://www.universetoday.com/168591/could-you-find-what-a-lunar-crater-is-made-of-by-shooting-it/). - Open Lunar Foundation is hiring for [leadership](https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSeCUhoHtIXkEjp8orc6pMRamEpehkqnirnq8Ss6VAaeRzfl1g/viewform) and [operations](https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSc1YB8ol3cVXnJPjIUUzY10GkwWhK89g9CVc2Hy6DojwYt9dg/viewform) roles. ### Moon Monday #207: A whole bunch of global mission updates and lunar developments URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-207/ Last updated: 2025-02-15T16:39:38.000Z Welcome back to [Moon Monday](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday)! 2024 was a [happening year for global lunar exploration](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-206/). We start this month with the impending launch of two Moon landers so 2025 seems thrilling already. Before diving into our weekly lunar fix, and there are many updates in this edition, I have three things to share with you all. 1. Over the holidays, I’ve been wondering how to enhance the utility of my [Moon Monday](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) blog+newsletter for space communities worldwide. For the past four years, my goal with Moon Monday has been to bring you streamlined, curated, contextualized, and [linked](https://jatan.space/i-write-for-you/) updates about the world’s march to Luna. With opinions suffixed as food for thought. As 2025 progresses, you’ll see me add more factual lunar resources, highlight more varied lunar efforts that don’t get much visibility, and separately surface more op-ed commentary—because a Moonbase alone doesn’t lead us into a better future. Just like [my whole website](https://jatan.space/about), this added work will also be free to access with no ads, and remain [community-funded](https://jatan.space/support) so if you appreciate Moon Mondays, kindly [support my work](https://jatan.space/support) as an organization or individually. Have thoughts? [Email me](https://jatan.space/connect). 🌗 2. I’m pleased to share that [ISRO’s webpage](https://www.isro.gov.in/UnionCabinetApprovesIndiasMission.html) on details and scientific context of the Chandrayaan 4 lunar sample return mission plus their Venus orbiter cites my blog as well as my work for The Planetary Society as references! 🚀 ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/01/screenshot-isro-chandrayaan-4-post-references-my-blog.jpg) Screenshot of [ISRO’s webpage](https://www.isro.gov.in/UnionCabinetApprovesIndiasMission.html) on the Chandrayaan 4 and Venus Orbiter missions. 1. [An unexpected Moon Monday story](https://journal.jatan.space/an-unexpected-moon-monday-story/) ## Cue more private Moon landers ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/01/ispace-m2-lander-resilience.jpg) ispace Japan’s second Moon lander, named RESILIENCE, at JAXA’s Tsukuba Space Center. Also seen integrated into the lander is ispace’s first rover TENACIOUS. [Image: ispace](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=6120) - Two Moon landers are nearly set to launch in mid-January sometime during a six-day window onboard a [shared](https://spacenews.com/firefly-ispace-lunar-landers-to-share-falcon-9-launch/) SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket. There’s ispace Japan’s [Hakuto-R lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-193/#second-ispace-moon-mission-on-the-horizon), carrying multiple commercial payloads and following up on its [first failed landing attempt](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-129/), and Firefly’s [Blue Ghost lander](https://fireflyspace.com/missions/blue-ghost-mission-1/), flying [NASA payloads](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-firefly-aerospace-for-artemis-commercial-moon-delivery-in-2023) under the agency’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) in a company-first. Last month, ispace [received a license](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=6558) from the Japanese government to [collect lunar soil](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=3696) and [transfer its ownership](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-companies-to-collect-lunar-resources-for-artemis-demonstrations) to NASA—without bringing the samples to Earth—as part of the latter’s move to set precedence for future resource use under the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords/). ispace’s target landing site lies in the lava plains of Mare Frigoris at [60.5° N, 4.6° W](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?prjExtent=-193208.8151159%2C1414120.8709056%2C91768.6418938%2C1575486.3113064&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&isCesiumEntityDetailsEnabled=true&showCompass=true&trailType=1&wideTrail=true&features=-4.60000000%2C60.50000000%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22ispace+Japan+M2+mission+landing+site%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKWbJYNOZLRfImq3ioA&proj=10) whereas Blue Ghost aims to descend in the [lava plains of Mare Crisium](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-70/#firefly-selects-goldilocks-landing-site-for-its-first-moon-mission) at 18.56°N, 61.81°E. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/01/gruithuisen-domes-map.jpg) The Gruithuisen Domes on the Moon. [Images: NASA / LRO / GSFC / ASU](https://www.lroc.asu.edu/images/184); Graphic: Jatan Mehta | [Explore the domes on a map](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?prjExtent=-1290456.5821126%2C1059148.7632157%2C-1132331.5788604%2C1148685.3569375&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEoAsjYIHYFcA2vIBvAXwF1Siylw4oNEQBmOOR9RHfS87pFAJjT0EIAaHbQAdAE5InAiR6LSQA&proj=16) - NASA has [selected Firefly](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/more-nasa-science-tech-will-fly-to-moon-aboard-future-firefly-flight/) for a third [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) Moon landing mission with a contract value of $179 million. The lander will carry six agency-funded scientific and technological payload suites to one of the two [Gruithuisen Domes](https://jatan.space/unique-volcanic-domes-of-gruithuisen/) on the Moon’s nearside. Chiefly, a payload suite [will measure](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-new-instruments-for-priority-artemis-science-on-moon) the composition of the formerly volcanic dome and its thick, silica-rich lava flows, letting scientists compare them to the much more common thin basaltic flows on our Moon. This will greatly enhance our understanding of the Moon’s volcanic past. On Earth, such formations need significant water content and plate tectonics to form but with the Moon lacking both, [lunar scientists have been wondering](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/972) how these features formed and evolved. As an interesting aside, this latest CLPS award comes after NASA [cancelled the VIPER rover mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-186/), saying how it’s been [affecting future CLPS missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-204/) the agency wanted to fly to the Moon. **Related:** [*How engineers test Moon landers on Earth*](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-moon-landers/) ## More mission updates - At the [Galaxy Forum](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-205/) in China last month, Andrei Sadovski from the Space Research Institute (IKI) of the Russian Academy of Sciences laid down the scientific instruments meant to fly on Roscosmos’ [Luna 26 Moon orbiter](https://www.laspace.ru/en/activities/projects/luna-resurs-oa/?ELEMENT%5FCODE=luna-resurs-oa). Likely launching in 2027, the primary goal of the polar reconnaissance orbiter is to map our Moon’s surface in multiple wavelengths at high resolutions from altitudes as low as 50 to 80 kilometers. This will particularly help scientists better grasp the distribution of [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s poles, which is useful data for planning the China-led long-term [ILRS Moonbase project](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/) of which Russia is a member of. Another major goal of Luna 26 is to measure and characterize the radiation and plasma environment around the Moon. The list of Luna 26’s instruments is given below from Sadovski’s slides. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/01/luna-26-instruments-andrei-sadovski-galaxy-forum.jpg) Slide: Andrei Sadovski / IKI / RAS - A group of institutions from Hong Kong have banded together to lead the development of a multi-purpose [dextrous mobile robot](https://hkust.edu.hk/news/research-and-innovation/hkust-leads-change-8-international-cooperation-project) to be onboard China’s upcoming [Chang’e 8](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/#prepare-for-crew-and-double-down-with-mission-eight) Moon landing mission. The robot will [demonstrate](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3251854/china-calls-developers-change-8-mission-make-and-assemble-moon-bricks) the ability to assemble basic structures on the Moon using local soil. It will also fetch rock and soil samples for the lander’s spectrometers to determine their chemical compositions. This will likely include [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). The robot might tout wireless charging capabilities too. Targeting launch on a Long March 5 rocket in 2028, Chang’e 8 will explore the nature of local lunar polar resources and assess their utility to inform China’s strategies for when it begins [sending humans](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/) starting end of decade. ## Artemis Accords strikes a chord ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/01/artemis-accords-52-signatories.jpg) The 52 nation-signatories of the US-led Artemis Accords. [Image: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords/) - The US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords) for cooperative lunar exploration [gained 50 signatories](https://spacenews.com/artemis-accords-reach-50-signatories-with-panama-and-austria/) last month with the joining of [Panama](https://pa.usembassy.gov/united-states-welcomes-panamas-signing-of-the-artemis-accords/) and [Austria](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/artemis-accords-reach-50-signatories-as-nasa-welcomes-panama-austria/). Panama is the ninth Latin American country to sign the Accords; with the others being Brazil, Colombia, Chile, Mexico, Argentina, Uruguay, Ecuador, and Peru. Of these, four countries along with Panama are [members](https://www.gob.mx/sre/en/articulos/signing-of-the-convention-establishing-alce-the-latin-american-and-caribbean-space-agency-283235) of the recently formed [Latin American and Caribbean Space Agency](https://qz.com/2114990/why-latin-america-needs-its-own-space-agency) (ALCE). Inspired in part by ESA’s model, ALCE aims to pool resources of Latin American nations to enhance their space activities and its impact. Panama’s near-equatorial location along with the ability to transport large, sensitive hardware through its canal could be an interesting leverage point for orbital launches. Notably, Brazil has abstained from the ALCE initiative. - Thailand became the [51st country](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-welcomes-thailand-as-newest-artemis-accords-signatory/) to sign the Accords. Notably, the nation is [also party](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465652/n6465653/c10497120/content.html) to the China-led long-term [ILRS Moonbase project](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/), and [will fly instruments](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-205/#thailand-and-china) on China’s Chang’e 7 and 8 missions later this decade. - Europe’s Liechtenstein [signed the Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-welcomes-liechtenstein-as-newest-artemis-accords-signatory/) on December 20, becoming the 52nd nation to do so. Marcia Smith [reports](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/gold-with-52-members-artemis-accords-now-represent-global-consensus/) that Mike Gold—who was instrumental in creating the Accords—considers this a significant number: > Achieving 52 signatories is a critical milestone since Artemis Accords signatories now represent a majority of the UN COPUOS. This transforms the values of the Accords into a true global consensus on vital issues such as interoperability, due regard, transparency and, in particular, space resources. --- *Many thanks to* [***The Orbital Index***](https://orbitalindex.com) *and* [***Arun Raghavan***](https://arunraghavan.net) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to publish this curated community resource for free,* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*. 🌙* --- ## Lunar infrastructure developments ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/01/lunar-pathfinder-relay-service.jpg) Illustration of the Lunar Pathfinder communications satellite relaying signals between Earth and robotic hardware at the Moon. [Image: SSTL](https://www.esa.int/Applications/Navigation/Galileo%5Fwill%5Fhelp%5FLunar%5FPathfinder%5Fnavigate%5Faround%5FMoon) - NASA has awarded contracts to Intuitive Machines and KSAT for [providing lunar communications as a service](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-selects-four-commercial-companies-to-support-near-space-network/) for at least 5 years in support of the agency’s Near Space Network. As Jeff Foust [noted](https://spacenews.com/nasa-selects-four-companies-for-commercial-communications-services/), NASA is not specifying the contract values. And so just like [the agency’s plans](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-195/#a-sino-suit-for-luna) to gain lunar [navigation and communications](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-185/) (navcom) services, of which these latest contracts are an element of, and the case of [transferring operations of two key NASA lunar imagers to Intuitive Machines](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-202/#opaque-orbital-operations), NASA continues to be opaque in communicating developments related to its lunar orbital infrastructure plans. - After ESA [began using](https://luna-analog-facility.de/en/in-search-of-hidden-treasures/) its new, versatile [LUNA](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-195/) analog facility late last year to plan future Moon missions, the agency is continuing with more tests, with the latest one [evaluating the usefulness of autonomous robotic interactions](https://blogs.esa.int/exploration/making-a-moon-robot-show-on-earth/) in service of astronauts during excursions. - The three competing teams NASA selected last year to mature their designs for a [versatile Lunar Terrain Vehicle](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-171/), to use across Artemis missions starting end of decade, recently [tested static mockups](https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/new-commercial-artemis-moon-rovers-undergo-testing-at-nasa/) of their rovers at NASA’s Johnson Space Center with lunar gravity offloading. These three competing teams are led by Astrolab (a Moon Monday sponsor), Intuitive Machines, and Lunar Outpost respectively. ## Lunar outreach ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/01/beijing-planetarium-chang-e-5-sample-display.jpg) Chang’e 5 lunar samples on display in glass containers at the Beijing Planetarium along with visual and explanatory backdrops. [Image: CCTV](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FbDNnaTO2qI) - China has a rather well done [exhibition of Chang’e 5 lunar samples](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FbDNnaTO2qI) at the Beijing Planetarium to further the public’s interest in and understanding of lunar exploration. Among its [many discoveries](https://doi.org/10.11728/cjss2024.04.2024-yg10), Chang’e 5 samples have helped scientists [determine truer ages](https://english.cas.cn/newsroom/research%5Fnews/phys/202202/t20220214%5F300776.shtml) of lunar features, refine [the nature of impacts over the last two billion years](https://doi.org/10.59717/j.xinn-geo.2023.100014) in the inner Solar System, and shed light on [young lunar volcanism](https://english.cas.cn/newsroom/research%5Fnews/earth/202409/t20240904%5F684803.shtml)—which [opened up](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-04107-9) more [enigmas](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-04119-5). - Speaking of lunar outreach, Bartosz Ciechanowski has created a wonderful interactive resource simply called “[Moon](https://ciechanow.ski/moon/)” to visualize Luna’s positions in our skies and its path around our planet. 🌙 - For my readers, most of whom are already lunar enthusiasts (:D), I now have a dedicated page to [track Japanese lunar developments](https://jatan.space/tag/japan-and-selene/). This adds to the existing resource pages for: - [China and Luna](https://jatan.space/tag/china-and-luna/) - The US [Artemis](https://jatan.space/tag/artemis/) and [CLPS](https://jatan.space/tag/clps/) programs - and India’s [Chandrayaan](https://jatan.space/tag/chandrayaan/) - Which other countries or regions should I add that you’d like to track dedicatedly? Europe? ### Indian Space Progress #23: How ISRO et al. laid the groundwork for a decade this year URL: https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-23/ Last updated: 2024-12-24T15:40:08.000Z *I’m delighted to welcome* [*GalaxEye Space*](https://galaxeye.space) *as the latest sponsor of my* [*Indian Space Progress*](https://jatan.space/tag/indian-space-progress) *blog+newsletter!* 🚀 *Bangalore-based startup GalaxEye is developing hybrid Earth observation satellites with multi-spectral optical imaging plus synthetic aperture radar (SAR) capabilities, with the first launch targeted next year.* 🛰️ --- While 2023 was an [incredible year](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-11/) for ISRO in terms of execution of space missions and projects, 2024 was more about those successes giving the Indian government’s Department of Space (DOS) the confidence to plan an ambitious next decade. But ISRO, as usual, remains uninterested in contextualizing all of these advances on any of their channels. This issue of India’s space program lacking clear communications and outreach is partly why I write [Indian Space Progress](https://jatan.space/tag/indian-space-progress) in the first place. And so below is a linked overview of the some of the key groundwork laid this year by DOS and ISRO across orbital launch vehicles, Moon missions, human spaceflight, commercial and private space capabilities, space sciences, and more. Just like my [2024 global Moon exploration tour](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-206/), I’ve made a conscious effort to highlight events and trends that actually happened instead of focusing on upcoming events that may or may not be as successful and/or as timely as they’re being touted and reported as. I’ve also included links to reports, analyses, and thoughtful opinions related to these developments by several experts. ## Orbital launch flex ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/12/pslv-esa-proba-3-launch.jpg) The PSLV rocket that launched ESA’s Sun-studying Proba-3 satellite pair. Notice the cool booster separation shot on the right. [Images: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/PSLV%5FC59%5FPROBA3%5FGallery%5FPost%5FLaunch.html) - ISRO [commercially launched](https://www.isro.gov.in/PSLV%5FC59%5FPROBA-3%5FMission.html) ESA’s Sun-studying Proba-3 satellite pair on a PSLV rocket while SpaceX commercially [launched](https://www.nsilindia.co.in/sites/default/files/GSAT-N2%20Launched%20successfully.pdf) ISRO’s high-throughput GSAT-N2 communications satellite on a Falcon 9, two opposite kinds of events that capture ISRO’s [interesting approach](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-03/) to self sufficiency to the extent possible while gaining opportunistic commercial launches - ISRO operationalized the [new, nimble SSLV](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-19/) rocket with a [successful second launch](https://www.isro.gov.in/Mission%5FSSLV%5FD3%5FLiftoff%5FVideo.html) but its direct global commercial competitors [moved ahead in the meanwhile](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-19/) - The agency ramped up efforts to [increase the production capacity](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-16/#preparing-for-human-spaceflight) of its most powerful rocket, LVM3, as well as [up its mass to orbit](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-18/) - ISRO [continued](https://x.com/isro/status/1804695916617863425) building a [reusable spaceplane](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-14/) with two more landing tests - The Indian government approved ISRO’s proposal to [develop a partially reusable heavy-lift rocket](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-20/#human-spaceflight-plans) for $1 billion ## Chandrayaan(s) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/12/chandrayaan-3-lander-pragyaan-rover.jpg) The Chandrayaan 3 lander Vikram imaged by the mission’s rover Pragyan on August 30, 2023\. [Image: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/chandrayaan3%5Fgallery.html) - India [approved Chandrayaan 4](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-194/) as a lunar sample return mission - [On (not) celebrating Chandrayaan 3’s Moon landing](https://jatan.space/on-celebrating-moon-landings/) - [How ISRO’s Chandrayaan and Gaganyaan programs will converge at Luna](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/) (associated [video](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qv0YTtEcKVU) and [podcast](https://jatan.space/podcast-discussing-indian-lunar-exploration-with-carnegie/)) - [Discussion document on lunar governance and India](https://takshashila.org.in/research/understanding-the-lunar-governance-challenge) - Chandrayaan 1’s Mission Director passed away; [article on his internationally crucial work](https://jatan.space/interviewing-isro-chandrayaan-1-mission-director/) [More Chandrayaan updates →](https://jatan.space/tag/chandrayaan/) ## A boost for space science ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/10/venus-visible-radar-vom-orbit-configuration-illustration.jpg) ****Left:** Venus as it would approximately look to the human eye, imaged by NASA’s Mariner 10 spacecraft; ****Right:** Radar image of Venus’ surface captured by NASA’s Magellan orbiter. Also illustrated in the graphic is ISRO’s Venus orbiter model. Images: [Mattias Malmer](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/global-view-of-venus-from) / [NASA JPL](https://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA00104) / [ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/UnionCabinetApprovesIndiasMission.html); Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) - ISRO began the year by [doubling down on space telescopes and Earth observation](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-12/) - India approved ISRO’s [Venus Orbiter Mission](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-20/) (associated [podcast](https://open.spotify.com/episode/3Slm8GLGCd3R4IeZsfAdkY?si=r2gouvefQ%5Fqc8JEhoYWnhw)) - The Chandrayaan 3 rover [contributed to knowledge of our Moon’s origin](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-190/) - ISRO scientists [aided the global search for lunar water](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/#the-search-for-lunar-water-deepens), which though [](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/#the-search-for-lunar-water-deepens)[remains unresolved](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-196/) - Aside: How [Chandrayaan 1, 2 and 3 have leveraged their view from the Moon](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-22/) to image a solar eclipse, study the Sun’s flares, and observe Earth as an exoplanet --- *Many thanks to the* [***Takshashila Institution***](https://takshashila.org.in)*,* [***PierSight***](https://piersight.space)*,* [***GalaxEye Space***](https://galaxeye.space)*,* [***Gurbir Singh***](https://gurbir.co.uk) *and* [***Arun Raghavan***](https://arunraghavan.net) *for sponsoring this month’s Indian Space Progress edition. If you too appreciate my efforts to capture true trajectories of Indian space, kindly join them and* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*.* --- ## Anchoring human spaceflight ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/12/gaganyaan-tv-d1-crew-module.jpg) The TV-D1 Gaganyaan crew module test article near an Indian navy ship, waiting to be lifted after a successful in-flight rocket abort test. [Image: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/tvd1%5Fgallery.html) - India revealed [the first four astronauts](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/gaganyaan-mission-pm-modi-bestows-astronaut-wings-to-prashanth-nari-ajit-krishnan-angad-prathap-shubhanshu-shukla/articleshow/108035217.cms) to fly on the country’s initial set of human spaceflight missions as part of ISRO’s [Gaganyaan](https://www.isro.gov.in/Gaganyaan.html) program - Related: ISRO’s [years of preparations](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-13/) to get India its Yuri Gagarin moment - [Why does the Gaganyaan crew have no women?](https://theprint.in/opinion/why-does-gaganyaan-crew-have-no-women-history-shows-india-has-no-excuses/1992949/) - ISRO entered agreements [with ESA](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Operations/ESA%5Fto%5Fsupport%5FIndian%5Fhuman%5Fspaceflight%5Fmissions) and the [Australian Space Agency](https://www.isro.gov.in/ISRO%5FASA%5Fsign%5FGaganyaan.html) (ASA) to get their ground tracking support for crewed Gaganyaan flights. ASA will [aid in crew recovery](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/gaganyaan-isro-aus-agency-ink-pact-for-crew-recovery/articleshow/115568957.cms) too if needed. - In the meanwhile, [Indian astronaut training](https://www.isro.gov.in/Training%5FGaganyatris%5FISRO-NASA%5FMission.html) via NASA is [ongoing](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/ax-4-crew-including-indias-shubhanshu-shukla-begin-training-in-germany/articleshow/115482278.cms) to fly Shubhanshu Shukla to the International Space Station in 2025 through the [*Ax-4* Axiom Space private mission](https://www.axiomspace.com/missions/ax4) aboard a SpaceX Crew Dragon capsule as Mission Pilot - The Indian Government [sanctioned $1.33 billion](https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2055978) (over the prior $1.1 billion) for ISRO to undertake multiple Gaganyaan missions [leading into deploying the first module of India’s eventual space station](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-20/#human-spaceflight-plans) - [A roadmap for increasingly complex Gaganyaan missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/) ## Private and commercial space ![](https://cdn.magicpages.co/spaceimpact.mymagic.page/2024/05/agnikul-sorted-launch-1.jpg) Launch of the SOrTeD demonstrator vehicle on May 30, 2024\. [Image: Agnikul](https://x.com/AgnikulCosmos/status/1796035200964809043) - Despite Agnikul’s much-lauded rocket launch, [its future remains unsorted](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-16/) - Private satellite companies either based in India or with a major Indian presence raised further investments: - [$24 million by Pixxel Space](https://payloadspace.com/pixxel-raises-24m-for-hyperspectral-data-biz/) towards developing its hyperspectral satellites - [$15 million by Dhruva Space](https://www.dhruvaspace.com/news/dhruva-space-announces-inr-123-crores-usd-15-million-for-series-a-fundraise-round) for its upcoming spacecraft manufacturing facility, and to develop full-stack solutions for satellites - [$10 million](https://yourstory.com/2024/11/galaxeye-10m-series-a-funding-mounttech-galaxeye) by GalaxEye (an Indian Space Progress sponsor) towards hybrid optical-SAR satellites - [$6 million](https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/tech/funding/ocean-surveillance-startup-piersight-raises-6-million-led-by-alpha-wave-global-elevation-capital/articleshow/106671267.cms) by PierSight (an Indian Space Progress sponsor) for SAR satellites - [$2 million](https://www.digantara.co.in/blogs/aditya-birla-ventures-and-sidbi-backs-digantaras-extended-12m-series-a) by Digantara towards developing space-based space situational awareness capabilities - Pixxel notably [won a NASA contract](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/pixxel-wins-nasa-contract-for-hyperspectral-earth-observation-tech/articleshow/113197927.cms) to provide Earth observation data - Following the release of India’s much-awaited [new space policy](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-04/) early last year, the government [formally opened up](https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=2007876) approval-less [foreign direct investments](https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=fd285c8a-f843-44b2-8a93-3143552d3684) (FDI) for Indian private space companies, and separately established a pool of about [$120 million in venture capital funding](https://www.isro.gov.in/UnionCabinetapprovesestablishment%5FINSPACe.html)—which industry experts are [cautiously optimistic about](https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/18-hike-for-department-of-space-in-union-budget-lions-share-for-development-of-space-technologies/article68436318.ece) ## Overarching constraints ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/12/chandrayaan-3-in-gslv-mk-iii-rocket-fairing.jpg) A tailor-made truck carrying the large and tall fairing of a Launch Vehicle Mark III rocket. It housed the Chandrayaan 3 spacecraft stack. [Image: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/chandrayaan3%5Fgallery.html) - [India’s flat space budget for FY2024](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-18/) - [Commercial space reforms and regulations](https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/small-biz/legal/navigating-the-legal-cosmos-a-deep-dive-into-the-norms-and-guidelines-released-by-inspace/articleshow/112940644.cms) in India became [a job half done](https://takshashila.org.in/research/space-reforms-in-india) - A report by Spaceport SARABHAI on the [financial risk coverage of India's commercial space launch industry](https://drive.google.com/file/d/1EfgOTdVEmvak8l7Zjfnacg96L3eDBxWi/view) - A dialogue by practicing professionals on the [evolving landscape of space law as relevant to India](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XDEL7r%5F1wTA) ## Cooperation and collaboration ![](https://cdn.magicpages.co/spaceimpact.mymagic.page/2024/04/jaxa-slim-lander-on-the-moon-captured-by-isro-chandrayaan-2-orbiter-ohrc.jpeg) Japan’s SLIM spacecraft on the Moon as imaged by India’s Chandrayaan 2 orbiter on March 16, 2024\. [Image: ISRO / Chandra Tungathurthi](https://moonandbeyond.blog/how-slim-jaxa-landed-on-moon/) - NASA, ISRO, and KARI are [coordinating lunar traffic for their orbiters](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-184/#coordinating-lunar-traffic) - [ISRO’s Chandrayaan 2 orbiter helped JAXA nail SLIM’s Moon landing](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/) - The [“it’s complicated” status of LUPEX / Chandrayaan 5](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-196/#the-actual-status-of-lupex), the joint Indo-Japanese mission to directly study water ice on the Moon’s south pole - [ISRO is aiding NASA in Artemis landing site selection](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/#isro-aids-artemis) - A GSLV Mk II rocket successfully [launched and deployed](https://www.isro.gov.in/GSLV-F14%5FINSAT-3DS%5Fmission.html) ISRO’s INSAT-3DS meteorological satellite, satisfying the [launch criteria](https://web.archive.org/web/20210521074645/https://trs.jpl.nasa.gov/bitstream/handle/2014/45660/14-4572%5FA1b.pdf) to finally loft the high-profile [NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar](https://nisar.jpl.nasa.gov) (NISAR) Earth observation satellite to space next year --- *So that was an exhaustive look at India’s space progress in 2024 on multiple fronts. I wrote this* [*for you*](https://jatan.space/i-write-for-you/)*, not social media or SEO. And so if you loved my 2024 Indian space tour, please share it with other space buffs by* [*grabbing this link*](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-23)*, and support my* [*independent writing*](https://jatan.space/about) *& this community resource with* [*your donations*](https://jatan.space/support)*—especially if you’re feeling generous this holiday season.* 🌝 --- **Aside:** I attended the [2024 Galaxy Forum](https://galaxyforum.org/galaxy-forum-china-2024-hainan/) in Wenchang, China this month, where I along with speakers from over 12 countries discussed global lunar exploration plans, science from the Moon, and cooperative approaches to those ends. I’ve covered notable updates from the event on [Moon Monday #205](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-205/), and my experience there in [Moon Monday #206](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-206/#my-experience-at-the-galaxy-forum-in-china). There I also gave a talk on India’s space capabilities and ambitions. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/12/me-speaking-at-2024-galaxy-forum-wenchang-indian-space-exploration.jpg) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/12/me-speaking-at-2024-galaxy-forum-wenchang-4.jpg) As you could see in this edition, India is doing *a lot* in the sky but ISRO’s outreach is lackluster, and professionals in many countries are not aware of the country’s ambitions and offerings. I’m doing my part with such talks and this [monthly Indian Space](https://jatan.space/tag/indian-space-progress) blog+newsletter, hoping to be a good ambassador for India, science, and international collaboration. 🇮🇳🚀 ### Moon Monday #206: The state of global lunar exploration in 2024 URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-206/ Last updated: 2025-01-05T06:32:53.000Z As we wrap up an insanely happening [12 months in Moon exploration](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) worldwide, I present to you a huge, curated linked list of lunar technology and science developments across 2024, organized by country or region. There’s also a section on all cooperative and collaborative international lunar efforts this year because these are the gems we need more of. When you see all of this activity for our Moon in one place, the scale of the world’s march to Luna really hits home. 🌗 Each linked article below explains the context and importance of that development, and I’ve made a conscious effort to highlight events and trends that actually happened instead of amplifying speculative coverage of what might happen—the latter of which seems to consume many media outlets too much. Note: [Moon Monday](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) will be back in 2025 after the holidays. But do expect this month’s [Indian Space Progress](https://jatan.space/tag/indian-space-progress) edition early next week before I take a break for real. I shall then rest, refresh, reflect, and re-energize, and I hope you do too. ✨ Alright, let’s dive into our worldwide lunar tour. If someone asks you what’s happening at the Moon, say all of this is. 🚀 ## China ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/09/chang-e-6-lander-on-the-moon.jpg) A panorama from the Chang’e 6 lander on the Moon’s farside, showing one of its legs and the scoop sampling arm near its surface digs. [Image: CNSA / CLEP](https://x.com/SegerYu/status/1798688466026594539) - China [doubled down on lunar infrastructure](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-169/) with Queqiao 2 and is [building a lunar navcom constellation](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-185/) - CNSA [landed](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-178/) the [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) spacecraft on the Moon’s farside, part of which then [lifted off](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-179/) and [](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-178/)[brought samples to Earth](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-182/) - Did China land Chang’e 6 in the farside Apollo crater to signal the US of a race? [LOL, No](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) - China revealed the anatomy of [its first crewed Moon landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/) plans, the upcoming crew-robotic [ILRS Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/), and its [approach to scientific cooperation](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-205/) ![](https://cdn.magicpages.co/spaceimpact.mymagic.page/2024/05/long-march-2f.jpg) China’s Long March 2F rocket flying with astronauts, with a lunar backdrop. Image: Xinhua - [Scientists can now apply to study exotic Chang’e 6 farside samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-201/) - Chinese scientists [dated volcanic samples from the Moon’s farside](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-202/) - [How China avoided a lunar mission failure](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-190/#china-avoids-a-lunar-mission-failure) - [How CNSA repurposed the Chang’e 6 orbiter module](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-193/) [More China and Luna updates →](https://jatan.space/tag/china-and-luna/) ## The US ### *Artemis* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/10/spacex-starship-ift-5.jpg) ****Left:** The Starship upper stage from Integrated Flight Test #5 when re-entering Earth’s atmosphere; ****Middle:** The flight 5 Booster stage auto-positioning itself to be caught by launchpad arms; ****Right:** Illustration of the SpaceX Lunar Starship on the Moon. Images: SpaceX ([1 & 2](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D-hQ9YkX8UI), [3](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon/)) - The Artemis II and III crewed Moon missions [got delayed again](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-205/#more-artemis-delays) - NASA’s road to putting humans on the Moon [inched through SpaceX Starship](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-197/) - [US companies betting on Lunar Starship](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-163/#betting-on-lunar-starship) - [Is dearMoon’s cancellation purely a financial setback?](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-178/#more-mission-updates) - How NASA has been [incrementally planning Artemis science](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-170/) - [Axiom Space showed off the Artemis Moonwalking suit](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-198/) - [How the Artemis Lunar Terrain Vehicle is a giant leap for rover-kind](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-171/) [More NASA Artemis updates →](https://jatan.space/tag/artemis/) ### *CLPS* - Astrobotic’s failed lunar lander [left a trail of transparency and trepidation](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-159/) - NASA and Intuitive Machines [skewed the success criteria of the first CLPS lunar landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-166/) - [How ispace, CLPS, funding, and science are interlocked](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-184/) - NASA selected [Intuitive Machines](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-191/) and [Firefly](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/more-nasa-science-tech-will-fly-to-moon-aboard-future-firefly-flight/) for more Moon landings ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/01/nasa-viper-rover-illustration.jpg) Illustration of the VIPER rover exploring the Moon’s south pole. [Image: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/lets-get-building) - [How the VIPER rover’s cancellation is questionable](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-186/) - [The US is scrambling to save VIPER](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-188/) - [How NASA went for a VIPER-less Artemis](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-204/) [More NASA CLPS updates →](https://jatan.space/tag/clps/) ## India ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/12/chandrayaan-3-lander-pragyaan-rover.jpg) The Chandrayaan 3 lander Vikram imaged by the mission’s rover Pragyan on August 30, 2023\. [Image: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/chandrayaan3%5Fgallery.html) - [India approved Chandrayaan 4 lunar sample return mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-194/) - The Chandrayaan 3 rover [contributed to knowledge of our Moon’s origin](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-190/) - [On (not) celebrating Chandrayaan 3’s Moon landing](https://jatan.space/on-celebrating-moon-landings/) - [How ISRO’s Chandrayaan and Gaganyaan programs will converge at Luna](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/) - Chandrayaan 1’s Mission Director passed away; [article on his internationally crucial work](https://jatan.space/interviewing-isro-chandrayaan-1-mission-director/) [More Chandrayaan updates →](https://jatan.space/tag/chandrayaan/) --- *Many thanks to* [***Astrolab***](https://astrolab.space)*,* [***Louis Burtz***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/ljburtz)*,* [***Gurbir Singh***](https://gurbir.co.uk) *and* [***Frank Genin***](https://www.amazon.com/dp/2958293009) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday!* *If you’re loving this 2024 global lunar tour, share it with other space buffs by* [*grabbing this link*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-206/)*, and support my* [*independent writing*](https://jatan.space/about) *& this community resource with* [*your donations*](https://jatan.space/support)*—especially if you’re feeling generous this holiday season.* 🌙 --- ## More Asia-Pacific ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f6ed0f2dc-d28d-443c-9f44-8a5b1d67f918_640x480-jpeg.jpg) The flipped SLIM spacecraft on the Moon as imaged by the LEV-1 crawler bot. [Image: JAXA / TOMY / SONY](https://jda.jaxa.jp/result.php?lang=e&id=7e06883b03d41b4836ddfed96ea72a52) - [JAXA’s SLIM lander sparked a new era of precision landings](https://jatan.space/precision-moon-landings-and-the-future/) for Japan, India, Artemis, and science - [Japan’s plan to land astronauts on the Moon via NASA](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-172/) [More Japan and Selene updates →](https://jatan.space/tag/japan-and-selene/) - Australia’s [first lunar rover](https://www.space.gov.au/meet-roo-ver) called Roo-ver [got delayed](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-197/#australian-lunar-roo-ver-delayed); will be built by [the EPE & Lunar Outpost Oceania](https://www.lunaroutpost.com/post/lunar-outpost-inc-co-leads-australia-s-first-lunar-rover-program) - [Other Aussie advances toward Luna continued](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-192/#aussie-advances-toward-luna-continue) - South Korea’s newly forged space agency is [aiming straight for the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-181/) ## Europe and Canada ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f2fd6b7af-337b-432c-95b7-4170047c906e_1450x1080-jpeg.jpg) An illustration of Canada’s highly autonomous Canadarm3 robotics servicing system on the exterior of Gateway. [Image: CSA / NASA](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/multimedia/search/image/watch/12642) - [Europe’s new test facility brought lunar vibes on Earth](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-195/) - [Canada began making a lunar robotic arm to rule them all](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-182/#one-robotic-arm-to-rule-them-all) - The maple nation remained [Moonstruck about advancing rovers](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-165/#maple-nation-still-moonstruck) - [ESA moonlit their lunar navcom constellation ambitions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-198/#moonlight-in-motion-and-contrasting-queqiao) - Europe [started an accelerator program](https://payloadspace.com/accelerator-announces-first-european-space-resources-cohort/) for companies building resources-related lunar infrastructure ## Cooperation and collaboration ![](https://cdn.magicpages.co/spaceimpact.mymagic.page/2024/04/jaxa-slim-lander-on-the-moon-captured-by-isro-chandrayaan-2-orbiter-ohrc.jpeg) Japan’s SLIM spacecraft on the Moon as imaged by India’s Chandrayaan 2 orbiter on March 16, 2024\. [Image: ISRO / Chandra Tungathurthi](https://moonandbeyond.blog/how-slim-jaxa-landed-on-moon/) - NASA, ISRO, and KARI are [coordinating lunar traffic for their orbiters](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-184/#coordinating-lunar-traffic) - [ISRO’s Chandrayaan 2 orbiter helped JAXA nail SLIM’s Moon landing](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/) - The US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords) for cooperative lunar exploration [gained 50 signatories](https://spacenews.com/artemis-accords-reach-50-signatories-with-panama-and-austria/). The [51st signee](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-welcomes-thailand-as-newest-artemis-accords-signatory/) is Thailand, a country [also party](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465652/n6465653/c10497120/content.html) to the China-led ILRS Moonbase project and one that [will fly instruments on Chang’e 7 and 8](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-205/#thailand-and-china) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/10/lupex-lunar-lander-rover-illustration-and-prototype.jpg) ****Top left:** An old Illustration of an ISRO lander delivering the (stowed) JAXA-built LUPEX rover (top right and bottom left) to the Moon’s south pole; ****Bottom right:** An early LUPEX prototype testing drive system performance on simulated lunar soil. Images: [JAXA](https://www.exploration.jaxa.jp/e/program/lunarpolar) / [Mitsubishi](https://www.yomiuri.co.jp/stream/2/20729) - The [“it’s complicated” status of LUPEX / Chandrayaan 5](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-196/#the-actual-status-of-lupex), the ISRO-JAXA mission to directly study water ice on the Moon’s south pole - [China helped Pakistan kickstart lunar exploration](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/) - [ISRO is aiding NASA in Artemis landing site selection](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/#isro-aids-artemis) ## More lunar science ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f2893e3d1-0952-4f29-891b-c0802fa9f3b6_900x460-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of volcanism on the Moon releasing water vapor. [Image: Olga Prilipko Huber](https://www.brown.edu/news/2017-07-24/moonwater) - Multiple space agencies continued collaboration for [science on the upcoming NASA-led Gateway orbital habitat](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-162/#a-gist-of-gateway-science) - The search for lunar water [deepened](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/#the-search-for-lunar-water-deepens) and [remained unresolved](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-196/) - Scientists globally [continued gauging plume effects of Moon landers](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-180/) - Why space agencies worldwide are [studying Moonquakes](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-199/) and [lunar lava tubes](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-187/) - How [Chandrayaan 1, 2 and 3 leveraged their view from the Moon](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-22/) to image a solar eclipse, study the Sun’s flares, and observe Earth as an exoplanet Lastly, do not ever forget: [Why explore our Moon 🌗](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) --- *So that was an exhaustive look at all the ways humans explored our Moon this year. Remember, I wrote this* [*for you*](https://jatan.space/i-write-for-you/)*, not social media or SEO. And so if you loved my 2024 global lunar tour, please share it with other space buffs by* [*grabbing this link*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-206/)*, and support my* [*independent writing*](https://jatan.space/about) *& this community resource with* [*your donations*](https://jatan.space/support)*—especially if you’re feeling generous this holiday season.* 🌝 --- ## My experience at the Galaxy Forum in China I attended the [2024 Galaxy Forum](https://galaxyforum.org/galaxy-forum-china-2024-hainan/) in Wenchang, China last week, where I along with speakers from over 12 countries discussed global lunar exploration plans, science from the Moon, and cooperative approaches to those ends. I have covered notable updates from the event on [Moon Monday #205](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-205/). During my talk, I provided a global perspective on crewed lunar exploration, highlighting specific ways in which many countries are partnering across multiple parts of the lunar exploration stack, including but not limited to efforts by China and the US. If you read the links above in this Moon Monday edition, you will get the same sense of all I spoke about in my talk. And, attached below are my minimal talk slides. [Crewed Moon exploration | Global perspectivesBy Jatan Mehta, at the 2024 Galaxy Forum in Wenchang, Chinacrewed-moon-exploration-galaxy-forum-china-2024-jatan-mehta.pdf26 MBdownload-circle](https://jatan.space/content/files/2024/12/crewed-moon-exploration-galaxy-forum-china-2024-jatan-mehta.pdf "Download") ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/12/me-speaking-at-2024-galaxy-forum-wenchang-global-crewed-exploration.jpeg) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/12/me-speaking-at-2024-galaxy-forum-wenchang-3.jpeg) It was amazing to meet some of the people who have worked on China’s incredibly successful Chang’e program. We also got to see China’s national as well as commercial launch site in Wenchang from a close enough distance! The Chang’e 5 and Chang’e 6 sample return missions launched from here, and it’s where the first humans to the land on the Moon in this century [might just take off from](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/). 🧑🏽‍🚀 I’m thankful to the International Lunar Observatory Association ([ILOA](https://iloa.org)) and the [Chinese Society of Astronautics](http://www.csaspace.org.cn/#) (CSA) for inviting me to tune in as well as to talk at the forum. Through my [writing](https://jatan.space/about) and [speaking](https://jatan.space/talks/), I hope to be a good ambassador for the Moon, science, international collaboration, and India. :) Oh, and by the way, China’s space culture infusion is quite something. There are rocket shaped water bottles and eatables here. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/12/rocket-shaped-water-bottle.jpg) And then there’s this.. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/12/one-small-step-forward-china.jpg) I shall end the last Moon Monday edition of the year on that note. ### Moon Monday #205: The one from Wenchang! URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-205/ Last updated: 2024-12-20T09:33:57.000Z *Hello from China! I’m at the four-day* [*2024 international Galaxy Forum*](https://galaxyforum.org/galaxy-forum-china-2024-hainan/)*, where I along with speakers from over 12 countries are discussing global plans on lunar exploration, science from the Moon, and cooperative approaches to those ends. This week’s Moon Monday thus includes several fresh, firsthand lunar updates from Wenchang.* 🚀 **Note:* Next week’s Moon Monday will be published later in the week because I’ll find time only after coming back from China to home in Bangalore. Xie xie for your understanding.* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/12/me-galaxy-2024-forum-wenchang-1.jpg) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/12/don-thomas-at-2024-galaxy-forum-wenchang.jpg) Former NASA Astronaut Donald Thomas speaking at the 2024 Galaxy Forum in Wenchang. Notice the live speaker transcriptions! ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/12/wang-wei-ilrs-at-2024-galaxy-forum-wenchang-1.jpg) Wang Wei of CNSA speaking at the Galaxy Forum. Wang Wei, Director of International Cooperation in lunar exploration at CNSA specified at the Galaxy Forum today, December 9, that as China builds up to a long-term, crew-robotic, orbital-surface Moonbase named the [International Lunar Research Station](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/) (ILRS) next decade, the agency is looking for varying levels of international cooperation, exchanges, and collaborations in the following specific technological and scientific areas: - Future mission concept studies - Research and development of spacecraft systems and subsystems - Ground communications networks - Scientific data sharing of orbital and surface missions - Coordination of Mooncraft, including for scientific observations from orbit - Research on lunar samples, including but not limited to those [brought by Chang’e 5 and 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-201/) missions - Lunar science education and outreach for the public ILRS plans to host large-scale science and technology experiments continually via remotely operated robots and, when available, via humans. Wang Wei noted that international partnerships are desirable to achieve the science goals of ILRS, which are as follows: - Learn about [our Moon’s evolution & structure](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) - Conduct [lunar-based astronomy](https://jatan.space/radio-astronomy-from-the-moon/) for [doing cosmology](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-118/) and studying [habitable exoplanets](https://www.planetary.org/articles/what-is-the-habitable-zone) - [Observe the Sun](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) and [Earth](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-147/#shape-observes-earth-as-an-exoplanet) from the scientifically [unique vantage point](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-22/) of our Moon - Conduct lunar-based experiments like studying [plant growth](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-77/) To target meeting these scientific objectives, the ILRS project will formulate an “International Lunar Science Alliance” and “Scientific Joint Research Center”. Likewise on the technology front in the areas outlined above, there will be an “ILRS Inter-government Cooperation Committee” and an “International Lunar Technology & Innovation Alliance.” More adjacent science updates have also come out of the Galaxy Forum. Xuelei Chen of the National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences (NAOC/CAS) said that the target launch year for the proposed lunar orbital satellite constellation called [Discovering Sky at Longest wavelength](https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/stab3623) (DSL) is 2027\. DSL will make [cosmological measurements from the Moon’s farside](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-118/) with one mother satellite and eight trailing daughter satellites. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/12/boonrucksar-narit-lunar-pathfinder-1.jpg) Boonrucksar Soonthornthum of NARIT, Thailand speaking at the Galaxy Forum. ### Thailand and China Boonrucksar Soonthornthum of the National Astronomical Research Institute of Thailand (NARIT) presented that the country is planning its first Moon mission called “Lunar Pathfinder” through a Thai space consortium. It will be a small satellite, which will measure cosmic rays and magnetic fields from low lunar orbit. Lunar Pathfinder might launch onboard China’s [Chang’e 8](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/#prepare-for-crew-and-double-down-with-mission-eight) spacecraft in 2028\. Between this development and Thailand [considering launching](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=6311) national Moon missions through collaboration with ispace Japan, it represents the country’s growing interest in [exploring our Moon](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) through strategic partnerships. Previously in April, Thailand [joined](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465652/n6465653/c10497120/content.html) the China-led ILRS Moonbase project, a move that followed NARIT as Thailand’s largest space research organization [joining](https://www.narit.or.th/index.php/en-news/3552-en20231005-01) ILRS in September 2023\. As Ling Xin has [reported](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3237651/thai-lunar-weather-instrument-set-join-chinas-change-7-mission-moon), NARIT will fly a three-kilogram instrument duo on China’s upcoming [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#the-instrumental-and-increasingly-international-7) orbiter to study [solar storms](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) and cosmic rays respectively. China aims to launch the Chang’e 7 lander and orbiter in 2026\. The NARIT instruments will mark Thailand’s first study of Luna. NARIT operates the large 40-meter Thai National Radio Telescope, which China intends to use to monitor spacecraft trajectories of future ILRS missions. ## More Artemis delays ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/12/artemis-i-orion-heat-shield-1.jpg) The heat shield of the Artemis I Orion crew-capable spacecraft. [Image: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/nasa-identifies-cause-of-artemis-i-orion-heat-shield-char-loss/) - After comprehensive analyses, dozens of tests, and independent reviews of the [heat shield degradation issues](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-identifies-root-cause-of-orion-heat-shield-char-loss/) on the [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-i/) Orion spacecraft, NASA has concluded that the heat shield’s ablative material [was not porous enough](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/nasa-identifies-cause-of-artemis-i-orion-heat-shield-char-loss/) to vent and dissipate hot gas buildup during its bounced atmospheric reentry which led to cracks and even entire chunks of shield loss. - A [public report](https://oig.nasa.gov/office-of-inspector-general-oig/audit-reports/nasas-readiness-for-the-artemis-ii-crewed-mission-to-lunar-orbit/) released in May 2024 by NASA’s Office of Inspector General (OIG) revealed to the US taxpayers that the heat shield had taken a deeper beating than the agency initially let on, who then [presented it as a non-blocker](https://spacenews.com/no-major-issues-found-with-artemis-1-mission) for the crew-carrying [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii/) flight around the Moon and back. NASA has been [criticized for withholding](https://arstechnica.com/space/2024/12/former-flight-director-who-reviewed-orion-heat-shield-data-says-there-was-no-dissent/) from public knowledge independent review reports about the nature of the heat shield issue. The launch of Artemis II is now postponed from September 2025 to no earlier than [April 2026](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-shares-orion-heat-shield-findings-updates-artemis-moon-missions/). With the Artemis II Orion spacecraft’s heat shield already attached to it, NASA cannot make hardware changes without disassembling it. The agency has opted to [tweak the reentry profile](https://www.nasa.gov/general/faq-nasas-artemis-campaign-and-recent-updates/) instead to avoid severe material loss. The Artemis III Orion’s shield will see some design enhancements though. The details of this whole situation are best [laid out and contextualized](https://arstechnica.com/uncategorized/2024/12/nasa-says-orions-heat-shield-is-good-to-go-for-artemis-ii-but-does-it-matter/) by Stephen Clark. - The [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/) crewed Moon landing mission is [also officially delayed](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-shares-orion-heat-shield-findings-updates-artemis-moon-missions/) to mid-2027\. This was expected by keen US space industry observers. For example, Jeff Foust [reported](https://spacenews.com/nasa-assessment-suggests-potential-additional-delays-for-artemis-3-lunar-lander/) back in July that an internal confirmation review conducted by NASA on the readiness of SpaceX’s [Lunar Starship](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-197/) gave Artemis III a 70% chance of launch by February 2028, nearly a year and a half later than the then public date of September 2026. --- *Many thanks to* [***Open Lunar Foundation***](https://www.openlunar.org) *and* [***Louis-Jérôme Burtz***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/ljburtz) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to publish this curated community resource for free,* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*.* 🌙 --- ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/12/gateway-airlock-illustration.jpg) An illustration of a reference airlock module attached to the Gateway lunar orbital habitat. [Image: NASA](https://www.flickr.com/photos/nasa2explore/53125552160/in/photostream/) - Also at the 2024 Galaxy Forum, former NASA astronaut Don Thomas said in his presentation that it’s the Artemis VI mission that’s scheduled to carry an airlock for crew and science to the NASA-led international [Gateway lunar orbital habitat](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/gateway). This would mean the airlock will be operational post 2030\. In January 2024, NASA and the Mohammed bin Rashid Space Centre (MBRSC) [announced](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-united-arab-emirates-announce-artemis-lunar-gateway-airlock) that the UAE will provide the Gateway’s airlock. Russia was originally [supposed to do that](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-roscosmos-sign-joint-statement-on-researching-exploring-deep-space) but the country later [pulled out](https://spacenews.com/russia-skeptical-about-participating-in-lunar-gateway). An airlock would allow future Artemis astronauts on Gateway to do spacewalks—while around the Moon! In return for this contribution, the UAE will get to send an astronaut to the Gateway aboard an Artemis flight. Per an [earlier report](https://www.thenationalnews.com/uae/2022/12/13/uae-exploring-possibility-of-contributing-an-airlock-module-on-nasas-lunar-gateway) by Sarwat Nasir, it’s possible that Boeing builds this airlock for UAE. - ESA’s Space Resources Accelerator program has started off by providing a total of €1 million [across six European and Canadian companies](https://payloadspace.com/accelerator-announces-first-european-space-resources-cohort/) to mature their proposed technological solutions related to prospecting, extracting, and utilizing lunar resources. ESA is providing these funds on a matching contribution basis to the company’s own investment. The agency [launched the accelerator program](https://www.esric.lu/news-detail?tx%5Fnews%5Fpi1%5Baction%5D=detail&tx%5Fnews%5Fpi1%5Bcontroller%5D=News&tx%5Fnews%5Fpi1%5Bnews%5D=36&cHash=6706f2b83422dcf7b03f994731ac7906) earlier this year through the Luxembourg-based European Space Resources Innovation Center (ESRIC) and ESA’s Business in Space Growth Network. - Continuing the theme of India [leveraging the vantage point](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-22/) of the Moon, over 60 scientists from across India gathered at the Raman Research Institute to propose and discuss a [gamut of astronomical observations](https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/scientists-and-astronomers-meet-at-raman-research-institute-to-explore-moon-as-vantage-point-for-studying-the-universe/article68948159.ece) that could be conducted from the Moon’s surface or orbit over the next decade or two with varying readiness levels to uniquely advance respective subfields. ### Moon Monday #204: The one with no tying theme, like a VIPER-less Artemis URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-204/ Last updated: 2025-01-26T12:03:30.000Z *Yes, the headline is in the style of episode titles of “*[*Friends*](https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0108778/)*”. Here’s* [*one more*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/)*, just because.* ## Waiting for VIPER ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/11/viper-rover-thermovac-testing.jpeg) NASA’s VIPER lunar rover after acing thermal vacuum testing. [Image: Anthony Colaprete / NASA](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/viper-passes-all-its-tests-but-future-still-uncertain/) After filing a Freedom of Information Act request, SpaceNews received a [copy](https://spacepolicyonline.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/HSST-VIPER-letter.pdf) of NASA’s response to [members](https://science.house.gov/press-releases?ID=1DA1E494-9EC1-4B20-AD46-4C8719B749C7) of the US Congress who wrote an [open letter](https://republicans-science.house.gov/%5Fcache/files/f/b/fbcd6110-269b-469d-b857-fea63c251c10/2FC7B235A9BDA73EAAC27505794D6FB1.hsst-to-nasa---viper-termination-letter.pdf) to the agency chief on September 6 questioning the agency’s [intent to cancel](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-186/) the [VIPER rover mission](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) built to uniquely study [lunar water](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) deposits. The response [revealed](https://spacenews.com/nasa-outlines-impacts-of-viper-on-clps-lunar-lander-program/) that NASA anticipated having to cancel at least one [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) mission to keep VIPER’s launch on track for late 2025\. And if VIPER’s launch were to get delayed by another year, one more CLPS flight would have to bite the budgetary dust. Either of these scenarios would also delay that many number of non-canceled CLPS missions. Cumulatively, NASA [did not find this tradeoff acceptable](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-186/). And so the agency pursued the path of [asking US organizations](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/viper/rfi/) to propose a mission of their own that would fly and operate VIPER at virtually no cost to NASA. However, this approach [decidedly fails at VIPER’s original goal](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-188/) of helping scientists constrain the nature, accessibility, and potential abundance of surface and near-surface [water ice deposits](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s south pole. This goal was vital to systematically planning future sustained robotic and human Moon missions. Moreover, while NASA [said](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-cancels-viper-lunar-rover/) in July that it expected to overspend on VIPER after its [standard pre-launch tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-moon-landers/) to iron out final hardware kinks, VIPER actually aced them all [as per mission lead Anthony Colaprete](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/viper-passes-all-its-tests-but-future-still-uncertain/)’s talk at the [2024 annual meeting](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/leag2024/technical%5Fprogram/) of the NASA-backed Lunar Exploration Analysis Group (LEAG). To truly save VIPER [as envisioned](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/), ultimately the US Congress needs to provide the necessary additional funding to NASA, which is not the case right now. Jack Kiraly [reported](https://www.planetary.org/articles/senate-fy-2025-nasa-budget-proposal) in July that the US Senate’s NASA funding proposal for FY2025 did not include an explicit mention of VIPER or any funding increase necessary to save the project. Note that this situation is worse than the earlier one, wherein the [draft NASA budget](https://planetary.s3.amazonaws.com/assets/pdfs/FY2025-HAC-CJS-Committee-Report-NASA-Section.pdf) from the US House of Representatives—the lower house in the US Congress—had at least proposed up to $75 million extra in lunar science funding. As Michael Greshko [noted](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/nasa-cancels-its-viper-moon-rover/) back then, it could’ve potentially allowed NASA to allocate the funding needed to fly VIPER but would come at the cost of some other mission or program since the overall budget remains flat. The Planetary Society has been [holding multiple meetings](https://www.linkedin.com/feed/update/urn:li:activity:7249853587067957248/) of lunar scientists with US congressional staff, including those in the appropriations subcommittees that handle NASA’s budget, to vouch for reinstating the VIPER mission. The discussions were backed by a [letter](https://forms.gle/XDSzTra4NPSS1VC27) signed by more than 5,000 space experts. However, with the aforementioned US Senate proposal for FY2025, the extra funding option of $75 million put forth by the House of Representatives doesn’t seem to be on the table anymore. It’s also unclear if the incoming administration would be interested enough to tackle this problem next year. File this situation under the increasingly stressful episodes of [Cost plus plus](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-191/#cost-plus-plus), [Artemis cannot catch a break](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-187/#artemis-cannot-catch-a-break), and [Artemis IV faces yet another BLOCK-er](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-188/#artemis-iv-faces-yet-another-block-er). From the outside, it seems ridiculous that a vital part of Artemis like VIPER can get cancelled for a hundred million dollar gap while projects related to the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/reference/space-launch-system/) can keep ballooning by a billion dollars each, and then some more. Yes, I’m aware it’s not how budget appropriations work in the US, and that VIPER can’t just get money from other projects, but it doesn’t change the fact that the [scramble to save VIPER](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-188/) is at least an inefficient one. I hope VIPER ultimately lies where it belongs—the Moon. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/08/astrobotic-griffin-lander-with-nasa-viper-rover-onboard-illustration-1.jpg) An illustration showing NASA’s VIPER rover onboard the Griffin Moon lander. [Image: Astrobotic](https://www.astrobotic.com/media-kit/images) ## More mission updates - ispace Japan [announced](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=6485) that the company’s [second Moon lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-193/#second-ispace-moon-mission-on-the-horizon) has arrived in Cape Canaveral, Florida to prepare for a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket launch no earlier than January 2025\. In September, the company [revealed](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=6120) this M2 mission’s landing site to be in the lava plains of Mare Frigoris at [60.5° N, 4.6° W](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?prjExtent=-193208.8151159%2C1414120.8709056%2C91768.6418938%2C1575486.3113064&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&isCesiumEntityDetailsEnabled=true&showCompass=true&trailType=1&wideTrail=true&features=-4.60000000%2C60.50000000%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22ispace+Japan+M2+mission+landing+site%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKWbJYNOZLRfImq3ioA&proj=10), which will be explored by ispace’s rover. The company said in its previous update that the lander was “[progressing smoothly](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=6326)” through the standard series of [launch and space environmental tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/) at JAXA’s Tsukuba Space Center. With those tests successful, the next milestone to look forward to will be the lander’s liftoff. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/12/firefly-blue-ghost-clps-lander-with-logos-1.jpg) The first ‘Blue Ghost’ lunar lander. [Image: Firefly](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-aerospace-blue-ghost-mission-1-to-the-moon-readies-for-launch/) - Firefly [announced](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-aerospace-blue-ghost-mission-1-to-the-moon-readies-for-launch/) that after passing pre-launch tests [at JPL](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-aerospace-shipped-blue-ghost-for-environmental-testing-ahead-of-mission-to-the-moon/), its [first Moon lander](https://fireflyspace.com/missions/blue-ghost-mission-1/) Blue Ghost part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) is about to be shipped to SpaceX for a Falcon 9 launch during a six-day window around mid-January 2025\. Blue Ghost aims to descend in the [lava plains of Mare Crisium](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-70/#firefly-selects-goldilocks-landing-site-for-its-first-moon-mission) at 18.56°N, 61.81°E, carrying [10 NASA sci-tech payloads](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-firefly-aerospace-for-artemis-commercial-moon-delivery-in-2023) primarily to study the lunar environment. The mission will see NASA’s first attempt to get a [GPS lock from the Moon](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2021/nasa-explores-upper-limits-of-global-navigation-systems-for-artemis). **Also see:** [*How engineers test Moon landers on Earth*](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-moon-landers/) --- *Many thanks to* [***The Orbital Index***](https://orbitalindex.com)*,* [***Off Planet Research***](https://offplanetresearch.com) *and* [***Louis-Jérôme Burtz***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/ljburtz) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to publish this curated community resource for free,* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*.* 🌙 --- ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/12/long-march-12-debut-launch-yf-100k-engine.jpg) ****Left:** Debut launch of China’s Long March 12 rocket; ****Right:** The YF-100K engine, four of which power Long March 12’s core stage, as displayed at Airshow China 2018\. Images: [CCTV](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c0KcBTy5EzY) / [乘号同学](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:CASC%5FYF-100K%5Frocket%5Fengine.jpg) - With the November 30 [debut launch](https://spacenews.com/china-launches-first-long-march-12-from-new-commercial-spaceport-in-boost-for-countrys-lunar-plans/) of the semi-cryogenic Long March 12 rocket, China has successfully flown the YF-100K engine, the same kind that will power the first stage(s) of China’s upcoming heavy-lift, crew-capable [Long March 10](https://spacenews.com/chinas-new-rocket-for-crew-and-moon-to-launch-in-2026/) rocket, whose lunar variant will launch [humans to the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/) by end of decade. Andrew Jones [previously reported](https://spacenews.com/china-performs-fairing-separation-test-for-crewed-moon-mission-rocket/) that CALT successfully conducted a 5-meter-fairing separation test of the Long March 10’s non-lunar variant last month, with the lunar variant test upcoming. - ESA has begun using its versatile [LUNA](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-195/) analog facility to [test radar measurement techniques](https://luna-analog-facility.de/en/in-search-of-hidden-treasures/) that would help future missions to the Moon’s south pole localize [water ice deposits](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) beneath the surface being explored. - ​Going to the Moon isn’t only about lunar exploration. I [wrote an article](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-22/) on how India’s Chandrayaan 1, 2 and 3 spacecraft have captured a solar eclipse, studied the Sun’s flares, and observed Earth as an exoplanet respectively from the vantage point of the Moon! [🌏 .... Leveraging the view from Luna .... 🛰️ 🌗](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-22/) - Rice University is [hiring a postdoc associate](https://emdz.fa.us2.oraclecloud.com/hcmUI/CandidateExperience/en/sites/CX%5F2001/job/4273/?utm%5Fmedium=jobshare&utm%5Fsource=External+Job+Share) for two years to work on samples related to lunar Mg-suite magmatism --- ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/12/processed-lunar-regolith-simulant-structure-moon-monday-gift-1.jpg) A reader, [David Evinshteyn](https://www.linkedin.com/in/david-evinshteyn-7772b3103/), gifted me this structure made from processed lunar regolith simulant. The etched text reads Moon Monday and 52, the latter being the number of revolutions our Moon has completed around Earth since I started my [Moon Monday](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) blog+newsletter. What a nice way to [remark on four years](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-200/) of covering global lunar exploration developments! I’m so grateful to have such thoughtful readers. ^\_^ ### Indian Space Progress #22: How Chandrayaan 1, 2 and 3 leveraged their view from the Moon URL: https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-22/ Last updated: 2026-02-02T13:51:38.000Z *Thanks to the great reader responses on all recent special editions of my* [*Indian Space Progress*](https://jatan.space/tag/indian-space-progress) *blog+newsletter, such as the one on* [*ISRO’s Venus orbiter*](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-20/)*, the* [*merging of Chandrayaan and Gaganyaan*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/)*, and* [*challenges for rocket startups*](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-16/)*, I’m doubling down on this theme-based approach of capturing trajectories of Indian space. In this edition, I highlight an exciting aspect of lunar exploration that very few know or talk about, and top it up with the recent updates on Chandrayaan 4 and 5\. Early next year, expect Indian Space Progress to do thematic, news-tied dives into space startups, ISRO’s satellite fleet, and more.* *That said, here we go 🌏...........................................*🛰️🌗 --- Going to the Moon isn’t only about [lunar exploration](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/). China has long [repurposed their Mooncraft to enable deep space exploration](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-193/) in multiple ways. The US scientific community is keen to conduct [radio astronomy from the Moon](https://jatan.space/radio-astronomy-from-the-moon/), starting with [unique cosmological measurements](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-118/) to be made by an upcoming NASA-funded robotic lander. And, in the future space agencies and companies hope for the Moon to be a [literal launchpad to other worlds](https://jatan.space/the-moon-as-a-rocket-platform/) in the Solar System. India has added three more things to this list that leverage the Moon’s vantage point. Its ISRO [Chandrayaan](https://jatan.space/tag/chandrayaan/) craft have viewed a solar eclipse, studied the Sun’s flares, and observed Earth as an exoplanet, all from Luna. ## Capturing a solar eclipse from the Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/11/chandrayaan-1-cover.jpg) Chandrayaan 1 spacecraft illustration. Image: TeamIndus This is a story shared with me by the late [Srinivasa Hegde](https://jatan.space/interviewing-isro-chandrayaan-1-mission-director/), the Mission Director of India’s first lunar orbiter [Chandrayaan 1](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/). When the spacecraft imaged the total solar eclipse of July 22, 2009, it was not in a nominal state. In April 2009, only about five months post-launch, one of the two star sensors on the orbiter [had failed](https://web.archive.org/web/20221111143207/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/Chandrayaan-falters-as-lsquostar-sensorsrsquo-fail/article16557878.ece). Shortly after, exposure to extreme solar radiation combined with other factors [took out the backup star sensor too](https://web.archive.org/web/20181012144745/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/ldquoChandrayaanrsquos-first-sensor-failed-much-earlierrdquo/article16558594.ece). Having lost both its star sensors, Chandrayaan 1 lost the ability to precisely point to a desired attitude in space. A mission failure was looming. Instead of calling quits, ISRO engineers came up with a solution. Chandrayaan 1 mission operators used the spacecraft’s Sun sensors to get knowledge of two spatial axes, and then fixed the third axis with aid from communicating ground stations. With this inferred information in hand, operators utilized the orbiter’s [gyroscopes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyroscope) to then point the spacecraft again where needed with reasonable accuracy. The mission was back up and running. However, this method came with its restrictions. For instance, it could not be used during a New Moon or Full Moon because the Earth and Sun wouldn’t be at different angles for the craft. On the other end, using the Earth-Sun angle was restricted to a maximum of 25° to allow reasonable accuracy in pointing, and thus in spacecraft operations. While limited in scope, this method proved reliable enough to work for about six months after the failure of the critical star sensors, culminating in a good chunk of [the mission’s many discoveries](https://web.archive.org/web/20141023233203/http://isrohq.vssc.gov.in/isr0dem0v2/index.php/science/science-history/74-general/1005-chandrayaan-1mission). It’s also is under such conditions that Chandrayaan 1 captured the century’s longest solar eclipse from the Moon. Being far away from Earth, and at the very planetary body causing the eclipse, the spacecraft was at a convenient vantage point to image the Moon’s totality shadow cast on Earth. The only problem? Capturing the shadow would require accurate spacecraft pointing, which the aforementioned method would fall short of in providing by itself. Mission operators came up with yet another solution. To image Earth during the eclipse, ISRO would use Chandrayaan 1’s [Terrain Mapping Camera](https://web.archive.org/web/20090324201543/https://www.ias.ac.in/jessci/dec2005/ilc-16.pdf), which had a Field of View of 11°. The spacecraft was thus made to [*pitch*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft%5Fprincipal%5Faxes#Lateral%5Faxis%5F%28pitch%29) at a slow rate to scan the Earth between +/- 10°. To account for the error in the antenna pointing mechanism, operators also made the spacecraft [*roll*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft%5Fprincipal%5Faxes#Longitudinal%5Faxis%5F%28roll%29) by +/- 3°. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9e6d8643-0803-49d4-8290-429aa1a026a2_709x533-jpeg.jpg) The resulting motion and pointing of the spacecraft would thus ensure that the totality shadow would be somewhere within the view of Chandrayaan 1. Operators were ready to image Earth on the day of the solar eclipse. But they realized there was yet another problem. If the spacecraft downlinks to the ground station during the eclipse, executing real-time commands may not be reliable due to bandwidth and time uncertainties, which could mean missing capturing the short-lived eclipse shadow. This is why what mission operators did was send time-tagged commands to Chandrayaan 1 a-priori. The spacecraft then automatically executed all those commands sequentially during the eclipse period. It worked. As the spacecraft passed between the Moon and Earth in its lunar orbit on July 22, 2009, it imaged Luna’s shadow cast on our planet. It was a first for any lunar mission at the time, one executed with a spacecraft in a non-nominal state. Below is a GIF of the view. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/11/chandrayaan-1-captures-solar-eclipse-2009.gif) The totality shadow cast on Earth by the Moon during the total solar eclipse of July 22, 2009, as captured by Chandrayaan 1 from lunar orbit. Images: ISRO / GIF: Jatan Mehta ## A Sun watcher at the Moon India’s [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) doesn’t only study the Moon’s surface and [aid in surface lunar exploration](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/) but also observes the Sun. Scientists use its high-resolution [Solar X-ray Monitor](https://arxiv.org/pdf/1910.09231.pdf) (XSM) to study solar flares. In turn, it [provides a reference](https://web.archive.org/web/20220804152429/https://www.isro.gov.in/update/10-oct-2019/solar-flare-observed-solar-x-ray-monitor-chandrayaan-2) for the orbiter’s [Chandrayaan-2 Large Area Soft X-ray Spectrometer](http://oro.open.ac.uk/29976/1/CLASS%5F2011%5FLunar%5FPlanetary%5FScience%5FConf.pdf) (CLASS) instrument to [map elements](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/pdf/2191.pdf) on the Moon’s surface. Scientists have published multiple results based on [unique observations](https://web.archive.org/web/20211228232513/https://www.isro.gov.in/update/22-jun-2021/unraveling-mysteries-of-solar-corona-new-results-chandrayaan-2-solar-x-ray) of the Sun’s surface and atmospheric activities by XSM, including measuring many [micro-flares](https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/abf0b0), [nano-flares](https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/aca078), and [background X-ray emissions](https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/abf35d). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f46292acc-b030-4a0f-adc0-6abcb1efbf76_2179x1517-jpeg.jpg) Panel (a) shows a micro-flare on the Sun detected by India’s Chandrayaan 2 orbiter. Panels (b) and (c) show its locations in NASA SDO images. [Image Santosh V. Vadawale, et al.](https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/abf35d) XSM’s detections of micro-flares and nano-flares in particular is important because scientists think they’re relevant to unlocking a fundamental mystery about our Sun: why is its extended atmosphere, the corona, much hotter than its surface? Scientists have been [debating since the 1940s](https://web.archive.org/web/20230310102654/https://science.nasa.gov/news-articles/the-mystery-of-coronal-heating) how the Sun’s atmosphere is heated to a million degrees Celsius while the surface remains barely around 6,000 degrees. Close-up observations of many [tiny eruptions](http://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Space%5FScience/Solar%5FOrbiter/Solar%5FOrbiter%5Fs%5Ffirst%5Fimages%5Freveal%5Fcampfires%5Fon%5Fthe%5FSun) across the Sun’s surface by ESA’s [Solar Orbiter](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Space%5FScience/Solar%5FOrbiter) mission coupled with coronal measurements made by NASA’s [Parker Solar Probe](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/parker-solar-probe/) have [helped scientists almost zero in](https://www.quantamagazine.org/how-a-nasa-probe-solved-a-scorching-solar-mystery-20240429/) on solving the coronal heating mystery. Micro-flare and nano-flare observations by other spacecraft from different vantage points like that of the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter help scientists contextualized and refine these results to improve [our understanding of the Sun](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/11/solar-campfires-by-esa-solar-orbiter.jpg) A high-resolution image of the Sun from ESA’s Solar Orbiter spacecraft, captured on May 30, 2020\. The lower left circle indicates Earth’s size for scale. The arrow points to one of the many nano-flares. [Image: ESA](http://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Space%5FScience/Solar%5FOrbiter/Solar%5FOrbiter%5Fs%5Ffirst%5Fimages%5Freveal%5Fcampfires%5Fon%5Fthe%5FSun) ### Protecting future lunar explorers In addition to XSM, the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter’s CLASS instrument [can detect](https://web.archive.org/web/20200831011710/https://www.isro.gov.in/update/03-oct-2019/studying-earth’s-extended-magnetosphere-geotailplasma-around-moon) some solar events too. In January 2022, CLASS detected [two highly energetic proton emission events](https://web.archive.org/web/20220223143806/https://www.isro.gov.in/update/23-feb-2022/chandrayaan-2-detected-solar-proton-events-due-to-high-intensity-solar-flares) in the [solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/), the incessant stream of charged particles emanating from the Sun. NASA’s GOES-16 satellite couldn’t detect one of these two events because Earth’s magnetic field shielded it from said particles. The Chandrayaan 2 orbiter being at the Moon could detect them, just as other solar observers outside Earth’s magnetic field could. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ff69dc278-18a0-4ba5-8e11-4e5192f1a7dc_1080x602-jpeg.jpg) The rate of protons recorded by India’s Chandrayaan 2 lunar orbiter (blue) and NASA’s GOES-16 Earth orbiter (red) circa January 20, 2022\. [Image: ISRO / NASA](https://web.archive.org/web/20220223143806/https://www.isro.gov.in/update/23-feb-2022/chandrayaan-2-detected-solar-proton-events-due-to-high-intensity-solar-flares) From August 4 through 7 in 1972, the Sun blurted [several bursts of flares](http://spaceweatherlivinghistory.org/timeline/31) and associated energetic particles between the Apollo 16 and 17 missions to the Moon. Had the astronauts been in lunar orbit or on the surface, they could’ve faced damaging levels of radiation. This could, in turn, lead to increased cancer risk. As we prepare to send astronauts on much longer Moon missions and beyond, we’ll need to [protect our explorers](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-1/artemis-i-radiation-measurements-validate-orion-safety-for-astronauts/) from such solar flaring and energetic particles that reach the Earth-Moon space in a matter of hours. The Chandrayaan 2 orbiter is aiding in the same by improving our understanding of solar flares as well as the local nature of solar energetic particle events at the Moon. --- *Many thanks to the* [***Takshashila Institution***](https://takshashila.org.in)*,* [***PierSight***](https://piersight.space)*,* [***Gurbir Singh***](https://gurbir.co.uk) *and* [***KaleidEO***](https://satsure.co/kaleidEO) *for sponsoring this month’s Indian Space Progress edition. If you too appreciate my efforts to capture true trajectories of Indian space, kindly join them and* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*.* --- **Sponsored job listings:** Following up on its upcoming [Varuna](https://piersight.space/varuna-mission) demonstrator mission, [PierSight is hiring](https://piersight.space/careers) a Senior FPGA Engineer, an Embedded Hardware Engineer, and a Power Electronics Engineer to join their Ahmedabad-based team in building a constellation of SAR and AIS satellites to provide persistent monitoring of all human and industrial activities at sea. --- ## Observing Earth as an exoplanet The Chandrayaan 3 mission’s propulsion module, which ISRO [pulled from lunar orbit to Earth orbit](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-157/) late last year for testing, carries the Earth-observing experiment called [SHAPE](https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2302.10712). While it was in lunar orbit, it observed the full Earth disk to improve our understanding of what the [spectro-polarimetric signatures](https://arxiv.org/abs/0707.3905) of distant [Earth-like habitable exoplanets](https://jatan.space/nasa-tess-space-telescope/) might look like. With such data, scientists can infer (known) physical properties of Earth, and from it those of Earth-like exoplanets we discover such as the strength and direction of their magnetic fields, atmospheric composition including presence of water and methane, and so on. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fed306624-8569-4c8c-ac6f-509ceaa8ffb8_1700x600-jpeg.jpg) The observation geometry (left) of the SHAPE instrument and its configuration (right). [Images: Bhavesh Jaiswal, et al.](https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2302.10712) While more distant spacecraft than Chandrayaan 3 such as NASA’s [Galileo](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/galileo) Jupiter orbiter have [conducted full disk Earth studies](https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/A-search-for-life-on-Earth-from-the-Galileo-Sagan-Thompson/da5bf312601c2533b0133fb4873177bca60c157d) before, their observations had limited phase angles. On the other hand, Earth-based observations [get affected by depolarization](https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Depolarization-of-electromagnetic-waves-from-the-Beckmann/2a8465da9c6f8faad5c1ffe614797cbdd71ded5f) whereas Earthbound satellites cover [limited spectral range](https://amt.copernicus.org/articles/6/991/2013/amt-6-991-2013.pdf). The Moon thus offers a unique vantage point from which to study [Earth as an exoplanet](https://arxiv.org/abs/1804.04138). SHAPE’s observations allowed scientists to capture Earth-reflected sunlight over a broad spectral range at all phase angles and so in two polarization directions, thus feeding uniquely into the worldwide [hunt for another Earth](https://jatan.space/search-for-life/). ISRO Chief S. Somanath [has said](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/chandrayaan-3-not-just-moon-study-of-earth-shapeing-up-well-too/articleshow/104005580.cms) that the agency has completed all of SHAPE’s baseline observations. However, unlike [other scientific measurements](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-194/) from the [Chandrayaan 3 mission](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/), ISRO hasn’t yet publicly shared any data samples or results from SHAPE. With papers from the mission coming in at a rather slow pace, hopefully SHAPE shows up soon and in good shape. ## More on Chandrayaan 4 and 5 ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/10/chandrayaan-4-5-render.jpg) Renders of the Chandrayaan 4 and 5 spacecraft stacks. [Image: ISRO / P. Veeramuthuvel](https://www.youtube.com/live/bfV%5F1Y%5FhZDM?feature=shared&t=32835) Some more details on the first two of ISRO’s [increasingly complex Chandrayaan missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/) have surfaced thanks to [the talk by Chandrayaan 3’s Project Director](https://www.youtube.com/live/bfV%5F1Y%5FhZDM?feature=shared&t=32835) Palanivel Veeramuthuvel at the [2024 International Astronautical Congress](https://www.iafastro.org/events/iac/international-astronautical-congress-2024/) (IAC) in October: - The landing site for the [Chandrayaan 4](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-194/) sample return mission will be somewhere between 85–90° on the Moon’s south pole, putting it squarely in the [water-hosting](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) polar region as opposed to the [70°S for Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/#the-moment-of-touchdown). Relatedly, Chethan Kumar [recently reported](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/docking-test-likely-before-dec-15-gaganyaan-g1-vyomitra-on-1-seat-eclss-on-2nd-rocket-gets-new-cryo-stage/articleshow/114205782.cms) that Chandrayaan 4’s preliminary design review is not yet complete. - To buy down risk for Chandrayaan 4, which involves [robotically docking many modules](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-194/), there will be not one but three SPADEX satellite docking missions in Earth orbit—first in circular orbit, then elliptical. Chethan Kumar [reports](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/isro-gears-up-for-multiple-launches-spadex-to-demonstrate-space-docking-on-december-20/articleshow/115623777.cms) that first of these is targeted for launch as early as December 20\. As a tangent, SPADEX will also reduce risk for the [upcoming Gaganyaan human spaceflight missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/), particularly for the end-of-decade cargo flight to the International Space Station and one to India’s first space station module. - The landing site for the ISRO-JAXA [LUPEX / Chandrayaan 5](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/#the-indo-japanese-rover-mission) mission could be [89.45°S, 222.85°E](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?prjExtent=-104448.3865876%2C-58709.254334%2C71628.9957133%2C40992.6822253&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=222.85000000%2C-89.45000000&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFOOZLRfImqnioA&proj=17), which lies on an elevated ridge connecting the Shackleton and de Gerlache craters. The site has several [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) in its vicinity so that the LUPEX rover can [directly study](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-111/) the nature, accessibility, and abundance of potential [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) deposits there as intended. **Also see:** [*The actual status of LUPEX / Chandrayaan 5*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-196/#the-actual-status-of-lupex) In preparation for Chandrayaan 4, the ISRO-affiliated PRL institute conducted an in-person [inaugural workshop for students](https://metmess2024.ipsa-asso.in/assets1/img/ksc.pdf) mid-November to teach them via lab visits and hands-on sessions how to handle and analyze space and planetary samples. PRL’s Director [Anil Bhardwaj](https://www.prl.res.in/prl-eng/director) stressed at the [accompanying conference](https://metmess2024.ipsa-asso.in), which was also held in person and one I attended, that more such workshops are planned not just for students but for professional scientists across the country since realizing Chandrayaan 4 necessitates building national capacity to thoroughly prepare, store, curate, characterize, and analyze the first set of space samples to be fetched by India. ## Even more Chandrayaan - I was a [guest on Carnegie India’s podcast](https://carnegieindia.org/podcasts/interpreting-india/indias-lunar-exploration-past-present-and-future-with-jatan-mehta?lang=en¢er=india) Interpreting India. We discuss where [India’s Moon exploration plans](https://jatan.space/tag/chandrayaan/) are heading, and what are the enablers and constraints on the increasingly complex road for ISRO to send an Indian to the Moon. Give it a listen on [Spotify](https://open.spotify.com/episode/70zj5rFL1YclkI7XmiA5JD?si=PPvRjkujQQCZzX4aNF8zRw), [Apple Podcasts](https://podcasts.apple.com/in/podcast/indias-lunar-exploration-past-present-and-future/id1476357131?i=1000673433521), [YouTube](https://music.youtube.com/watch?v=%5F-RDf7jvdMA&feature=shared), or below: - The seismometer on the [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) lander, called Instrument for Lunar Seismic Activity (ILSA), was the first since the Apollo era decades ago to measure [moonquakes](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-199/). Here is the [paper](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2024.116285) and an [archived PDF](https://archive.org/details/identification-and-preliminary-characterisation-of-signals-recorded-2024-ic). In the 12 days of its operations from August 24, 2023, ILSA measured 50 seismic events, each lasting several seconds. While ILSA was not meant to detect prolonged deep and shallow moonquakes—which would reveal insights about the Moon’s interior—due to the mission’s design life being just one lunar day, it’s helping scientists better understand [micrometeorite impacts](https://jatan.space/the-tiniest-of-impact-craters/) on the surface at high latitudes. The amount and rate of such impacts is not well constrained at the moment but is necessary to ensure safety of future human lunar polar explorers by designing protective suits and habitats accordingly. Furthermore, ILSA detected 200 signals correlated to known activities of either the lander, its instruments, or [traverses](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/#the-surface-mission) of the [Chandrayaan 3 rover](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/#a-lunar-region-never-explored). Such data will help engineers design safe lunar polar infrastructure. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/10/chandrayaan-3-lander-pragyaan-rover-ilsa.jpg) The deployed ILSA seismometer from the Chandrayaan 3 lander. Image: ISRO - ISRO has [formally started](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/indias-first-mars-moon-analogue-mission-kicks-off-in-ladakhs-space-like-terrain/articleshow/114842575.cms) terrestrial testing of what living on the Moon and Mars could be like for astronauts via baseline analog missions at dry, mountainous Ladakh. [Protoplanet](https://www.protoplanet.co/), which provides analog research and testing programs, are among the organizations the space agency is [exploring long term collaborations](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/toi-explains-how-cold-desert-ladakh-can-be-mars-on-earth-for-india/articleshow/115750261.cms) with. ### Moon Monday #203: Artemis updates, China and Luna, ESA<>JAXA, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-203/ Last updated: 2024-12-19T15:59:52.000Z *Thank you for having signed up for my no-award winning* [*Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) *blog+newsletter! Its motivation was to exist because nothing like it did to capture the world’s march to the Moon.* 🌝 *If you’re one of the 8,000+ lunatics who enjoys this free curated community resource, you can* [*copy this subscribe link*](https://jatan.space/subscribe) *to share it with other humans who might find it useful too. As an* [*independent writer*](https://jatan.space/about)*, every boost helps.* 🚀 ## Artemis updates - SpaceX performed the [sixth launch](https://www.spacex.com/launches/mission/?missionId=starship-flight-6) of its [Starship Super Heavy](https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/starship) rocket on November 19, successfully demonstrating the Starship upper stage [reigniting in space](https://www.youtube.com/live/DjDFirLcQDM?feature=shared&t=13034) as well as splashing back intact despite more aggressive atmospheric reentry conditions than prior flights, clearing the way for orbital tests next year. Between this latest Starship success, the US Federal Aviation Administration’s intent to [authorize increase in Starship launches](https://spacenews.com/faa-updates-environmental-review-for-increased-starship-launches/) to 25 next year, and the company’s [appetite for more](https://arstechnica.com/space/2024/11/spacex-president-predicts-rapid-increase-in-starship-launch-rate/) later in the decade, NASA’s road to putting astronauts on the Moon again continues [inching through Starship](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-197/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/11/ppe-lunar-gateway-firing-illustration.jpg) Illustration of the PPE module firing on NASA‘s upcoming Gateway lunar orbital habitat. [Image: NASA / Alberto Bertolin](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/gateway/gateway-tops-off/) - Technicians have added the [xenon and liquid fuel tanks](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/gateway/gateway-tops-off/) to the [PPE propulsion module](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-artemis-contract-for-lunar-gateway-power-propulsion) of the upcoming NASA-led [Gateway lunar orbital habitat](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/gateway). Once ready, PPE will be mated with the Gateway’s also-being-assembled [HALO habitat module](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-northrop-grumman-finalize-moon-outpost-living-quarters-contract/) for a SpaceX Falcon Heavy rocket launch [no earlier than 2027](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-187/#artemis-cannot-catch-a-break). - Lunar Outpost [signed an agreement](https://www.lunaroutpost.com/post/lunar-outpost-signs-with-spacex-for-starship-moon-mission) with SpaceX to fly Outpost’s version of the versatile Artemis [Lunar Terrain Vehicle](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-171/) (LTV) called [Lunar Dawn](https://www.lunaroutpost.com/ltv) on a Lunar Starship by end of decade. The company also [closed a Series A funding round](https://www.lunaroutpost.com/post/lunar-outpost-secures-series-a-funding-to-accelerate-commercial-pursuits-on-the-moon)—of an unspecified amount—the majority of which will go towards the LTV’s development so as to [compete for Artemis rover contracts](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-171/). Relatedly, Jeff Foust [reported](https://spacenews.com/leidos-replaces-lockheed-martin-on-artemis-rover-team/) in September that Lockheed Martin left Lunar Outpost’s LTV team, which made Outpost significantly change their rover design to remove Lockheed’s intellectual property contributions. Separately, and not replacing Lockheed’s role, Leidos joined the team to support work on astronaut safety and operations. This is based on their experience serving NASA at the International Space Station, and that NASA has [contracted](https://www.leidos.com/insights/leidos-awarded-476-million-nasa-cargo-mission-support-contract) Leidos to support cargo processing and management for Artemis missions too. [More Artemis updates 🚀](https://jatan.space/tag/artemis/) ## China’s Moon march continues ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f8527c977-0027-4b01-8c2c-fb398ba88ebd_1084x850-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of the Chang’e 8 lander on the Moon’s south pole. [Image: CNSA](https://spacenews.com/china-outlines-change-8-resource-utilization-mission-to-the-lunar-south-pole) - Of the rather massive 200-kilogram payload capacity CNSA has reserved for international payloads on their upcoming [Chang’e 8](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/#prepare-for-crew-and-double-down-with-mission-eight) mission to explore the Moon’s south pole, about 35 kilograms might be grabbed by [Pakistan’s lunar rover](https://tribune.com.pk/story/2509494/suparcos-rover-to-explore-lunar-surface). If so, just like how [China helped Pakistan kickstart its lunar exploration](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/) with an orbiter on [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) this year, Chinese engineers would aid development of Pakistan’s first lunar rover too. Targeting launch on a Long March 5 rocket in 2028, Chang’e 8 will explore the nature of local lunar polar resources like its soil and [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and assess their utility with a [comprehensive suite of payloads](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/#prepare-for-crew-and-double-down-with-mission-eight). This will inform China’s strategies for when it begins [sending humans](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/) starting end of decade. - Andrew Jones reports that CALT [successfully conducted](https://spacenews.com/china-performs-fairing-separation-test-for-crewed-moon-mission-rocket/) a 5-meter-fairing separation test of China’s upcoming heavy-lift, crew-capable [Long March 10](https://spacenews.com/chinas-new-rocket-for-crew-and-moon-to-launch-in-2026/) rocket. Long March 10 will have a three-booster lunar variant with a larger fairing, whose separation system will be tested in the future. More tests of the Long March 10 systems are also in the pipeline according to the parent organization [CASC’s release](http://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4228397/content.html). As such, coupled with China’s recent advances in designing a [suit](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-195/#a-sino-suit-for-luna) and [rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-200/) for lunar astronauts, the country continues its steady march to [land a human on the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/) by end of decade. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/11/long-march-10-fairing-separation-test-1.jpg) Payload fairing halves of the Long March 10 rocket lying beside a large test structure after a fairing separation test (humans on the edges for scale). [Image: CALT](https://spacenews.com/china-performs-fairing-separation-test-for-crewed-moon-mission-rocket/) - China tested [its first inflatable space module](https://spacenews.com/china-quietly-tested-its-first-inflatable-space-module-in-orbit/) in Earth orbit sometime by October 10 but only revealed the same on [November 21](https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/exwqb4SbyWSjjkw7gYrOVA). An [accompanying CASC release](http://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4228415/content.html) notes that technological advancements stemming from this demonstration “will provide technical support for China’s major space projects, such as its space station and manned lunar landing projects”. The latter would notably include China’s Moonbase on the lunar south pole called the [International Lunar Research Station](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/), which the country plans to build in the 2030s for long-term habitability of astronauts as well as to have continuous robotic science and exploration operations. A related development of [lunar soil simulant bricks](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3277453/chinese-astronauts-will-test-sample-bricks-moon-research-base) is captured well on November 22 [by Celestial Citizen](https://celestialcitizen.substack.com/p/starships-most-fruitful-flight-test): > When it’s not throwing around its lunar rocket parts, China is sending spacecraft to Tiangong, with the nation’s Tianzhou-8 cargo ship arriving at the space station just last week. The spacecraft [delivered 6,000 kg of supplies](https://spacenews.com/tianzhou-8-spacecraft-delivers-supplies-key-experiments-to-tiangong-space-station/) for Shenzhou 19, a crew of three, including some bricks made of lunar regolith simulant. The astronauts will install the bricks outside the space station to test their durability in high-radiation conditions, as a way to assess whether the soil could be a reliable material to build lunar habitats. [More China and Luna updates 🌗](https://jatan.space/tag/china-and-luna/) --- *Many thanks to* [***Open Lunar Foundation***](https://www.openlunar.org) *and* [***Joseph J. Biernat***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/joseph-j-biernat-24858425) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to publish this curated community resource for free,* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*.* --- ## ESA<>JAXA--@Luna ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/11/esa-moonlight-graphic.jpg) [Image: ESA](https://www.esa.int/About%5FUs/Corporate%5Fnews/ESA%5Fadvances%5Fits%5Fplan%5Ffor%5Fsatellites%5Faround%5Fthe%5FMoon) ESA and JAXA [announced](https://global.jaxa.jp/press/2024/11/20241120-1%5Fe.html) that the two agencies will keenly examine opportunities for cooperation and collaboration across a whole range of space projects by both parties. Within the lunar exploration spectrum, options span: - JAXA’s upcoming polar-water-studying [LUPEX](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/#the-indo-japanese-rover-mission) mission with ISRO - ESA’s upcoming [Moonlight constellation](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-198/#moonlight-in-motion-and-contrasting-queqiao) of communications and navigation satellites ([navcom](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-185/)) - ESA’s existing projects of analog mission testing with [LUNA](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-195/) and astronaut training with [Pangaea](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/CAVES%5Fand%5FPangaea/What%5Fis%5FPangaea) - upcoming [Gateway science](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-162/#a-gist-of-gateway-science) by both agencies - JAXA’s [upcoming pressurized habitable rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-172/) for Artemis astronauts - and ESA’s [Argonaut cargo lander](https://europeanspaceflight.com/esa-targets-2031-for-first-argonaut-lunar-lander-mission/) flying in the 2030s This sounds promising. ✨ ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/11/canada-first-lunar-rover-prototype.jpg) A prototype of Canada’s upcoming first lunar rover undergoing testing on CSA's analog terrain in Canada which simulates lunar surface conditions. [Image: CSA](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/multimedia/search/image/18892) - CSA is [calling all Canadians](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/news/articles/2024/2024-11-20-what-should-we-call-the-first-canadian-rover-on-the-moon.asp) to vote for naming [the country’s first lunar rover](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronomy/moon-exploration/first-canadian-rover-to-explore-the-moon.asp) as either *Athabasca*, *Courage*, *Glacier*, or *Pol-R*. I quite like *Glacier* since it alludes to the mission’s purpose of helping explore [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon) deposits on the Moon’s south pole but I’m not Canadian. CSA [chose Canadensys](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronomy/moon-exploration/first-canadian-rover-to-explore-the-moon.asp) in November 2022 to develop the rover. It was supposed to launch on a NASA-funded [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions) lunar lander in 2026 but since no specific vendor has been identified or made public yet, we should expect a launch delay. - In preparation for ISRO’s upcoming [Chandrayaan 4](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-194/) sample return mission, the ISRO-affiliated PRL institute conducted an in-person [inaugural workshop for students](https://metmess2024.ipsa-asso.in/assets1/img/ksc.pdf) to teach them via lab visits and hands-on sessions how to handle and analyze space and planetary samples. PRL’s Director [Anil Bhardwaj](https://www.prl.res.in/prl-eng/director) stressed at the [accompanying conference](https://metmess2024.ipsa-asso.in), which was also held in person and one I attended, that more such workshops are planned not just for students but for professional scientists across India since realizing Chandrayaan 4 necessitates building national capacity to thoroughly prepare, store, curate, characterize, and analyze the first set of space samples to be fetched by India. - **Explore:** [Views of our Moon 🌙](https://jatan.space/lunasights/) [Moon rocks in 3D 🪨](https://ares.jsc.nasa.gov/astromaterials3d/apollo-lunar.htm) [Apollo rocks in a virtual microscope 🔬](https://www.virtualmicroscope.org/collections/apollo) ### Moon Monday #202: A bao-burrito-bhel of global lunar updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-202/ Last updated: 2024-11-18T12:19:25.000Z *Why such a weird but hopefully funny headline, I hear you ask.* [*Because I write for you*](https://jatan.space/i-write-for-you/)*, not social media or SEO.* 🌝 --- *I’m honored to welcome space writer and author* [*Gurbir Singh*](https://gurbir.co.uk) *as an individual sponsor of both my* [*Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) *and* [*Indian Space Progress*](https://jatan.space/tag/indian-space-progress) *newsletters for another year! Not sponsored: Among his many books, I quite liked* [*The Atlas of Space Rocket Launch Sites*](https://gurbir.co.uk/book/atlas-of-space-rocket-launch-sites/) *and the overview of* [*India’s Space Programme*](https://gurbir.co.uk/book/the-indian-space-programme/)*.* 🚀 ## Dating volcanic samples from the Moon’s farside ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/11/moon-nearside-farside-view-and-crust-thickness.jpg) The Moon’s nearside and farside (top), and a map of varying crust thickness on both sides (bottom) as inferred from NASA’s GRAIL spacecraft mission data [Image: NASA / JPL / GSFC / MIT / IPGP](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/moon-crust-thickness-grail) | Collage: [LRO](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/298), [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) Two new studies analyzing dozens of lunar fragments from [samples brought to Earth](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-201/) in June by China’s [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) mission have provided the first ever direct age measurements of volcanic material on [our Moon’s farside](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). The studies were funded by the Chinese Academy of Sciences and published last week in [*Nature*](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-08382-0) and [*Science*](https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adt1093). The primarily basaltic fragments studied are all close to 2.83 billion years old, and indeed lack abundant heat-producing elements like potassium and thorium in them as scientists expected, which would’ve otherwise sustained volcanic eruptions for longer. In future studies, researchers will integrate and reconcile these results with two things in particular: - to what extent does the Moon’s farside having an [average 20-kilometer thicker crust](https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JE005826) than the nearside—albeit not in the [Chang’e 6 landing region](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) which is thinner—prevent or encourage volcanic eruptions. - what future samples of the Moon’s mantle, both on the farside and nearside, inform us about its [puzzling nature](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). These will [help scientists explain](https://english.cas.cn/newsroom/research%5Fnews/earth/202411/t20241115%5F694360.shtml) why the Moon’s farside was far less volcanically active than the nearside, making it look more like [crater-y Mercury](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/image/mercury.jpg) than the face we know. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/11/chang-e-6-farside-volcanic-samples-age.jpg) ****Top left:** The Chang’e 6 landing site (red dot) at [153.99° W, 41.64° S](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?prjExtent=-5115889.1470062%2C-1398155.2837056%2C-4116979.5158004%2C-832533.3771467&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&wideTrail=true&features=206.01455000%2C-41.63839000%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Chang’e+6+landing+site%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFaaKBJ-Im64NOZFkRdi5KjwpA&proj=16) lying within the 500-kilometer wide Apollo impact crater. ****Bottom left:** Two Chang’e 6 sampled basaltic rock fragments; ****Right:** Age of Chang’e 6 lava samples compared to Chang’e 5, Apollo, and lunar meteorite ones. [Images: Zexian Cui, Qing Yang, et al.](https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adt1093) Age dating of Chang’e 6 samples will also help scientists globally [validate and calibrate](https://english.cas.cn/newsroom/research%5Fnews/earth/202411/t20241114%5F694224.shtml) orbital remote sensing observations, determine truer ages of lunar farside features, and refine the rate of asteroid and meteoroid impacts in the inner Solar System over the last three billion years. If you’re interested to learn how China manages and dispatches its Chang’e lunar samples for national and global scientific studies as well as for international diplomacy, read my explainer from Moon Monday #201: [Exploring Chang’e lunar samples 🌗](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-201/) ## The next wave of Moon landers There have been delays in the launch of the next three Moon landing missions. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/09/ispace-m2-lander-resilience.jpg) ispace Japan’s second Moon lander, named RESILIENCE, at JAXA’s Tsukuba Space Center. Also seen is ispace’s first rover TENACIOUS, integrated into the lander. [Image: ispace](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=6120) - ispace Japan [announced](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=6326) that the company’s [second Moon mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-193/#second-ispace-moon-mission-on-the-horizon) (M2) will launch no earlier than January 2025 on a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket. In September, the company [revealed](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=6120) the mission’s landing site to be in the lava plains of Mare Frigoris at [60.5° N, 4.6° W](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?prjExtent=-193208.8151159%2C1414120.8709056%2C91768.6418938%2C1575486.3113064&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&isCesiumEntityDetailsEnabled=true&showCompass=true&trailType=1&wideTrail=true&features=-4.60000000%2C60.50000000%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22ispace+Japan+M2+mission+landing+site%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKWbJYNOZLRfImq3ioA&proj=10). ispace says the lander is “progressing smoothly” through the [standard series of launch and space environmental tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/) at JAXA’s Tsukuba Space Center. Once complete, the lander will be shipped to Cape Canaveral, Florida for Falcon 9 integration and launch. - Firefly’s [first Moon lander](https://fireflyspace.com/missions/blue-ghost-mission-1/) Blue Ghost part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) is done with its launch & space environmental tests [at NASA JPL](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-aerospace-shipped-blue-ghost-for-environmental-testing-ahead-of-mission-to-the-moon/) but it looks like the spacecraft may not launch this year either. In a June [interview](https://payloadspace.com/an-interview-with-ray-allensworth/) with Payload Space, Firefly’s spacecraft program director Ray Allensworth had said the company was targeting November 16 to launch Blue Ghost. However, Firefly didn’t note any target launch period alongside the lander’s mention in their [latest funding announcement](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-aerospace-closes-oversubscribed-175-million-series-d-capital-raise-with-new-lead-investor/), which suggests that perhaps more testing and/or pre-launch preparations may be needed. Blue Ghost aims to descend in the [lava plains of Mare Crisium](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-70/#firefly-selects-goldilocks-landing-site-for-its-first-moon-mission) at 18.56°N, 61.81°E, carrying [10 NASA sci-tech payloads](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-firefly-aerospace-for-artemis-commercial-moon-delivery-in-2023) primarily to study the lunar environment. The mission will see NASA’s first attempt to get a [GPS lock from the Moon](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2021/nasa-explores-upper-limits-of-global-navigation-systems-for-artemis). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/09/firefly-blue-ghost-first-clps-lander.jpg) The fully assembled ‘Blue Ghost’ lunar lander. [Image: Firefly](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-aerospace-shipped-blue-ghost-for-environmental-testing-ahead-of-mission-to-the-moon/) - Jeff Foust [reports](https://spacenews.com/intuitive-machines-calls-for-infrastructure-first-focus-for-artemis/) that the launch of Intuitive Machines’ [second and third Moon landing missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-189/) part of CLPS have been delayed as well, specifically from Q4 2024 and Q4 2025 to February 2025 and early 2026 respectively. ## Opaque orbital operations ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/11/lro-illustration.jpg) Illustration of the LRO spacecraft orbiting our Moon. [Image: NASA / GSFC / Chris Meaney](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/images/lithos/LRO%20litho1%5Ffinal.pdf) Jeff Foust also [noted and confirmed](https://spacenews.com/intuitive-machines-calls-for-infrastructure-first-focus-for-artemis/) that NASA has transferred operations of the high-resolution camera on its [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lro/about/) (LRO) and that of its ultra-sensitive [ShadowCam](https://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/about) imager on South Korea’s [KPLO](https://jatan.space/kplo/) lunar orbiter over to Intuitive Machines. To that end, [Mark Robinson](https://search.asu.edu/profile/957914), the principal investigator of both instruments, has accepted a position at Intuitive Machines. This move of operations of two key NASA instruments at the Moon happened two months ago in September but the agency has not publicly announced the same even now. It also nets Intuitive Machines at least $9 million as part of a multiple milestone-based NASA contract that’s initially cumulatively worth [$150 million](https://payloadspace.com/intuitive-machines-will-build-a-lunar-communications-network/) for launching several satellites to provide [navigation and communications](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-185/) services to US [Artemis](https://jatan.space/tag/artemis/) and [CLPS](https://jatan.space/tag/clps/) hardware at the Moon. As such, NASA and Intuitive Machines disappointingly [continue to be opaque](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-195/#a-sino-suit-for-luna) in communicating developments related to the agency’s lunar orbital infrastructure plans, and is a trait the duo seem to have gotten comfortable with after having [skewed the success criteria](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-166/) of Intuitive Machines’ first lunar landing mission. ## More Moon - [Lunar Engineering 101](https://lsic.jhuapl.edu/Resources/Lunar-Engineering-101.php) is a NASA-backed suite of videos created by lunar scientists and space technology experts to help engineers build for the Moon. Put together based on knowledge gained and lessons learned from past missions, it presents “key characteristics of lunar surface environments—including reduced gravity, radiation, dust, regolith, moonquakes, and others—along with their respective challenges and hardware design considerations to ensure system function and reliability.” - On November 13, Denmark [became the 48th country](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-welcomes-denmark-as-newest-artemis-accords-signatory/) and 21st European nation to sign the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords) for cooperative lunar exploration. --- *Many thanks to* [***The Orbital Index***](https://orbitalindex.com)*,* [***Gurbir Singh***](https://gurbir.co.uk) *and* [***Frank Genin***](https://www.amazon.com/dp/2958293009) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to publish this curated community resource for free,* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*.* ### Moon Monday #201: Scientists can now study exotic Chang’e 6 lunar samples URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-201/ Last updated: 2025-08-27T05:15:29.000Z *A note before we start: The* [*Internet Archive*](https://web.archive.org) *was* [*severely attacked*](https://www.theverge.com/2024/10/14/24269741/internet-archive-online-read-only-data-breach-outage) *recently. The non-profit’s free service archives public information from organizations worldwide, including those from space agencies and companies. Crucially, it enables journalistic access to dead or modified webpages. If any of the thousands of webpages I’ve linked to on* [*Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) *disappear or morph at some point, you’ll almost certainly find an original copy on the Wayback Machine. While not a full-proof replacement of personal archiving, ensuring maximal public access to once public information is more important than ever for a democratic existence. I’ve donated to the Internet Archive, and I think* [*you should too*](https://archive.org/donate/)*.* ## Scientists can now apply to study exotic lunar farside samples brought to Earth by Chang’e 6 ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/09/materials-within-chang-e-6-lunar-farside-samples.jpg) A close look at scooped lunar farside samples brought to Earth by China’s Chang’e 6 mission. They contain a diversity of stony, volcanic, impact-induced and glassy materials. [Image: Chunlai Li, et al.](https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwae328) CNSA has [opened up the first round](http://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4219642/content.html) of applications for scientists to study the first ever samples from [our Moon’s farside](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/), which were [picked up in June](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-179/) this year by China’s [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) mission and subsequently [brought to Earth](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-182/). Relatedly, CNSA also recently [released lander instrument data](https://moon.bao.ac.cn/web/enmanager/noticelist?detailId=2025940)—specifically from the landing & panoramic cameras, the mineral spectrometer, and the ground penetrating radar. The 1.93 kilograms of Chang’e 6 lunar soil and rocks sampled from the large [Apollo crater](https://jatan.space/peak-ringed-apollo-crater/) are scientifically even more valuable than the [nearside Chang’e 5 samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-156/) since scientists expect it will help [solve some long-standing mysteries](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2024/pdf/1873.pdf) about the [origin](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/), [evolution](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/), and [volcanic past](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2024.118737) of Luna. Most crucially, the Chang’e 6 samples will help scientists understand why our Moon’s farside structure, composition, and landforms are [enigmatically different](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) than those on the nearside, something which has ties to better understanding the [evolution of our Solar System](https://jatan.space/solar-system-history-101/). The first round of applications to study Chang’e 6 samples is open to Chinese research institutions, who need to apply by November 22\. Applicants can [check high-level sample properties](https://moon.bao.ac.cn/moonSampleMode/index.html) such as weight, particle sizes, and composition before sending in their proposals. To maximize scientific return from the samples, scientists from across China [have been gathering in seminars and workshops](http://www.igg.cas.cn/hejl/hzxm/202406/t20240609%5F7186664.html) to identify key themes to tackle. As per CNSA’s regulations, international researchers can send proposals to study mission samples two years after they’ve been brought to Earth. However, just like [the case of Chang’e 5 samples](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3218138/chinas-lunar-sample-gifts-france-russia-have-scientists-over-moon), foreign researchers can collaborate with Chinese researchers to study Chang’e 6 samples as part of a team. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/09/chang-e-6-lander-on-the-moon.jpg) A panorama from the Chang’e 6 lander on the Moon’s farside, showing one of its legs and the scoop sampling arm near its surface digs. [Image: CNSA / CLEP](https://x.com/SegerYu/status/1798688466026594539) The opening up of Chang’e 6 samples for domestic research comes after the National Astronomical Observatories of Chinese Academy of Sciences ([NAOC](https://english.nao.cas.cn)) completed storing the [1.61 kilograms](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ri9dYqLO5m8) of scooped mission samples in September. The process took NAOC scientists about two months because it involved carefully unsealing, size-sorting, characterizing, and then safely storing the samples in more than a dozen curated bottles, which now sit in a NAOC lab shelf right below rows of Chang’e 5 samples. As part of that process, Chinese scientists also [determined the broad physical, chemical, and mineral characteristics](https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwae328) of the Chang’e 6 samples. As was expected, the samples indeed are [very different](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FaciEXFhRUk) than those fetched by past missions from the Moon’s nearside. The farside material as collected by Chang’e 6 has a [whiter appearance](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ri9dYqLO5m8), is less dense and more porous, contains more rocky highland material rather than bits and pieces from volcanic plains, and lacks heavier minerals. CNSA [had also said](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ri9dYqLO5m8) in September that for the remainder 325 grams of Chang’e 6 samples, which were drilled from below the lunar surface, scientists will need up to two more months to prepare, sort, and store them, after which the mission samples at large will be made available for research. And so that process is now presumably done. The drilled samples were to be segregated into 100 layers—one for every 1.5 centimeters of depth as found on the Moon. > **P.S.** The Chang’e 6 mission itself is not done yet. Continuing the trend, [CNSA repurposed its orbiter module](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-193/) to enable future deep space missions. --- *Many thanks to* [***Astrolab***](https://astrolab.space)*,* [***Bethany Ehlmann***](https://ehlmann.caltech.edu) *and* [***Tim Glotch***](https://www.stonybrook.edu/commcms/geosciences/people/%5Ffaculty/glotch.php) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource,* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*.* --- ## New round of Chang’e 5 sample studies, gifting part of the Moon, and Sino-US cooperation ![](https://cdn.magicpages.co/spaceimpact.mymagic.page/2024/05/20210107_CE5C0000YJYX03501GP_3.jpg) A close look at a Chang’e 5 lunar sample, labelled CE5C0000YJYX03501GP. [Image: CNSA](https://moon.bao.ac.cn/moonSampleMode/infoDetail.html?sampleId=CE5C0000YJYX03501GP) In parallel to the opening up of Chang’e 6 sample research, CNSA has also started [accepting the eighth batch of applications](http://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4219642/content.html) for studying the [geologically young](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-50/) volcanic lunar samples brought to Earth by the [Chang’e 5](https://jatan.space/change-5-landing-site/) mission in 2020\. With a closing application date of November 22, these proposals can come from international researchers too. Among its [many discoveries](https://doi.org/10.11728/cjss2024.04.2024-yg10), Chang’e 5 samples have helped scientists [determine truer ages](https://english.cas.cn/newsroom/research%5Fnews/phys/202202/t20220214%5F300776.shtml) of lunar features, refine [the nature of impacts over the last two billion years](https://doi.org/10.59717/j.xinn-geo.2023.100014) in the inner Solar System, and shed light on [young lunar volcanism](https://english.cas.cn/newsroom/research%5Fnews/earth/202409/t20240904%5F684803.shtml)—which [opened up](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-04107-9) more [enigmas](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-04119-5). Banking on its achievement and value, China continues leveraging the Chang’e 5 samples to forge or enhance global partnerships. Last week, China’s leader Xi Jinping [gifted Italy](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy/article/3285899/chinese-leader-xi-jinping-gives-moon-dust-visiting-italian-president-sergio-mattarella) a gram of Chang’e 5 samples for scientific studies. In 2022, CNSA [exchanged](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3218138/chinas-lunar-sample-gifts-france-russia-have-scientists-over-moon) 1.5 grams of Chang’e 5 samples with Roscosmos for Soviet [Luna 16](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1970-072A) ones. Ling Xin [reported in April 2023](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3218138/chinas-lunar-sample-gifts-france-russia-have-scientists-over-moon) that China gifted France 1.5 grams of Chang’e 5 samples, owing to their decades-long cooperation in space. Small amounts of Chang’e samples are also regularly on display at museums, conferences, and [notable public events](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465652/n6465653/c10630942/content.html). [As of last year](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3218138/chinas-lunar-sample-gifts-france-russia-have-scientists-over-moon), less than 100 grams of the 1.73 kilograms of Chang’e 5 samples had been analyzed by more than a hundred research groups across China, many of which had international collaborators from several European countries, Japan, Australia, and even the US (as is possible multilaterally). Similar to how NASA has managed Apollo samples, China is saving the bulk of Chang’e 5 samples for future studies with ever-advancing instruments. CNSA will do the same for Chang’e 6 too. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f99d3fe95-4efd-4ea7-8763-be93018ac44b_1080x583-jpeg.jpg) A panorama shot by the Chang’e 5 lander, which shows its robotic sampling arm and its scoop marks in lunar regolith to the right. Image: CNSA / CLEP Late last year NASA [secured a remarkable exception](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-156/) from the US Congress for the country’s researchers to be able to apply to access and study Chang’e 5 samples despite policy and legal barriers. US scientists then [applied for the same](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3258530/china-hear-pitches-nasa-scientist-other-researchers-study-change-5-lunar-samples) in April this year, including a proposal by lunar geochemist and Apollo sample curator [Ryan Zeigler](https://ares.jsc.nasa.gov/people/bios/ryan-a-zeigler/). Recent reporting partly based on [comments by the NASA administrator](https://www.reuters.com/technology/space/moon-sample-talks-show-space-engagement-by-rivals-us-china-2024-10-23/) Bill Nelson imply that the US and China are [supposedly yet to finalize terms](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3285725/hopes-dim-china-and-us-space-agencies-exchange-moon-samples) for US researchers to access Chang’e 5 samples and additionally potentially exchange lunar samples between NASA and CNSA. The only two reports to that end are based on too many undisclosed sources so it’s better to wait for official sources to clarify the progress and outcomes. US scientists—and I, the non-scientist non-US lunar enthusiast—hope that NASA might be able to extend the US Congressional exception to study Chang’e 6 samples too. However, shortly after the Chang’e 6 samples arrived on Earth, both [Victoria Bela](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3268324/lunar-rock-samples-chinese-space-agency-calls-us-remove-obstacles-cooperation) and the [Associated Press](https://apnews.com/article/china-change-6-moon-samples-probe-nasa-c8aa729d0e026349231a05914f9f69f4) reported CNSA’s Deputy Director Bian Zhigang stating that the US remove legal obstacles like the Wolf Amendment to allow for regular Sino-US cooperation in space. The incoming US administration might make this prospect even more difficult. [More China and Luna updates 🚀](https://jatan.space/tag/china-and-luna/) ## More Moon - Thailand is [considering launching](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=6311) national Moon missions through a collaboration with ispace Japan. This step represents Thailand’s growing interest in [exploring our Moon](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) through strategic partnerships. Previously in April, the country [joined](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465652/n6465653/c10497120/content.html) the China-led long-term project to create a scientific base on the Moon’s south pole called the [International Lunar Research Station](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/) (ILRS). This move came after Thailand’s largest space research organization, the National Astronomical Research Institute of Thailand (NARIT), [joined](https://www.narit.or.th/index.php/en-news/3552-en20231005-01) ILRS in September 2023\. As Ling Xin has [reported](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3237651/thai-lunar-weather-instrument-set-join-chinas-change-7-mission-moon), NARIT will fly a three-kilogram instrument duo on China’s upcoming [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#the-instrumental-and-increasingly-international-7) orbiter to study [solar storms](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) and cosmic rays respectively. China aims to launch the Chang’e 7 lander and orbiter in 2026\. The NARIT instruments will mark Thailand’s first study of Luna. NARIT also operates the Thai National Radio Telescope, which China might use to monitor spacecraft trajectories of ILRS missions in the future. --- 📡 **I’d like to thank and give a shoutout to* [***Ling Xin**](https://www.linkedin.com/in/ling-xin-81a0905b/) *for her* [**great coverage*](https://www.scmp.com/author/ling-xin) *of China’s lunar science progress over the years, particularly on CNSA’s programmatic developments to that end.* --- - In a [talk at the Raman Research Institute](https://www.youtube.com/live/N928KnCndoE), former ISRO Chief A. S. Kiran Kumar showed a new behind-the-scenes video on the [making of Chandrayaan 3](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lwVmeqRibKk). His slides noted the year 2035 as the notional target for ISRO’s ambition to send an Indian crew around the Moon and back, a high point in an upcoming [series of increasingly complex lunar missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/) starting with [Chandrayaan 4](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-194/) sample return. - **Related:** [*The approach behind Chandrayaan 3’s triumphant touchdown on the Moon*](https://jatan.space/kalpana-kalahasti-chandrayaan-3-nature/) - Next week I’ll be attending the ISRO-affiliated PRL institute’s [MetMeSS planetary sample science conference](https://metmess2024.ipsa-asso.in) in Ahmedabad, India. If you’re around, [get in touch](https://jatan.space/connect) to chat all things space samples. 🤓 ### Moon Monday #200: Thank you, a crewed Chinese rover, Artemis updates, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-200/ Last updated: 2024-11-04T17:07:00.000Z *Welcome to the 200th edition of my* [*Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) *blog+newsletter!* 🚀🌗 *I’d like to take this moment to highlight four things working on Moon Monday has enabled:* 1. *An extensive* [*4-year archive*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) *of curated and contextualized global lunar exploration developments, with embedded* [*links to everything*](https://jatan.space/i-write-for-you/)*. All editions are completely free to access, with no ads.* 2. *Moon Monday now has more than 8200 subscribers worldwide, majority of which are planetary scientists and engineers, personnel at national space agencies, executives at space companies, and fellow writers & journalists. Many have become friends, including some people I’ve long admired.* 3. *Moon Monday has sustained* [*independent writing*](https://jatan.space/about) *with support from* [*several organizations*](https://jatan.space/about/#sponsors-and-supporters) *and* [*dozens of individuals*](https://jatan.space/support)*, enabled by a transparently run sponsorships program whose* [*terms are public*](https://jatan.space/ethics/) *and in the inboxes of thousands of subscribers.* 4. *Moon Monday and the great leveler that is independent web publishing have led me to places I never thought I’d be at:* 1. *Delivered* [*an invited talk*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-163/#speaking-at-esa) *at ESA, ESTEC in Netherlands.* 2. *Got* [*quoted in a Nature Editorial*](https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-02685-4)*.* 3. *Moon Monday is featured as a resource on space community websites of* [*Lunar-L*](https://www3.nd.edu/~cneal/Lunar-L)*,* [*NextGen*](https://nextgenlunar.space/resources)*,* [*Centauri Dreams*](https://www.centauri-dreams.org)*, and more.* 4. *Delivered the “*[*Early Career Featured Presentation*](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/leag2023/technical%5Fprogram/?session%5Fno=104)*” at the NASA-backed* [*LEAG*](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag)*’s 2023 annual meet.* 5. *I’ll be speaking at the* [*Galaxy Forum*](https://galaxyforum.org/galaxy-forum-china-2024-hainan/) *in China this December about India’s collaborative crewed lunar exploration plans.* *It’s truly gratifying to be able to write Moon Monday as the world’s only such resource and serve space communities worldwide. *Thank you so much* to every single one of you who reads my labor of lunar love, to those who have provided feedback and shared editions, and to all supporters in every form.* 💛 *If you’d like to help sustain and flourish my flagship writing, kindly* [*sponsor Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/support) *as an organization or individual.* 🌙 [Email me: hey@jatan.space](mailto:hey@jatan.space) To our Moon, – [**Jatan**](https://jatan.space/about) ## China roves forward on crewed Moon landing plans ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/11/china-crewed-lunar-rover-prototype.jpg) Illustration of a Chinese lunar rover prototype capable of carrying two astronauts. [Image: CMSEO](https://www.cmse.gov.cn/xwzx/202410/t20241028%5F55835.html) On October 29, the China Manned Space Engineering Office (CMSEO) [announced](https://www.cmse.gov.cn/xwzx/202410/t20241028%5F55834.html) the selection of [two competing proposals](http://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4216269/content.html) from CAST and SAST respectively to develop prototypes of a crewed lunar rover for the country’s ambitious [first human Moon landing mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/) end of decade. Lin Xiqiang, a spokesperson for the China Manned Space Agency (CMSA), added via the parent organization [CASC’s release](http://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4216269/content.html) that China’s [fourth batch of astronauts](https://spacenews.com/china-selects-new-batch-of-astronauts-with-an-eye-on-the-moon/)—10 unspecified people selected in June—will also train for crewed lunar missions other than for stays at China’s Earth-orbiting Tiangong space station. The training will include conducting geological surveys and mock missions using prototypes and variants of China’s recently unveiled [lunar spacesuits](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-195/#a-sino-suit-for-luna). Geology training is a useful skill to inspect samples on the Moon and to help scientists in mission operations identify ones to bring to Earth for detailed studies. Xiqiang also noted the following regarding progress towards China’s first crewed Moon landing: > In addition, the overall plan for pre-launch flight tests as well as the scientific research objectives and payloads for the first manned lunar mission has been basically finalized. Ground systems including the launch site, telemetry and control communications, and the landing site are being developed and constructed. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/11/cmsa-lunar-spacesuit-prototype.jpg) A suited person demoing China’s lunar spacesuit prototype. [Image: CMSA / CCTV / CMS](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UUH5YyRPPXE) Coming back to the crewed rover for the mission, it was in May 2023 that CMSA [solicited industry proposals](https://english.news.cn/20230529/d072333c56424753bec141dc75c35b67/c.html) for it. The requirements are that two astronauts should be able to drive the rover up to 10 kilometers on the Moon from their landed site. That’s more than the range of the [Lunar Roving Vehicle](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/apollo%5Flrv.html) (LRV) driven by Apollo astronauts. Albeit it does fall short of the 20-kilometer peak the upcoming US Artemis [Lunar Terrain Vehicle](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-171/) (LTV) should be capable of. Unlike the LTV, which will be a single rover used across multiple Artemis missions, it seems that China will send a crewed rover on each landing mission like Apollo did. During China’s [first crewed Moon mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/), the astronauts might drive relatively shorter distances since the current plan is for them to return to lunar orbit after spending six hours to a few days on the surface. But after a safe technology demonstration, future missions with refined rover capabilities will explore more of the Moon’s south pole, the region where China plans to have a long term crew-robotic Moonbase called the [International Lunar Research Station](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/) (ILRS). ## Artemis updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/11/viper-rover-thermovac-testing.jpeg) NASA’s VIPER lunar rover after completing thermal vacuum testing. [Image: Anthony Colaprete / NASA](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/viper-passes-all-its-tests-but-future-still-uncertain/) - NASA’s [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) has cleared all [space environmental tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/) required before launch, [announced](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/viper-passes-all-its-tests-but-future-still-uncertain/) the mission lead Anthony Colaprete at the [2024 annual meeting](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/leag2024/technical%5Fprogram/) of the NASA-backed Lunar Exploration Analysis Group (LEAG). But the rover, intended to directly study [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) at the Moon’s south pole, [is still not launching](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-186/) as originally planned as there’s an [ongoing scramble](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-188/) to save VIPER from getting canceled against [budgetary challenges](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-192/). - Marcia Smith [reports](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-identifies-root-cause-of-orion-heat-shield-char-loss/) that following two independent investigations, NASA has identified the root cause of the unexpected damage to the [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft)’s heat shield when it was piercing through Earth’s atmosphere during 2022’s [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-i/) uncrewed Moon mission. NASA says it will not share the findings publicly until they decide on the corrective adjustments to be done for [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii), which aims to fly [four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) around the Moon and back mid-decade. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/11/artemis-iii-nine-landing-region-candidates-1.jpg) This image of the Moon’s south pole shows the nine candidate landing regions for NASA’s Artemis III crewed mission. [Image: NASA / GSFC / ASU / LRO](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-provides-update-on-artemis-iii-moon-landing-regions/) - After originally announcing [13 candidate landing zones](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-91/) in August 2022 for the upcoming [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/) crewed Moon landing mission, NASA has since solicited [community input](https://jatan.space/nasa-taps-top-scientist-for-crewed-moon-return/)—including that from the [Artemis III Geology Team](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-selects-geology-team-for-the-first-crewed-artemis-lunar-landing)—to now filter the landing regions to a [set of nine](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-provides-update-on-artemis-iii-moon-landing-regions/). This refinement is based on a continuing [balance](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-91/) of engineering constraints from multiple technological elements of Artemis as well as baseline considerations for meeting the mission’s scientific objectives. - Complementing the [extensive document](https://standards.nasa.gov/standard/nasa/nasa-std-1008) NASA published in 2021 to standardize preparation and testing of Moonbound hardware against the notoriously sticky lunar dust, the agency has now released an [updated lunar soil simulants guide](https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20240011783) following its previous version from 2010\. The aim was to summarize the fidelity—and thus effectives—of lunar soil simulants available in the US, which will help people adequately select and prepare simulants to test their Moonbound hardware on. The guide also builds on the [2022 report from JHU-APL](https://lsic.jhuapl.edu/Our-Work/Working-Groups/files/Lunar-Simulants/2022%20Lunar%20Simulants%20Assessment%20Final.pdf) which similarly summarizes properties of various US simulants. > **Also see:** [*How engineers test Moon landers on Earth*](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-moon-landers/) --- *Many thanks to* [***Off Planet Research***](https://offplanetresearch.com)*,* [***Arun Raghavan***](https://arunraghavan.net/) *and* [***Gordon Roesler***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/gordon-roesler-687a0426) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource,* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*.* --- ## A Jupiter update? ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/11/esa-juice-at-jupiter-1.jpg) An artist’s impression of ESA’s JUICE spacecraft at Jupiter. [Image: ESA / NASA / DLR](https://sci.esa.int/web/juice/-/59334-exploring-jupiter) Just like how Earth observation satellites image the Moon [to calibrate](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2024/09/Sentinel-2C%5Fcaptures%5Fstunning%5Fglimpse%5Fof%5Fthe%5FMoon) the performance of their imagers, spacecraft on their way to explore other Solar System objects do so too at times. Most recently, when ESA’s Jupiter-bound [JUICE spacecraft](https://jatan.space/esa-juice-mission-to-jupiter-moons/) flew past our Moon in mid-August, the mission operations team activated JUICE’s radar system to [characterize and calibrate its detections](https://www.asi.it/en/2024/10/juices-rime-radar-pings-the-moon-and-listens-to-earth/) against a well known airless object—🌝—before it can study the Jovian icy moons. Lorenzo Bruzzone, principal investigator of JUICE’s radar instrument, said: > The measurements collected will also allow us to tune the processing algorithms to reduce the effects of radio frequency interference generated by the probe’s subsystems in the radar band. When NASA’s Cassini spacecraft flew by the Moon in 1999, en route to Saturn, its infrared spectrometer [detected water-bearing minerals](https://web.archive.org/web/20100224220322/https://www.nasa.gov/topics/moonmars/features/clark1.html) at most lunar latitudes, with higher concentrations towards the poles. However, the team didn’t publish their findings until Chandrayaan 1 [discovered water on the Moon](https://jatan.space/how-nasa-and-chandrayaan-discovered-water-on-the-moon/) a decade later. ## More Moon - ISRO has formally started terrestrial testing of what living on the Moon and Mars could be like for astronauts via [baseline analog missions](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/indias-first-mars-moon-analogue-mission-kicks-off-in-ladakhs-space-like-terrain/articleshow/114842575.cms) in dry, mountainous Ladakh. - Look up to our Moon, and you’ll see [giant craters](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-lunar-craters/), dark [volcanic plains](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar%5Fmare), and bright [rocky highlands](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/images/1252). Notice though how filling many of the gaps between them are smooth, bright, low lying areas. These are called “lunar light plains”. Remote sensing measurements from lunar orbit suggest that they have distinct soil characteristics. A bunch of scientists decided to more [thoroughly map these features](https://doi.org/10.3847/PSJ/ad79ef) and revealed that 13% of our Moon is covered in lunar light plains, more than previously thought, and that most of them formed from ejecta deposited by large impacts. Relatedly, Purdue University is [hiring a postdoc](https://careers.purdue.edu/job/Post-Doc-Research-Associate/34664-en%5FUS/) to discern how distal ejecta from impacts shape the Moon’s surface. - Interlune, one of the several [lunar water startups](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-196/#lunar-water-startups), is [hiring a planetary scientist](https://www.interlune.space/open-positions/planetary-scientist) with expertise in lunar regolith and soil simulants to provide input in developing efficient resource extraction and excavation technologies. The company, founded over three years ago by several former Blue Origin employees, recently [raised $15.6 million](https://techcrunch.com/2024/02/02/secretive-moon-startup-led-by-ex-blue-origin-leaders-raises-new-tranche-of-funding) to that end. ### I write for you, not social media or SEO URL: https://jatan.space/i-write-for-you/ Last updated: 2024-10-29T13:21:53.000Z Many of my headlines make little sense to Google, Web Search Engines, and for SEO. For example, I titled [Moon Monday #199](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-199/) as “Not the fault in our stars but certainly stressful faults on our Moon”. Most likely, mainstream social media algorithms don’t care much for such headlines either. Screw them all! Most people don’t write headlines for fun anymore. Or even people. I write [Moon Monday](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) on [this blog](https://jatan.space/about) for my human readers, not bots. As long as you like it, I like it. 🌝 In fact, I do anti-SEO. And readers have voted with clicks to prove they dig it. Each of my articles have several dozens of links to cite everything and credit everyone. I want my readers to visit other websites, sources, and people to not only verify information but seek more. Unlike most media publications, including high-profile ones, I don’t care about my website’s “bounce rates” and so I don’t do this ritual of only linking to my own posts. My blog+newsletter stats consistently show that external links in every Moon Monday edition get hundreds upon hundreds of clicks. Here’s an example from [Moon Monday #190](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-190/) of the five most clicked links out of a total of 79: ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/10/moon-monday-190-newsletter-link-clicks-1.jpg) The top five links in [Moon Monday #190](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-190/) were cumulatively clicked over two thousand times via the newsletter alone. These are numbers to be proud of, not avoid. So many of you have written to me over the years to say how you find my linking to be very useful, especially because it can cover additional information I may not. And so with this whole process, you get everything lunar globally in [one place](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday). This is what matters. ### Moon Monday #199: Not the fault in our stars but certainly stressful faults on our Moon URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-199/ Last updated: 2025-09-01T10:42:29.000Z *Yes, the headline makes little sense to Google, Web Search Engines, and for SEO. And most likely mainstream social media algorithms don’t care much for it either. Screw them all! And* [*here’s why*](https://jatan.space/i-write-for-you/)*.* ## Study Moonquakes to not let them shake a Moonbase ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/10/rupes-recta-fault-1.jpg) Oblique view of the 110-kilometer long fault on the Moon called Rupes Recta, which separates two plains. [Image: NASA Apollo 16 / James Stuby](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rupes%5FRecta%5FBirt%5Fcrater%5FAS16-M-2486%5FASU.jpg) Both the United States and China have set ambitious goals to create a long-term habitat on the Moon’s south pole in the 2030s, respectively called the [Artemis Basecamp](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept) and the [International Lunar Research Station](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/) (ILRS). Their surface elements comprise [habitat modules](https://europeanspaceflight.com/nasa-greenlights-next-phase-of-italian-lunar-habitat-project/), [oxygen extractors](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-153/), [water ice miners](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-196/), [solar towers](https://www.universetoday.com/168014/a-tower-on-the-moon-could-provide-astronauts-with-light-power-and-guidance/), [landing pads](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-180/), and more such infrastructure pieces. The long-term stability of such habitats, and thus astronaut safety, is unintuitively tied to the fact that our Moon after [its fiery formation](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/) continues to very gradually cool down and contract. This natural process creates, in direct and indirect ways, stress-induced tectonic features on the lunar surface like [faults](https://jatan.space/a-fault-on-the-moon/), [valleys](https://jatan.space/rille-on-a-ridge-rima-ariadaeus/), and [wrinkled ridges](https://jatan.space/the-moon-has-wrinkles-dorsum-zirkel/) that can be hundreds of kilometers long. These geologically active features, combined with tidal forces from Earth, [can cause Moonquakes](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/shrinking-moon-may-be-generating-moonquakes/) in various ways. Coupled with loose soil and rock fragments, the quakes can in turn induce [landslides](https://jatan.space/landslide-on-the-moon/) in areas with slopes such as crater walls or mountains. The [Apollo Passive Seismic Network](https://web.archive.org/web/20170627080839/https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/apollo/apollo%5F16/experiments/ps/), a series of seismometers deployed by astronauts during the Apollo missions, detected over a thousand moonquakes over eight years from across hundreds of locations globally, including many originating from the lunar south pole. A [NASA-funded study](https://doi.org/10.3847/PSJ/ad1332) from January 2024 based on data from Apollo and the [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lro/) (LRO) found that the Moon’s south polar region experiences shallow moonquakes that can strongly shake the surface, and that its effects can [also affect](https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/PSJ/ad1332#psjad1332f10) rovers traversing crater slopes in and around [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/), which is where [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) deposits necessary to sustain long-term habitats are thought to exist. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/10/apollo-11-passive-seismic-experiment-buzz-aldrin.jpg) Apollo 11 astronaut Buzz Aldrin beside the solar-powered seismic experiment he just deployed. The experiment’s antenna is pointed at Earth. [Image: NASA](https://moon.nasa.gov/resources/13/apollo-11-seismic-experiment) Our Moon’s lower gravity makes experiencing quakes very different than on Earth. Lower gravity means the surface shakes more intensely than terrestrial cases. And, it takes lesser ground motion to overcome gravity’s pull and knock astronauts off their feet—who are in [spacesuits](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-195/#a-sino-suit-for-luna) which makes walking difficult anyway. Another difference is that it can take [up to several hours](https://www.space.com/moonquakes-artemis-3-hazards) for energy from lunar seismic events to completely dissipate. This alone could degrade lunar structures and materials faster than on Earth, and is something that will need to be considered for maintenance. Choosing suitable locations for Moonbases thus involve knowing seismic hotspots. Deploying seismometers on the Moon isn’t just about safe exploration. Data from [Apollo seismometers](https://web.archive.org/web/20170627080839/https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/apollo/apollo%5F16/experiments/ps/), coupled with data from Apollo’s [retroreflectors](https://web.archive.org/web/20160727220755/https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/apollo/apollo%5F15/experiments/lrr) and [magnetometers](https://web.archive.org/web/20160306013050/http://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/apollo/apollo%5F15/experiments/lsm/), have helped scientists infer that our Moon’s core shouldn’t be larger than 900 kilometers. That means the lunar core, solid and liquid combined, represents only about 25 percent of the Moon’s radius—in contrast to about 50 percent for other terrestrial bodies like Earth. Understanding the Moon’s seismic nature will also [help advance building gravitational detectors](https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.129.071102) on there in the future. As such, owning to both safe exploration and good science, we need more missions to study moonquakes and its associated phenomena globally. Here are all the Moon missions that have recently contributed to or hope to contribute to said end. - Using the 5-meter resolution stereo camera on ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) and LRO [laser altimeter](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lro/lola/) data, scientists [better mapped the structure](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/353212675%5FStrainStress%5FEvaluation%5Fof%5FDorsa%5FGeikie%5Fusing%5FChandrayaan-2%5FTerrain%5FMapping%5FCamera-2%5Fand%5FOther%5FData) of the 220-kilometer long Dorsa Geikie wrinkled ridge on the Moon. This gave them better insight into the crustal stresses in the region, when the feature formed, and how our Moon shrinks over time. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/10/ch2-orbiter-dorsa-geikei-wrinkled-ridge.jpg) 3D view of a wrinkled ridge on the Moon generated from images captured by the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter’s Terrain Mapping Camera. [Image: ISRO / Amitabh et al.](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2020/pdf/1127.pdf) - The seismometer on the [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) lander, called Instrument for Lunar Seismic Activity (ILSA), was the first since the Apollo era decades ago to measure moonquakes ([paper](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2024.116285), [archived PDF](https://archive.org/details/identification-and-preliminary-characterisation-of-signals-recorded-2024-ic)). In the 12 days of its operations from August 24, 2023, ILSA measured 50 seismic events, each lasting several seconds. While ILSA was not meant to detect prolonged deep and shallow moonquakes due to the mission’s design life being just one lunar day, instead of revealing insights about the Moon’s interior it’s helping scientists better understand [micrometeorite impacts](https://jatan.space/the-tiniest-of-impact-craters/) on the surface at high latitudes. The amount and rate of such impacts is not well constrained at the moment but is necessary to ensure safety of future human lunar polar explorers by designing protective suits and habitats accordingly. Furthermore, ILSA detected 200 signals correlated to known activities of either the lander, its instruments, or [traverses](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/#the-surface-mission) of the [Chandrayaan 3 rover](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/#a-lunar-region-never-explored). Such data will help engineers design safe lunar polar infrastructure. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/10/chandrayaan-3-lander-pragyaan-rover-ilsa.jpg) The deployed ILSA seismometer from the Chandrayaan 3 lander. Image: ISRO - Firefly’s [second Moon lander](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-picks-firefly-aerospace-for-robotic-delivery-to-far-side-of-moon), aiming to touchdown on [the lunar farside](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) in 2026 as part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), will [commercially carry](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-announces-agreement-with-fleet-space-to-deliver-payload-to-the-moon) a seismometer called SPIDER from Australia-based Fleet Space Technologies. In July 2023, the Australian Space Agency funded Fleet Space with $2.4 million as part of its [Moon to Mars Demonstrator Grants](https://business.gov.au/grants-and-programs/moon-to-mars-initiative-demonstrator-mission-grants/grant-recipients) program to develop SPIDER. In similar vein to the Chandrayaan 3 seismometer, SPIDER will operate for one lunar day and help refine micrometeorite impact rates on the Moon. SPIDER might also offer scientists clues on the structure and nature of the immediate subsurface crust, including hints of resources such as buried [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). - The [Draper-led, ispace-developed CLPS lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-87/), hoping to launch to the Moon’s farside in 2026, will host [two distinct lunar-night-surviving seismometers](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2022/pdf/1576.pdf) from NASA and CNES respectively. Called the “Farside Seismic Suite” (FSS), they will operate for more than four months to help scientists better understand the [Moon’s internal structure and how it evolved](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/), and know the amount and rate of micrometeorite impacts on the lunar farside in particular—for which we lack data. Both seismometers [recently passed](https://www.nasa.gov/solar-system/moon/nasa-to-measure-moonquakes-with-help-from-insight-mars-mission/) the slew of [space launch and environmental tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/) and so are ready to fly to Luna. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/10/farside-seismic-suite-draper-lander-science-clps.jpg) Science goals of the Farside Seismic Suite flying aboard the Draper-led, ispace-developed CLPS Moon landing mission. Image: [Mark Panning, et al.](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2022/pdf/1576.pdf) - The upcoming Chinese robotic missions of [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#the-instrumental-and-increasingly-international-7) and [Chang’e 8](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/#prepare-for-crew-and-double-down-with-mission-eight) as well NASA’s crewed [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/) mission will deploy seismometers specifically on the Moon’s south pole. The one on Artemis III will be called [Lunar Environment Monitoring Station](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lunarsurface2020/pdf/5022.pdf) (LEMS). Together, these seismometers will not only help scientists better understand the structure and nature of the south polar region’s crust and mantle but also determine the [rate of seismic activity](https://doi.org/10.3847/PSJ/ad1332) and micrometeorite impacts on the lunar poles on timescales of several months—and quite possibly more. All of these missions and more that join the effort in the future can act as efficient enablers in building the proposed [Lunar Geophysical Network](https://doi.org/10.3847/PSJ/ac0f82) (LGN) of seismic and other instruments, something which has been [recommended in the latest Decadal survey](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-74/) which presents the US research community’s planetary science priorities. LGN seismometers placed across the Moon doing simultaneous detections over years and allowing effective source pinpointing will provide us with a clear picture of the Moon’s entire interior, which is our Solar System’s most pristine example of how insides of planets form and differentiate. Studying moonquakes and the lunar interior thus helps us understand the origin and evolution of multiple solid surface planets & moons across our Solar System and beyond. --- *Many thanks to* [***Open Lunar Foundation***](https://www.openlunar.org)*,* [***David Draper***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/david-draper-78116b95/)*,* [***Gurbir Singh***](https://gurbir.co.uk) *and* [***Jim Singh***](https://moonsummits.carrd.co) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource,* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*.* --- ## Mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/08/artemis-ii-ground-systems-preparation-progress.jpg) Progress in preparing ground infrastructure and systems for the SLS rocket launch of the Artemis II crewed Moon mission. [Image: NASA](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2024/08/14/nasa-kennedy-team-completes-artemis-emergency-egress-system-demonstration/) NASA’s [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii) mission intended to fly [four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) in an [Orion](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) capsule around the Moon and back mid-decade is progressing slowly. Justin Davenport of NASASpaceFlight has provided a [good summary](https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2024/10/sls-update/) of the progress on the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/reference/space-launch-system/) that will blast Orion to space: > Artemis II’s core stage, solid rocket booster (SRB) segments, and launch vehicle stage adapter (LVSA) are at the Kennedy Space Center (KSC) and being stored prior to stacking. The core stage and all four RS-25 engines arrived on the barge Pegasus to the KSC turn basin as a unit on July 23 this year while the SRB segments arrived by train to KSC from Utah on Sept. 25, 2023. > > The LVSA, fabricated at the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) in Alabama, arrived aboard Pegasus at KSC on July 29, six days after the core stage’s arrival. The core stage is in the VAB transfer aisle and has had its mass and center of gravity measured. The SRB segments are in the rotation, processing, and surge facility (RPSF) while the LVSA is in the VAB’s high bay 4. > > The ICPS-2 upper stage, based on the Delta IV second stage, is in the ULA Delta Ops Center at the Cape Canaveral Space Force Station, while the Orion launch abort system (LAS) is in the launch abort system facility at KSC. The only part of the Artemis II SLS launch vehicle that still needs to be delivered is the Orion stage adapter, currently at MSFC, that connects the ICPS to the Orion service module. Artemis II’s launch is being delayed due to the pending resolution of [Orion’s heat shield issues](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/paul-hill-leading-irb-on-orions-heat-shield/) and [slow preparations](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/gao-lack-of-ground-system-schedule-margin-adds-to-likelihood-of-artemis-ii-delay/) of SLS’ ground systems. On that latter front, teams successfully tested the [upgraded environmental control system](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2024/06/10/nasa-kennedy-teams-test-upgraded-environmental-control-system-for-artemis-ii/) on the SLS launcher in June. Then there was a [successful test](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2024/07/19/nasa-kennedy-teams-complete-water-flow-tests-for-artemis-ii-mission/) of the launch-noise-suppressing [water deluge system](https://images.nasa.gov/details/KSC-20231024-MH-CSH01-0001-Artemis%5FII%5FWater%5FDeluge%5FTest%5F39%5FB-M1718) in July. A major aspect of the [emergency escape system](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-2/artemis-emergency-egress-system-emphasizes-crew-safety/) was [demonstrated](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2024/08/14/nasa-kennedy-team-completes-artemis-emergency-egress-system-demonstration/) in August. More such escape tests will follow, including one with the mission crew before launch. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/10/astrolab-flip-rover-iac-2024.jpg) Astrolab’s FLIP rover model at the International Astronautical Congress (IAC) in Milan. [Image: Jeff Foust / SpaceNews](https://spacenews.com/astrolab-unveils-smaller-lunar-rover/) Jeff Foust [reports](https://spacenews.com/astrolab-unveils-smaller-lunar-rover/) that Astrolab (a Moon Monday sponsor) is converting a scaled down test model of their crew-capable [FLEX rover](https://www.astrolab.space/flex-rover/) into a flight rover. Called FLIP, it’s heading for the Moon’s south pole mid-decade—provided Astrolab secures a lander to fly on. The \~500-kilogram rover, which has a payload capacity of 30–50 kilograms, is not that small either. It’s comparable to the \~350-kilogram JAXA-ISRO [LUPEX rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/#the-indo-japanese-rover-mission) in size. By flying FLIP, Astrolab hopes to raise the [technology readiness levels](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/somd/space-communications-navigation-program/technology-readiness-levels/) of multiple systems also part of FLEX. The latter has a payload capacity north of 1,000 kilograms, andAstrolab leads one of the three competing teams NASA selected earlier this year to mature their designs for a [versatile Lunar Terrain Vehicle](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-171/) for use across Artemis missions starting end of decade. Note that the FLIP rover’s flight is separate from the demonstration FLEX rover Astrolab has hoped to launch before a potential Artemis rover. As Jeff Foust [previously reported](https://spacenews.com/astrolab-announces-first-customers-for-commercial-lunar-rover-mission/), the demo FLEX then targeted a [2026](https://astrolab.space/news/blog/145) liftoff aboard a SpaceX Lunar Starship, and aims to carry at least eight customer payloads worth $160 million. However, the launch will likely slip because of [Starship’s gradual development](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-197/) relative to its marketed timelines. > **Also see:** 2024’s [IAC](https://www.iafastro.org/events/iac/international-astronautical-congress-2024/) in Milan had multiple major lunar updates from many countries. [Moon Monday #198](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-198/) has a rundown of them all, contextualized with earlier developments—minus the PR. 🌝[](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-198/) ## More Moon - On [October 23](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-welcomes-republic-of-cyprus-as-46th-artemis-accords-signatory/), the Republic of Cyprus signed the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords) for cooperative lunar exploration. Chile signed the Accords [two days later](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-welcomes-chile-as-newest-artemis-accords-signatory/), becoming the 47th nation in the group. Chile is the eight Latin American country to join the Accords; the others are Brazil, Colombia, Uruguay, Mexico, Argentina, Ecuador, and Peru. Of these, the latter four are [members](https://www.gob.mx/sre/en/articulos/signing-of-the-convention-establishing-alce-the-latin-american-and-caribbean-space-agency-283235) of the recently formed [Latin American and Caribbean Space Agency](https://qz.com/2114990/why-latin-america-needs-its-own-space-agency), or ALCE. Inspired in part by the model of the European Space Agency, ALCE aims to pool resources of Latin American nations to enhance their space activities and its impact. Brazil has notably abstained from the initiative. - The [2024 annual meeting](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/leag2024/technical%5Fprogram/) of the NASA-backed Lunar Exploration Analysis Group ([LEAG](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag)) starts today, October 28\. LEAG [helps](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag/reports/LEAG2022AnnualMeetingFindings%5FFINAL.pdf) the agency forge and meet its Moon exploration objectives with scientific, technical, commercial, and operational analysis. You can virtually attend LEAG’s annual meet by [registering for free](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/leag2024/registration/). ### Moon Monday #198: Suit up to walk under Moonlight, and grab global mission updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-198/ Last updated: 2024-10-21T14:57:15.000Z ## First look at the Artemis Moonwalking suit ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/10/axiom-space-axemu-artemis-suit.jpg) The AxEMU suit that Artemis III astronauts will wear on the Moon during excursions. [Image: AxiomSpace](https://www.axiomspace.com/axiom-suit) Following China’s unveiling of [its lunar spacesuit](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-195/#a-sino-suit-for-luna) last month, Axiom Space has revealed the latest design of its [AxEMU suit](https://www.axiomspace.com/axiom-suit) that astronauts will wear on NASA’s crewed [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii) lunar surface mission later this decade. The first-time unveiling of the suit exterior was done at [2024’s International Astronautical Congress](https://www.iafastro.org/events/iac/international-astronautical-congress-2024/) (IAC), and comes a year after Axiom [partnered with Italian luxury brand Prada](https://spacenews.com/axiom-space-partners-with-prada-on-artemis-spacesuits) to progress on the same. The suit remains a pacing item for Artemis III [alongside SpaceX’s Lunar Starship](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-197/). As a result, Axiom Space has [purportedly prioritized](https://arstechnica.com/space/2024/09/a-key-nasa-commercial-partner-faces-severe-financial-challenges/) the suit’s development lately over its commercial ISS-LEO human spaceflight business. Jeff Foust [reports](https://spacenews.com/axiom-and-prada-unveil-design-of-artemis-spacesuit/) that suit has not yet passed the critical design review phase—only after which manufacturing for flight can begin. The AxEMU suit provides good mobility, health monitoring, nutrition, redundancy in several systems, a back hatch to climb into and close the suit by oneself, a HD helmet cam, and even light bands. The company announced in August that it is partnering with Nokia to [add 4G/LTE communications](https://spacenews.com/axiom-space-and-nokia-partner-to-develop-high-speed-wireless-communications-for-spacesuits/) to the suit to offer astronauts a redundant communication option as well as increased bandwidth for streaming astronaut Moonwalks. The latter will help mission scientists on Earth [better inform astronauts](https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-01533-3) which rocks to select for inspection and return to Earth. Relatedly, Axiom has been testing how well the suits could allow astronauts to do [tasks related to handling samples](https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/axiom-space-tests-lunar-spacesuit-at-nasas-johnson-space-center) on the Moon. The AxEMU suit builds over NASA’s [xEMU design](https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/exploration-extravehicular-mobility-unit-xemu). NASA [made available](https://eva.jsc.nasa.gov) its xEMU research and even human resources to accelerate development of the AxEMU suits while reducing risk. NASA’s Technical Reports Server provides [development updates](https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search?keyword=xEMU&q=%22xEMU%22) surrounding the xEMU suits. However, one should note that NASA only [defined the technical and safety standards](https://sam.gov/api/prod/opps/v3/opportunities/resources/files/ecc034760ec1485b8a26b21a493de9a1/download) for the suits but doesn’t specify how to meet them so as to encourage innovative solutions. Here are some notable NASA requirements for the suits. - Support six two-person Moonwalks on the Moon’s south pole during initial Artemis missions. After astronauts come back from excursions, the suits should release less than 100 grams of potentially harmful lunar dust into the cabin for safety. - Support more and longer duration spacewalks on latter Artemis missions to enable [sustained US presence](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept) on the Moon. My note: Although currently, [just like](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-195/#a-sino-suit-for-luna) the Chinese suits, the AxEMU suits can allow astronauts to explore the lunar surface for about eight hours at a time. - Since NASA wants astronauts to venture inside polar [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) to study and sample [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/), the suits must let astronauts enter such areas and function nominally for at least 2 hours despite temperatures there persisting [well below -180 degrees Celsius](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/96). ## Moonlight in motion, and contrasting Queqiao ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/07/lunar-pathfinder-relay-service.jpg) Illustration of the Lunar Pathfinder communications satellite relaying signals between Earth and robotic hardware at the Moon. [Image: SSTL](https://www.esa.int/Applications/Navigation/Galileo%5Fwill%5Fhelp%5FLunar%5FPathfinder%5Fnavigate%5Faround%5FMoon) ESA is [advancing their Moonlight constellation](https://www.esa.int/Applications/Connectivity%5Fand%5FSecure%5FCommunications/ESA%5Fs%5FMoonlight%5Fprogramme%5FPioneering%5Fthe%5Fpath%5Ffor%5Flunar%5Fexploration) via a Telespazio-led industry consortium. This European constellation of five satellites for [lunar navigation and communications](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-185/) (navcom) will receive support from UKSA and ASI too, and majorly serve hardware on the lunar south pole region. The launch of UK’s SSTL-built, 280-kilogram [Lunar Pathfinder](https://jatan.space/nasa-esa-collaborate-on-lunar-pathfinder/) orbiter in 2026, [onboard Firefly’s second lander](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-picks-firefly-aerospace-for-robotic-delivery-to-far-side-of-moon) part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), will constitute ESA’s first Moonlight element. Pathfinder will [provide high-bandwidth communications](https://jatan.space/nasa-esa-collaborate-on-lunar-pathfinder/) to lunar hardware for eight years. ESA [signed a contract](https://www.sstl.co.uk/media-hub/latest-news/2021/sstl-signs-up-esa-as-anchor-customer-for-lunar-pat) with SSTL in September 2021 worth [$23.5 million](https://spacenews.com/esa-to-be-anchor-customer-on-commercial-lunar-satellite/) to get communications services from Lunar Pathfinder. As such, ESA will be Moonlight’s [anchor customer](https://www.esa.int/Applications/Telecommunications%5FIntegrated%5FApplications/Wanted%5Ffirms%5Fto%5Fconnect%5Fand%5Fguide%5FMoon%5Fmissions) but expects the consortium to seek lunar navcom customers globally. The remaining four Moonlight satellites will focus on providing navigation services to lunar landers, orbiters, and rovers. ESA hopes to launch them by end of decade. NASA, JAXA, and ISRO are also expected to launch lunar navcom satellites around that time. Notably, these are expected to interoperate thanks to the “[LunaNet](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/somd/space-communications-navigation-program/lunanet-interoperability-specification/)” standard the agencies have agreed to follow. As such, lunar hardware [from companies](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-195/) and agencies of these countries might be able to tap into a larger network instead of just their own. It also might be how these countries catch up with [China’s lead](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-185/) in lunar navcom. As part of a broader strategy for China’s upcoming [full-fledged navcom constellation](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-185/), the country has already deployed two communications relay orbiters: [Queqiao 1](https://www.planetary.org/articles/0519-change-4-relay-satellite) and [Queqiao 2](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-169/), which served the [Chang’e 4](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/change-4) and [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) missions respectively on the [Moon’s farside](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). Queqiao 2 will also relay communications for China’s upcoming [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#the-instrumental-and-increasingly-international-7) and [Chang’e 8](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/#prepare-for-crew-and-double-down-with-mission-eight) lunar landers, which CNSA is targeting to launch in 2026 and 2028 respectively. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/10/china-lunar-navcom-constellation-concept-1.jpg) A three-stage concept of developing a cislunar navigation and communications constellation proposed by Chinese researchers. [Image: SCMP](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3270910/chinese-scientists-propose-information-superhighway-between-earth-and-moon) Furthermore, the Queqiao 2 launch also carried two experimental lunar Tiandu CubeSats to [test and verifying technologies](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3250884/testing-testing-china-try-out-new-satellite-tech-change-6-lunar-mission) to feed into a full-scale navcom constellation. Two more Chinese craft launched earlier this year, DRO-A and DRO-B, are [in a Distant Retrograde Orbit](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-190/#china-avoids-a-lunar-mission-failure) at the Moon to specifically test laser-based navigation and timing between the Moon and the Earth-orbiting [DRO-L](https://spacenews.com/china-launches-20-satellites-on-separate-inland-and-sea-rocket-launches/#:~:text=Little%20is%20known,satellite%20around%20March.) satellite. Relatedly, in a [recent paper](https://doi.org/10.11728/cjss2024.03.2023-0129) published in the Chinese Journal of Space Science, researchers proposed that China should integrate their Queqiao lunar satellites with the existing Earthbound Tianlian ones, which notably serve, among other things, China’s Tiangong space station. As Andrew Jones had [highlighted](https://spacenews.com/china-could-develop-dual-relay-satellite-system-for-earth-moon-communications-to-reduce-geopolitical-risks/), the proposal’s driving rationale was to substantially improve surface coverage time and area for China’s upcoming ambitious [crewed lunar missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/) leading to a [full-fledged Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/). It would also allow redundancy if and when China faces ground station availability issues from its Moonbase partners across the globe. --- *Many thanks to* [***The Orbital Index***](https://orbitalindex.com)*,* [***Parvathy Prem***](https://www.parvathyprem.space) *and* [***Frank Genin***](https://www.amazon.com/dp/2958293009) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource,* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*.* --- ## Chandrayaan updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/10/chandrayaan-4-5-render.jpg) Renders of the Chandrayaan 4 and 5 spacecraft stacks. [Image: ISRO / P. Veeramuthuvel](https://www.youtube.com/live/bfV%5F1Y%5FhZDM?feature=shared&t=32835) A few more details on ISRO’s upcoming Chandrayaan missions have surfaced thanks to [the talk by Chandrayaan 3’s Project Director](https://www.youtube.com/live/bfV%5F1Y%5FhZDM?feature=shared&t=32835) Palanivel Veeramuthuvel at IAC: - The landing site for the [Chandrayaan 4](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-194/) sample return mission will be somewhere between 85–90° on the Moon’s south pole, putting it squarely in the [water-hosting](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) polar region as opposed to the [70°S for Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/#the-moment-of-touchdown). Relatedly, Chethan Kumar [recently reported](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/docking-test-likely-before-dec-15-gaganyaan-g1-vyomitra-on-1-seat-eclss-on-2nd-rocket-gets-new-cryo-stage/articleshow/114205782.cms) that Chandrayaan 4’s preliminary design review is not yet complete. - There will be not one but three SPADEX satellite docking missions in Earth orbit—first in circular orbit, then elliptical—to buy down risk for Chandrayaan 4\. As a tangent, SPADEX will also reduce risk for the [upcoming Gaganyaan human spaceflight missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/), particularly for the end-of-decade cargo flight to the International Space Station and one to India’s first space station module. - The landing site for the ISRO-JAXA [LUPEX / Chandrayaan 5](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/#the-indo-japanese-rover-mission) mission will be [89.45°S, 222.85°E](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?prjExtent=-104448.3865876%2C-58709.254334%2C71628.9957133%2C40992.6822253&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=222.85000000%2C-89.45000000&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFOOZLRfImqnioA&proj=17), which lies on an elevated ridge connecting the Shackleton and de Gerlache craters. The site has several [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) in its vicinity so the LUPEX rover can [directly study](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-111/) the nature, accessibility, and abundance of potential [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) deposits there as intended. **Also see:** [*The actual status of LUPEX / Chandrayaan 5*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-196/#the-actual-status-of-lupex) I was a [guest on Carnegie India’s podcast](https://carnegieindia.org/podcasts/interpreting-india/indias-lunar-exploration-past-present-and-future-with-jatan-mehta?lang=en¢er=india) to discuss where [India’s Moon exploration plans](https://jatan.space/tag/chandrayaan/) are heading, and what are the enablers and constraints on the increasingly complex road for ISRO to send an Indian to the Moon. Give it a listen on [Spotify](https://open.spotify.com/episode/70zj5rFL1YclkI7XmiA5JD?si=PPvRjkujQQCZzX4aNF8zRw), [Apple Podcasts](https://podcasts.apple.com/in/podcast/indias-lunar-exploration-past-present-and-future/id1476357131?i=1000673433521), [YouTube](https://music.youtube.com/watch?v=%5F-RDf7jvdMA&feature=shared), or below: **Also see:** [*Communicating space exploration via media roundtables, podcasts, and news outlets*](https://jatan.space/communicating-space-exploration-via-panels-podcasts-and-media/) ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/07/nasa-viper-rover-in-test-chamber.jpg) The VIPER rover in a test chamber. [Image: NASA](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/nasa-cancels-its-viper-moon-rover/) - To push back against the [ongoing scramble](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-188/) to save NASA’s water-studying [VIPER rover mission](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) from [getting canceled](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-186/) against [budgetary challenges](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-192/), The Planetary Society [held multiple meetings](https://www.linkedin.com/feed/update/urn:li:activity:7249853587067957248/) of lunar scientists with congressional staff—including those in the appropriations subcommittees that handle NASA’s budget—so as to vouch for reinstating the mission. The discussions were backed by a [letter](https://forms.gle/XDSzTra4NPSS1VC27) signed by more than 5,000 space experts. I hope VIPER ultimately lies where it belongs—the Moon. - On October 14, national representatives from 42 of the 45 signatories of the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords) principles [convened at the IAC](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-artemis-accords-signatories-progress-on-sustainable-exploration/) for a high-level meeting. NASA’s release of the meet states that the signees “agreed on recommendations on non-interference, interoperability, release of scientific data, long-term sustainability guidelines, and registration to advance implementing the Artemis Accords.” It’s not public what these agreements are exactly. NASA also stated that work is progressing on a database to host high-level information about all planned lunar surface missions by Accords signatories for transparency. - ispace US [says](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=6236) that after serving as communications relays for science operations of the [Draper-led Moon mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-184/) part of NASA’s [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) program targeting a 2026 launch, their Blue-Canyon-built lunar satellites Alpine and Lupine will be available commercially for other lunar hardware or hosted payloads to utilize. ispace US is providing the lander and [ground communications](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=5509) for the Draper-led CLPS mission on the [Moon’s farside](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). This mission has been a driver of capital raises for ispace but the silver lining for science is that [it hasn’t cost significant additional money to NASA](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-184/) unlike the case of several other CLPS missions including the first ones that flew this year [from Astrobotic](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-159/) and [Intuitive Machines](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-166/). - At the 2024 IAC, ESA [revealed](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Gateway%5Frefuelling%5Fmodule%5Fgets%5Fa%5Fboost) that it’s making the European [Lunar View](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Gateway%5FLunar%5FView) module intended to be attached to the upcoming NASA-led [Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/gateway) lunar orbital habitat a little over 50% larger and about that much more massive too. To be launched on the [Artemis V](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128) mission around end of decade, Lunar View will provide additional fuel for the Gateway, and host 1500 kilograms of astronaut supplies and cargo. It will also have attachment points for CSA’s [Canadarm3](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-182/#one-robotic-arm-to-rule-them-all) robotics servicing system. Lunar View is named so because its windows will provide astronauts at the Gateway breathtaking 360° views of space, our Moon, and Earth. Thales Alenia France, the prime contractor for Lunar View, is in the preliminary design phase of the project. ### Discussing India’s lunar exploration heading with Carnegie India (podcast) URL: https://jatan.space/podcast-discussing-indian-lunar-exploration-with-carnegie/ Last updated: 2024-10-19T09:21:30.000Z I was a [guest on Carnegie India’s podcast](https://carnegieindia.org/podcasts/interpreting-india/indias-lunar-exploration-past-present-and-future-with-jatan-mehta?lang=en¢er=india) Interpreting India. In light of the recently approved [Chandrayaan 4](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-194/) sample return mission, we discuss for a good 45 minutes where [India’s Moon exploration plans](https://jatan.space/tag/chandrayaan/) are heading, and what are the enablers and constraints on the increasingly complex road for ISRO to send an Indian to the Moon. Give it a listen on [Spotify](https://open.spotify.com/episode/70zj5rFL1YclkI7XmiA5JD?si=PPvRjkujQQCZzX4aNF8zRw), [Apple Podcasts](https://podcasts.apple.com/in/podcast/indias-lunar-exploration-past-present-and-future/id1476357131?i=1000673433521), [YouTube](https://music.youtube.com/watch?v=%5F-RDf7jvdMA&feature=shared), or below: --- **Also see:** [*Communicating space exploration via media roundtables, podcasts, and news outlets*](https://jatan.space/communicating-space-exploration-via-panels-podcasts-and-media/) ### Moon Monday #197: Starship Artemis, and lunar mission updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-197/ Last updated: 2024-12-20T11:18:09.000Z ## NASA’s road to the Moon inches through Starship ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/10/spacex-starship-ift-5.jpg) ****Left:** The Starship upper stage from Integrated Flight Test #5 when re-entering Earth’s atmosphere; ****Middle:** The flight 5 Booster stage auto-positioning itself to be caught by launchpad arms; ****Right:** Illustration of the SpaceX Lunar Starship on the Moon. Images: SpaceX ([1 & 2](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D-hQ9YkX8UI), [3](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon/)) SpaceX’s fifth launch of its fully integrated [Starship Super Heavy](https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/starship) rocket on October 13 was a [resounding success](https://arstechnica.com/space/2024/10/spacex-catches-returning-rocket-in-mid-air-turning-a-fanciful-idea-into-reality/), with both the Super Heavy booster and the Starship second stage completing their flight as well as soft return objectives. With this mission, SpaceX has demonstrated returning the Starship Booster [straight to the launchpad](https://x.com/SpaceX/status/1845542074609004971) and performed a [precise soft splashdown](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D-hQ9YkX8UI) of the Starship upper stage, clearing another milestone in the long path for the US to put humans on the Moon again with Artemis for which NASA [has selected](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) Starship’s lunar variant. Much like the biggest of Starship ambitions, the Lunar Starship needs a [high launch cadence for adequate in-orbit refueling](https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/11/what-nasa-wants-to-see-from-spacexs-second-starship-test-flight). A key element of that is how well SpaceX can get the heat shield to perform on the upper stage. And with this flight, the company’s engineers seem to have resolved most such issues [faced on the previous flight](https://spacenews.com/starship-survives-reentry-during-fourth-test-flight/). Next up, we need to see over a year or two how fast SpaceX refurbishes Starships, operationalizes more launchpads, and delivers payloads to Earth orbit. These ships will also need to dock with one other and exchange cryogenic fuel so as to then sufficiently fill up a Lunar Starship to go to the Moon and come back. Lori Glaze, who heads aspects of Artemis efforts at NASA, [said](https://arstechnica.com/space/2024/10/spacex-catches-returning-rocket-in-mid-air-turning-a-fanciful-idea-into-reality/): > There’s no doubt that the Human Landing System is \[on the\] critical path for Artemis III. The pacing item is the rate at which SpaceX can launch the systems that can fuel the depot, so that it's prepared to fuel Starship for a lunar landing. So the real key there is them being able to get to a rate where they can launch at a rapid enough cadence. In July, Jeff Foust [reported](https://spacenews.com/nasa-assessment-suggests-potential-additional-delays-for-artemis-3-lunar-lander/) that an internal confirmation review conducted by NASA on the readiness of SpaceX’s Lunar Starship gave the agency’s [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/) crewed Moon landing mission a 70% chance of launch by February 2028, nearly a year and a half later than the current public date of September 2026. The larger perspective to consider is the huge deal that is [Artemis IV](https://www.nasa.gov/general/nasas-artemis-iv-building-first-lunar-space-station/)—for the crewed landing of which NASA chose an [upgraded Lunar Starship](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-spacex-second-contract-option-for-artemis-moon-landing-0) as a critical mission element. If successful, in just one mission after Artemis III’s crewed landing demonstration, NASA will have upgraded its entire lunar transportation stack: from improving payload capacity to lunar orbit by 10,000 kilograms with the [SLS](https://www.nasa.gov/reference/space-launch-system/) rocket’s [Block 1B](https://www.nasa.gov/general/nasa-expanding-lunar-exploration-with-upgraded-sls-mega-rocket-design/) variant to sending the first astronauts to the US-led [Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) orbital habitat to having an upgraded crewed lander (as Starship) capable of enabling month-long surface missions instead of Artemis III’s 6.5-day stay. Artemis IV’s architecture, to be reinforced with [Artemis V](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/) via Blue Origin’s Blue Moon lander instead of Starship, is the template NASA hopes to keep using in future missions leading to an [Artemis Moonbase](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept). It’s thus far more important to get all Artemis IV and V elements right—including Starship—than to worry about crewed Moon landings being delayed some more or slighting [crewed lunar efforts from the other side of Earth](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/). We have waited decades for a [return to our Moon](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/), and just as long for a fully reusable space launch system. We can wait a few years more. ## Australian lunar roo-ver delayed ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/10/australia-moon-rover-illustration-with-robotic-arm-1.jpg) Illustration of Australia’s first lunar rover, shown here with its robotic arm trying to sample lunar soil. [Image: ASA](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sRzZHLuCSiM) When NASA [recently contracted](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-191/) Intuitive Machines to send the agency’s science & technology payloads on the latter’s Moon lander with a 2027 launch target, I [suspected](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-191/) that Australia’s [first lunar rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-97/), called [Roo-ver](https://www.space.gov.au/meet-roo-ver), seemed missing from the manifest based on prior information which could point to delays. It turns out that the suspicion was correct. In an [interview with Chethan Kumar](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/science/australia-looks-beyond-gaganyaan-moon-for-space-collaboration-with-india/articleshow/113430732.cms), Australian Space Agency Chief Enrico Palermo said that the one of the two national industry consortiums competing to build Roo-ver—[AROSE](https://www.arose.org.au/news/arose-lunar-rover-destined-for-the-moon/) and the [EPE & Lunar Outpost Oceania](https://lunaroutpost.com/lunar-outpost-oceania-epe-consortium-selected-to-participate-in-the-australian-space-agencys-moon-to-mars-trailblazer-initiative)—will be selected later this year, and that the rover will launch “later this decade”. The agency had [previously announced](https://www.crn.com.au/news/two-consortia-to-build-aussie-designed-lunar-rover-592334) the winning consortium’s selection to be around June 2024 and the mission launch to be by 2026. Heading to the Moon’s south pole aboard an as-yet-unspecified NASA-funded [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) lander, the semi autonomous 20-kilogram Roo-ver will fetch lunar soil for the lander, where a NASA-operated system will practice [extracting oxygen](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-153/) from it as a technology precursor to eventually sustaining human presence on the Moon. In a related update on Roo-ver’s development, [landing site studies](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2024/pdf/1682.pdf) have been ongoing, with two preliminary locations at 85°S and 89°S being deemed suitable. --- *Many thanks to* [***Astrolab***](https://astrolab.space)*,* [***David Draper***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/david-draper-78116b95/)*,* [***Parvathy Prem***](https://www.parvathyprem.space) *and planetary scientist *David Blewett* for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource, kindly join them and* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*.* --- ## More Artemis updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/10/artemis-1-radiation-experiements.jpg) The Artemis I Orion spacecraft carried multiple radiation experiments onboard, including anatomically accurate female torsos and varied radiation sensors. [Images: Stuart George, at al. / NASA / Lockheed Martin / DLR](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07927-7/figures/1) - NASA, ESA, and DLR scientists [evaluating data](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-1/artemis-i-radiation-measurements-validate-orion-safety-for-astronauts/) from the [many radiation experiments](https://jatan.space/science-on-artemis-i/) onboard the NASA [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-i) Orion spacecraft’s circumlunar flight find that radiation exposure to future astronauts will vary not only based on time spent at locations within the capsule but also on Orion’s orientation in space. For example, [the paper says](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07927-7), when Orion’s orientation was altered during an engine burn, exposure levels dropped nearly in half due to the highly directional nature of the radiation in the Van Allen belt. These results will support understanding and preparedness for radiation exposure the [crew](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) of [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii) will face during their lunar flyby mission mid-decade. - NASA, ESA, and Nikon [continue collaborating](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2024/10/08/moon-vision/) on an ergonomic handheld camera for Artemis III astronauts to capture good low light images in the [dark environment](https://www.nasa.gov/ames/feature/the-dark-side-of-the-crater-how-light-looks-different-on-the-moon-and-what-nasa-is-doing) of the Moon’s south pole. Called the Handheld Universal Lunar Camera (HULC), its prototypes [are being tested](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2023/10/25/next-generation-moon-camera-tested-in-europe/) and refined in ESA’s [Pangaea campaign](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/CAVES%5Fand%5FPangaea/What%5Fis%5FPangaea), which trains future lunar astronauts in geology and sample collection. The camera was [also tested](https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/nasa-signs-agreement-with-nikon-to-develop-lunar-artemis-camera/) in NASA’s analog [JETT 3](https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20230000146/downloads/Caswell%5Fet%5Fal%5FLPSC%5F2023%5FRevA.pdf) mission in Arizona. In a recent Pangaea excursion, astronauts used the camera with a telephoto lens because [new research](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094576524003746) based on the Apollo missions shows that astronauts’ perception of distances and slopes gets altered on the Moon’s surface. A telephoto lens would thus better guide Moonwalks. The radiation-hardened and thermally protected HULC camera will be tested on the International Space Station before using it on Artemis missions. - NASA has [awarded an unspecified mission extension](https://advancedspace.com/advanced-space-to-extend-the-capstone-mission-with-nasa/) to the Advanced Space-led [CAPSTONE](https://www.nasa.gov/smallspacecraft/capstone/) lunar orbiter, which recently completed its primary mission spanning [18 months in lunar orbit](https://advancedspace.com/first-commercial-lunar-orbiter-successfully-completed-all-operational-objectives-capstone-continues-moon-operations-to-inform-future-missions/). As a literal pathfinding mission for the upcoming NASA-led international [Gateway orbital habitat](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/gateway/), CAPSTONE has been test-flying the fuel-efficient [Near-Rectilinear Halo Orbit](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/a-lunar-orbit-that-s-just-right-for-the-international-gateway) (NRHO) the lunar station will be in. [Results](https://advancedspace.com/subject/papers-presentations) from it are helping NASA refine the orbit’s mathematical models based on the exact propellant and resources CAPSTONE consumed to maintain desired operations. As part of the mission extension, CAPSTONE will demonstrate some more autonomous operations, and [continue to cross-communicate](https://advancedspace.com/advanced-spaces-resilient-capstone-mission-for-nasa-is-operating-at-the-moon-for-445-days-continues-to-transform-exploration-with-cutting-edge-technology) with NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lro/about/) (LRO) to work towards demonstrating autonomous position determination and navigation in lunar orbit, that is, without relying on or [chocking up](https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/08/nasas-artemis-i-mission-nearly-broke-the-deep-space-network) Earthly ground stations. It’s worth noting that the [CAPSTONE team](https://advancedspace.com/capstone-mission-team) practically [fully recovered](https://advancedspace.com/capstone-mission-recovery-success-update) a failing spacecraft and managed to have it enter and operate in NRHO despite a faulty valve in one of its eight thrusters—which is still stuck! ## More Moon - On October 4, the Dominican Republic [became the 44th country](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-welcomes-dominican-republic-as-44th-artemis-accords-signatory/) to sign the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords) for cooperative lunar exploration. Estonia [signed the Accords too](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-welcomes-estonia-as-newest-artemis-accords-signatory/) on October 13, making it the 20th European nation and 45th country to do so. - Open Lunar Foundation is hiring an experienced [Director of Operations](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/doo-applications) to manage day-to-day execution of the non-profit’s many programs aimed at cooperative and sustainable lunar exploration globally. Open Lunar is also accepting applications for a [remote Fellowship](https://www.openlunar.org/blog/2025-fellowship) position. ### Indian Space Progress #20–21: ISRO’s plan to study Venus alongside NASA and ESA URL: https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-20/ Last updated: 2025-06-04T07:33:47.000Z *At over 4,000 words, this is my longest article ever. In one fell swoop, the Indian Government sanctioned multiple flagship space projects last month. And so in this special edition of ‘Indian Space Progress’, I contextualize them all. In particular, I noticed that nobody covered the planned science and rationale of India’s first mission to Venus or put it in context with the upcoming NASA and ESA missions to the planet. And ISRO’s announcement* [*reads like jargon-land*](https://www.isro.gov.in/UnionCabinetApprovesIndiasMission.html)*. So I’m attempting a full rundown here. ☕️+🤓*[](https://jatan.space/subscribe) ## Shukriya for Shukrayaan (Thank you for the Venus craft) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/10/venus-visible-radar-vom-orbit-configuration-illustration.jpg) ****Left:** Venus as it would approximately look to the human eye, imaged by NASA’s Mariner 10 spacecraft; ****Right:** Radar image of Venus’ surface captured by NASA’s Magellan orbiter. Also shown in the graphic is ISRO’s newly approved Venus orbiter design. Images: [Mattias Malmer](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/global-view-of-venus-from) / [NASA / JPL](https://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA00104) / [ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/UnionCabinetApprovesIndiasMission.html); Graphic: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) On September 18, the Indian Government Union Cabinet [approved](https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2055982) ISRO’s proposed Venus Orbiter Mission (VOM) with a budget of about $150 million. Formerly called Shukrayaan, VOM will launch on the [Launch Vehicle Mark III](https://www.isro.gov.in/GSLVmk3%5FCON.html) (LVM3)—India’s most powerful rocket—during the Venus launch window of March 2028\. After reaching Venus in four months, VOM will fire its engines to reduce its velocity and enter a highly elliptical polar orbit of 500 by 60,000 kilometers. It will then use Venus’ atmosphere to gradually aerobrake over months and lower its orbit to 200 by 600 kilometers. From there, VOM will employ its [dozen plus instruments](https://www.isro.gov.in/UnionCabinetApprovesIndiasMission.html) for over five years to study Venus’ surface, subsurface, atmosphere, and how the latter’s activities are shaped by [the Sun’s wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/). Three of the instruments have [foreign contributions](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/science/venus-orbiter-to-carry-19-payloads-take-112-days-to-reach-orbit-launch-on-march-29-2028/articleshow/113854877.cms): from Russia, Sweden, and Germany. ### The big picture Venus right now is an inhospitable hellscape but it wasn’t always this fiery. Past missions like ESA’s Venus Express orbiter and NASA Galileo have observed [granite-like rocks](https://doi.org/10.1029/2008JE003134) on the planet’s surface, which require abundant water to form. Scientists think Venus may have had [liquid water seas for two billion years](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2016/nasa-climate-modeling-suggests-venus-may-have-been-habitable)—far longer than Mars, which likely hosted surface water for [300 million years](https://www.planetary.org/blogs/guest-blogs/2019/mars-water-stable-paradox.html). Could Venus once have hosted life? How did Earth’s “sister planet” go from being potentially habitable to hell? Is its temperature-soaring natural greenhouse effect a concern for Earth’s future? [Exploring Venus](https://jatan.space/why-explore-venus/) to understand its evolution will help scientists answer these questions, better model Earth’s climate, and gain insights on what makes our planet a haven for life. Scientists also use Venus as a reference to understand conditions on [Earth-sized planets](https://jatan.space/nasa-tess-space-telescope/) around other stars in the Universe, how they could evolve, [how likely they are to support life](https://www.planetary.org/articles/fermi-paradox-drake-equation), and therefore how we should define [habitable zones](https://www.planetary.org/articles/what-is-the-habitable-zone) around stars. Understanding Venus advances our [search for alien life](https://jatan.space/search-for-life/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/10/divergence-of-venus-from-earth.jpg) The different pathways Venus might have taken to become the hellscape it is today, despite likely sharing initial conditions with Earth. [Image: ESA EnVision Assessment Study Report](https://sci.esa.int/web/cosmic-vision/-/envision-assessment-study-report-yellow-book) With this context of the importance of studying Venus, let’s come back to ISRO’s Venus orbiter. It’s important to note that not only will VOM be India’s first mission to the planet but it will arrive there a little before NASA’s [VERITAS](https://jatan.space/nasa-veritas-mission-to-venus/) and ESA’s [EnVision](https://jatan.space/esa-envision-mission-to-venus/) orbiters do, and that it will sport instruments akin to both. The three missions converge on a single goal: understanding Venus’ past and therefore how and why it diverged from being Earth-like to a zone of hell. VOM’s inclusion in the global Venus exploration manifest therefore presents three opportunities: - one for India to conduct uniquely impactful science and advance its wish to become a planetary science powerhouse - one for scientists globally, who will be able to combine similar as well as complementary datasets from flagship Venus missions of three space agencies - and the most potent of all: an opportunity for the space agencies sending these craft to coordinate observations to gain more science than the sum of its parts. ### Seeing through the clouds Building on the radar ISRO built for the [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) currently at the Moon, VOM will have an S-band Synthetic Aperture Radar to make a global map of Venus at [20–30 meters/pixel](https://www.isro.gov.in/UnionCabinetApprovesIndiasMission.html), which is more than four times the resolution of the [Magellan](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/magellan) mapping orbiter NASA launched in 1989\. NASA plans to send the [VERITAS](https://jatan.space/nasa-veritas-mission-to-venus/) orbiter in 2031, whose radar will map Venus’ surface [at 30 meters/pixel](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=VERITAS) from a 250-kilometer polar orbit. These observations from VOM and VERITAS will help scientists better understand how Venus’ surface was shaped over tens to hundreds of millions of years to what it is today. VOM will also carry a subsurface sounder, making it the first to see parts of Venus’ subsurface. ESA [EnVision](https://jatan.space/esa-envision-mission-to-venus/) orbiter launching no earlier than 2031 will use a similar [ground penetrating radar](https://sites.lesia.obspm.fr/envision/envision-srs/) to see terrain up to a kilometer below the surface from its roughly 600-kilometer polar orbit. Together, VOM and EnVision will [help scientists identify](https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2021/07/envision-esa-venus/2/) buried craters and possibly large basins formed around 4 billion years ago when large asteroids and comets were [bombarding the inner Solar System](https://jatan.space/solar-system-history-101/). But if it turns out that Venus lacks impact basins like other rocky worlds such as the Moon do, it would mean the planet’s surface and crust have been actively reshaped for that long. While most spacecraft can use typical spectrometers to detect the surface composition of a planet, the thick and dense Venusian clouds make it almost impossible for such instruments to scan the surface. However, there are specific wavelengths of infrared light that Venus’ atmosphere is transparent to, and spectrometers on the upcoming ISRO, NASA, and ESA orbiters will observe in exactly such literal windows of opportunity. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/10/illustrations-of-active-volcano-on-venus-1.jpg) An artist's illustration of an active volcano on Venus, depicting the foreground surface crust plunging into the planet's interior. [Image: NASA / JPL-Caltech / Peter Rubin](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/veritas-exploring-the-deep-truths-of-venus) VOM will sport a 200-band hyperspectral infrared imager. Coupled with radar measurements, it will help scientists identify [volcanic hotspots](http://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Space%5FScience/Venus%5FExpress/Hot%5Flava%5Fflows%5Fdiscovered%5Fon%5FVenus) on Venus such as glowing lakes of lava. EnVision will have an [infrared spectrometer](https://sites.lesia.obspm.fr/envision/envision-venspec-h/) too to detect trace amounts of volcanic gases in the planet’s atmosphere. The [recent finding of an active volcano](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasas-magellan-data-reveals-volcanic-activity-on-venus/) on Venus based on archival Magellan data will make these observations only more intriguing. Understanding how Venusian volcanoes work will help scientists understand how the planet maintains an atmosphere 50 times denser than Earth’s despite having no protective magnetic field. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/10/alpha-regio-tessera-venus.jpg) A color-enhanced picture of part of Alpha Regio, a tessera on Venus. Such regions are highly deformed and likely one of Venus’ oldest landforms. [Image: NASA Magellan](https://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA00481) Crucially, infrared spectrometers on VOM, VERITAS, and EnVision [will also map](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/jpl/veritas-exploring-the-deep-truths-of-venus) minerals on Venus’ surface and [identify the composition of its rocks](https://sites.lesia.obspm.fr/envision/envision-venspec-m/). This will help scientists determine if some Venusian rocks were really formed or altered by abundant water [as many scientists think](https://doi.org/10.1029/2008JE003134). And if not, it would imply Venus [was probably never cool enough](https://www.universetoday.com/153037/a-new-climate-model-suggests-that-venus-never-had-oceans) for atmospheric water vapor to condense and form seas. Tesserae, [one of the oldest regions](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/planetary%5Fnews/2020/10/19/layered-features-hint-at-the-origin-of-tesserae-on-venus/#gsc.tab=0) on Venus, can help resolve this decisive question. Tesserae are highly deformed/wrinkled terrain that [might move like Earth’s granite-composed continents](https://www.planetary.org/articles/the-venus-controversy). Infrared spectrometers on the aforementioned orbiters and a [NASA-provided radar](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/then-there-were-3-nasa-to-collaborate-on-esa-s-new-venus-mission) on EnVision will identify their composition and help scientists infer the processes that might shape them. If tesserae really move like Earthly continental plates, EnVision and VOM’s sub-sounding radars should see them bend and continue below the adjacent lava plains instead of registering a sharp boundary separating the two landforms. ### Up above the world so high There’s a [slim chance microbial life might exist](https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/ast.2017.1783) in Venus’s upper atmosphere, where mysterious dark patches absorb more than half the solar energy the planet receives. This region, approximately 50 kilometers above the surface, has Earth-like temperatures and pressures. In September 2020, scientists announced that Earth-based radio telescopes [detected phosphine molecules](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41550-020-1174-4) in the region, which could be a signature of microbial life, or some complex chemistry. But the finding [got disputed](https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202039717) soon after, post which it was being [reclaimed](https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2011.08176) since re-analysis using newly calibrated data showed a weaker-but-persistent phosphine signal anyway. In the meanwhile, there was independent evidence that NASA’s Pioneer probe probably [detected phosphine](https://www.essoar.org/doi/10.1002/essoar.10504552.1) during its atmospheric descent in 1978\. And now this year a much more [robust set of Earth-based observations](https://www.chemistryworld.com/news/controversial-phosphine-findings-on-venus-corroborated/4020063.article) seem to have found phosphine again. Ultimately, up-close measurements by new missions will be needed to decipher what’s happening in Venus’ atmosphere. The infrared spectrometers on VOM, VERITAS, and EnVision might [detect water vapor](https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2021/07/veritas-nasa-venus/2) in erupted volcanic material, whose quantities would tell scientists if Venus holds substantial water below its crust like Earth does. If so, it would mean Venus’ interior isn’t [chemically reduced](https://chemdictionary.org/oxidation-reduction/)—which is stable for water but not for substantial amounts of phosphine. Similar to Japan’s recent [Akatsuki](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/akatsuki) Venus orbiter, a whole set of VOM instruments will study and profile cloud movements and phenomena like lightning and airglow in Venus’ atmosphere. EnVision’s [ultraviolet spectrometer](https://sites.lesia.obspm.fr/envision/envision-venspec-u/) will particularly study the planet’s sulphuric acid clouds and the atmosphere above them. These results will allow scientists to better contextualize the potential for life in Venusian air. It will also set the stage for [DAVINCI](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/davinci/), the spherical NASA probe which will descend in Venus’ atmosphere in 2031 to precisely measure its chemical makeup all the way to the surface. It will help scientists investigate how Venus’ atmosphere formed and evolved over the last 4.5 billion years, and how much water was once present. Data from DAVINCI will conversely help calibrate some types of measurements made by VOM, VERITAS, and EnVision. Relatedly, ISRO is evaluating if it’s feasible to [include an atmospheric descent probe](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ud-Ge5-Ohj0) on VOM too. Together, these modern Venus missions will provide us with an extremely comprehensive view of Earth’s sister planet, helping us understand the planetary processes that make Earth habitable but Venus hell. Scientists hope that results from all of these missions pave the way for renewed surface exploration of Venus, including roving platforms built specifically to endure the harsh environment. ### India’s patchy road to Venus ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/10/chandrayaan-3-launch-gslv-mk-iii.jpg) Liftoff of the Moonbound Chandrayaan 3 by a LVM3 rocket. [Image: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/chandrayaan3%5Fgallery.html) India’s Venus orbiter has survived a roller-coaster ride to get to a formal approval. It was in 2018 that ISRO released a [call for instruments](https://web.archive.org/web/0/https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/ao%5Fvenus.pdf) for the orbiter, which the agency back then hoped to get approved for launch by 2023\. ISRO’s T. Maria Antonita said to a NASA-chartered planetary science planning committee in 2020 that pandemic-related delays [pushed the mission’s launch target](https://spacenews.com/indias-shukrayaan-orbiter-to-study-venus-for-over-four-years-launches-in-2024/) to December 2024 with a mid-2026 backup, and that the orbiter would launch on a GSLV Mk II rocket. The Mk II was a downgrade from the original plan to use the more powerful LVM3 but the mission designers were unable to secure the latter for launch since ISRO prioritized LVM3s for [human spaceflight missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/) instead. In fact, it wasn’t clear just a few months ago if VOM would even be approved. ISRO Chief S. Somanath [told in August](https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/chandrayaan-4-and-5-design-complete-70-satellites-likely-to-be-launched-in-5-years-isro-chief/article68546904.ece) that the Venus orbiter “has been put on the back-burner.” Clearly, that scenario was avoided. The good news is that ISRO is trying to remove such infrastructure chokepoints. The agency is in the process of [increasing the production rate and payload capacity](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-16/#preparing-for-human-spaceflight) of LVM3 over the next several years. A steady flow of LVM3s could finally allow ISRO to equitably serve not just its human spaceflight and commercial launch ambitions but its planetary missions too, which have otherwise been [deprioritized even with Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-09/#chandrayaan-3-updates). While LVM3 is indeed finally the rocket that will loft India’s Venus orbiter, it cost the agency and the country five years of delay to get here. However, VOM is also a mission that’s better late than early. Unlike India’s first Mars orbiter [Mangalyaan](https://jatan.space/reviewing-mission-mangalyaan/), which was squarely a technology demonstrator, VOM is a science mission. It has more massive instruments than Mangalyaan’s payloads which totaled only 15 kilograms. Crucially, VOM will be in a polar orbit close to Venus to gather substantial scientific data—200 by 600 kilometers versus Mangalyaan’s 420 by 80,000 kilometers for Mars. Mangalyaan’s [scientific output has been low](https://jatan.space/missing-science-from-mangalyaan/) simply because it was never designed to be a science mission. Even if half of VOM’s objectives are achieved, its outcome would be gladly different. --- *Many thanks to the* [***Takshashila Institution***](https://takshashila.org.in)*,* [***KaleidEO***](https://satsure.co/kaleidEO)*,* [***PierSight***](https://piersight.space) *and* [***Gurbir Singh***](https://gurbir.co.uk) *for sponsoring this special Indian Space Progress report. If you too appreciate my efforts to capture true trajectories of Indian space, kindly join them and* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*.* --- ## Queue more Chandrayaans - Details on the [**Chandrayaan 4 sample return mission**](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-194/) - Clarifying the [**status of LUPEX / Chandrayaan 5**](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-196/#the-actual-status-of-lupex), the joint Indo-Japanese rover mission aiming to directly study water ice on the Moon’s south pole ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/10/chandrayaan-3-landing-site-over-an-ancient-buried-crater.jpg) A topographic image showing the Chandrayaan 3 landing region and surrounding areas, generated from LRO and SELENE data. Black arrows show the boundary of the buried impact crater above which Chandrayaan 3 landed. [Image: LRO / ASU / JAXA / ISRO ](https://www.isro.gov.in/ch3%5FDiscovery%5Fof%5Fa%5Fburied%5Fcrater%5Fon%5Fthe%5Fmoon.html) - Researchers from the ISRO-affiliated PRL institute have [published a paper](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2024.116329) positing that [Chandrayaan 3’s landing site](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/#the-moment-of-touchdown) lies on top of an ancient crater which spans about 160 kilometers across and is up to 4.4 kilometers deep. This inference is primarily based on ejecta trails around the landing site imaged by the mission’s [Pragyan rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-190/) coupled with high-resolution views of the larger region from the [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/). Scientists think the crater is well over four billion years old, and has been filled with material ejected by subsequent crater-forming impacts in the south polar region. These deposits include swaths of possible mantle material displaced by the [gigantic impact](https://www.lroc.asu.edu/images/219) that formed the South Pole-Aitken basin south of the Chandrayaan 3 landing site. ## Human spaceflight plans ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/10/isro-gaganyaan-human-spaceflight-timeline.jpg) Illustration of human spaceflight technologies ISRO is gradually building to enable an indigenous space station in Earth orbit. [Image: ISRO / Hanumantray Baluragi](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I9tXvKZTScA) - Two of the [four Gaganyaan Indian astronaut candidates](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-13/), Shubhanshu Shukla and Prasanth Balakrishnan Nair, [selected](https://www.isro.gov.in/ISRO%20Press%20Release-SFA%20Signing.html) by ISRO are undergoing advanced training at NASA’s Johnson Space Center. Post this, Shukla will fly to the International Space Station (ISS) in 2025 via the NASA-enabled [*Ax-4* Axiom Space private mission](https://www.axiomspace.com/news/ax4-countries-crew) aboard a SpaceX Crew Dragon capsule as the Mission Pilot—with Prasanth Nair being his backup. NASA’s international ISS partners will need to approve for the four-person Ax-4 crew to launch. Peggy Whitson, two-time ISS commander and Axiom’s Director of Human Spaceflight, told Chethan Kumar [in an interview](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/how-first-indian-astronaut-in-40-years-is-prepping-for-space/articleshow/113506596.cms) that during the mission \[which she is commanding\], Shukla will help with essential spacecraft operations such as navigation and docking procedures, and handle any emergencies. Shukla will also support microgravity research payloads onboard. The ISS mission will provide ISRO with experience to feed into India’s ambition to [indigenously send humans](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-13/) to Earth orbit. The next major milestone towards that end is Gaganyaan G1, the first of three uncrewed test flights required to be successful before ISRO deems the systems safe enough to launch astronauts. - In an [interview with Chethan Kumar](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/science/australia-looks-beyond-gaganyaan-moon-for-space-collaboration-with-india/articleshow/113430732.cms), Australian Space Agency Chief Enrico Palermo said that on India’s request, Australia will aid tracking of Gaganyaan missions with an in-progress ground station at the [Cocos (Keeling) Islands](https://maps.app.goo.gl/kadJkyNCQcPex2XE7) lying between the two countries. Australia is also looking into helping during Gaganyaan emergencies too, such as if there’s a rocket abort by the crew capsule which makes astronauts splash down in Australian waters. - On September 18, the Indian Government Union Cabinet also [sanctioned $1.33 billion](https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2055978) more (over the prior $1.1 billion) for ISRO to undertake multiple Gaganyaan missions, specifically those following the first astronaut flight and [leading into deploying the first module](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/) of India’s eventual space station called the Bharatiya Antariksha Station (BAS) which has an ambitious end-of-2028 target. An [excellent talk](https://www.youtube.com/live/I9tXvKZTScA) by Hanumantray Baluragi, Director of ISRO’s Directorate of Human Spaceflight Program, provides many specifics on the current—but evolving—planning of these series of Gaganyaan missions. As always, reddit user u/Ohsin has [succinctly summarized](https://www.reddit.com/r/ISRO/comments/1fyx97i/comment/lqxiua5) these specifics. ## India approves its first heavy-lift rocket. Meet the reusable NGLV ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/10/nglv-rocket-slide-union-cabinet-1.jpg) India’s in-development NGLV heavy-lift rocket. Image: ISRO With an allocated budget of [$982 million](https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2055979), the Indian Government Union Cabinet also approved ISRO’s proposal to make the country’s first heavy-lift rocket. Called the Next Generation Launch Vehicle (NGLV), the cryogenic rocket will be capable of lofting up to 30,000 kilograms to Low Earth Orbit in expendable mode, and 10,000 to 12,000 kilograms to GTO. That’s about thrice the oomph of India’s current most powerful rocket LVM3, which launched [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) last year and two of which will lift stacks of [Chandrayaan 4](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-194/) later this decade. The nearly $1 billion in NGLV funding includes development costs, three test flights by 2032, and several essential facilities. As Chethan Kumar [reports](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/isro-to-build-3rd-launch-pad-new-gen-rocket-could-also-land-on-sea/articleshow/114027181.cms), the NGLV will also need a third launch pad at India’s flagship Sriharikota spaceport, particularly to handle the rocket’s horizontal integration and to test its engines and other large components. The Indian National Space Commission [approved the third launchpad](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/Monthly%5Fsummary/Monthly%5FSummary%5FAugust2024%5FEng.pdf) in August but the Union Cabinet is yet to. As ISRO Chief S. Somanath mentioned in an interview with YouTuber Gareeb Scientist, the agency [plans to retire](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VxBzlhGaMAA) the GSLV Mk II rocket and possibly the PSLV as well once NGLV is operational. The Indian industry contractors part of NGLV will invest in manufacturing facilities early on to help ISRO swiftly operationalize the rocket after the first test flights. A few years after that, heavier variants of the NGLV will follow to further increase mass to orbit, something ISRO is keen on as it will enable India’s goal of [sending humans to the Moon by 2040](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/). In the meanwhile, ISRO is working towards increasing its existing mass to orbit capabilities with LVM3\. The agency is [testing an engine upgrade](https://www.isro.gov.in/Successful%5Fignition%5Ftest%5Fon%5Fsemi%5Fcryogenic%5FPITA.html) to LVM3’s core stage, which would replace the existing two [Vikas engines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikas%5F%28rocket%5Fengine%29) with an indigenously built 2000 KiloNewton semi-cryogenic kerolox engine called SCE-200\. This will increase the rocket’s GTO capacity from \~4,000 kilograms to a peak of \~5,000\. ISRO is also testing [engine restart capability](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/Monthly%5Fsummary/Monthly%5FSummary%5FMarch%5F2024.pdf) for LVM3’s cryogenic upper stage to enable more complex mission profiles. At the [India Space Congress 2024](https://www.indiaspacecongress.com/agenda-2024/) in New Delhi late June, the Director of ISRO’s Liquid Propulsion Space Center, V. Narayanan, said that the target to launch an SCE-200 on an LVM3 is 2027, a point in time later than originally expected but still early enough to be leveraged by the [upcoming](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/) complex Chandrayaan and initial Gaganyaan missions. Furthermore, ISRO recently announced [ramping up LVM3’s production](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-16/#preparing-for-human-spaceflight) from the current rate of two a year to four and then six. --- *That was one exhaustive edition of Indian Space Progress! Thank you once again to the* [***Takshashila Institution***](https://takshashila.org.in)*,* [***KaleidEO***](https://satsure.co/kaleidEO)*,* [***PierSight***](https://piersight.space) *and* [***Gurbir Singh***](https://gurbir.co.uk) *for sponsoring this report, which allowed me the time and space to research and contextualize the new flagship developments shaping India’s space ambitions.* *If you too appreciate my efforts to capture true trajectories of Indian space, kindly join them and* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*.* 🚀 ### Moon Monday #196: Confusion about lunar water and LUPEX, and papers plus mission updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-196/ Last updated: 2026-08-31T09:30:55.000Z ## The hunt for water on the Moon continues ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fce009360-4428-43f7-ad54-9c1544e0f913_2000x2000-jpeg.jpg) Aggregated solar illumination map of the Moon’s south pole made from stacked observations by NASA’s LRO spacecraft. The brightest spots are topographic highs that are maximally sunlit whereas the pitch black areas are permanently shadowed—within which water ice deposits are thought to exist. [Image: NASA](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/271) US researchers find that [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) up to 77° latitude—which is outside the Moon’s south pole—could host surface and near-surface [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/), thereby [expanding the presence of such regions](https://doi.org/10.3847/PSJ/ad5b55) farther than previously expected. This result is based on evaluating neutron detections by the Russian [LEND](https://np.cosmos.ru/en-us/instruments/lend) instrument onboard NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lro/about/) (LRO). Such neutron spectrometers [infer presence of water ice](https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/moon/nasas-lro-lunar-ice-deposits-are-widespread/) in lunar soil by detecting certain neutrons released to space which likely have interacted with hydrogen atoms that are water-bound. Based on the findings, the researchers have also provided an updated map of coldest, poleward facing areas within permanently shadowed regions which are most likely to host water ice deposits. This result complements two more recent results regarding lunar water: 1. A [recent study](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2024.03.020) led by Indian scientists which combined optical, radar, neutron, and other data from LRO, and [complemented](https://doi.org/10.1029/2023JE007745) it with the ISRO [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/)’s dual-frequency radar observations, estimated that the Moon’s poles host [five to eight times more water ice](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/#the-search-for-lunar-water-deepens) 1-3 meters underground than near the surface. They also found that the extent of this water ice appears to be about twice as much on the lunar north pole than south. The authors also suggested that the Moon’s past volcanism is the primary source of this subsurface water ice but [not all researchers agree](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/#the-search-for-lunar-water-deepens). 2. In 2020, US researchers using LRO data identified permanently shadowed regions inside craters that were smaller than a kilometer. They argued how micro cold traps within them, defined as being frigid enough to host water ice, [increase the expected amount](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41550-020-1198-9) of lunar water deposits by at least 10–20% due to the substantial volume of such small craters. On the other hand though, [optical](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-moon-camera-mosaic-sheds-light-on-lunar-south-pole) [imaging](http://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/images/1288) of polar permanently shadowed regions by NASA’s ultra-sensitive [ShadowCam](https://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/about) imager onboard South Korea’s [KPLO](https://jatan.space/kplo/) lunar orbiter has [found no reflectance differences](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2024/pdf/1622.pdf) that can be uniquely attributed to surface water ice in most of the areas it has mapped so far. The search for lunar water ice is thus far from settled. Ultimately, other than follow-up orbital observations by the likes of the NASA-funded [Lunar Trailblazer](https://jatan.space/nasa-lunar-trailblazer/) orbiter, comprehensive surface missions dedicated to directly finding and studying lunar water ice are necessary to really know Luna’s nature. For this decade, such surface missions currently include CNSA’s upcoming [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#the-instrumental-and-increasingly-international-7) mission and the JAXA-ISRO [LUPEX](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-111/) rover. On the US side, there’s an [ongoing scramble](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-188/) to save NASA’s water-studying [VIPER rover mission](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) from [getting canceled](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-186/) against [budgetary challenges](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-192/). ## The actual status of LUPEX ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/10/lupex-lunar-lander-rover-illustration-and-prototype.jpg) ****Top left:** Illustration of an ISRO lander having delivered the (stowed) JAXA-built LUPEX rover to the Moon; ****Top right and bottom left:** The LUPEX rover shown traversing the Moon’s south pole; ****Bottom right:** An early LUPEX prototype testing drive system performance in a simulated lunar soil pit. Images: [JAXA](https://www.exploration.jaxa.jp/e/program/lunarpolar) / [Mitsubishi](https://www.yomiuri.co.jp/stream/2/20729) There has been a lot of confusion recently about the status of the JAXA-ISRO [LUPEX rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/#the-indo-japanese-rover-mission) mission intended to [directly study](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-111/) the nature, accessibility, and abundance of [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) at the Moon’s south pole. So let me try to set some things straight per the best of my understanding of an evolving situation: 1. The Indian National Space Commission [approved](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/Monthly%5Fsummary/Monthly%5FSummary%5FAugust2024%5FEng.pdf) LUPEX as of August 2024, which means advanced developmental work on the ISRO-provided lander for the mission can now take place as feasible. This **does not** mean LUPEX is fully approved for launch. Since it’s an international collaboration mission, the Indian Government Union Cabinet green-lighting the project is still necessary. (The Japanese government has already approved the mission on their end.) 2. As suspected, Chethan Kumar [reports](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/eyes-on-moon-national-space-panel-clears-indias-5th-lunar-mission-lupex-lander-engine-to-be-used-to-land-humans-on-moon/articleshow/114003268.cms) based on an interview with the ISRO Chief S. Somanath that the agency is in the process of trying to get Union Cabinet approval for LUPEX but the [Chandrayaan 4 sample return](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-194/) mission was put forward and authorized first. 3. Even if LUPEX also gets approved soon, the spending required to proceed swiftly on its large lander development will not come out of thin air considering the [continuing flat ISRO budgets](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-18/). Chandrayaan 4 having gotten cabinet approval priority means its development, which is very complex, will take precedence over LUPEX wherever needed. Indeed, the ISRO Chief has now said that Chandrayaan 5/LUPEX will launch [after Chandrayaan 4](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/eyes-on-moon-national-space-panel-clears-indias-5th-lunar-mission-lupex-lander-engine-to-be-used-to-land-humans-on-moon/articleshow/114003268.cms), confirming my argument last month about how ISRO [swapped LUPEX’s launch order with Chandrayaan 4](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-194/) due to programmatic and budgetary constraints. 4. My speculation: Since Chandrayaan 4 is more complex, one way a cabinet-approved LUPEX might launch before Chandrayaan 4 is if the latter faces more technical hurdles owing to its sheer complexity while LUPEX finishes developmental milestones first. The nominal plan though is to launch Chandrayaan 4 first. ## Lunar water startups ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/10/argospace-argonaut-lunar-water-based-space-transportation-illustration.jpg) [Image: Argo Space](https://www.argospace.com) The lack of tactile confirmation of water deposits on the Moon’s poles hasn’t stopped startups from planning and raising money to build hardware that can extract and utilize this possible resource. - With the latest funding raise of [$7.9 million](https://www.argospace.com/articles-argo-news/argo-space-corp-closes-7-9m-seed-funding-round), Argo Space [joins a host of new startups](https://payloadspace.com/argos-tug-joins-the-lunar-water-race/) aiming to sell services based on lunar water. Argo Space wants to offer water-fueled space tug satellites based on extracted lunar water as an Earth-Moon transportation offering. Argo Space says it’s gearing up for its first Argonaut demonstration mission in 2025 but has not identified a launch vehicle or lander. - Relatedly, Interlune—a startup founded over three years ago by several former Blue Origin employees—[raised $15.6 million](https://techcrunch.com/2024/02/02/secretive-moon-startup-led-by-ex-blue-origin-leaders-raises-new-tranche-of-funding) to develop lunar resource extraction technologies. Interlune is particularly focused on developing an efficient [method to sort lunar material](https://seedfund.nsf.gov/awardees/history/details/?company=interlune-corporation) by particle size, which in turn would allow faster passing over of feedstock into systems that [extract oxygen on the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-153/). The company also says it wants to [wants to mine Helium-3](https://payloadspace.com/he-3s-all-that-for-interlune/) on the Moon. - Starpath Robotics, which has raised [almost $15 million](https://payloadspace.com/starpath-raises-12m-for-lunar-ice-mining/), also says it has big plans to mine [lunar water](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and soil, [extract oxygen](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-153/) from them, and then sell processed liquid oxygen to companies planning to regularly operate hardware at the Moon. The latter could include, after end of decade, Blue Origin with its [Blue Moon lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/) as well as SpaceX with its [upgraded Lunar Starship](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-spacex-second-contract-option-for-artemis-moon-landing-0). The company is currently building terrestrial demonstrations of their envisioned mining system ahead of building hardware for Luna. --- *Many thanks to* [***Off Planet Research***](https://offplanetresearch.com) *and* [***Paul Savio***](https://cosmofluencer.com) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource, kindly join them and* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*.* --- ## More papers ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/10/chandrayaan-3-landing-site-over-an-ancient-buried-crater.jpg) A topographic image showing the Chandrayaan 3 landing region and surrounding areas, generated from LRO and SELENE data. Black arrows show the boundary of the buried impact crater above which Chandrayaan 3 landed. [Image: LRO / ASU / JAXA / ISRO ](https://www.isro.gov.in/ch3%5FDiscovery%5Fof%5Fa%5Fburied%5Fcrater%5Fon%5Fthe%5Fmoon.html) - Researchers from the ISRO-affiliated PRL institute have [published a paper](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2024.116329) positing that [Chandrayaan 3’s landing site](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/#the-moment-of-touchdown) lies on top of an ancient crater which spans about 160 kilometers across and is up to 4.4 kilometers deep. This inference is primarily based on ejecta trails around the landing site as imaged by the mission’s [Pragyan rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-190/) coupled with high-resolution views of the larger region from the [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/). Scientists think the crater is well over four billion years old, and has been filled with material ejected from subsequent crater-forming impacts in the south polar region. These deposits include swaths of possible mantle material displaced here by the [gigantic impact](https://www.lroc.asu.edu/images/219) that formed the South Pole-Aitken basin south of the Chandrayaan 3 landing site. - PRL researchers have also [published a correlation](https://doi.org/10.1093/mnrasl/slae087) of the April–May 2020 global COVID-19 lockdown with notable [dips in temperatures](https://academic.oup.com/view-large/figure/483639510/slae087fig2.jpg) on the Moon—as measured for [six locations](https://academic.oup.com/view-large/figure/483639503/slae087fig1.jpg) across the lunar nearside. The researchers have not been able to associate the temperature drops [with solar activity](https://academic.oup.com/view-large/figure/483639521/slae087fig5.jpg) or other sources so far. ## More Moon - Progress continues slowly on the NASA-led [Gateway lunar orbital habitat](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/gateway). After going through a series of [structural stress tests](https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/a-home-for-astronauts-around-the-moon/) in April, the Gateway’s HALO habitat module has now [passed static load testing](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/gateway/gateway-stands-tall-for-stress-test/), which checks how well the module’s structure responds to the mechanical forces when around the Moon. Technicians will outfit HALO’s components and subsystems once the module is shipped to the US from Italy after completing all tests. A [recent report](https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-24-106878) from the US Government Accountability Office (GAO) says Gateway’s launch will be as late as December 2027 instead of September 2025, confirming Philip Sloss’ [reporting](https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2024/05/gateway-launch-date/) from May 2024. - NASA’s Johnson Space Center is developing a terrestrial crewed rover prototype, called the [Ground Test Unit](https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/nasa-prepares-for-lunar-terrain-vehicle-testing/) (GTU), to enable NASA and the three competing commercial teams to better develop the [versatile Lunar Terrain Vehicle](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-171/) (LTV) for Artemis. The GTU will act as an engineering tested, helping evaluate the eventual LTV rover’s operations, crew accommodations, maintenance, and how its scientific payloads can be integrated and operated. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/10/artemis-ltv-gtu.jpg) Suited engineers testing the GTU rover prototype at NASA’s Johnson Space Center. [Image: NASA / Bill Stafford](https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/nasa-prepares-for-lunar-terrain-vehicle-testing/) ### Let’s explore our Moon’s mountains! 🌖 URL: https://jatan.space/explore-lunar-mountains/ Last updated: 2024-10-05T13:46:35.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/10/montes-carpatus-flyover-view.jpg) A landscape of lunar mountains, part of the Montes Carpatus volcanic range. [Image: NASA / LRO / ASU / GSFC](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/1002) The Moon is home to some amazing mountains. Unlike the millions of years it takes for most mountains on Earth to form via slowly colliding tectonic plates, most lunar mountains form near-instantly through asteroid or cometary impacts. Here are some resources to explore them. 🗻 1. With cool elevation graphs and pictures, Jim Singh explores [our Moon’s highest, lowest, and tallest spots](https://moonsummits.carrd.co/). 📏 2. [Explainer: The intense way Moon mountains form](https://jatan.space/exploring-moon-mountains/) ☄️…💥 3. [Curated gallery of Luna’s marvelous mountains](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-moon-mountains/) ✨ ### Moon Monday #195: Little LUNA on Earth, a Sino spacesuit, and communicating navcom URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-195/ Last updated: 2025-06-16T11:31:22.000Z *You know how I remarked in the* [*previous Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-194/) *about having two feature stories instead of one to adequately contextualize big new developments? Well, this week’s Moon Monday has three! For Europe, China, and the US.* 🙈 ## Europe’s new test facility brings more of those lunar vibes on Earth ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/09/astronaut-and-a-robot-in-the-esa-dlr-luna-test-facility-2.jpg) An astronaut and a robot in the LUNA testbed. Image: [DLR / ESA](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2024/09/LUNA6) On September 25, ESA and DLR inaugurated a 700-square-meter [LUNA test facility](https://www.esa.int/Newsroom/Press%5FReleases/ESA-DLR%5Flunar%5Fanalogue%5Ffacility%5Finaugurated) near Cologne in Germany, which when fully complete will simulate multiples aspects of our Moon to conduct robotic and crewed exploration hardware tests, touting: - a lunar-like [volcanic regolith surface](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-62312-4) - simulated lunar [polar sunlight](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) cycles - sampling and drilling areas (up to 3 meters) - an adjustable [ramp for testing rover mobility](https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/nasas-new-moon-rover-tested-lunar-operations-lab/) on lunar slopes - a [simulated entrance](https://luna-analog-facility.de/en/lava-tubes-as-subsurface-shelters-against-micrometeorites/) to a [lava tube](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-187/) - [spacesuits](https://luna-analog-facility.de/en/astronauten-anzuge-angekommen/) and a fascinating [vertical suspension system](https://luna-analog-facility.de/en/introducing-puppeteer-because-earth-gravity-is-just-too-mainstream/) to allow astronauts to perform simulate Moonwalks under lunar-equivalent gravity - a [seismic station](https://luna-analog-facility.de/en/seismic-measurements-round-2/) - and a [connected habitat](https://luna-analog-facility.de/en/living-on-the-moon/) training area ESA and DLR will also add more testing niceties over time so the above list is not even comprehensive! The LUNA facility is located next to ESA’s European Astronaut Centre. ESA says space agencies, academia and researchers, and space companies from all over the world can make use of LUNA facilities for testing their lunar hardware, prototypes, and operational scenarios. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/09/esa-dlr-luna-test-facility-infographic-1.jpg) The LUNA test facility for lunar exploration hardware and operations. [Image: ESA](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2024/09/LUNA%5Finfographics) LUNA is the crest of a coordinated effort across Europe by ESA and several national space agencies to invest in comprehensive planetary testing facilities. - Last year in September, DLR inaugurated a new 1500-square-meter [Moon-Mars facility](https://www.dlr.de/en/latest/news/2023/03/moon-and-mars-test-site-for-robotic-missions) in Oberpfaffenhofen to test mobile robotic explorers on basaltic surfaces and landforms similar to those on the Moon and the Red Planet. - The Luxembourg-ESA co-run [European Space Resources Innovation Centre](https://www.esric.lu) (ESRIC) aims to establish [a terrestrial pilot plant](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FrhS4U8Bnkw) to accelerate as well as de-risk technologies and concepts related to [extracting and utilizing lunar oxygen](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-153/) and other resources before their use in actual Moon missions. - DLR has been [testing a robotic motion simulator](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FEngineering%5FTechnology/ESA%5Fastronaut%5Fperforms%5Fsimulated%5Fpolar%5FMoon%5Flanding) configured to mimic a lander’s motions as it would be during descent and touchdown on the [rocky terrain](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/SPole%5FSRidgemap%5FLOLA-Slope5m%5Fv20190515.pdf) at the Moon’s south pole. With this, ESA aims to establish preliminary requirements for an eventual crewed lunar lander—although no such funded plan currently exists. The simulator allows testing multiple landing scenarios, including manually avoiding hazardous regions and overriding autonomous landing in favor of manual controls after experiencing technical faults. - ESA runs the [Pangaea campaign](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/CAVES%5Fand%5FPangaea/What%5Fis%5FPangaea), which trains international partner astronauts in lunar geology, a highly valuable skill when exploring the Moon and collecting samples - ESA and DLR have been pooling researchers from across the continent for the “[Movement in low gravity environments](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/The%5Fscience%5Fof%5FMoon%5Fhopping)” (MoLo) program to study how human bodies would react and adapt long-term in lunar gravity, particularly in the context of stays in lunar habitats. Based on their current research using [bungee rope-like setups](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Videos/2023/03/Lunar%5Fbounce%5F-%5Fvideo%5F1) and parabolic flights both simulating some lunar conditions, it seems that having astronauts do controlled hopping coupled with the expected extravehicular activities (EVAs) as well as daily tasks could be effective in helping mitigate or even prevent physiological deconditioning. ## A Sino suit for Luna ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/09/cmsa-lunar-spacesuit-prototype.jpg) A suited person demoing China’s new lunar spacesuit prototype. [Image: CMSA / CCTV / CMS](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UUH5YyRPPXE) On September 28, the China Manned Space Agency (CMSA) [unveiled their lunar spacesuit](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UUH5YyRPPXE) prototype design, thus revealing the final major element that will be employed in China’s march towards realizing a [crewed Moon landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/) by 2030\. [Just like was the case](https://www.cmse.gov.cn/xwzx/202402/t20240224%5F55093.html) of China’s crewed lunar lander and spacecraft, China is asking its citizens to help name the suit by submitting ideas by October 31. The on-stage demos showed a suited person climbing a ladder akin to what an astronaut would do after China’s first crewed Moon landing. CMSA says the lightweight lunar suit is designed to ease walking on multiple lunar terrains, and that it allows better squatting and bending than suits used in Earth orbit since those actions are useful for lunar sampling and deploying & operating surface instruments. Naturally, the suit is (and has to be) made to withstand the extreme vacuum, radiation, dust, and thermal environments of the Moon. Supposedly, the suit is fully indigenous, unlike the Russian-derived-and-inspired suits China currently uses on its [Earthbound human spaceflight missions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiangong%5Fspace%5Fstation). CMSA’s deputy chief designer Zhang Hailian stated last year that the suits are designed such that astronauts can explore the lunar surface [for at least eight hours](https://spacenews.com/china-sets-out-preliminary-crewed-lunar-landing-plan/) at a time. As Andrew Jones [reported](https://spacenews.com/china-unveils-lunar-spacesuit-for-crewed-moon-mission/), the suit’s anti-glare visors, helmet cameras, and a control console (and likely headlights) will aid astronauts during such excursions. On the other side of the world, Axiom Space is busy developing and [purportedly prioritizing](https://arstechnica.com/space/2024/09/a-key-nasa-commercial-partner-faces-severe-financial-challenges/) the [AxEMU suit](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-198/) that Artemis astronauts will wear for [the program’s first US Moon landing](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii). The suits remain a pacing item for the mission [alongside the SpaceX Lunar Starship lander](https://spacenews.com/nasa-assessment-suggests-potential-additional-delays-for-artemis-3-lunar-lander/). Back to China’s crewed Moon landing [plan](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/), in May 2023 CMSA [solicited industry proposals](https://english.news.cn/20230529/d072333c56424753bec141dc75c35b67/c.html) for a mission [rover](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zTopir7Gukk), which the crew can drive [up to 10 kilometers](https://spacenews.com/china-sets-out-preliminary-crewed-lunar-landing-plan/) from the landed site. That’s more than the range of the [Lunar Roving Vehicle](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/apollo%5Flrv.html) (LRV) driven by Apollo astronauts but does fall short of the 20-kilometer peak of the upcoming [Artemis Lunar Terrain Vehicle](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-171/). In any case, 10 kilometers is in itself a decent range for expansive crewed Moon missions. --- *Many thanks to* [***Arun Raghavan***](https://arunraghavan.net) *and* [***Frank Genin***](https://www.amazon.com/dp/2958293009) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too appreciate my efforts to bring you this curated community resource, kindly join them and* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*.* --- ## Intuitive Machines to also launch lunar comm relays *not yet for $4.82 billion..* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/07/lunar-pathfinder-relay-service.jpg) Illustration of the Lunar Pathfinder communications satellite relaying signals between Earth and robotic hardware at the Moon. [Image: SSTL](https://www.esa.int/Applications/Navigation/Galileo%5Fwill%5Fhelp%5FLunar%5FPathfinder%5Fnavigate%5Faround%5FMoon) NASA is [awarding $150 million](https://payloadspace.com/intuitive-machines-will-build-a-lunar-communications-network/) to Intuitive Machines for launching the first few satellites which will provide [navigation and communications](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-185/) (navcom) services to hardware at the Moon part of [crewed Artemis](https://jatan.space/tag/artemis/) and [robotic CLPS](https://jatan.space/tag/clps/) programs. The first such satellite will launch in late 2025 onboard the company’s [third Moon landing mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-189/). Two more will launch on Intuitive’s [fourth lunar flight](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-191/) in 2027\. With these and more such high-bandwidth communications satellites sent via CLPS, NASA hopes to [reduce burden](https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/08/nasas-artemis-i-mission-nearly-broke-the-deep-space-network) on the agency’s overworked Deep Space Network. If Intuitive Machines manages multiple successful demonstrations with these initially contracted satellites, NASA’s awards to the company could potentially extend up to $4.82 billion for expanded services. But as the newsletter “The Space Investor” [pointed out](https://mailchi.mp/thespaceinvestor/tsi%5Fwe%5F092024), most investors wrongly assumed $4.82 billion to be the currently contracted value instead of $150 million—which made Intuitive’s stocks soar. Part of the issue is the company’s [press release](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/nasa-awards-intuitive-machines-near-space-network-contract-with-a-maximum-potential-value-of-4-82-b) did not mention the \~$150 million figure. I wonder why. But many western media publications covering the development didn’t dig up and specify the $150 million part either, including the [very positive coverage](https://arstechnica.com/space/2024/09/nasa-takes-a-giant-leap-toward-streaming-4k-video-back-from-the-moon/) from space journalism veteran Ars Technica, which in the same article continued to perpetuate Intuitive’s first Moon landing attempt as being more successful than it really was. Quote below, emphasis mine: > Despite some technical troubles, including the failure of its altimeter, the company's first lander managed a **soft touchdown** on the Moon on its side. Even with this unintended orientation, the Intuitive Machines-1 mission still managed to **complete the vast majority of its science objectives**. Soft touchdown? [It was not](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-166/). Unless of course breaking a lander leg is a gentle landing in the New Moon Dictionary. Completing the vast majority of its science objectives? Sure, if most payloads collecting [limited data](https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-00613-8) and [one collecting none](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/clps/nasa-collects-first-surface-science-in-decades-via-commercial-moon-mission/) constitutes a vast majority. Anyway, on the other side of the world, as part of a broader strategy for China’s upcoming [full-fledged navcom constellation](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-185/), the country has already deployed two communications relay orbiters: [Queqiao 1](https://www.planetary.org/articles/0519-change-4-relay-satellite) and [Queqiao 2](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-169/), which served the [Chang’e 4](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/change-4) and [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) missions respectively on the [Moon’s farside](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). Queqiao 2 will also relay communications for China’s upcoming [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#the-instrumental-and-increasingly-international-7) and [Chang’e 8](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/#prepare-for-crew-and-double-down-with-mission-eight) lunar landers, which CNSA is targeting to launch in 2026 and 2028 respectively. ESA also aims to have a navcom lunar constellation with its [Moonlight](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-98/) initiative. The [launch](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-picks-firefly-aerospace-for-robotic-delivery-to-far-side-of-moon) of UK’s [Lunar Pathfinder](https://jatan.space/nasa-esa-collaborate-on-lunar-pathfinder/) orbiter in 2026 will constitute ESA’s first Moonlight element. ESA will be Moonlight’s [anchor customer](https://www.esa.int/Applications/Telecommunications%5FIntegrated%5FApplications/Wanted%5Ffirms%5Fto%5Fconnect%5Fand%5Fguide%5FMoon%5Fmissions) but expects European companies to actively commercially provide services to missions globally. For more on the US side, Lockheed Martin’s subsidiary [Crescent Space](https://www.crescentspace.com) was targeting a 2025 launch for its [first two navcom lunar orbiters](https://news.lockheedmartin.com/2023-03-28-Crescent-Space-to-Deliver-Critical-Services-to-a-Growing-Lunar-Economy) but there’s been no update on its progress. More potential competitors in the lunar navcom space include [ArkEdge Space](https://spacenews.com/japans-arkedge-space-closes-18-7-million-series-a-for-nanosatellite-projects), [Aquarian Space](https://spacenews.com/another-startup-joins-race-to-provide-high-speed-lunar-communications), and [Plus Ultra](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=2515) but only China has launched hardware yet. ## More mission updates - **Video:** [The next Moon landing missions by Intuitive Machines for NASA CLPS](https://jatan.space/the-next-moon-missions-by-intuitive-machines-for-nasa/) (based on Moon Monday!) - “[**A piece of the Moon**](https://news.cgtn.com/news/2024-09-21/A-gift-from-the-moon-1x4qPPm4DYY/p.html)” is an excellent behind-the-scenes video showing key moments in operating the [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) spacecraft, which successfully brought [lunar samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-194/#prepping-lunar-farside-samples-for-scientific-studies) from the Moon’s farside to Earth past June. Other than showing several people on the mission, the video features the terrestrial lander and local surface site replica which CNSA created to test and verify commands before sending them to the actual Chang’e 6 lander so as to avoid making mistakes during critical operations. - ispace US has [built a new control center](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=6167) for mission operations at its headquarters in Denver, Colorado. This development is in the run up to the first [Draper-led Moon mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-184/) part of NASA’s [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) program targeting a 2026 launch, wherein ispace’s US subsidiary is providing the lander. ispace US is also providing [ground communications](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=5509) and [relay satellite services](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=5301) for the mission to enable communications with the lander and its instruments on the [Moon’s farside](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). Draper’s CLPS mission has been a [driver of capital raises for ispace](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-184/) but the silver lining for science is that [it hasn’t cost significant additional money to NASA](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-184/) unlike the case of several other CLPS missions including the first ones that flew this year [from Astrobotic](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-159/) and [Intuitive Machines](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-166/). ## More Moon - Jeff Foust [reports](https://spacenews.com/leidos-replaces-lockheed-martin-on-artemis-rover-team/) that Lockheed Martin has left the “[Lunar Dawn](https://www.lunaroutpost.com/ltv)” rover team led by Lunar Outpost competing for the development of a [versatile Lunar Terrain Vehicle](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-171/) for Artemis. Lockheed’s departure has meant that Lunar Outpost had to significantly change their rover design to remove Lockheed’s intellectual property contributions. Separately, and not replacing Lockheed’s role, Leidos has joined the rover team to support work on astronaut safety and operations based on their experience serving NASA at the International Space Station. Relatedly, NASA has [contracted](https://www.leidos.com/insights/leidos-awarded-476-million-nasa-cargo-mission-support-contract) Leidos to support cargo processing and management work for Artemis orbital and surface missions. - Random lunar fact: Earth observation satellites periodically image the Moon to detect, calibrate, and correct deviations in the performance of their imagers. The latter happens naturally due to aging hardware, degradation of imager material or coating, radiation exposure, and other such factors. It’s our Moon’s stable and known light intensity that allows it to act as a celestial reference for satellites based on which they can continue accurate observations. Some fresh examples of satellites imaging Luna for calibration are ESA’s [Copernicus Sentinel-2C](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2024/09/Sentinel-2C%5Fcaptures%5Fstunning%5Fglimpse%5Fof%5Fthe%5FMoon) and [Azista Space’s AFR](https://www.linkedin.com/feed/update/urn:li:activity:7214586503736307712/) spacecraft. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/09/esa-sentinel-2c-calibration-capture-moon.jpg) Just our lovely Moon as captured by the Sentinel-2C satellite on September 20\. [Image: ESA](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2024/09/Sentinel-2C%5Fcaptures%5Fstunning%5Fglimpse%5Fof%5Fthe%5FMoon) ### Video: The next Moon landing missions by Intuitive Machines for NASA CLPS URL: https://jatan.space/the-next-moon-missions-by-intuitive-machines-for-nasa/ Last updated: 2024-09-29T12:30:01.000Z A popular YouTube channel has worked with me to create another video based on my [Moon Monday](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) blog+newsletter, this time on the [next three Moon landing missions by Intuitive Machines](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uOuO4HczOAA) for NASA as part of the agency’s CLPS program. > **Note:** I didn’t choose the video title. My job is to provide the core info. The title doesn’t make much sense to me but I do think the channel team did a great job with the video itself. The video is based on four Moon Mondays: 1. [Moon Monday #189](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-189/): The next lunar missions by Intuitive Machines for NASA CLPS, and more things that orbit Luna 2. [Moon Monday #191](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-191/): A stream of CLPS and Artemis lunar mission updates 3. [Moon Monday #166](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-166/): An intuitive 98% success 4. [NASA is funding a Moon mission to the magnetic swirl of Reiner Gamma](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-mission-to-reiner-gamma/) --- **The previous two videos we made:** 1. [Everything you need to know about China’s Moon missions](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-yrO%5FbD9YXo) 1. [Everything you need to know about India’s Moon missions](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qv0YTtEcKVU) ### Moon Monday #194: On the approval of India’s Chandrayaan 4 sample return mission, and first look at Chang’e 6 samples URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-194/ Last updated: 2025-09-08T14:22:06.000Z *This week’s Moon Monday has not one but two feature stories! So much has been happening in lunar exploration this whole year that I’ve transitioned to writing deep dives more frequently so as to adequately capture and contextualize big updates. If you appreciate my efforts to bring you such a highly* [*curated community resource*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) *every single week,* [*join the supporters*](https://jatan.space/support). 🚀🌗 ## Chandrayaan 4 has entered the chat **September 2025 update:* Check my* [*new article on Chandrayaan 4*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-241/) *for the latest and comprehensive details on the mission.* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/09/chandrayaan-4-vs-3-module-stack.jpg) The proposed elongated Chandrayaan 4 spacecraft stack of five modules (left) versus the two modules which comprised Chandrayaan 3 (right). Images: [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about) | [ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan%5F3%5FModule%5FDynamic%5FTests.html) On September 18, the Indian Government Union Cabinet [approved Chandrayaan 4](https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2055983), a lunar sample return mission with a budget of ₹2104 crores ($252 million). The government press release says the mission is expected to be executed within three years, which means we can expect a launch to be in the latter part of 2027—if all preparations and yearly budgetary approvals go well. Chandrayaan 4 currently aims to bring somewhere between two to four kilograms of [scooped plus drilled](https://www.isro.gov.in/UnionCabinetApprovesIndiasMission.html) lunar samples for scientific studies to enrich our understanding of the Moon. [The mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-241/) consists of five spacecraft modules: the lander (descender module), the propulsion module, the ascender module, the sample transfer module, and the Earth reentry capsule. Combined, these would weigh 9000–9500 kilograms, which is roughly twice the maxed out GTO payload capacity of India’s most powerful rocket, the [Launch Vehicle Mark III](https://www.isro.gov.in/GSLVmk3%5FCON.html) (LVM3). Since LVM3’s lift prowess is less than half of China’s Long March 5 rocket which enabled CNSA to undertake the [Chang’e 5](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) and [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) sample return missions, ISRO’s approach with Chandrayaan 4 instead involves two LVM3 launches, with the modules split between them. **Update on October 7:** The lander and ascender module will be [stacked and launched](https://www.isro.gov.in/UnionCabinetApprovesIndiasMission.html) on one LVM3 rocket while the other three modules will stack-launched on the second one. After each stack is deployed in an elliptical Earth orbit, they will rendezvous and dock to form a full, integrated stack. The propulsion module will raise the stack’s Earth orbit and jettison itself. The remainder stack will enter lunar orbit, where the lander plus ascender module again separate from the stack for descent, lunar landing, and sample collection. The ascender module will then lift off to bring samples to lunar orbit, wherein they will then be transferred to the reentry capsule to get them to Earth. With [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/), one of the extended goals ISRO achieved was pulling the mission’s [propulsion module](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/science/chandrayaan-3-mission-150kg-fuel-left-in-propulsion-module-life-span-now-years/articleshow/102866268.cms) from lunar orbit back [to Earth orbit](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-157/), thereby demonstrating a small but key capability that will be required to pull off a robotic sample return mission with Chandrayaan 4\. One of the most complex parts of Chandrayaan 4 would be remotely docking robotic modules in Earth and lunar orbit, the latter being a feat only China has achieved so far. And so, as Kalyan Ray [recently reported](https://www.deccanherald.com/india/first-step-for-chandrayaan-4-to-be-taken-by-year-end-isro-3082088), ISRO will launch the \~$14 million SPADEX (space docking experiment) mission end of this year (but likely early next), wherein two spacecraft will practice docking in Earth orbit. SPADEX will buy down risk not only for Chandrayaan 4 but for the [upcoming Gaganyaan human spaceflight missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/)—in particular the cargo flight to the International Space Station and to India’s upcoming first space station module later this decade. Together these missions will feed into enabling ISRO to [send humans to the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/), wherein large crew-rated modules will need to safely dock with each other. ## LUP-ex’d ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/09/lupex-lunar-lander-rover-illustration-and-prototype.jpg) ****Top left:** Illustration of an ISRO lander having delivered the (stowed)JAXA-built LUPEX rover to the Moon; ****Top right and bottom left:** The LUPEX rover shown traversing the Moon’s south pole; ****Bottom right:** An early LUPEX prototype testing drive system performance in a simulated lunar soil pit. Images: [JAXA](https://www.exploration.jaxa.jp/e/program/lunarpolar) / [Mitsubishi](https://www.yomiuri.co.jp/stream/2/20729) While Chandrayaan 4’s formal commissioning is great news, it also means that the joint Indo-Japanese [LUPEX](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/#the-indo-japanese-rover-mission) mission aimed at [directly studying](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-111/) the nature, abundance, and accessibility of [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) at the Moon’s south pole was not proposed for the Indian government’s approval as of now. Not that a successfully executed Chandrayaan 4 sample return won’t have its own positive influences but as a [signatory to the US-led Artemis Accords](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-133/), India could’ve positioned LUPEX to be immediately useful in a unique way. LUPEX would feed into as well as build on [ISRO’s ongoing aid to NASA](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/#isro-aids-artemis) with lunar polar resource prospecting and hazard classification for planning of crewed [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/) missions. Especially when considering the [ongoing scramble](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-188/) in the US to save NASA’s [VIPER rover mission](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) from [getting canceled](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-186/) against [budgetary challenges](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-192/), the ISRO-JAXA LUPEX rover would’ve provided the much-needed ground truth about [water ice deposits](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s south pole based on which increasingly complex robotic and crewed missions can even be conceptualized. As for the mission’s journey so far, the Japanese government approved the LUPEX mission a while ago but have been waiting on India to do the same. The mission’s lander, which ISRO will provide, supposedly has its preliminary design review pending. The rover’s development is [farther along](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-111/) with prototype hardware built and tested for mobility but the [rover’s instruments](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-111/)—coming from both the countries—haven’t been finalized yet despite it being originally expected to be done over a year ago. ISRO-affiliated scientists have been conducting [landing site selection studies](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2024/pdf/1898.pdf) for LUPEX. Considering that LUPEX had been in the making for years now, with ISRO and JAXA even [building anticipation for a mid-decade launch](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-152/), it was expected to be the next mission India green-lits but clearly Chandrayaan 4 has superseded it. However, one must also note that this linear fashion of Moon missions from ISRO is what is to be expected. Despite the [many highs of 2023](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-11/) for Indian space, the [FY2024 budget](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-18/) of $1.56 billion for the country’s Department of Space (DOS)—of which ISRO gets the major chunk—has essentially stayed flat. India’s approach to even attempt its planned [increasingly complex lunar and crewed exploration missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/) is gradual and different than the US or China by necessity. ISRO simply lacks the scale of resources and threaded execution of planetary missions that NASA and CNSA enjoy, with governmental Indian space funding being only a tenth to twentieth of China and the US, and private funding for deep space exploration being nearly zero. And so, what ISRO has done to prioritize Chandrayaan 4 is swap its mission order with LUPEX. > **Announcement:** I’ll be speaking at the [Galaxy Forum](https://galaxyforum.org/galaxy-forum-china-2024-hainan/) in Hainan, China about India’s collaborative crewed lunar exploration plans! Being held this December, the conference will focus on international crewed Moon landings, science enabled by it, and astronomy from Luna. 🤓 ## Prepping lunar farside samples for scientific studies ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/09/materials-within-chang-e-6-lunar-farside-samples.jpg) Scooped lunar farside samples brought to Earth by Chang’e 6 contain a diversity of stony, volcanic, impact-induced as well as glassy materials. [Image: Chunlai Li, et al.](https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwae328) The National Astronomical Observatories of Chinese Academy of Sciences ([NAOC](https://english.nao.cas.cn)) has now stored the [1.61 kilograms](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ri9dYqLO5m8) of lunar samples which were scooped by China’s [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) lander on the [Moon’s farside](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) over three months ago and subsequently [brought to Earth](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-182/) on June 25\. It took Chinese scientists about two months to carefully unseal, size-sort, and store these samples in more than a dozen curated bottles, which now sit in a NAOC lab shelf below rows of [Chang’e 5 samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-156/). Chinese scientists also completed determining the broad physical, chemical, and mineral characteristics of the Chang’e 6 samples, as [published on September 17](https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwae328) in the National Space Review journal. As was expected, the samples indeed are [very different](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FaciEXFhRUk) from those picked from the Moon’s nearside—the farside material as collected by Chang’e 6 has a [whiter appearance](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ri9dYqLO5m8), is less dense and more porous, contains more rocky highland material rather than bits from volcanic plains, and lacks heavier minerals. Chang’e 6 also brought to Earth 325 grams of drilled samples from below the lunar surface. Scientists will need up to two more months to prepare, sort, and store these since they plan on segregating the samples into 100 layers—one for every 1.5 centimeters of depth. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/09/chang-e-6-lander-on-the-moon.jpg) A panorama from the Chang’e 6 lander on the Moon’s farside, showing one of its legs and the scoop sampling arm and its surface digs. [Image: CNSA / CLEP](https://x.com/SegerYu/status/1798688466026594539) The Chang’e 6 samples will be scientifically even more valuable than the [Chang’e 5 samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-156/). They are expected to help scientists [solve a whole host of Moon mysteries](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2024/pdf/1873.pdf) such as understanding the [distinct lunar farside volcanism](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2024.118737) and why the farside is so [enigmatically different](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) from the familiar nearside—which is necessary to understand not just Luna’s evolution but [that of our Solar System](https://jatan.space/solar-system-history-101/). In order to maximize scientific return from the Chang’e 6 samples, Chinese scientists from across the country [have been gathering for seminars and workshops](http://www.igg.cas.cn/hejl/hzxm/202406/t20240609%5F7186664.html) to identify key scientific themes that could be tackled. Chinese research institutions are expected to be able to start applying to study Chang’e 6 samples after all of them have been prepared to be effectively analyzed. As per CNSA’s regulations on lunar sample management, international researchers can apply for mission samples two years after they’ve been brought to Earth. Late last year NASA [secured a remarkable exception](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-156/) from the US Congress for the country’s researchers to be able to apply to access and study [Chang’e 5 samples](https://moon.bao.ac.cn/moonSampleMode/index.html) despite policy and legal barriers. This exception might extend to Chang’e 6, or so we should hope anyway. Shortly after the Chang’e 6 samples arrived on Earth, both [Victoria Bela](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3268324/lunar-rock-samples-chinese-space-agency-calls-us-remove-obstacles-cooperation) and the [Associated Press](https://apnews.com/article/china-change-6-moon-samples-probe-nasa-c8aa729d0e026349231a05914f9f69f4) had reported CNSA’s Vice Administrator Bian Zhigang stating that the US remove the legal obstacles to allow for regular Sino-US cooperation in space. Either way, looking ahead, China is firmly on track to launch the [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#the-instrumental-and-increasingly-international-7) and [Chang’e 8](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/#prepare-for-crew-and-double-down-with-mission-eight) spacecraft to the Moon’s south pole in 2026 and 2028 respectively. This will be followed by [landing humans on Luna](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/) by end of decade, and then building a hybrid crew-robotic [long-term Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/) in the 2030s. **P.S.** The Chang’e 6 mission itself is not done yet. Continuing the trend, [CNSA has repurposed its orbiter module](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-193/) to enable future deep space missions. --- *Many thanks to* [***The Orbital Index***](https://orbitalindex.com) *and* [***Gordon Roesler***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/gordon-roesler-687a0426) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday! If you too love this curated community resource, please join them and* [*support my independent writing*](https://jatan.space/support)*.* --- ## More mission updates - To my query regarding the [lander testing aspect](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-moon-landers/) of ispace Japan’s upcoming [second Moon mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-193/), the company has told me in an email response that their engineers have completed field testing of lander sensors in lunar-like environments at multiple locations worldwide. The software suite used to simulate the spacecraft’s ability to softly land on the Moon has also been updated for the mission’s chosen landing site. As such, following the [failed lunar touchdown attempt](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-129/) with the [M1 mission](https://jatan.space/ispace-japan-m1-moon-mission/) in April 2023, ispace has expanded its lunar lander testing plan to improve the chances of a successful touchdown this time around. Recall that ISRO’s [focus on enhanced testing](https://jatan.space/kalpana-kalahasti-chandrayaan-3-nature/), including with a [dedicated simulations group](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/chandrayaan-3-lunar-conquerors-unsung-heroes-indias-chandamama-dream/articleshow/103488457.cms), played a key role in [Chandrayaan 3’s successful Moon landing](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) last year since the simulations characterized the lander’s ability to recover from off-nominal trajectories. It also checked each redundant path the Chandrayaan 3 lander could’ve successfully taken during its autonomous descent. Here’s hoping that ispace achieves the same outcome. - The team behind the upcoming NASA-funded [Lunar Trailblazer orbiter](https://jatan.space/nasa-lunar-trailblazer/)—which will provide scientists with unprecedented high-resolution global maps of the amount, distribution, and state of [water](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) across the Moon—continues to churn out great [mission infographics](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/objectives.html). This is something more missions should do for public outreach. Having recently [successfully passed](https://blogs.nasa.gov/trailblazer/2024/09/11/nasas-lunar-trailblazer-spacecraft-completes-environmental-testing/) the standard series of [launch and space environmental tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/), Trailblazer is on track for launch as a rideshare alongside [Intuitive Machines’ second Moon lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-189/) early next year. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/09/lunar-trailblazer-objective-water-stability-in-permanently-shadowed-regions.jpg) [Image: Isabelle Adamczewski / Lunar Trailblazer team](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/objectives.html) ## More Moon - Lunar Outpost, the company sending rovers on [two upcoming Moon missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-189/) part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), has developed a Moondust sensor for future lunar missions. Its data will be useful to better protect astronauts and hardware in long-term habitats. Notably, this solar-powered wireless sensor is [also being used on Earth](https://www.nasa.gov/technology/tech-transfer-spinoffs/measuring-moon-dust-to-fight-air-pollution-2/) to detect a variety of pollutants. - ESA’s [Pangaea campaign](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/CAVES%5Fand%5FPangaea/What%5Fis%5FPangaea) to train future astronauts in geology continues with the latest batch learning how to [spot meteorites on the Moon](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2024/09/19/meteorite-hunters/). Such an activity is important as it expands the scientific output from future crewed lunar missions to [evolutionary processes in the wider Solar System](https://jatan.space/solar-system-history-101/). - Andrew Parsonson [reports](https://europeanspaceflight.com/nasa-greenlights-next-phase-of-italian-lunar-habitat-project/) that, following a [preliminary design study](https://www.asi.it/en/2022/06/artemis-mission-signed-agreement-between-asi-and-nasa), a NASA review board has approved the development of the Multi-Purpose Habitat module for [Artemis Basecamp](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept) to be led by the Italian Space Agency (ASI). To be launched and placed on the Moon sometime in the 2030s, the module—being developed [by Thales Alenia](https://europeanspaceflight.com/asi-awards-contract-to-continue-development-of-moon-base)—can host two astronauts for up to 30 days nominally while a larger crew can stay for short periods during emergencies. The module will have wheels so it can reposition itself on the Moon’s surface as needed for smooth operations. It will take at least two years to complete the habitat module’s development after which its flight model can be constructed. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/09/asi-thales-artemis-multi-purpose-habitat-module-illustration.jpg) Illustration of Italy’s mobile Multi-Purpose Habitat module for Artemis. [Image: Thales Alenia Space](https://x.com/Thales%5FAlenia%5FS/status/1836694467778060792) ### Moon Monday #193: Repurposing lunar missions to enable deep space exploration, and launches on the horizon URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-193/ Last updated: 2024-11-17T17:11:44.000Z *After a week full of chores, writing this week’s Moon Monday yesterday and today has made me feel alive again. Hope you enjoy this edition as there’s a lot to contextualize!* 🤓 ## Continuing the trend, China repurposes Chang’e 6 orbiter module ![](https://cdn.magicpages.co/spaceimpact.mymagic.page/2024/05/change-6-spacecraft-stack.jpg) The Chang’e 6 spacecraft stack, with the lander and orbiter module prominently visible. [Image: CNSA](https://www.leonarddavid.com/category/space%5Fnews/) The Chang’e 6 orbiter module, which [enabled China to bring valuable farside lunar samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-182/) to Earth a few months ago, has been detected at the second Sun-Earth Lagrangian Point (L2) as of [September 9](https://x.com/coastal8049/status/1833008721087037729) by enthusiastic spacecraft tracker Scott Tilley. On June 25 after the orbiter module released Chang’e 6’s sample capsule [for atmospheric reentry](https://spacenews.com/change-6-delivers-first-lunar-far-side-samples-to-earth-after-53-day-mission/) on Earth, CNSA commanded the orbiter module to steer away from our planet and subsequently maneuvered it into a trajectory that has now placed it in the Earth-Sun L2 region. Here the Chang’e 6 orbiter module will [presumably](https://spacenews.com/change-6-orbiter-turns-up-at-sun-earth-lagrange-point-after-moon-sampling-mission/) test operations for China’s upcoming exoplanet hunting telescope called [Earth 2.0](https://spacenews.com/china-to-launch-earth-2-0-exoplanet-observatory-in-2028/). This region of space is currently host to flagship astronomy missions by other space agencies such as the NASA-led [JWST](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/) and [ESA Gaia](https://jatan.space/from-hipparchus-to-gaia/). While China remains characteristically mum about official Chang’e 6 updates, the development fits the long-followed trend by CNSA of repurposing Chang’e spacecraft after their primary Moon missions have been accomplished. In fact, the [first lunar craft to visit Sun-Earth L2](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465652/n6465653/c6478796/content.html) is China’s Chang’e 2 orbiter. Later on, CNSA also made the spacecraft [fly past asteroid 4179 Toutatis](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/sbag/meetings/jan2013/presentations/sbag8%5Fpresentations/TUES%5F0930%5FCE%5FToutatis.pdf) at a close distance of 3.2 kilometers. Chang’e 2 thus enabled China to test its communications, tracking, and maneuvering abilities for farther, deep space missions. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/09/chang-e-2-mission-destinations-1.jpg) Destinations explored by the Chang’e 2 spacecraft: The Moon, Sun-Earth L2, and an asteroid. [Image: NAOC / CAS/ Chunlai Li / Han Li](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/sbag/meetings/jan2013/presentations/sbag8%5Fpresentations/TUES%5F0930%5FCE%5FToutatis.pdf) After Chang’e 5-T1 [performed a practice mission](https://chinaspacereport.wordpress.com/spaceflight/change5t1/) in October 2014 ahead of CNSA launching the [Chang’e 5 sample return mission](https://jatan.space/change-5-landing-site/) in 2020, the T1 orbiter module entered the same halo orbit at Earth-Moon L2 that the [Queqiao 1](https://www.planetary.org/articles/0519-change-4-relay-satellite) communications relay satellite would eventually use for helping successfully execute the [Chang’e 4](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/change-4) mission on the [Moon’s farside](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). After Chang’e 5 delivered lunar samples to Earth, CNSA also maneuvered its orbiter module away from our planet and placed it in the [Sun-Earth L1 region](http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2021-03/19/c%5F139822288.htm) in March 2021\. Later in December 2021, it was brought back to the Moon and put it [in a Distant Retrograde Orbit](https://skyriddles.wordpress.com/2022/01/25/change-5-returns-to-the-moon) (DRO). This is the same orbit that two Chinese spacecraft launched earlier this year, DRO-A and DRO-B, are [now present at](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-190/#china-avoids-a-lunar-mission-failure). The craft pair are part of China’s broader [in-progress lunar communications and navigation network](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-185/) of Queqiao satellites, and specifically aim to test laser-based navigation and timing between the Moon and the Earth-orbiting [DRO-L](https://spacenews.com/china-launches-20-satellites-on-separate-inland-and-sea-rocket-launches/#:~:text=Little%20is%20known,satellite%20around%20March.) satellite. Another recent Moon mission that performed extended and repurposed goals after accomplishing the original mission is India’s [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/). A few months after the Chandrayaan 3 lander [touched down on the Moon](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/), ISRO pulled the mission’s [propulsion module](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/science/chandrayaan-3-mission-150kg-fuel-left-in-propulsion-module-life-span-now-years/articleshow/102866268.cms) from lunar orbit [to Earth orbit](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-157/) against the nominal plan, thereby demonstrating a small but key capability that will be required to pull off a robotic sample return mission in the future with [Chandrayaan 4](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/#chandrayaan-4-sample-return). The propulsion module also hosted [experimental nuclear radioactive heating units](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/science/nuclear-energy-keeps-chandrayaan-3-propulsion-module-going/articleshow/104834737.cms) to enable [future Moon missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/) that could tout lunar night survival, something ISRO did not disclose before and after launch. ISRO also had the Chandrayaan 3 lander perform an [unexpected last-minute hop](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-143/) toward the end of its surface mission. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/03/farside-moon-and-earth-change-5-t1.jpg) Earth and our Moon as seen from beyond the lunar farside by China’s Chang’e 5 T1 test spacecraft on October 28, 2014\. [Image: CAST](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/earth-and-the-moon-from-change5t1) Back to the Chang’e side of things, a future experiment with the aforementioned Queqiao communications network will also enable better deep space exploration. Chinese researchers have suggested that when coupled with Earth-based ground stations, the Queqiao network can help CNSA track deep space missions with sub-kilometer accuracy all the way to Jupiter and possibly beyond. Queqiao 2 will test an element of this during the [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#the-instrumental-and-increasingly-international-7) mission, which is currently targeting a 2026 launch. As noted by Chi Wang, et al. in a [December 2023 paper](https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwad329) on the scientific objectives of Chang’e 7, the LOVEX payload onboard the Queqiao 2 satellite will perform a deep space craft tracking experiment: > The LOVEX on the relay satellite is used \[sic\] to construct a 400 000-km baseline Moon–Earth VLBI measurement and observation experiment system to improve the accuracy of orbit determination in deep space and to carry out astrometry and astrophysics observation and study. ## Second ispace Moon mission on the horizon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/09/ispace-m2-lander-resilience.jpg) ispace Japan’s second Moon lander, named RESILIENCE, at JAXA’s Tsukuba Space Center. Also seen integrated into the lander is ispace’s first rover TENACIOUS. [Image: ispace](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=6120) ispace [announced](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=6109) on September 10 that their first rover [TENACIOUS](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4954) has been integrated into their [second Moon lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-154/) RESILIENCE. On September 12, the company [revealed](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=6120) that the landing site for this M2 mission will be in the lava plains of Mare Frigoris (Sea of Cold) at [60.5° N, 4.6° W](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?prjExtent=-193208.8151159%2C1414120.8709056%2C91768.6418938%2C1575486.3113064&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&isCesiumEntityDetailsEnabled=true&showCompass=true&trailType=1&wideTrail=true&features=-4.60000000%2C60.50000000%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22ispace+Japan+M2+mission+landing+site%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKWbJYNOZLRfImq3ioA&proj=10). The lander is now progressing through the [standard series of launch and space environmental tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/) at JAXA’s Tsukuba Space Center after passing which it can be shipped to Cape Canaveral, Florida for launch on a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket no earlier than December 2024. ispace previously announced on June 27 that the lander [passed thermal vacuum testing](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=5527), a major element of the aforementioned standard pre-launch tests. ispace engineers have also verified commanding the lander and receiving data from it, and performed other unspecified tests. For the mission’s [lander testing aspect](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-moon-landers/), ispace had said after the [failed lunar touchdown attempt](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-129/) with the [M1 mission](https://jatan.space/ispace-japan-m1-moon-mission/) in April 2023 that it will conduct additional field testing of landing sensors to further improve the chances of a successful touchdown this time around. The company told me in an email response that their engineers have completed said sensor testing in lunar-like environments at multiple locations around the world. The software suite used to simulate the spacecraft’s ability to softly land on the Moon has also been updated for the aforementioned landing site. ispace Europe, which designed the TENACIOUS rover, [completed](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=5593) building it in July. The subsidiary [completed environmental testing](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=5243) of the rover’s qualification model in April. The 54-centimeter wide, 5-kilogram micro-rover made of carbon fiber-reinforced plastics will explore the Moon’s surface with an HD camera on its front and back. The rover will also have a back-mounted shovel from Epiroc AB using which it will [collect lunar soil](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=3696) and [transfer its ownership](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-companies-to-collect-lunar-resources-for-artemis-demonstrations) to NASA as part of the latter’s move to set precedence for future resource use under the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords/). ispace Europe developed the micro rover with funding aid from the Luxembourg Space Agency under an ESA contract. Other than the rover, the M2 lander will carry [three payloads](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4954): a water-splitting experiment by Takasago, an algae-based food production module by Euglena, and a deep space radiation monitoring probe by Taiwan’s National Central University. While Israel-based Helios earlier intended to have its [(claimed) scalable technology](https://www.timesofisrael.com/making-oxygen-from-moon-sand-startup-eyes-long-term-life-in-space/) of [extracting oxygen](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-153/) from lunar soil [to be onboard](https://www.calcalistech.com/ctech/articles/0,7340,L-3912810,00.html) M2, the payload either wasn’t ready for flight or it isn’t on the manifest for some other reason(s). --- *Many thanks to* [***Open Lunar Foundation***](https://www.openlunar.org)*,* [***Marc Rayman***](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B0PbFp-y6Dc) *and* [***Gurbir Singh***](https://gurbir.co.uk) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday!* *If you too love this curated community resource, kindly* [*join them*](https://jatan.space/support) *and support independent writing & journalism—via* [*PayPal*](https://jatan.space/paypal)*,* [*UPI*](https://jatan.space/upi) *or* [*Patreon*](https://jatan.space/patreon) *(less preferred).* --- Another mission that’s approaching launch is the NASA-funded [Lunar Trailblazer](https://jatan.space/nasa-lunar-trailblazer/) science orbiter, which has now successfully passed [launch and space environmental testing](https://blogs.nasa.gov/trailblazer/2024/09/11/nasas-lunar-trailblazer-spacecraft-completes-environmental-testing/). The mission’s two science instruments were [integrated with the spacecraft](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasas-lunar-trailblazer-gets-final-payload-for-moon-water-hunt) last year. Lockheed Martin, who built the spacecraft and will be the launch integrator, is [performing](https://blogs.nasa.gov/trailblazer/2024/09/11/nasas-lunar-trailblazer-spacecraft-completes-environmental-testing/) final flight system software tests while Caltech—from where the science team will control the orbiter—is testing spacecraft communications and navigation via simulated runs with NASA’s Deep Space Network antennae. After these tests are complete, Trailblazer will shipped to Florida for integration with a Falcon 9 rocket, where it will launch as a rideshare alongside [Intuitive Machines’ second Moon lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-189/) early next year. Trailblazer will provide scientists with unprecedented, high-resolution global maps of the amount, distribution, and state of water across our Moon. It will also help us better understand [several other key scientific aspects](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/lunarGeologicSettings.html) of Luna. Mission intern Filo Merid had created a [nice infographic](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/news/trailblazerDataGraphic.html) summarizing Trailblazer’s scientific goals. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/09/lunar-trailblazer-mission-science-summary-infographic.jpg) [Image: Filo Merid](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/news/trailblazerDataGraphic.html) ## More Moon - China takes another step towards realizing a [crewed Moon landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/) by [creating a test stand](http://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4193399/content.html) which can simulate the kind of high-altitude and vacuum conditions that the “Lanyue” [lunar lander](https://spacenews.com/china-unveils-lunar-lander-to-put-astronauts-on-the-moon) will go through during its lunar descent and touchdown. The stand will allow the lander’s main engine to be tested for its full burn duration of up to 20 minutes. Apparently the test system took only eight months to complete, [according to Li Guanghui from CAST](https://news.cgtn.com/news/2024-09-12/Asia-s-largest-high-altitude-test-stand-for-space-engines-put-into-use-1wPlSsnIOZy/p.html). - In April, the US White House [asked NASA](https://spacenews.com/white-house-directs-nasa-to-develop-lunar-time-standard/) to develop a strategy by the end of 2026 for creating an independent time standard for the Moon, a Coordinated Lunar Time (LTC) that ties back in to Earth’s UTC. Now NASA [says](https://www.nasa.gov/solar-system/moon/nasa-to-develop-lunar-time-standard-for-exploration-initiatives/) it is coordinating with US government stakeholders, partners, and international standards organizations to establish the same. The lunar time will be determined by a weighted average of atomic clocks at the Moon, similar to how we calculate time on Earth for UTC. Aside: [Elizabeth Gibney’s article](https://web.archive.org/web/20230126063252/https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-00185-z) from last year explains why an independent lunar time is desirable, how ESA and NASA have already been working towards the same, and how it would enable swarms of spacecraft to better and safely operate at Luna. - [What Artemis astronauts will experience at the Moon’s south pole](https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/moon/phenomena-nasa-astronauts-will-encounter-at-moons-south-pole/) ### Moon Monday #192: From trying to revive VIPER to advancing Australian lunar technologies URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-192/ Last updated: 2024-09-09T13:33:53.000Z ## The latest effort to save VIPER ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/07/nasa-viper-rover-illustration.jpg) Illustration of the VIPER rover exploring the Moon’s south pole. [Image: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/lets-get-building) Members of the US Congress are stepping up efforts in the [ongoing scramble](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-188/) to save the [VIPER rover mission](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/), which was envisioned to uniquely study [lunar water](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) deposits. Specifically, [representatives in the House Committee on Science, Space, and Technology](https://science.house.gov/press-releases?ID=1DA1E494-9EC1-4B20-AD46-4C8719B749C7) wrote an [open letter](https://republicans-science.house.gov/%5Fcache/files/f/b/fbcd6110-269b-469d-b857-fea63c251c10/2FC7B235A9BDA73EAAC27505794D6FB1.hsst-to-nasa---viper-termination-letter.pdf) to the NASA chief on September 6 questioning the agency’s intent to [cancel the mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-186/) by remarking on its strategic and scientific implications. The letter then elicits NASA to provide alternate paths that could be pursued to revive the mission. Hopefully, this effort goes well but to truly save VIPER as envisioned, ultimately the US Congress needs to provide the necessary additional funding to NASA, which is not the case right now. Jack Kiraly [reported](https://www.planetary.org/articles/senate-fy-2025-nasa-budget-proposal) recently that the US Senate’s NASA funding proposal for FY2025 does not include an explicit mention of VIPER or any funding increase necessary to save the project. Note that this situation is worse than the earlier one, wherein the [draft NASA budget](https://planetary.s3.amazonaws.com/assets/pdfs/FY2025-HAC-CJS-Committee-Report-NASA-Section.pdf) from the US House of Representatives—the lower house in the US Congress—had at least proposed up to $75 million extra in funding for lunar science. As Michael Greshko [noted](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/nasa-cancels-its-viper-moon-rover/) then, it could’ve potentially allowed NASA to allocate needed funding to VIPER—albeit at the cost of some other mission or program since the overall budget remains flat. Now with the Senate proposal, even that doesn’t seem to be an option. What can us enthusiastic observers do in the meantime while this scramble plays out? You can increase support for VIPER’s revival by [signing a letter](https://forms.gle/XDSzTra4NPSS1VC27) addressed to members of the US Congress—even if you’re not a US citizen like myself. ## Aussie advances toward Luna continue Australia’s latest lunar technology building effort comes from the energy company entX, who is [building a radioisotope heater unit](https://www.space.gov.au/news-and-media/projects-in-action-aug-2024-entx) (RHU) that utilizes nuclear power to enable landers and rovers to survive frigid lunar nights for “several months to up to five years.” Following funding from the Australian Space Agency’s [Moon to Mars initiative](https://www.space.gov.au/moon-mars-initiative) for a feasibility study and an early prototype, entX is now building the RHU with the notable support of the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organization (ANSTO). The ultimate intent is to fly the RHU on a US lunar surface mission, wherein the key challenge will be to navigate the US’ [Nuclear Flight Safety and Launch Approval](https://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc/regulatory/research/space-nuclear-safety.html) process. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f7253caed-c821-4f8e-a2a5-fe840abd9a70_1875x1400-jpeg.jpg) An illustration showing Fleet Space’s SPIDER seismometer deployed on the Moon’s surface by the Firefly Blue Ghost lander. [Image: Firefly](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-announces-agreement-with-fleet-space-to-deliver-payload-to-the-moon) entX’s RHU project represent the latest advance in Australia’s ongoing strategy to enter the US space industry supply chain with [NASA as the key partner](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-97/). Last year, also as part of [Moon to Mars Demonstrator Grants](https://business.gov.au/grants-and-programs/moon-to-mars-initiative-demonstrator-mission-grants/grant-recipients), the Australian Space Agency funded three lunar technology projects: 1. $3.4 million to *Advanced Navigation* for providing US-based Intuitive Machines with a [LiDAV navigation sensor](https://www.advancednavigation.com/news/advanced-navigation-awarded-5-2m-in-funding-from-australian-space-agency-for-future-lunar-exploration) for the company’s [second or third CLPS mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-189/). The [Micro Nova](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/intuitive-machines-and-nasa-finalize-contract-for-extreme-lunar-mobility-spacecraft) hopper from Intuitive Machines could also use said LiDAV sensor for autonomous navigation. 2. $3 million for a ground station for the NASA Artemis [Orion](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) capsule’s high bandwidth [optical laser communications terminal](https://esc.gsfc.nasa.gov/news/Lasers%5FLight%5Fthe%5FWay%5Ffor%5FArtemis%5FII%5FMoon%5FMission) in support of the [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii) crewed circumlunar flight. Relatedly, the US and Australian governments co-announced in May 2023 that Australia will [establish a new ground station](https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2023/05/20/australia-united-states-joint-leaders-statement-an-alliance-for-our-times) to support crewed Artemis missions. Conversely, Intuitive Machines utilizes commercial ground station services [from CSIRO](https://web.archive.org/web/20210331172826/https://www.csiro.au/en/news/News-releases/2021/CSIROs-Dish-to-support-one-of-the-first-commercial-Moon-landings)’s high-bandwidth [Parkes dish](https://www.csiro.au/en/about/facilities-collections/ATNF/Parkes-radio-telescope-Murriyang) in Australia for its robotic lunar missions. 3. $2.4 million to *Fleet Space* for building a [miniature seismic station](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-153/#another-seismometer-enters-the-moon-chat) called SPIDER on the lunar surface that will work for up to 14 Earth days. Firefly [announced](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-announces-agreement-with-fleet-space-to-deliver-payload-to-the-moon) last November that its [second Moon lander](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-picks-firefly-aerospace-for-robotic-delivery-to-far-side-of-moon), aiming to touchdown on the lunar farside in 2026 as part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), will carry and deploy the SPIDER payload. The seismometer will operate by tapping into lander-provided power and communications services, much the same as how the [seismometer](https://www.isro.gov.in/Ch3%5FILSA%5FListens%5FLanding%5FSite.html) deployed by ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) lander operated. SPIDER will offer scientists insights into the physical structure and nature of the local crust and subsurface, including hints of resources such as [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). **Also see:** [*Another seismometer enters the Moon chat*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-153/#another-seismometer-enters-the-moon-chat) --- *Many thanks to* [***Astrolab***](https://astrolab.space)*,* [***Kris Zacny***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/kris-zacny-8a71ba1)*,* [***Kyle Acierno***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/kyleacierno/) *and* [***Marc Rayman***](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B0PbFp-y6Dc) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday!* *If you too love this curated community resource,* [*join them*](https://jatan.space/support) *and support independent writing and journalism, via* [*PayPal*](https://jatan.space/paypal)*,* [*UPI*](https://jatan.space/upi) *or* [*Patreon*](https://jatan.space/patreon) *(less preferred).* --- ## More mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/09/luna-26-orbiter-illustration-2.jpg) Illustration of the Luna 26 orbiter. [Image: Lavochkin Association, JSC](https://www.laspace.ru/en/activities/projects/luna-resurs-oa/?ELEMENT%5FCODE=luna-resurs-oa) - Following the Russian Luna 25 lander’s [crash on the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-141/) last year, the Director General of Roscosmos Yury Borisov [had said](https://tass.com/science/1697627) that the agency planned to launch the [Luna 26 polar orbiter](https://www.laspace.ru/en/activities/projects/luna-resurs-oa/?ELEMENT%5FCODE=luna-resurs-oa) a year earlier than originally planned, that is, in 2026 instead of 2027\. Now, TASS [reports](https://tass.com/science/1837831) Russia’s First Deputy Prime Minister also stating the same intent. However, planetary exploration missions by Roscosmos continue to face delays since substantial funding has been diverted to Russia’s invasion of Ukraine and to counter its diplomatic effects. Either way, when Luna 26 does launch like its predecessor Luna 25 [eventually managed to](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-140/), the orbiter will contribute useful data towards planning of the China-led long-term scientific station at the Moon’s south pole called the [International Lunar Research Station](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/) (ILRS). That’s so because the orbiter’s primary goal is to map the distribution of [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and minerals on the Moon from altitudes as low as 50 to 80 kilometers. Relatedly, Russia [signed a law](http://publication.pravo.gov.ru/document/0001202406120003?index=1) on June 12 ratifying its involvement in the China-led Moonbase. - ESA is [hiring research fellows](https://jobs.esa.int/job/Noordwijk-Internal-Research-Fellow-%28PostDoc%29-in-the-Directorate-of-HRE-at-ESTEC-or-EAC/1113249401/) to study the lunar radiation environment via the agency’s [scientific involvement](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-162/#a-gist-of-gateway-science) in the upcoming NASA-led [Gateway lunar orbital habitat](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/gateway/). Alternately, the agency is also funding proposals from research fellows that advance lunar surface prospecting and resource utilization technologies via landed missions, such as the recently announced European [PROSPECT payload](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-191/). - Speaking of the Gateway, NASA engineers are progressing well on the [mini water dispenser](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iv-gateway-gadget-fuels-deep-space-dining/) that the station’s astronauts will use to rehydrate their food. ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/03/farside-moon-and-earth-change-5-t1.jpg) Earth and our Moon as seen from beyond the lunar farside on October 28, 2014 by China’s Chang’e 5 T1 test spacecraft. [Image: CAST](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/earth-and-the-moon-from-change5t1) - Andrew Jones [reports](https://spacenews.com/senegal-among-new-members-of-chinas-ilrs-moon-base-project/) that on September 5, Senegal became the 13th country to join the China-led [ILRS Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/) project. Jones also notes how a total of 10 subnational institutes from the UAE, Switzerland, Pakistan, Indonesia, Africa, Panama, and Serbia also formally joined the ILRS project, bringing the number of non-country signees to around 25. - The [Global Exploration Roadmap document](https://www.globalspaceexploration.org/wp-content/isecg/GER2024.pdf#page=26) from the International Space Exploration Coordination Group ([ISECG](https://www.globalspaceexploration.org/?page%5Fid=257)) has been updated for 2024, after six years. The document focuses on upcoming robotic orbital and surface missions from many countries around the globe which could act as necessary capability demonstrations before crewed exploration can be sustained the future. The document goes on to say that these missions “form a de-facto international polar exploration campaign” but that’s farther away from where global lunar exploration stands right now. While Section 8 of the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords/) does promote member nations—and not private entities—to share scientific data with the international scientific community, we’ll have to wait and see if it extends beyond active partnerships like [NASA-KARI](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-110/) and within [ISRO-NASA](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/#isro-aids-artemis), wherein data from the South Korean and Indian orbiters is actively used to plan [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/) missions. ### Moon Monday #191: A stream of CLPS and Artemis lunar mission updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-191/ Last updated: 2024-09-02T16:17:46.000Z ## Intuitive Machines to launch a fourth Moon mission for NASA ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/08/intuitive-machines-lander-with-drill-illustration.jpg) Illustration of the Nova-C lander on the Moon’s south pole. [Image: Intuitive Machines](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/nasa-intuitive-machines-announce-landing-site-location-for-lunar-drill) NASA has awarded Intuitive Machines a [$116.9 million contract](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-awards-intuitive-machines-lunar-south-pole-research-delivery/) to deliver six science & technology payloads to the Moon’s south pole in 2027\. The mission part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) is the fourth and largest such task order contract the company has bagged. Two of the mission’s experiments stand out (to me) in particular. First, similar to the CubeSat-hosted [BioSentinel](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/ames/first-deep-space-biology-experiment-begins-follow-along-in-real-time/) biological experiment launched into deep space by NASA on [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-i/), the [LEIA experiment](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/ames/what-is-the-lunar-explorer-instrument-for-space-biology-applications/) on Intuitive Machines’ Nova-C lander will measure the impact of deep space radiation on yeast. The researchers chose yeast because their cells have many similar DNA damage and repair mechanisms as human cells. Terrestrial facilities can’t fully simulate the unique radiation environment of deep space so this study will lend us more insights on its effects on biological life as NASA seeks to establish [long-term human presence](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept) on the Moon. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/09/esa-prospect-drill-and-lab.jpg) The PROSPECT lunar drill (left) and ProSPA (right), an automated miniaturized laboratory by ESA to detect and study volatile resources such as water ice on the Moon. Image: [Leonardo](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2024/08/Prospect%5Fs%5Flunar%5Fdrill) / [Open University](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2024/08/ProSPA%5Flunar%5Fspace%5Flab) Second, the Nova-C lander will host and operate the ESA-provided [PROSPECT](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Prospect%5Fsearching%5Ffor%5Fwater%5Fat%5Fthe%5Flunar%5Fpoles) payload suite, which includes a one-meter drill, a powerful oven, two spectrometers, and more aspects of a mini robotic lab. The goal is to excavate frigid subsurface regolith to detect and study [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other such volatile resources it may contain. Following the [precursor NASA experiment on the second CLPS mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-189/) by Intuitive Machines with more instruments, PROSPECT will provide scientists with an enhanced understanding of lunar volatiles. Moreover, PROSPECT also aims to be one of the first to demonstrate [extracting oxygen from lunar soil](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-153/), a capability that will help sustain long-term activities on the Moon. ESA has an [excellent explainer page](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Prospect%5Fsearching%5Ffor%5Fwater%5Fat%5Fthe%5Flunar%5Fpoles) for details on every aspect of PROSPECT. **Wait, where’s the Aussie rover?** It was expected that Australia’s [first lunar rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-97/), called [Roo-ver](https://www.space.gov.au/meet-roo-ver), will be on the same mission as PROSPECT, wherein the rover would fetch lunar soil for compositional studies too. But NASA made no mention of the rover’s inclusion in the aforementioned [CLPS news release](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-awards-intuitive-machines-lunar-south-pole-research-delivery/). Roo-ver is specifically intended to explore the Moon’s south pole, and given that no other upcoming planned CLPS contract announcements remain with a landing site in that region, the omission is noteworthy—and hopefully not a sign of potential cancellation or further delays. ## Queue another CLPS lander ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/09/firefly-blue-ghost-first-clps-lander.jpg) The fully assembled ‘Blue Ghost’ lunar lander. [Image: Firefly](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-aerospace-shipped-blue-ghost-for-environmental-testing-ahead-of-mission-to-the-moon/) After completing the assembly of its ‘Blue Ghost’ lander, Firefly has [sent it to NASA JPL](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-aerospace-shipped-blue-ghost-for-environmental-testing-ahead-of-mission-to-the-moon/) for [launch loads and space environmental testing](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/) ahead of a Q4 launch on a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket. For Firefly’s [first CLPS Moon mission](https://fireflyspace.com/missions/blue-ghost-mission-1/), the Blue Ghost lander aims to descend in the [lava plains of Mare Crisium](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-70/#firefly-selects-goldilocks-landing-site-for-its-first-moon-mission) at 18.56°N, 61.81°E. It carries [10 NASA sci-tech payloads](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-firefly-aerospace-for-artemis-commercial-moon-delivery-in-2023), which will primarily study the lunar environment. One of the lander’s legs will host [PlanetVac](https://www.planetary.org/sci-tech/planetvac), a low-cost soil sampling technology partially funded by The Planetary Society to enable future sample return missions from the Moon and Mars. The mission will also be NASA’s first attempt to get a [GPS lock from the Moon](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2021/nasa-explores-upper-limits-of-global-navigation-systems-for-artemis). And for the mission’s [lander testing aspect](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-moon-landers/), Firefly previously conducted nearly 100 drop tests on lunar soil simulants and sand to [qualify the legs](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-aerospace-completes-blue-ghost-lunar-lander-structure-ahead-of-moon-landing-for-nasa) of the lander. [William Coogan](https://www.linkedin.com/in/william-coogan-a01334a9), Firefly’s chief lunar lander engineer [told me earlier this year](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-moon-landers/) that the team “even tested leg drops on concrete because it’s harder than anything we’ll land on.” Firefly has also built a one-acre moonscape to test via a heavy-lift drone the lander’s hazard avoidance and terrain-relative navigation capabilities to ensure a safe landing during the final descent. --- *Thanks to* [***Off Planet Research***](https://offplanetresearch.com) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday. If you too love this curated community resource,* [*join them*](https://jatan.space/support) *and support independent writing and journalism, via* [*PayPal*](https://jatan.space/paypal)*,* [*UPI*](https://jatan.space/upi) *or* [*Patreon*](https://jatan.space/patreon) *(less preferred).* --- ## Those pesky valves ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f8f9e36c4-a320-4b0f-928a-beed9811da80_1950x1300-jpeg-1.jpg) Astrobotic’s first Moon lander Peregrine pre-launch. [Image: John Thornton](https://www.linkedin.com/feed/update/urn:li:activity:6998697480980676609) Continuing their [excellent mission transparency](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-159/), Astrobotic has [published findings](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-completes-peregrine-mission-one-review-board-and-publishes-findings/) from the team of experts who investigated why the company’s first lunar lander Peregrine [failed shortly after its launch](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-159/) in January. Essentially, a pressure control valve which supplied helium to the oxidizer tank failed mechanically due to launch vibrations. The valve being unable to close led to helium flowing uncontrollably into the lander’s oxidizer tank, rapidly over-pressurizing it and leading to a rupture. Astrobotic acknowledged that the particular valve was launched as is despite it being known to be a potential mission risk, explaining that it had passed acceptance tests prior to its assembly into the lander. To avoid this failure on their next Moon mission with the Griffin lander, which though now [won’t carry NASA’s VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-186/), Astrobotic will use redesigned valves along with pressure regulators. On a related note concerning Peregrine’s propulsion system, a recent [report on CLPS](https://oig.nasa.gov/office-of-inspector-general-oig/audit-reports/nasas-commercial-lunar-payload-services-initiative/) published by NASA’s Office of Inspector General (OIG) revealed that Astrobotic hadn’t adequately flight-qualified the lander’s main engine prior to launch, and how the issue could cascade to Griffin: > Both Astrobotic’s Peregrine and Griffin landers use the same engine and tank subcontractors with a scaled up TALOS axial engine for Griffin. Due to engine delivery delays and testing performance issues, the Peregrine TALOS axial engines were never subjected to qualification levels or fired for full duration prior to its flight. Presumably, Astrobotic will avoid this issue too with Griffin. Here’s hoping that Griffin’s landing late next year is successful, which would bring online a commercial lander with substantial payload capacity and precision landing ability. ## Cost plus plus ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/09/sls-rocket-block-1-and-1b-mobile-launcher-comparison.jpg) Capability comparison of the Mobile Launcher 1 and the Mobile Launcher 2 for hauling their respective SLS rockets. [Image: NASA OIG](https://oig.nasa.gov/office-of-inspector-general-oig/audit-reports/nasas-management-of-the-mobile-launcher-2-project/) Another [scathing report](https://oig.nasa.gov/office-of-inspector-general-oig/audit-reports/nasas-management-of-the-mobile-launcher-2-project/) from NASA’s Office of Inspector General (OIG) about the Mobile Launcher 2, which will haul the heavier [Block 1B](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/sls%5Flift%5Fcapabilities%5Fand%5Fconfigurations%5F508%5F08202018%5F0.pdf) SLS rocket variant for Artemis launches starting [Artemis IV](https://www.nasa.gov/general/nasas-artemis-iv-building-first-lunar-space-station/), reveals that NASA will end up paying its prime contractor Bechtel at least $1.8 billion, which is $1.4 billion more than the [originally contracted amount](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-awards-contract-for-second-mobile-launcher-at-kennedy-space-center/) in 2019\. Even then, the delivery of Mobile Launcher 2 is expected to miss the new [already-delayed](https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/06/nasas-second-mobile-launcher-is-too-heavy-years-late-and-pushing-1-billion/) deadline of 2027\. The OIG doesn’t just blame Bechtel for poor performance but as Marcia Smith [highlights](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-ig-issues-another-harsh-report-on-nasa-management-of-mobile-launcher-2/), the report calls out NASA for consistently poor management too. File this situation under the increasingly stressful episodes of [Artemis cannot catch a break](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-187/#artemis-cannot-catch-a-break) and [Artemis IV faces yet another BLOCK-er](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-188/#artemis-iv-faces-yet-another-block-er). From the outside, it seems ridiculous that a crucial mission like [VIPER can get cancelled](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-186/) for a hundred million dollar gap—despite it [being central](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) to Artemis itself—while other projects related to the SLS rocket can just keep ballooning by a billion dollars, and then some more. Yes, I know it’s not how budget appropriations work, and that VIPER can’t just get money from other projects, but it doesn’t change the fact that the [scramble to save VIPER](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-188/) is questionable programmatically too. ## More Moon - The entire [crew](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) of the [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii) lunar flyby mission [underwent lunar geology training](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/news/articles/2024/2024-08-22-artemis-ii-crew-refines-lunar-geology-skills-in-iceland.asp) for almost two weeks in the Moon-like frozen and volcanic landscapes of Iceland. Last year, two Artemis II astronauts [spent almost a week](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/blog/2023/09/19/15-photos-of-lunar-geology-training-in-canada.asp) exploring the [Kamestastin meteorite impact crater](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mistastin%5Fcrater) in Canada. Leading both these expeditions for CSA and NASA is Dr. Gordon Osinski, who was recently selected as part of the [12-person](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-selects-geology-team-for-the-first-crewed-artemis-lunar-landing)[Geology Team](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-selects-geology-team-for-the-first-crewed-artemis-lunar-landing) for NASA’s [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/) crewed landing mission mid-decade. Similar to ESA’s [Pangaea campaign](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/CAVES%5Fand%5FPangaea/What%5Fis%5FPangaea), where NASA also [sends its Artemis astronauts](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2021/09/16/kate-and-the-moon) for moonwalk training, the aim is to better equip all Artemis crew to refine spacewalking techniques and identify interesting rocks and potential [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) samples for inspection. - ISRO continues to [work alongside](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-184/#coordinating-lunar-traffic) NASA and KARI to avoid potential collisions between the active (near-)polar lunar orbiters from the three space agencies. From ISRO’s [July monthly summary report](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/Monthly%5Fsummary/Monthly%5FSummary%5FJuly2024Eng.pdf): > Extensive coordination was carried out to resolve the 12th July, 2024 close approaches between Chandrayaan 2 Orbiter (CH2O) and Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) of NASA, including an online meet on 9th July 2024\. Based on SSOM’s request, NASA team made special arrangements to quickly provide the orbital ephemeris after LRO momentum unload manoeuvre on 10th July, 2024 which helped to rule out any CAM requirement for CH2O. Necessary screening was done through BEARCAT (Beyond Earth Collision Avoidance Tool) for OM-85 scheduled on 23rd July, 2024 for CH2O, it resolved the potential close conjunction risks with Korea Pathfinder Lunar Orbiter (KPLO) on 25th July, 2024. - The University of Arizona is [hiring a postdoctoral researcher](https://arizona.csod.com/ui/internal-career-site/app/job-details/20330) to dive deeper into how the Moon’s interior formed and evolved with the [use of high pressure-temperature experiments](http://ananyamallik.squarespace.com/). ### Indian Space Progress #19: On the new rocket in town, and many mission updates URL: https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-19/ Last updated: 2024-09-23T10:11:11.000Z ## A nimble new launch(er) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/08/sslv-d3-eos-08-illustration.jpg) The SSLV rocket and EOS-08 satellite. [Illustration and images: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/Missions/SSLVD3/SSLV-D3%5FMission%5FBrochure130824.pdf) On August 16, ISRO [launched](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DRmxoAb6vlo&t=1604s) its smallest and newest rocket SSLV, which successfully [placed](https://www.youtube.com/live/DRmxoAb6vlo?feature=shared&t=2430) the agency’s 175-kilogram EOS-08 Earth observation satellite into its intended 475-kilometer circular orbit. The satellite carries a number of [novel technological components](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/Missions/SSLVD3/SSLV-D3%5FMission%5FBrochure130824.pdf) as well as an [innovative remote sensing method](https://www.isro.gov.in/GNSS%5FReflectometry.html) to study soil, surfaces, and water bodies based on reflected GPS & GNSS navigation signals. The SSLV also carried Chennai-based startup Space Rickshaw’s 540-gram [Deployer X](https://www.linkedin.com/posts/spacerickshaaw%5Fspace-rickshaw-brochure-activity-7229157733206282241-h6id/), the world’s lightest satellite deployer which is now proven to work in space since it [successfully deployed](https://www.youtube.com/live/DRmxoAb6vlo?feature=shared&t=2560) the startup-designed [demonstration nano-satellite](https://www.linkedin.com/posts/riftron%5Fits-been-a-long-time-coming-space-rickshaw-ugcPost-7230570533761732609-VnAG/). Now that the SSLV has demonstrated two consecutive successful orbital launches, ISRO now considers the rocket to be operational. With a purported sticker price of [around $4 million](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/science/isros-sslv-launches-eos-8-a-milestone-in-cost-effective-space-exploration/articleshow/112569721.cms) and a fast, modular [4-day assembly](https://www.wionews.com/science/isros-sslv-a-rocket-that-can-be-launched-anytime-from-anywhere-says-sdsc-director-504332), India intends to start commercially flying the SSLV for payloads up to 500 kilograms, putting it squarely against Rocket Lab’s Electron and the Firefly Alpha in terms of mass class. However, said US launchers have progressed faster between the SSLV’s [previous flight](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-02/) in February 2023 and now. Electron has [flown many times](https://spacenews.com/rocket-lab-launches-capella-space-sar-satellite/), including with [repeat customers](https://spacenews.com/rocket-lab-launches-fifth-synspective-satellite/), and Firefly has had two successful launches while also bagging multi-launch agreements for tens of flights [with L3Harris](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-aerospace-announces-second-multi-launch-agreement-with-l3harris-for-up-to-20-alpha-launches/) and [Lockheed Martin](https://spacenews.com/firefly-inks-multi-launch-deal-with-lockheed-martin-for-alpha-rocket-rides/) respectively. Of course, SpaceX’s Falcon 9 Transporter flights are [eating into lunches of other rockets](https://spacenews.com/small-launch-companies-struggle-to-complete-with-spacex-rideshare-missions/) anyway—despite [its price hike last year](https://payloadspace.com/spacex-increases-rideshare-prices)—but the Falcon 9’s exceptionally high demand means the 2-year average wait time to fly cheap will certainly not work for enough customers, leaving some room for other launchers. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/08/sslv-rocket-stage-being-transported.jpg) The nozzle-end segment of the SSLV rocket’s first stage being transported. [Image: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/SSLV%5FD1%5FGallery.html) In any case, the launch vehicles that should worry the most about SSLV’s existence are from India’s own aspiring private launch companies such as Skyroot and Agnikul, who might find themselves [strapped for customers](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-16/) against ISRO itself. And, regardless of the SSLV’s global commercial competitiveness, ISRO will keep improving the rocket for the country’s own civil and strategic needs—just as the other ISRO launch vehicles exist to [ensure independent access to space](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-03/) for India. This will end up creating potential commercial benefits too anyway. The SSLV is [set to be productionized](https://www.livemint.com/companies/news/isro-arm-targets-10-commercial-sslv-launches-by-2026-11678114241233.html) via an impending [industry handover](https://www.inspace.gov.in/inspace?id=inspace%5Fsslv%5Ftransfer%5Ftech%5Fpage), with a notional target of as many as [ten yearly launches](https://www.livemint.com/companies/news/isro-arm-targets-10-commercial-sslv-launches-by-2026-11678114241233.html) by 2026\. Realistically though, this goal might be a couple of years out but will be good to achieve either way. In parallel, ISRO has [begun making](https://techcrunch.com/2024/02/28/india-isro-new-spaceport-small-rocket-launches/) a dedicated 8 square-kilometer spaceport at [Kulasekarapattinam](https://maps.app.goo.gl/7zqyoZJtrdz5PfcD9) in Tamil Nadu. While Sriharikota will remain India’s primary spaceport, the new port will be dedicated for launching SSLV rockets and small-lift private launchers starting 2026\. The new spaceport will enhance the performance of the SSLV for sun-synchronous polar orbits because then it won’t need to follow a less fuel efficient curved path in order to avoid flying over Sri Lanka. ## Gaganyaan updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/08/axiom-space-ax-4-iss-crew.jpg) Crew of the Ax-4 Mission set to fly to the International Space Station aboard a SpaceX Crew Dragon capsule. Images: [Axiom](https://www.axiomspace.com/news/ax4-countries-crew)[Space](https://brandfolder.com/axiomspace/missions) - ISRO [announced](https://www.isro.gov.in/ISRO%20Press%20Release-SFA%20Signing.html) on August 2 that it has selected Group Captains Shubhanshu Shukla and Prasanth Balakrishnan Nair as two of the [four Gaganyaan Indian astronaut candidates](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-13/) to undergo advanced training at NASA’s Johnson Space Center. After the training, Shubhanshu Shukla will fly to the International Space Station (ISS) early 2025 via the NASA-enabled [*Ax-4* Axiom Space private mission](https://www.axiomspace.com/news/ax4-countries-crew) aboard a SpaceX Crew Dragon capsule as the Mission Pilot, with Prasanth Nair being his backup. NASA’s international ISS partners will need to approve for the Ax-4 crew to fly. - The ISS mission will provide ISRO with experience to feed into India’s ambition to [indigenously send humans](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-13/) to Earth orbit. The next major milestone towards that end is Gaganyaan G1, the first of three uncrewed test flights of the Gaganyaan spacecraft before ISRO deems it safe enough to launch astronauts. We learn from [responses to queries](https://sansad.in/getFile/loksabhaquestions/annex/182/AU396%5FVLdYoN.pdf?source=pqals) in the Lok Sabha—the Indian equivalent to the US House of Representatives—and from updates in ISRO’s [July monthly summary](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/Monthly%5Fsummary/Monthly%5FSummary%5FJuly2024Eng.pdf) that the agency has realized several critical ground facilities for Gaganyaan, including independent spacecraft training and mockup simulators for preparing astronauts pre-flight and apparently facilities to test the Gaganyaan crew module’s environmental oxygen control systems too. Ground stations needed during Gaganyaan missions are nearing completion as well. For Gaganyaan G1, ISRO has readied the human-rated LVM3 rocket’s core liquid stage and twin solid boosters for integration, and is nearing full assembly of the mission’s crew and service modules as well. --- *Many thanks to the* [***Takshashila Institution***](https://takshashila.org.in)*,* [***KaleidEO***](https://satsure.co/kaleidEO)*,* [***PierSight***](https://piersight.space)*,* [***Gurbir Singh***](https://gurbir.co.uk) *and *Nitish* for sponsoring this month’s Indian Space Progress report. If you too love my work of trying to capture true trajectories of Indian space,* [*join them and support*](https://jatan.space/support) *independent writing and journalism!* --- ## Dive into the latest on Chandrayaan Moon missions ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/08/ch3-rover-apxs-measurements-of-lunar-crust.jpg) ****Top left:** The Chandrayaan 3 rover rolling out of the lander’s ramp during pre-launch testing; ****Bottom left:** The co-added spectrum from the 23 lunar surface observations made by the rover’s APXS instrument; ****Right:** An artist’s concept of our Moon shortly after its formation, with a magma ocean and a newly forming rocky crust. Images: [ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan3%5Fcurtainraiser%5Fvideo.html) / [Santosh Vadawale, et al.](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07870-7.epdf?sharing%5Ftoken=4ZQFD5zK9GT9acs31FeVNNRgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0MR1M6jsWV0QR20SmA7k7Hvrkyl3GgMk99HFFb15nD09447WpwTLcpEaBgvj9C4YhThW7GJgQ7WgMAckZYS0fZ6FTf8RdEwv0eX%5FN4HvzLxBwhFq2fqKCzi0YsrWI%5FcfAQ%3D) / [NASA Goddard](https://www.dlr.de/content/en/articles/news/2020/03/20200710%5Fa-slightly-younger-moon.html) - **Dive deeper:** [On the importance of the Chandrayaan 3 rover and its contribution to learning about our Moon’s origin](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-190/) - **Blog post:** [On (not) celebrating Chandrayaan 3’s Moon landing, or that of Apollo](https://jatan.space/on-celebrating-moon-landings/) - **Video:** [India’s increasingly complex upcoming Chandrayaan Moon missions](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qv0YTtEcKVU) (Article on which it’s based: ) ### More Chandrayaan updates - ISRO has finally [made available](https://pradan.issdc.gov.in/ch3) an initial set of peer-reviewed Chandrayaan 3 lander and rover payload data online, which is accessible by anyone after free registration. ISRO’s data portal, called Pradan ISSDC, is compliant with NASA’s Planetary Data System (PDS). And so [just as with the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-44/), Chandrayaan 3 data is available in the latest PDS4 format for international researchers to easily utilize it. - ISRO’s not-yet-commissioned [Chandrayaan 4](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/#chandrayaan-4-sample-return) lunar sample return mission now has a [more refined architecture](https://www.reddit.com/r/ISRO/comments/1ezaixh/isro%5Fofficial%5Fstream%5Ffor%5Fnational%5Fspace%5Fday%5F2024), with the current aim being to bring 3 to 5 kilograms of samples, which has increased the mass of the [five-module spacecraft stack](https://x.com/iamkrishradha/status/1826942336821277042/photo/2) by about 30% to nearly 10,000 kilograms. That’s roughly twice the maxed out GTO payload capacity of India’s most powerful rocket, the [Launch Vehicle Mark III](https://www.isro.gov.in/GSLVmk3%5FCON.html) (LVM3). Since LVM3 has less than half the capacity of China’s Long March 5 rocket which enabled CNSA to undertake the [Chang’e 5](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) and [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) sample return missions, ISRO’s approach with Chandrayaan 4 instead involves two rocket launches from Earth. ISRO will soon submit a funding proposal to the Indian government for commissioning Chandrayaan 4. - ISRO continues to [work alongside](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-184/#coordinating-lunar-traffic) NASA and KARI to avoid potential collisions between the active (near-)polar lunar orbiters from the three space agencies. From ISRO’s [July monthly summary report](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/Monthly%5Fsummary/Monthly%5FSummary%5FJuly2024Eng.pdf): > Extensive coordination was carried out to resolve the 12th July, 2024 close approaches between Chandrayaan 2 Orbiter (CH2O) and Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) of NASA, including an online meet on 9th July 2024\. Based on SSOM’s request, NASA team made special arrangements to quickly provide the orbital ephemeris after LRO momentum unload manoeuvre on 10th July, 2024 which helped to rule out any CAM requirement for CH2O. Necessary screening was done through BEARCAT (Beyond Earth Collision Avoidance Tool) for OM-85 scheduled on 23rd July, 2024 for CH2O, it resolved the potential close conjunction risks with Korea Pathfinder Lunar Orbiter (KPLO) on 25th July, 2024\. ## More mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/08/nisar-payloads-and-spacecraft-bus-assembly.jpg) The NISAR satellite in a clean room at ISRO-URSC in Bangalore. [Image: VDOS-URSC](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/powerful-nasa-isro-earth-observing-satellite-coming-together-in-india) - The launch of the [$1.5+ billion](http://syntheticapertureradar.com/nasa-isro-sar-project-nisar), high-profile [NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar](https://nisar.jpl.nasa.gov) (NISAR) Earth observation satellite has been [delayed to H1 2025](https://spacenews.com/nisar-launch-slips-to-2025/) because the L-band SAR antenna from NASA JPL [needs additional thermal coating](https://blogs.nasa.gov/nisar/2024/07/29/nasas-work-on-nisars-antenna-reflector-nears-completion/) to protect it against higher than expected temperatures. Post-launch, NISAR will observe nearly our entire planet every 12 days to reveal ongoing changes in Earth’s crust, polar ice, climatic processes, biomass, agricultural regions, and more. The satellite will also be used for disaster management, whereby its data will be available within a few hours after observations. NASA has a [good overview](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/nisar/nasa-isro-radar-mission-to-provide-dynamic-view-of-forests-wetlands) of how NISAR’s advanced radar system will specifically help scientists better monitor deforestation and wetland flooding. - ISRO Chief S. Somanath [has said](https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/chandrayaan-4-and-5-design-complete-70-satellites-likely-to-be-launched-in-5-years-isro-chief/article68546904.ece) that ISRO is re-evaluating the [Shukrayaan](https://jatan.space/isro-venus-orbiter-launch-2024/) Venus orbiter mission, which essentially puts it on the back-burner. Amid a [tight budget](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-18/), ISRO has been prioritizing [Gaganyaan and Chandrayaan missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/) to the point where the Shukrayaan project has been unable to secure a launch vehicle for even formalizing the final mission proposal, another sign that ISRO’s planetary science program does not have an overarching theme like NASA, ESA, and CNSA do. From an infrastructure standpoint, a way out of this can be if ISRO successfully [increases the production rate and payload capacity](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-16/#preparing-for-human-spaceflight) of its most powerful rocket LVM3 within the next several years. A steady flow of LVM3s could finally allow the agency to equitably serve not just its human spaceflight and commercial launch ambitions but its planetary missions too, which have otherwise been deprioritized [even with Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-09/#chandrayaan-3-updates). ## Private space updates - Bangalore-based startup GalaxEye [raised $6.5 million](https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/tech/funding/space-tech-startup-galaxeye-raises-6-5-million-in-first-round-led-by-mela-ventures-speciale-invest/articleshow/112176206.cms?from=mdr) towards developing and launching their first Earth observation & reconnaissance satellite, which will tout multi-sensor capabilities: specifically simultaneously optical and radar imaging, which the company [has been testing](https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/tech/technology/galaxeye-tests-all-weather-all-time-imaging-tech-for-defence-ops-disaster-management/articleshow/110309562.cms?from=mdr) with drone flights this year. - Bangalore-based EtherealX has [raised $5 million](https://techcrunch.com/2024/08/05/indias-etherealx-puts-5m-seed-toward-fully-reusable-launch-vehicles/) in seed funding with rather bold claims about building a fully reusable medium-lift launch vehicle that can “comfortably capture 30-40%” of the commercial launch market. Needless to say, take the claim with ample grains of salt. - **Sponsored job listings:** [PierSight is hiring](https://piersight.space/careers) a Senior FPGA Engineer, an Embedded Hardware Engineer, and a RF High Power Amplifier Designer to join the team in building a constellation of SAR and AIS satellites to provide persistent monitoring of all human and industrial activities at sea. ### Moon Monday #190: On the varied importance of the Chandrayaan 3 rover, and more mission updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-190/ Last updated: 2024-08-27T08:39:31.000Z *Grab some tea, coffee, or beverage of your choice because this week’s Moon Monday is a sci-tech deep dive!* 🌝 ## Chandrayaan 3 contributes to learning our Moon’s origin and evolution ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/08/ch3-rover-apxs-measurements-of-lunar-crust.jpg) ****Top left:** The Chandrayaan 3 rover rolling out of the lander’s ramp during pre-launch testing; ****Bottom left:** The co-added spectrum from all 23 lunar surface observations measured by the rover’s APXS instrument; ****Right:** An artist’s concept of our Moon shortly after its formation, with a magma ocean and a newly forming rocky crust. Images: [ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan3%5Fcurtainraiser%5Fvideo.html) / [Santosh Vadawale, et al.](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07870-7.epdf?sharing%5Ftoken=4ZQFD5zK9GT9acs31FeVNNRgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0MR1M6jsWV0QR20SmA7k7Hvrkyl3GgMk99HFFb15nD09447WpwTLcpEaBgvj9C4YhThW7GJgQ7WgMAckZYS0fZ6FTf8RdEwv0eX%5FN4HvzLxBwhFq2fqKCzi0YsrWI%5FcfAQ%3D) / [NASA Goddard](https://www.dlr.de/content/en/articles/news/2020/03/20200710%5Fa-slightly-younger-moon.html) The [first ever ground-based measurements](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07870-7) of [high-latitude](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/#the-moment-of-touchdown) lunar soil and rocks made by the Chandrayaan 3 rover’s Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer (APXS) instrument have reinforced the scientific hypothesis that [our Moon formed fully molten](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/) about 4.5 billion years ago. This key mission finding [published in *Nature*](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07870-7.epdf?sharing%5Ftoken=4ZQFD5zK9GT9acs31FeVNNRgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0MR1M6jsWV0QR20SmA7k7Hvrkyl3GgMk99HFFb15nD09447WpwTLcpEaBgvj9C4YhThW7GJgQ7WgMAckZYS0fZ6FTf8RdEwv0eX%5FN4HvzLxBwhFq2fqKCzi0YsrWI%5FcfAQ%3D)by a group of ISRO-affiliated scientists is based on the detected elements and their abundances, from which mineral composition of the Moon’s crust can be inferred, and it’s largely similar to the crustal measurements made in the Moon’s equatorial and mid-latitude regions by past landers. Interestingly, the Chandrayaan 3 rover *Pragyan* (‘wisdom’ in English) also detected slightly higher quantities of heavier minerals than elsewhere on the Moon, which scientists think must’ve been excavated to the surface from deep within the crust and/or the mantle by a [gigantic past impact](https://www.lroc.asu.edu/images/219) (geologically) shortly after our Moon’s formation, thereby lending credence to our current understanding of [how Luna evolved](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) as well. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/08/ch3-rover-apxs-measurements-of-lunar-crust-and-mantle.jpg) ****Top left:** A simplified illustration of how the Moon’s crust formed with lighter minerals floating and solidifying up top as the global magma ocean cooled; ****Top right:** An illustration showing an asteroid impact excavating deeper crustal and mantle material onto the surface, which later on gets mixed with the uppermost crust by subsequent smaller impacts; ****Bottom:** Measured elemental and inferred mineral compositions of the lunar surface at the Chandrayaan 3 landing site. The lighter mineral Plagioclase dominates the crust but the heavier Pyroxene and Olivine are present too. Images: [LPI](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/LEA/presentations/OpeningPlenary/Pieters%5FNAC%5FNRCpresentation.pdf) / [PRL](https://www.prl.res.in/ch3apxs/) ### The varied importance of these findings The ISRO-affiliated PRL institute, which led the development of the Pragyan rover’s APXS instrument, has [many more details](https://www.prl.res.in/ch3apxs/) on their website. And so instead I’d like to highlight the importance of this work beyond what is already conveyed and covered by ISRO briefings and the media. 1. While Pragyan’s findings may have been similar to past missions, the fact that the elemental measurements come from a [unique region](https://doi.org/10.1093/mnrasl/slad106) on the Moon is important. Had the rover’s APXS measured a sufficiently different ground truth, it would’ve substantially changed our understanding of the nature and extent of the magma ocean thought to envelop baby Luna. For example, factions of scientists have continued to counter-hypothesize that our Moon was either [only partially molten](https://doi.org/10.1038/nature10328) ([PDF](https://www.academia.edu/download/60498765/Borg%5FNature201120190905-102493-qjf321.pdf)) after its formation or that the lunar crust [didn’t solidify homogeneously enough](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-020-0559-4) ([PDF](https://drive.google.com/file/d/19RcAgVv-q57an4Fu6iGpipZ7LvOLm-PH/view)) as otherwise suggested by dominant global magma ocean models. The measured compositional ground truth from Chandrayaan 3 is thus uniquely important in casting a metaphorical wide net across the Moon. 2. Chandrayaan 3’s ground truth measurements will also serve as a unique [calibration point](https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/chandrayaan-3-pragyan-rover-ferroan-anthrosite-evidence-magma-ocean-young-moon/article68551128.ece) for orbital measurements of high-latitude and sub-polar regions on the Moon, and in *some cases* fill-in for polar sites too. Nearly all previous orbital observations of these regions interpreted data based on extrapolations from past missions that landed far from these regions. 3. Pragyan was India’s first planetary rover. As such, its traverse path was optimized heavily for engineering safety than scientific return, more so than your typical tradeoff in a planetary science mission. Furthermore, due to the team facing more roving difficulties than expected amid the high-latitude lunar environment and uneven local topography, Pragyan roved about 100 meters from the lander, which is shorter than the originally expected drive of 300–400 meters. There’s no doubt that more elemental measurements from [distinct areas in the landing region](https://doi.org/10.1093/mnrasl/slad106) would’ve increased Chandrayaan 3’s scientific oomph. But the apt way to view Pragyan is to consider it the Indian analog to NASA’s first rover on Mars, Sojourner, which [demonstrated foundational roving technologies](https://jatan.space/nasa-mars-pathfinder-mission/) based on which the agency iterated and sent [increasingly ambitious](https://jatan.space/how-nasa-choses-mars-landing-sites/) Mars roving explorers all the way up to the sophisticated [Perseverance](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/mars-2020-perseverance/). With India’s lunar landing and roving foundations set, the next set of [increasingly complex Moon missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/) from ISRO should be very exciting from a scientific standpoint. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/08/ch3-rover-apxs-instrument-deployment-source-landing-site-and-measurement-locations.jpg) ****Top left:** The Chandrayaan 3 Pragyan rover’s APXS instrument shown in stowed and deployed states; ****Top right:** The instrument head showing the locations of the detector and the radioactive Curium-244 source central to APXS; ****Bottom:** The Chandrayaan 3 landing site, and specific locations (shown as squares) where the Pragyan rover made measurements with APXS. [Images: ISRO / PRL](https://www.prl.res.in/ch3apxs/apxs%5Finstrument) 1. The Pragyan rover’s APXS instrument ([webpage](https://www.prl.res.in/ch3apxs/apxs%5Finstrument) and [PDF](https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.1910.09232)) had to overcome many challenges before it could fly to the Moon. It’s a miniaturized X-ray spectrometer weighing a mere 0.7 kilograms. The rover itself is a micro one, weighing only 26 kilograms compared to the beefier rovers that Russia and China have sent before. The principal investigator of APXS, [Santosh Vadawale](https://scholar.google.co.in/citations?user=-X7GaNkAAAAJ&hl=en), previously described to me the key challenges in realizing the instrument, [saying](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/): “For APXS to work, it has to be within 5 centimeters of its target. It took multiple design iterations to make such a mass-constrained instrument deployable without a traditional robotic arm.” ISRO’s solution was to mount the instrument horizontally on the rover’s front looking at a calibration target, and then rotate it by 90 degrees during stops to study the material below it. Procuring the radioactive Curium-244 source for APXS was another challenge. Vadawale noted that it was “available only from Russia, even for NASA’s Mars rovers needing the same”. The APXS lead engineer [M. Shanmugam](https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=QBzG9e8AAAAJ&hl=en) had added that “its procurement started in 2010, and took about 7 years.” --- *Many thanks to* [***The Orbital Index***](https://orbitalindex.com)*,* [***Dany Waller***](https://danywaller.github.io/) *and* [***Narayan Prasad***](https://www.narayanprasad.com) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday. If you love this curated community resource too,* [*join them and support*](https://jatan.space/support) *independent writing and journalism.* --- ## More Chandrayaan updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ff919f736-2a6d-48cf-a89a-1d8c329ecea9_2700x1800-jpeg.jpg) The Chandrayaan 3 lander plus orbiter stack mounted in an acoustic chamber for pre-launch testing. [Image: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan%5F3%5FModule%5FDynamic%5FTests.html) - Research results from [other Chandrayaan 3 instruments](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/#a-lunar-region-never-explored) should follow soon. In the meanwhile, a year after the mission, ISRO has finally [made available](https://pradan.issdc.gov.in/ch3) an initial set of peer-reviewed Chandrayaan 3 lander and rover payload data online, which is accessible by anyone after free registration. ISRO’s data portal, called Pradan ISSDC, is compliant with NASA’s Planetary Data System (PDS). And so [just as with the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-44/), Chandrayaan 3 data is available in the latest PDS4 format for international researchers to easily utilize it. - **Blog post:** [On (not) celebrating Chandrayaan 3’s Moon landing, or that of Apollo](https://jatan.space/on-celebrating-moon-landings/) - ISRO’s not-yet-commissioned [Chandrayaan 4](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/#chandrayaan-4-sample-return) lunar sample return mission now has a [more refined architecture](https://www.reddit.com/r/ISRO/comments/1ezaixh/isro%5Fofficial%5Fstream%5Ffor%5Fnational%5Fspace%5Fday%5F2024), with the current aim being to bring 3 to 5 kilograms of samples, which has increased the mass of the [five-module spacecraft stack](https://x.com/iamkrishradha/status/1826942336821277042/photo/2) by roughly 30% to nearly 10,000 kilograms. That’s roughly twice the maxed out GTO payload capacity of India’s most powerful rocket, the [Launch Vehicle Mark III](https://www.isro.gov.in/GSLVmk3%5FCON.html) (LVM3). Since LVM3 has less than half the capacity of China’s Long March 5 rocket which enabled CNSA to undertake the [Chang’e 5](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) and [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) sample return missions, ISRO’s approach with Chandrayaan 4 instead involves two rocket launches from Earth. ISRO will soon submit a funding proposal to the Indian government for commissioning Chandrayaan 4. ## China avoids a lunar mission failure ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/08/cas-dro-a-b-and-l-spacecraft-comms-trio.jpg) A schematic diagram of DRO-A, DRO-B, and DRO-L spacecraft testing laser-based navigation between Earth and the Moon. [Image: Journal of Deep Space Exploration / SCMP](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3275415/china-space-engineers-kick-doomed-satellite-pair-life-lunar-orbit) The Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) has managed to have the DRO-A and DRO-B twin spacecraft enter their intended lunar distant retrograde orbits (DRO) after all, Ling Xin [reports](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3275415/china-space-engineers-kick-doomed-satellite-pair-life-lunar-orbit) after following up on a tantalizing [slide upload](https://web.archive.org/web/20240820083736/https://tieba.baidu.com/photo/p?kw=航天&flux=1&tid=9137096379&pic%5Fid=89d981cb39dbb6fd40a17c074f24ab18972b3718&pn=1&fp=2&see%5Flz=1&post%5Fid=150798555851) on social media. After the (unannounced) March 13 launch of the satellites on a Long March 2C rocket, an upper stage failure [left them in Earth orbit](https://spacenews.com/surprise-chinese-lunar-mission-hit-by-launch-anomaly/) instead of Moonward. But it seems that, as was [first reported](https://spacenews.com/china-appears-to-be-trying-to-save-stricken-spacecraft-from-lunar-limbo/) by Andrew Jones, CAS commanded a series of Earth perigee burns to raise their orbits, and then put them in lunar DRO anyway. While this remedy consumed more fuel than nominally expected and will reduce the mission duration and/or its achievable objectives, it nevertheless means that China has managed to avoid a failure, continuing their uniquely impressive streak of successful lunar missions. DRO-A and DRO-B are a broader part of the [in-progress lunar communications and navigation network](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-185/) of Queqiao satellites. They specifically aim to test laser-based navigation and timing between the Moon and the Earth-orbiting [DRO-L](https://spacenews.com/china-launches-20-satellites-on-separate-inland-and-sea-rocket-launches/#:~:text=Little%20is%20known,satellite%20around%20March.) satellite. China is yet to provide a formal update on the mission though, continuing to be utterly opaque. Relatedly, in a [recent paper](https://doi.org/10.11728/cjss2024.03.2023-0129) published in the Chinese Journal of Space Science, researchers proposed that China should integrate their Queqiao lunar satellites with the existing Earthbound Tianlian ones, which notably serve—among other things—China’s Tiangong space station. As Andrew Jones had [highlighted](https://spacenews.com/china-could-develop-dual-relay-satellite-system-for-earth-moon-communications-to-reduce-geopolitical-risks/), the proposal’s driving rationale is to substantially improve surface coverage time and area for China’s upcoming ambitious [crewed lunar missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/) leading to a [full-fledged Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/). It will also ensure redundancy if and when China faces ground station availability issues from its Moonbase partners across the globe. ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/08/nasa-xemu-lunar-spacesuits-infographic.jpg) Features of the next-generation spacesuit to be worn by Artemis astronauts. [Image: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/exploration-extravehicular-mobility-unit-xemu/) - Axiom Space is partnering with Nokia to [add 4G/LTE communications](https://spacenews.com/axiom-space-and-nokia-partner-to-develop-high-speed-wireless-communications-for-spacesuits/) to their [AxEMU suit](https://www.axiomspace.com/axiom-suit), which astronauts will wear during the crewed [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii) lunar surface mission later this decade. It will offer astronauts a redundant communication option as well as increased bandwidth for streaming astronaut Moonwalks, which should also help mission scientists on Earth [better inform astronauts](https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-01533-3) which rocks to select for inspection and return to Earth. This 4G/LTE demonstration with crew would follow the robotic one [on Intuitive Machines’ second Moon mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-189/) flying in less than a year as part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). - As an aside, Axiom has been testing how well the AxEMU suits could allow astronauts to perform [tasks related to handling samples](https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/axiom-space-tests-lunar-spacesuit-at-nasas-johnson-space-center) on the Moon. [Chosen competitively](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-80/), the suits offer enhanced mobility than the current [EMU suits](https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/extravehicular-mobility-unit-emu) used in Earth orbit. They also sport upgraded insulation and cooling for the harsh lunar polar environment, a back hatch to climb into and close the spacesuit by oneself, a HD helmet cam, and even a light band. - After previously raising [$2.5 million](https://www.removepaywall.com/https:/techcrunch.com/2023/09/26/starpath-robotics-wants-to-unlock-off-world-colonies-by-mining-moon-water-for-rocket-fuel) in 2023, lunar startup Starpath Robotics has now raised $12 million, Tim Fernholz [reports](https://payloadspace.com/starpath-raises-12m-for-lunar-ice-mining/). Starpath has big plans to mine [lunar water](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and soil, [extract oxygen](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-153/) from it, and then sell processed liquid oxygen to companies planning to regularly operate hardware at the Moon. The latter could include, after end of decade, Blue Origin with its [Blue Moon lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/) as well as SpaceX with its [upgraded Lunar Starship](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-spacex-second-contract-option-for-artemis-moon-landing-0). The company says it will use the new capital infusion to build terrestrial demonstrations of their envisioned mining system ahead of building hardware for Luna. - Following NASA’s selection of three crew-capable [Lunar Terrain Vehicle](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-171/) rover proposals for Artemis, and the subsequent release of white papers on [lunar mobility](https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/acr24-lunar-mobility-drivers-and-needs.pdf) and [lunar cargo](https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/acr24-lunar-surface-cargo.pdf) summarizing the agency’s thinking on these key elements shaping their [Moon to Mars architecture](https://www.nasa.gov/moontomarsarchitecture), NASA is now [asking the industry to conduct studies](https://www.nasa.gov/general/nextstep-r-lunar-logistics-and-mobility-studies/) for an integrated end-to-end solution for managing, transporting, and disposing surface cargo part of future habitats or active sites. With [such a consultative process](https://spacenews.com/nasa-releases-architecture-for-human-exploration-of-the-moon-and-mars), NASA hopes to optimally [refine](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-96/#nasa-updates-moon-to-mars-objectives-on-feedback) its Moon to Mars Objectives and the strategies employed to achieve them. --- *This month I’ve received reader donations for my* [***Moon Monday***](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) *blog & newsletter from space enthusiasts in 4 countries: the US, Australia, India, and the UK. I love serving a genuinely international audience, and will keep doing it. If you too find value in my writings,* [***see and join all supporters here***](https://jatan.space/support)*. 🚀🌗* ### On celebrating Chandrayaan 3’s Moon landing, or that of Apollo URL: https://jatan.space/on-celebrating-moon-landings/ Last updated: 2024-08-23T15:06:23.000Z Many readers have asked me this week if I plan on blogging something today for the anniversary of [Chandrayaan 3’s Moon landing](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/), which India now celebrates as [National Space Day](https://www.isro.gov.in/NSPD2024/). The answer is the same as what I do for Apollo anniversaries: *Nothing*. Don’t get me wrong. I’m thrilled that as more countries explore our cosmic companion ([such as South Korea](https://jatan.space/moon-moment-for-south-korea/)), people globally are now gaining diverse ways, days, and missions to celebration lunar exploration. To that end, Chandrayaan 3 is very important to me personally too because I have [watched it launch](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-136/#feeling-the-chandrayaan-3-launch) from Sriharikota, [covered its landing](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) from ISRO, [interviewed its Associate Project Director](https://jatan.space/kalpana-kalahasti-chandrayaan-3-nature/) for *Nature*, and [delivered a talk](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-163/#speaking-at-esa) on the mission at ESA in Netherlands. But I’m personally just [not the kind](https://journal.jatan.space/yes-and-no/) to buzz on meta events of any sort. Heck, I might even start new years with a call for realizing [how insignificant we are](https://jatan.space/earth-universe-size-comparison/) on a cosmic scale. On a more serious and professional note though, with my [Moon Monday](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) blog+newsletter, I celebrate and communicate civil lunar exploration efforts by any country *every single week*. In India’s case, I’ve been extensively covering developments and outcomes from [the Chandrayaan program](https://jatan.space/tag/chandrayaan/) for years now. And I push the need for international [collaboration](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-188/) and [outreach](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/leag2023/technical%5Fprogram/?session%5Fno=104) everywhere I can. My key driving factor across it all is for us to prioritize endurance. As veteran planetary scientists can attest, rooting for the Moon doesn’t start or stop with a single mission or program. Moon Monday will be here when a [NASA Artemis](https://jatan.space/tag/artemis/) crew lands on polar lunar soil or when [increasingly complex Chandrayaans](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/) take off or when astronauts drive [JAXA’s cool pressurized rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-172/) on Luna. But Moon Monday will also be here if Artemis, [CLPS](https://jatan.space/tag/clps/), or the crewed Chandrayaan ambitions get pulled from under the rug, just like [when NASA’s VIPER rover was canceled](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-186/). Of course, one could argue that celebrating meta events and pushing for sustained lunar exploration aren’t mutually exclusive. Even if true, it’s important to remember that our guiding north star be sustained momentum stemming from [fundamental reasons to explore our Moon](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/), and not celebratory or nationalistic spikes on social media or worse yet, [mixing Moon missions with mythology](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-10/) at schools. Just as many inspiring staunch lunatics the likes of late [Paul Spudis](https://spudislunarresources.nss.org), I’m in this ultimate Moon mission for the long run with conviction, and I love and thank everyone who’s [supporting along the way](https://jatan.space/support). *To our Moon,* *–* [*Jatan*](https://jatan.space/about) ### Moon Monday #189: The next lunar missions by Intuitive Machines for NASA CLPS, and more things that orbit Luna URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-189/ Last updated: 2025-03-10T14:59:35.000Z ## First lander to drill on the Moon’s south pole delayed for good ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/08/intuitive-machines-lander-with-drill-illustration.jpg) Illustration of the Nova-C lander on the Moon with its drill. [Image: Intuitive Machines](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/nasa-intuitive-machines-announce-landing-site-location-for-lunar-drill) Jeff Foust [reports](https://spacenews.com/intuitive-machines-seeks-to-take-over-nasas-viper-lunar-rover/) that NASA will provide an additional $12.4 million to Intuitive Machines for its upcoming second Moon landing mission (IM-2) part of the agency’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) for work related to [changing the landing site](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/intuitive-machines-finalizes-landing-site-for-sold-out-im-2-lunar-prospecting-mission) of the Nova-C spacecraft to 89°S. This means IM-2’s CLPS task order amount has now increased from the original [$47 million](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-to-land-water-measuring-payload-on-the-moon) to about $62.4 million. \[The recent [investigation on CLPS](https://oig.nasa.gov/office-of-inspector-general-oig/audit-reports/nasas-commercial-lunar-payload-services-initiative/) by NASA’s Office of Inspector General noted a prior $3 million increase over the original sum\]. The landing site change has in part delayed the mission’s launch target to no earlier than December 2024. Neither Intuitive Machines nor NASA have specified the new site’s coordinates but it’s interesting in any case because the landing site was moved from 85°S to meet the mission’s primary goal of encountering [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). At 89°S, scientists expect better chances of water ice being present within a meter of the surface—the maximum extent of the Honeybee-Robotics-provided [TRIDENT drill](https://www.nasa.gov/polar-resources-ice-mining-experiment-1) aboard the lander. Another payload on Nova-C, the [MSolo](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/viper/rover-and-instruments#MSolo) mass spectrometer, will analyze the material excavated by the drill to identify water ice and other such volatiles, a first such study. Last month, Intuitive Machines [completed hot-firing](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/intuitive-machines-im-2-engine-qualification-advances-cargo-class-lander-development) its in-house developed VR900 methalox engine for the mission, which will improve lander performance over [their first CLPS landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-166/) IM-1\. Jeff Foust has previously [reported](https://spacenews.com/intuitive-machines-making-upgrades-to-second-lunar-lander/) that Intuitive Machines is refining several systems on Nova-C with the hope of bagging full success this time around instead of the partial one with IM-1—which NASA and Intuitive disappointingly [skewed the success criteria](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-166/) of and continues to at various space events when talking about the mission. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f3eb9053d-605c-4e1b-936e-d02b07759999_750x500-jpeg.jpg) Illustration showing Lunar Outpost’s rover on the Moon with deployed antennae for 4G/LTE network testing. [Image: Nokia / Lunar Outpost](https://www.bell-labs.com/institute/blog/a-network-like-no-other-how-nokias-moon-network-differs-from-any-on-earth) The IM-2 mission has more enticing exploration to offer. The Nova-C lander will deploy Lunar Outpost’s [MAPP rover](https://www.lunaroutpost.com/rovers) on the lunar surface, which sports a [near-field depth camera](https://www.media.mit.edu/projects/microsoft-azure-kinect-for-a-lunar-environment/overview) to reconstruct the surface for future astronaut training in virtual reality. The rover itself will deploy a miniature robot called [AstroAnt](https://www.tothemoon.mit.edu/astroant), which will take temperature measurements of the surface. AstroAnt will also inspect physical parts of the MAPP rover to provide a clear view on its health to mission operators. Notably, MAPP will collect some lunar soil and [transfer its ownership](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-companies-to-collect-lunar-resources-for-artemis-demonstrations) to NASA as part of the agency’s move to set precedence for future resource use under the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords/). MAPP will also host antennae from Nokia to test a [4G/LTE network](https://www.nokia.com/networks/insights/network-on-the-moon) on the Moon for NASA, for which Nokia has [gotten an experimental spectrum certification](https://www.bell-labs.com/institute/blog/who-controls-the-airwaves-on-the-moon). The aim is to see how we might enable high-throughput, long-range, and low-latency communications necessary for building a sustainable lunar presence in the future. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/08/intuitive-machines-im-2-micro-nova-hopper-and-flight-plan.jpg) Inaugural mission plan as of June 2023 for the five lunar hops to be performed by Intuitive Machines’ Micro-Nova spacecraft (shown in the inset images). The hops start from where Nova-C, the lander, is marked in the image, and end with going in and out of a permanently shadowed region. Image: Trent Martin / [Intuitive Machines](https://www.linkedin.com/posts/intuitive-machines%5Fintuitive-machines-micro-nova-is-a-miniature-activity-7186726846422556672-rj4G/) Nova-C will also deploy the Intuitive’s own [NASA-supported, $41 million](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/solicitations/tipping%5Fpoints/2020%5Fselections) one-meter tall hopper called [Micro-Nova](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/intuitive-machines-and-nasa-finalize-contract-for-extreme-lunar-mobility-spacecraft). It aims to [hop five times](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-134/) to take high-resolution imagery and other measurements of the surface under its flight path. One hop would be over a [permanently shadowed region](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) to detect potential water ice in there. Trent Martin from the company said at the [European Lunar Symposium](https://sservi.nasa.gov/els2023) in June 2023 that the hopper—which sports two Canadensys high-resolution imagers—was enhanced with multiple instruments over time: - a neutron spectrometer for detecting subsurface hydrogen as indirect signs of [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) - a [DLR-funded radiometer](https://www.dlr.de/en/blog/archive/2024/german-instrument-to-study-moons-eternal-shadows-with-private-mission) for measuring surface temperatures - and a Nokia 4G antenna similar to the one on the MAPP rover **Aside:** The NASA-funded [Lunar Trailblazer](https://jatan.space/nasa-lunar-trailblazer/) orbiter will launch as a rideshare alongside the IM-2 lander. Trailblazer will provide scientists with unprecedented, high-resolution global maps of the amount, distribution, and state of water across our Moon. It will also help us better understand [several other key scientific aspects](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/lunarGeologicSettings.html) of Luna. --- *Many thanks to* [***Open Lunar Foundation***](https://www.openlunar.org)*,* [***Gordon Roesler***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/gordon-roesler-687a0426) *and* [***Gurbir Singh***](https://gurbir.co.uk) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday. If you love this curated community resource too,* [*join them*](https://jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday/) *and support independent writing and journalism.* --- ## NASA CLPS mission to a magnetic swirl also delayed [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/08/reiner-gamma-map.jpg)](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?camera=1084625.74%2C-1772925.4149%2C260502.8894%2C-0.5178%2C0.8464%2C-0.1244%2C-0.0649%2C0.1061%2C0.9922%2C60&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4XyA&isCesiumEntityDetailsEnabled=true&showCompass=true&trailType=1&wideTrail=true&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEoAsjYIHYFcA2vIBvAXwF0lRR1Ed8izyTzhw4oNEQBmOOL6rHgJNGDIA&proj=16) [Click to explore Reiner Gamma on a map](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?camera=1084625.74%2C-1772925.4149%2C260502.8894%2C-0.5178%2C0.8464%2C-0.1244%2C-0.0649%2C0.1061%2C0.9922%2C60&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4XyA&isCesiumEntityDetailsEnabled=true&showCompass=true&trailType=1&wideTrail=true&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEoAsjYIHYFcA2vIBvAXwF0lRR1Ed8izyTzhw4oNEQBmOOL6rHgJNGDIA&proj=16) (Image: NASA / LRO / Quickmap / Jatan Mehta) Intuitive Machines’ [third CLPS mission](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-mission-to-reiner-gamma/) (IM-3) intended to land on the lunar [magnetic swirl of Reiner Gamma](https://jatan.space/swirls-on-the-moon/) is [also delayed](https://spacenews.com/intuitive-machines-seeks-to-take-over-nasas-viper-lunar-rover/)—this one due to “NASA payload delivery dates moving to the right” according to company chief Steve Altemus. IM-3’s launch is now targeted for October or November 2025. It’s not clear which payloads are causing delays though. It was last year that Lunar Outpost [delivered](https://www.lunaroutpost.com/post/lunar-outpost-delivers-first-flight-model-rover-in-record-time) the mission’s [MAPP rover](https://www.lunaroutpost.com/rovers) to the Johns Hopkins University APL for [space environmental testing](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/). The lead of the mission’s [Lunar Vertex](https://www.jhuapl.edu/NewsStory/211018b-lunar-vertex) instrument suite, [David Blewett](https://civspace.jhuapl.edu/people/david-blewett), said at last year’s [NASA Exploration Science Forum](https://sservi.nasa.gov/nesf2023) that all of Vertex’s spectrometers and magnetometers were delivered from their end. Two of these instruments to be aboard the MAPP rover were subsequently integrated with it. Christopher Cokinos later [reported](https://www.astronomy.com/space-exploration/vertex-moon-mission-getting-closer-to-launch/) that Lunar Vertex successfully passed a NASA acceptance review in December 2023, after which the MAPP rover was delivered to Intuitive Machines in January for integration with the Nova-C lander. Secondly, as of March this year, NASA JPL had [completed building](https://www.nasa.gov/technology/nasas-network-of-small-moon-bound-rovers-is-ready-to-roll/) the three shoebox-sized, solar-powered [CADRE rovers](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/game%5Fchanging%5Fdevelopment/projects/CADRE) that Nova-C will deploy during IM-3\. The rovers passed all [standard pre-launch space environmental tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/). Engineers had also tested autonomous driving abilities of the CADRE pack in tandem with each other over at JPL’s [Mars Yard](https://www-robotics.jpl.nasa.gov/gallery/mars-yard-tour-video/) with full-scale [engineering models](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/images/pia25667-cadre-mini-rover-drives-over-a-rock). The flight rovers were then ready to be shipped to Intuitive Machines. It’s not clear if they have reached the company’s facilities yet or what is their lander integration status. The other two IM-3 [mission payloads](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-for-new-lunar-science-delivery/)—a retroreflector and a radiation monitor—are from ESA and KARI respectively so they can’t be part of the NASA payload delays being alluded to above. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/08/jpl-cadre-rovers-in-clean-room.jpg) Members of the NASA CADRE team pose in a JPL clean room with the Moonbound rovers. [Image: NASA / JPL-Caltech](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/images/pia26165-cadre-atlo-team-presents-completed-rovers) In any case, during the mission the Lunar Vertex suite will study the composition of the Reiner Gamma swirl, and map the strength and direction of magnetic fields on its surface. This will help scientists better understand the effects of [solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) and [bombarding micrometeorites](https://jatan.space/the-tiniest-of-impact-craters/) on planetary bodies across our Solar System, and also shape our understanding of the Moon’s evolution. As for CADRE, the rovers have multistatic ground penetrating radars to create 3D images of the subsurface structure to a depth of up to 10 meters. The rovers aim to autonomously navigate the swirl region to demonstrate collectively mapping it with better efficiency than a single rover would. **Also see:** [*KPLO provides a new view of Reiner Gamma*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-139/#a-new-look-at-reiner-gamma-from-kplo) ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/08/artemis-ii-ground-systems-preparation-progress.jpg) Progress in preparing ground infrastructure and systems for the SLS rocket launch of the Artemis II crewed Moon mission. [Image: NASA](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2024/08/14/nasa-kennedy-team-completes-artemis-emergency-egress-system-demonstration/) - NASA continues slow progress in preparing ground infrastructure and systems for the mid-decade SLS rocket launch of [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii), which will push [four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) in an Orion capsule around the Moon and back. Following a [successful test](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2024/07/19/nasa-kennedy-teams-complete-water-flow-tests-for-artemis-ii-mission/) of the launch-noise-suppressing [water deluge system](https://images.nasa.gov/details/KSC-20231024-MH-CSH01-0001-Artemis%5FII%5FWater%5FDeluge%5FTest%5F39%5FB-M1718) in July and that of the [upgraded environmental control system](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2024/06/10/nasa-kennedy-teams-test-upgraded-environmental-control-system-for-artemis-ii/) in June, teams now [demonstrated](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2024/08/14/nasa-kennedy-team-completes-artemis-emergency-egress-system-demonstration/) a major aspect of the [emergency escape system](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-2/artemis-emergency-egress-system-emphasizes-crew-safety/) on August 11\. More such tests will follow, including one with the mission crew before launch. - In a [paper](https://doi.org/10.11728/cjss2024.03.2023-0129) published in the Chinese Journal of Space Science, researchers propose that China should integrate their [in-progress lunar communications relay network](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-185/) of Queqiao satellites with the existing Earthbound Tianlian satellites which notably serve—among other things—China’s Tiangong space station. As Andrew Jones [highlighted](https://spacenews.com/china-could-develop-dual-relay-satellite-system-for-earth-moon-communications-to-reduce-geopolitical-risks/), the proposal’s driving rationale is to substantially improve surface coverage time and area for China’s upcoming ambitious [crewed lunar missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/) leading to a [full-fledged Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/), which will simultaneously ensure redundancy if and when China faces ground station availability issues from its Moonbase partners across the globe. - [Rockstar](https://moonmehta.micro.blog/uploads/2024/rockstar-small-lunar-orbiter-proposal.pdf) is a NASA small satellite proposal, which will carry a thermal infrared imager to map distributions and abundances of boulders and [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s south pole with a [higher resolution](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2022/pdf/1311.pdf) than the upcoming [Lunar Trailblazer](https://jatan.space/nasa-lunar-trailblazer/) orbiter and the existing [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-2-moon-landing-mission/) so as to aid human-scale traverse planning of future [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/) crewed missions. From an [earlier abstract](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2022/pdf/1311.pdf) accepted at the 2022 Lunar and Planetary Science Conference: > At 4-m/pixel, the instrument resolution is finer than that of Diviner (200 m/p), Chandrayaan-1 Moon Mineralogy Mapper (100 m/p), Kaguya Multiband Imager (20 m/p), and Lunar Trailblazer (30 m/p). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/08/rockstar-thermal-ir-sat-expected-mapping-resolution.jpg) Instrument spatial resolutions of LRO Diviner Lunar Radiometer, Chandrayaan 1 Moon Mineralogy Mapper, Kaguya (SELENE) Multiband Imager, Lunar Trailblazer, and **Rockstar*. [Image: C. M. Ferrari-Wong, et al.](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2022/pdf/1311.pdf) --- *This month I’ve received reader donations for my* [***Moon Monday***](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) *blog & newsletter from space enthusiasts in 4 countries: the US, Australia, India, and the UK. I love serving a genuinely international audience, and will keep doing it. If you too find value in my writings,* [***see and join all supporters***](https://jatan.space/support)*. 🚀🌗* ### Moon Monday #188: Navigating the aftermath of VIPER’s woes, a CLPS payload for Blue, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-188/ Last updated: 2024-08-12T18:30:36.000Z *Before we begin this week’s Moon Monday, I’m excited to share that I’ll be conducting a study on Indo-US lunar exploration* [*as an Adjunct Scholar*](https://takshashila.org.in/team) *at the Takshashila Institution! As India too takes on* [*increasingly complex Moon missions*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/)*, my aim with the study is to identify specific collaborative avenues that will elevate lunar science & technology capabilities of both countries in line with their independent goals. 🇮🇳🌗🇺🇸* *Well-founded collaboration can provide more than just technical outcomes. It can create enduring bridges between people across communities. If this topic is important to you, please feel free to* [*email me*](mailto:hey@jatan.space) *for a chat.* ## Scramble and try to save VIPER ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/08/astrobotic-griffin-lander-with-nasa-viper-rover-onboard-illustration-1.jpg) An illustration showing NASA’s VIPER rover onboard the Griffin lander. [Image: Astrobotic](https://www.astrobotic.com/media-kit/images) Following up on NASA’s July 17 [announcement](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-ends-viper-project-continues-moon-exploration/) to cancel the [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) program’s [VIPER rover mission](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/), which was supposed to uniquely explore [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s south pole to help plan crewed Artemis missions, the agency is now [asking US organizations](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/viper/rfi/) to propose a mission of their own by September 2 that would fly and operate VIPER at virtually no cost to NASA. > Partner(s) would start with the existing VIPER rover and be expected to complete any remaining systems level testing, arrange for the integration and successful landing on the Moon, conduct a science/exploration campaign, and openly disseminate science data. U.S. domestically based partners would also be expected to provide other resources required to complete the mission from the hardware’s current state and to reimburse NASA for use of any NASA capabilities (including but not limited to any additional testing and anomaly resolution activities, payload preparation and processing support, or science/instrument/operations teams support) needed to successfully conduct the mission. I hope the US space industry steps up to this challenge but despite all the [tooting and touting](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-166/), lunar commercial capabilities are as yet nascent. In spite of data-and-fame-related incentives, it’s hard to imagine many companies that would be able to not only put in the investment needed to fly VIPER soon enough but also execute the mission successfully while not descoping the rover’s science goals—the aspect that matters the most as [astutely pointed out](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/nasa-losing-viper-rover-defangs-the-science-from-planned-moon-landings/) by CLPS co-creator Thomas Zurbuchen. In any case, it’s [better for the US Congress to step up](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-187/#artemis-cannot-catch-a-break) and direct NASA to revive VIPER by providing additional funding not just for the rover but also for getting to an optimal lander. Adding to the [VIPER project’s injuries](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-186/), the aforementioned official NASA page requesting proposals from US organizations to fly VIPER [links to a slide](https://science.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/andrews-nasausgs-offworldresources2024.pdf) (page 4) which ironically highlights how only VIPER science would’ve filled key knowledge gaps about [water on the Moon](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) for the agency before long-term lunar habitats can even be conceptualized. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/08/viper-science-could-fill-major-lunar-volatiles-knowledge-gap.jpg) [Image: NASA / VIPER team / Daniel Andrews](https://science.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/andrews-nasausgs-offworldresources2024.pdf) It doesn’t require us to be scientists to understand that this illustration is overly simplistic. Never mind the fact that the existing [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/)—which is already [aiding Artemis](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/#isro-aids-artemis) crewed mission planning—as well as the upcoming surface missions of CNSA’s [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#the-instrumental-and-increasingly-international-7) and the ISRO-JAXA [LUPEX rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/#the-indo-japanese-rover-mission) are all omitted in here. In fact, Intuitive Machines’ [second CLPS Moon landing mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-155/) funded majorly by NASA itself to drill for lunar water ice is missing in the illustration too. In any case, it’s not like VIPER was *the ultimate mission* to study lunar polar water and other volatiles. What the illustration does capture though is the unique importance of [the depth and breadth of science](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) VIPER was supposed to perform. In fact, as Alexandra Witze [has previously reported](https://web.archive.org/web/20221207145736/https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-02578-4), it’s possible VIPER may not have found much lunar water at all. But that was the whole point of doing the mission as envisioned: to learn ground truths. NASA has also said it will separately explore if its international partners are interested to fly VIPER. Given the high landing complexity and reliability involved for a VIPER-like mission, the only such (geopolitically) feasible option seems to be the ISRO-JAXA [LUPEX mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/#the-indo-japanese-rover-mission), which has similar as well as complementary goals to VIPER. However, since LUPEX already has its namesake rover flying on it, the realistic option would not be to fly VIPER on the ISRO-made LUPEX lander but rather carry VIPER’s instruments on the JAXA-made LUPEX rover, which boasts capabilities and a mission profile comparable to VIPER. Among lunar missions planned in the near future, LUPEX presents the only scenario where flying VIPER’s instruments without the rover makes any scientific sense. A possible alternate local route is retrofitting VIPER’s instruments to fly on the upcoming US-industry-provided versatile Artemis [Lunar Terrain Vehicle](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-171/) for NASA but the timelines don’t match—the project is in preliminary stages and a launch doesn’t seem to be on the cards until at least end of decade. ## A CLPS contract for Blue out of the blue ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/08/blue-origin-blue-moon-mark-1-lander-illustration.jpg) Illustration of the Blue Moon Mark 1 lander. [Image: Blue Origin](https://www.blueorigin.com/blue-moon/mark-1) Jeff Foust [reports](https://spacenews.com/nasa-payload-to-fly-on-first-blue-origin-lunar-lander-mission/) that NASA has awarded—unannounced—a small $6.1 million [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) contract to Blue Origin for the company’s [Blue Moon Mark 1](https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/10/jeff-bezos-shows-off-new-moon-lander-design-for-nasa/) robotic lander to carry the agency’s payload called Stereo Cameras for Lunar Plume Surface Studies (SCALPSS) to Luna next year. Images from SCALPSS will help NASA understand exactly how lander plumes [blast out lunar soil and affect the local lunar environment](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-180/), and thus how best to protect astronauts, critical hardware, and habitats long-term. If the payload name sounds familiar, you’re right. The [first version](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/clps/tiny-nasa-cameras-to-picture-interaction-between-lander-moons-surface/) of SCALPSS flew on Intuitive Machines’ [first CLPS lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-165/) earlier this year. Sadly, it [couldn’t image](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/clps/nasa-collects-first-surface-science-in-decades-via-commercial-moon-mission/) plume effects because the spacecraft had an [anomalously hard landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-166/). Another SCALPSS is set to fly on Firefly’s [upcoming CLPS lander](https://fireflyspace.com/missions/blue-ghost-mission-1/) later this year so hopefully we get data from it. However, what sets Blue’s Mark 1 apart for NASA is that it’s the only US commercial lander that generates high enough trust to allow the agency to gauge lander plume effects at the scale of large crewed (Artemis) landers. This allowed the agency to award Blue the payload flight without a competition under the clause of “[Justification for an Exception to Fair Opportunity](https://sam.gov/opp/bc53a5b240d5469da1b23e8184f4d999/view)”. Well, SpaceX’s Lunar Starship is also [part of the CLPS pool of landers](https://www.nasa.gov/commercial-lunar-payload-services/clps-providers/) and boasts way more thrust than the Mark 1 but the other factor NASA considered was that Blue’s mission is set to fly next year itself. For Blue Origin, the Mark 1 is about much more than carrying a NASA payload. With two [self-funded](https://spacenews.com/blue-origin-aims-to-launch-first-lunar-lander-in-2025/) Mark 1 flights with a large payload capacity of 3,000 kilograms each, Blue Origin wants to test and refine critical landing and associated systems before graduating them to the Mark 2 lander, which aims to land astronauts on the Moon for NASA with [Artemis V](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/) by end of decade. Competitor SpaceX’s [Lunar Starship](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-spacex-second-contract-option-for-artemis-moon-landing-0) is currently targeting landing astronauts for NASA with [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) and [Artemis IV](https://www.nasa.gov/general/nasas-artemis-iv-building-first-lunar-space-station/) in late 2026 and 2028 respectively. Note that NASA requires both Blue Origin and SpaceX’s crewed landers to touchdown within 100 meters of their targeted spots on the Moon’s [rocky south pole](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/SPole%5FSRidgemap%5FLOLA-Slope5m%5Fv20190515.pdf). This is something the robotic Mark 1 will attempt as a precursor to the crew-capable Mark 2\. The ability is also precisely what JAXA’s robotic SLIM lander [achieved earlier this year](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-161/). --- *Many thanks to* [***Astrolab***](https://astrolab.space)*,* [***Alexandra Witze***](http://alexandrawitze.com) *and* [***Matt Ryall***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/mattryall) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday. If you love this curated community resource too,* [*join them*](https://jatan.space/support) *and support independent writing and journalism.* 🌙 --- ## Artemis IV faces yet another BLOCK-er ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/08/sls-rocket-icps-compared-to-eus-1.jpg) Capabilities of the SLS rocket’s upcoming Exploration Upper Stage (EUS) compared to its current Interim Cryogenic Propulsion Stage (ICPS). [Image: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/multimedia/rocket-to-the-moon-what-is-the-exploration-upper-stage.html) NASA’s complex [Artemis IV](https://www.nasa.gov/general/nasas-artemis-iv-building-first-lunar-space-station/) crewed lunar orbital and landing mission banks on its SLS rocket element upgrading to an enhanced second stage called the [Exploration Upper Stage](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/multimedia/rocket-to-the-moon-what-is-the-exploration-upper-stage.html) (EUS). Comprising the [Block 1B configuration](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/sls%5Flift%5Fcapabilities%5Fand%5Fconfigurations%5F508%5F08202018%5F0.pdf) of SLS, the EUS will be capable of lifting \~10,000 kilograms more cargo to the Moon than the current SLS variant launching the first three Artemis missions. However, somehow leaving aside the substantial mission delays [caused chiefly by the Mobile Launcher 2](https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/06/nasas-second-mobile-launcher-is-too-heavy-years-late-and-pushing-1-billion/) element necessary to launch the Block 1B vehicle, [another critical report](https://oig.nasa.gov/office-of-inspector-general-oig/nasas-management-of-space-launch-system-block-1b-development/) from NASA’s Office of Inspector General says that the EUS itself may not be ready for a 2028 launch. More importantly, as Marcia Smith [highlights](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-ig-blasts-boeing-on-block-1b/) from the report, there are concerns about substantial cost increases by Boeing in building the EUS, [poor quality control and unsatisfactory course-corrections](https://spacenews.com/nasa-watchdog-finds-quality-control-problems-with-boeing-sls-work/) by the company, and even mismanagement by NASA. From the report: > We project SLS Block 1B costs will reach approximately $5.7 billion before the system is scheduled to launch in 2028\. This is $700 million more than NASA’s 2023 Agency Baseline Commitment, which established a cost and schedule baseline at nearly $5 billion. EUS development accounts for more than half of this cost, which we estimate will increase from an initial cost of $962 million in 2017 to nearly $2.8 billion through 2028\. Boeing’s delivery of the EUS to NASA has also been delayed from February 2021 to April 2027, and when combined with other factors, suggests the September 2028 Artemis IV launch date could be delayed as well. Factors contributing to these cost increases and schedule delays include redirection of EUS funds to the core stage during Artemis I production, changing Artemis mission assignments, maintaining an extended workforce 7 years more than planned, manufacturing issues, and supply chain challenges. ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/08/moon-diver-rover-lunar-pit-explorer-concept.jpg) An illustration showing the Moon Diver rover spooling down a lunar pit wall. [Image: JPL / NASA](https://laurakerber.webnode.page/moon-diver/) - In my feature story last week [exploring lunar lava tubes](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-187/), I completely missed mentioning the cool NASA [mission concept](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2024/pdf/1808.pdf) of [Moon Diver](https://laurakerber.webnode.page/moon-diver/), which aims to have a rugged axle rover go down a lunar pit and chemically map its wall. This will help scientists not only figure out future, advanced exploration of lava tubes but also better understand the nature of past volcanism on the Moon and what the structure of the lunar crust is like. - US-based SEOPS is extending its satellite integration and deployment services from Earth orbit to the Moon [via a rideshare partnership](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/seops-and-intuitive-machines-partner-to-provide-new-lunar-rideshare-services) with Intuitive Machines. - **Sponsored listing:** Open Lunar Foundation’s 2024 research fellows are virtually presenting their recent work on cooperative lunar landing pads, lunar power standards, community payloads, lunar accidents, and more this month and next. Learn more and register here for free: [openlunar.org/events](https://www.openlunar.org/events) ### Moon Monday #187: Exploring lava tubes, and more Artemis woes URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-187/ Last updated: 2024-11-24T11:39:33.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/08/mare-tranquillitatis-pit.jpg) A high-Sun view of the Mare Tranquillitatis pit on the Moon, revealing its floor. The image spans an area 400 meters across, and North is up. [Image: NASA / LROC / GSFC / ASU](https://www.lroc.asu.edu/images/230) [Radar data](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-024-02302-y.epdf?sharing%5Ftoken=p2RO6PsE5JUGvykVjvERKdRgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0NM3XCoO8qqQAVpZqycEJ41v-Y1i8jue3aIH5QvXVkwNKM1VU1zJ66l13rexlhrvWyR1SrF%5Ffl-osl851IG6owAa0mBcJWiYLUEFsYJHaDQToCmPmK9-zmmu3ISDRCd%5F-bbjc6mWGjLESX0dlosaOO6ajSxqNLEsAwtOYQWjRSDZUas1FsiA%5Fba07AU0JoJn7SsCNq%5FHp9WMehE5YKzQY4tPyNr8vFfaqbDarMRea-xC5PUCmI4ob8uq02Y6RMg3kp3ARgiWa0jsszj9gYP2Zew5WV-Q-y0EGgS2MBeM4EdGChSyYKcLypJDa%5F-bbYQYLlwznDq8Hv0IpFcpSz9gh958u0t%5F%5FSlXW3MIRFr6rKYegd0dylJqadpG2gSSjODjWuFe9-y2x3MdQ2OK9goJmwC-kQMUvZEH-D3AYpAyoDxmuKMnp1bM74TzshGc7xmn-q-uVFYz%5F-obgErMgauSd7UgDfC9toBuq-ybCJ2aa79iU9lGThsbBtkhHiDS4pcDm4%3D) from NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lro/about/) (LRO) has helped scientists confirm that the lunar [pit of Mare Tranquillitatis](https://www.lroc.asu.edu/atlases/pits/3) indeed does [lead into a wide lava tube/cave](https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/new-evidence-adds-to-findings-hinting-at-network-of-caves-on-moon/) for at least 80 meters. These results corroborate what scientists long suspected about [many lunar pits](https://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard/lunar-pits-could-shelter-astronauts-reveal-details-of-how-man-in-the-moon-formed/) leading to underground passages [based on orbital imagery](https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2009GL040635) under different lighting conditions from JAXA’s SELENE spacecraft [followed by LRO](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/230). SELENE had also bounced radars from some pits and gotten multiple echos, potentially hinting at large lava tubes with enough volume to host entire towns inside. ### The lure of lava tubes Another recent LRO finding suggested that insides of these lava tubes could [maintain stable and comfortable temperatures](https://www.nasa.gov/solar-system/nasas-lro-finds-lunar-pits-harbor-comfortable-temperatures/) unlike the rest of Luna. One particular pit floor area measured a pleasant 17°C [with <1°C variation](https://doi.org/10.1029/2022GL099710) across the lunar day. Coupled with the fact that such lunar caves provide sheltering from [micrometeorite bombardment](https://jatan.space/the-tiniest-of-impact-craters/) as well as radiation, they might make for great places to base future crewed habitats in. Many underground lava tubes have [convenient openings](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/286), or “skylights”, on the surface which robots and humans could enter and exit from. Lunar lava tubes are thought to have formed similar to those on Earth, that is, when volcanic lava flows cease, their surface can harden while the lava within drains to leave behind an underground tunnel. Openings to such lava tubes form if a surface area collapses due to hot flows underneath or if lava flows breach the surface. As such, lava tubes are also pristine places to study the Moon’s volcanic past and analyze rock samples untouched for well over a billion years. ### Exploration plans ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/08/esa-lunar-leaper-lava-tube-explorer-illustration.jpg) An illustration showing the LunarLeaper bot exploring and mapping different locations around a lunar pit that leads into a lava tube. [Image: ESA / LunarLeaper team](https://www.universetoday.com/166234/its-time-to-study-lunar-lava-tubes-heres-a-mission-that-could-help/) Before lava tubes can be directly explored by robots or humans, it would be necessary to map the outer and inner structures of their lunar pit openings in high resolution. Late last year ESA released a [call for proposals](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Preparing%5Ffor%5Fthe%5FFuture/Discovery%5Fand%5FPreparation/To%5Fthe%5FMoon%5FESA%5Fseeks%5Fideas%5Ffor%5Fsmall%5Flunar%5Fmissions) for small Moon missions under €50 million to fly before end of decade to meet some of the agency’s [exploration and science goals](https://www.esa.int/terraenovae). Evan Gough had [reported](https://www.universetoday.com/166234/its-time-to-study-lunar-lava-tubes-heres-a-mission-that-could-help/) one proposal being that of a small lunar leaper bot that will jump around and map lunar lava tubes. ESA was previously [considering a 2033 mission](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Preparing%5Ffor%5Fthe%5FFuture/Discovery%5Fand%5FPreparation/Lunar%5Fscientists%5Fand%5Fengineers%5Fdesign%5FMoon%5Fcave%5Fexplorer) to explore a lunar pit leading into a lava tube but with no updates in over a year, the project seems to be on a halt. There’s also a cool NASA [mission concept](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2024/pdf/1808.pdf) called [Moon Diver](https://laurakerber.webnode.page/moon-diver/), which aims to have a rugged axle rover go down a lunar pit and chemically map its wall, which will help scientists not only figure out future, advanced exploration of lava tubes but also better understand the nature of past volcanism on the Moon and what the structure of the lunar crust is like. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/08/moon-diver-rover-lunar-pit-explorer-concept-1.jpg) An illustration showing the Moon Diver rover spooling down a lunar pit wall. [Image: JPL / NASA](https://laurakerber.webnode.page/moon-diver/) China is also [considering exploring lava tubes](https://www.universetoday.com/163371/chinese-astronauts-may-build-a-base-inside-a-lunar-lava-tube) with robots first followed by studies [evaluating human habitats](https://spacenews.com/china-is-taking-a-keen-interest-in-lava-tubes-as-possible-lunar-habitats/). Recall that CNSA has been sending ground penetrating radars on many of its Chang’e Moon missions. For example, the [Yutu 2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yutu-2) rover from [Chang’e 4](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/change-4) has a ground penetrating radar with a probing depth of [up to 30 meters](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pss.2018.02.011). Over the last five years, it has been [uncovering the recent history](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2021.117062) of its landed region in the 180-kilometer-diameter [Von Kármán crater](https://jatan.space/change-4-landing-site-farside-von-karman-crater/) on the Moon’s farside. Among [other things](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2020.114046), the radar has detected [evidence of a buried crater](https://doi.org/10.1109/TGRS.2021.3090528) underground and also a [thick, ancient regolith layer](https://doi.org/10.1029/2021GL095133) sandwiched between two now-solidified lava flows. Sending a rover like Yutu 2 to map the structure of a lunar pit and its underground lava tube section from outside while on the surface will help plan direct robotic and crewed exploration of these cave conduits in the future. On the crewed exploration end, ESA’s [Pangaea campaign](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/CAVES%5Fand%5FPangaea/What%5Fis%5FPangaea) to train future lunar astronauts in geology—a highly valuable skill when exploring the Moon and collecting samples—includes [astronauts visiting](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2021/12/01/goodbye-volcanoes-hello-moon) a 8-kilometer long lava tube called [*La Corona*](https://www.lanzarotecaves.com/corona-lava-tube-system) at the Spanish Canary Islands northwest of Africa. While La Corona is one of Earth’s largest lava tubes, it pales in comparison to those on the Moon where lower gravity and lack of intense erosion mechanisms can make for [much longer and wider tunnels](https://geobites.org/lava-tubes-on-the-moon-and-mars-might-be-big-and-stable-enough-for-humans-to-live-in/#:~:text=This%20difference%20is%20due%20to%20the%20effect%20that%20the%20lower%20gravity%20of%20Mars%20and%20the%20Moon%20has%20on%20volcanic%20processes%20and%20lava%20flows), potentially up by [three orders of magnitude](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0012825220303342?via%3Dihub)! ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/08/esa-pangaea-crew-exploring-la-corona-lava-tube.jpg) ESA’s Pangaea crew exploring minerals in the La Corona lava tube in the Spanish Canary Islands. [Image: ESA / A. Romeo](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2021/12/01/goodbye-volcanoes-hello-moon) ### Oh, well.. Now if lunar lava tubes are nice shelters for future astronauts, and if [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s poles are [water-rich](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) to serve future habitats, why not consider exploring shadowed near-polar lunar pits as the ideal “best of both worlds” lunar homes? That’s the question scientists explored in a [2022 study](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2022/pdf/2598.pdf) by modeling thermal environments of near-polar lunar pits. They found that even floors of high-latitude lunar pits don’t get cold enough to trap and accumulate [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other volatile resources the way permanently shadowed regions on the lunar poles do. This means future habitats will still need to fetch such resources from polar regions. However, the low, stable temperatures of polar or near-polar lunar pits should slow down escape of volatiles, thus making them good homes to launch resource fetching campaigns from—if we find them. ## Artemis cannot catch a break ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/07/viper-gets-its-mast.jpg) The VIPER lunar rover in a clean room at NASA’s Johnson Space Center while it was being assembled. [Image: NASA / Josh Valcarcel](https://www.nasa.gov/general/nasa-viper-robotic-moon-rover-team-raises-its-mighty-mast/) The [VIPER rover’s woes](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-186/) continue in the aftermath of NASA’s July 17 [announcement](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-ends-viper-project-continues-moon-exploration/) to cancel [the mission](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/), which was supposed to uniquely explore [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s south pole. Jack Kiraly [reports](https://www.planetary.org/articles/senate-fy-2025-nasa-budget-proposal) that the US Senate’s NASA funding proposal for FY2025 does not include an explicit mention of VIPER or any funding increase necessary to sustain the project. This is even worse than last month’s situation, wherein the [draft NASA budget](https://planetary.s3.amazonaws.com/assets/pdfs/FY2025-HAC-CJS-Committee-Report-NASA-Section.pdf) from the US House of Representatives—the lower house in the US Congress—had proposed up to $75 million extra in funding for lunar science. As Michael Greshko had [noted](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/nasa-cancels-its-viper-moon-rover/) then, this could’ve potentially allowed NASA to allocate needed funding to VIPER albeit at the cost of some other mission or program since the overall budget remains flat. Now even that doesn’t seem like an option. In the meanwhile, former NASA associate administrator for science and CLPS’ co-brainchild [Thomas Zurbuchen](https://www.thomaszurbuchen.com) has weighed in on the problem. He says [in an interview with Nadia Drake](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/nasa-losing-viper-rover-defangs-the-science-from-planned-moon-landings/) that NASA losing VIPER “pulls the scientific teeth from the Artemis program in an irreversible way.” > So what worries me is that with this cancellation, science in Artemis is reduced to mostly opportunistic investigations. It’s no longer a program that actually drives toward deeper scientific understanding so that when everything is said and done, you have a much better understanding of the Moon itself, or the timing of the outer planets’ migration, which has a lot to do with how we ended up in a stable solar system. The history book for all of that is written on the Moon. It's not on Earth. Right? And it's not on Mars. --- *Many thanks to* [***Off Planet Research***](https://offplanetresearch.com) *and* [***Arun Raghavan***](https://arunraghavan.net) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday. If you love this curated community resource too,* [*join them*](https://jatan.space/support) *and support independent writing and journalism.* --- ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/08/nasa-gateway-halo-module-closeup.jpg) Illustration showing the first two modules of the NASA-led Gateway lunar orbital habitat. [Image: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-northrop-grumman-finalize-moon-outpost-living-quarters-contract) Another element of Artemis facing immediate problems is the NASA-led [Gateway lunar orbital habitat](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/gateway). A [new report](https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-24-106878) from the US Government Accountability Office (GAO) says the first two (mated) Gateway modules will launch as late as December 2027 instead of September 2025, confirming Philip Sloss’ [May 2024 reporting](https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2024/05/gateway-launch-date/). The GAO revealed a [major issue](https://arstechnica.com/space/2024/08/nasas-lunar-gateway-has-a-big-visiting-vehicles-problem/) that a core network chip defect could result in flight hardware within the Gateway to lose communications. Separately, the GAO finds that the Gateway’s [HALO habitat module](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-northrop-grumman-finalize-moon-outpost-living-quarters-contract/) for hosting crew and the [PPE propulsion](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-artemis-contract-for-lunar-gateway-power-propulsion) module it will be attached to pre-launch combined weigh 1312 kilograms more than expected for their [SpaceX Falcon Heavy launch](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-awards-contract-to-launch-initial-elements-for-lunar-outpost). Marcia Smith [reports](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/gao-questions-gateways-mass-schedule/) that NASA will look into resolving this issue with a program review next month. Recall that as Jeff Foust previously [reported](https://spacenews.com/northrop-charges-on-lunar-gateway-module-program-reach-100-million), NASA’s decision to launch the two Gateway modules together resulted in habitat module contractor and module-integrator Northrop Grumman taking a $100 million loss out of a [$935 million](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-northrop-grumman-finalize-moon-outpost-living-quarters-contract) fixed-price contract. The baseline cost estimate for the Gateway itself is $5.3 billion. As an update on Gateway’s progress otherwise, its [HALO habitat module](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-northrop-grumman-finalize-moon-outpost-living-quarters-contract/) went through a series of [structural stress tests](https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/a-home-for-astronauts-around-the-moon/) in April. Its components and subsystems will be outfitted later this year. The PPE module’s structure is also ready for installation of its propulsion system components, starting with the tanks. [Electric field testing](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/gateway/earth-to-gateway-electric-field-tests-enhance-lunar-communication/) for Gateway’s communications antennas are also progressing. *Also see:* [*A gist of Gateway science*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-162/#a-gist-of-gateway-science) ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/08/jaxa-slim-lander-imaged-by-lev-1.jpg) The flipped SLIM spacecraft on the Moon as imaged by the LEV-2 (SORA-Q) bot it carried. [Image: JAXA / TOMY / SONY](https://jda.jaxa.jp/result.php?lang=e&id=7e06883b03d41b4836ddfed96ea72a52) - Despite the nearly upside down orientation of JAXA’s [SLIM lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-161/) on the Moon, NASA and JAXA worked together to have LRO [successfully laser-ping](https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/nasa-jaxa-bounce-laser-beam-between-moons-surface-and-lunar-orbit/) NASA’s small retroreflector onboard SLIM on May 2 from a \~70-kilometer orbital altitude. Combined with [similar ongoing pings](https://science.nasa.gov/missions/lro/laser-instrument-on-nasas-lro-successfully-pings-indian-moon-lander) to NASA’s retroreflector on ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) lander, these unique demonstrations are a stepping stone towards a future where Mooncraft with purpose-built lasers can locate such targets and land near them as they arrive. For example, this technique will be relevant for repeated cargo deliveries near future habitats. - The latest update to the excellent [LROC Quickmap](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu) web app adds a [wealth of spacecraft imagery and datasets](https://www.actgate.com/post/july-2024-quickmap-release) specifically related to the Moon’s poles while also touting shadow and traverse modes that help visualize in 3D the [challenging lighting conditions](https://www.nasa.gov/ames/feature/the-dark-side-of-the-crater-how-light-looks-different-on-the-moon-and-what-nasa-is-doing) there for exploration. I’ve ~~wasted~~ spent more time exploring our Moon on LROC Quickmap than I’d care to admit to my past employer, and this update isn’t helping all the more because I’m my current employer. 🌝 - Studying precise compositions of ten Apollo lunar samples has [revealed](https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adm7074) that the primary mechanism replenishing the Moon’s thin atmosphere over long periods of time seems to be elements released by [micrometeorite bombardment](https://jatan.space/the-tiniest-of-impact-craters/) rather than from the smashing [solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/). - There’s another video based on my Moon Monday blog+newsletter: [India’s increasingly complex upcoming Chandrayaan Moon missions](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qv0YTtEcKVU) ### Moon Monday #186: VIPER’s CLPS conundrum, ispace’s rover, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-186/ Last updated: 2024-07-29T18:10:28.000Z ## Going deeper into VIPER ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/07/nasa-viper-rover-egressing-astrobotic-griffin-lander-illustration.jpg) An illustration showing NASA’s VIPER rover egressing from Astrobotic’s Griffin lander. [Image: Astrobotic](https://www.astrobotic.com/media-kit/images) Much has been said about NASA’s July 17 [announcement](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-ends-viper-project-continues-moon-exploration/) to cancel the [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) supposed to fly to the Moon’s south pole on Astrobotic’s [Griffin lander](https://www.astrobotic.com/lunar-delivery/landers/griffin-lander/) mid-decade as part of the agency’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) to uniquely explore [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) there. Instead of duplicating arguments about [continually rising cost](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-cancels-viper-lunar-rover/) and [launch delays](https://spacenews.com/nasa-cancels-viper-lunar-rover/), I thought it might be informative to add questions and thoughts on more things related to or affected by VIPER. ### What happened to NASA-tasked tests for VIPER’s lander? Owing to VIPER’s [vitality](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) to helping NASA plan future crewed [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/) missions to the Moon’s poles, the agency took a more conservative approach for VIPER’s delivery compared to any other mission in the [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). In 2022, NASA [awarded](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-replans-clps-delivery-of-viper-to-2024-to-reduce-risk) Astrobotic an additional $67.8 million atop the original [$199.5 million](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-astrobotic-to-fly-water-hunting-rover-to-the-moon) contract to perform three propulsion system tests of Griffin to reduce risks of a landing failure. This would delay VIPER’s launch by a year to November 2024 but one NASA was willing to accept in part because the rover itself would need time to be fully built after facing supply chain delays from the pandemic. Neither NASA nor Astrobotic have shared results of these tests with the public, which is all the more concerning since Astrobotic’s first lunar lander Peregrine [failed](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-159/) shortly after its launch in January due to a propulsion system issue. In fact, a recent [report on CLPS](https://oig.nasa.gov/office-of-inspector-general-oig/audit-reports/nasas-commercial-lunar-payload-services-initiative/) published by NASA’s Office of Inspector General (OIG) reveals that Astrobotic hadn’t adequately flight-qualified Peregrine’s main engine prior to launch, and how the issue could cascade to Griffin: > Both Astrobotic’s Peregrine and Griffin landers use the same engine and tank subcontractors with a scaled up TALOS axial engine for Griffin. Due to engine delivery delays and testing performance issues, the Peregrine TALOS axial engines were never subjected to qualification levels or fired for full duration prior to its flight. To better gauge all risks associated with Griffin being able to safely deliver VIPER to the Moon, the OIG CLPS report states that NASA had modified VIPER’s delivery contract to get “augmented insight” into the mission’s development: > Augmented insight allowed NASA to assign a full-time resident CLIM \[CLPS Integration Manager\] at the vendor’s \[Astrobotic\] facility to improve communication between NASA and the vendor. In addition, the vendor is now required to provide monthly status reports on the development of its Griffin lander and support three new Independent Assessment Team reviews. These reviews will be held approximately 2 years, 1 year, and 1 month prior to NASA handing over VIPER to Astrobotic for launch. According to CLPS management, this augmented insight gives NASA a greater understanding of the risk environment and the VIPER mission’s risk exposure. Furthermore, consider that Peregrine’s mission ended well before its lunar descent could even begin. As such, Astrobotic unfortunately couldn’t get any data from this critical phase to know how well the lander’s guidance, navigation, and control systems would’ve performed against engineered expectations. Such information would’ve certainly enhanced Griffin’s ability to nail VIPER’s landing amid the [treacherously rocky terrain](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/SPole%5FSRidgemap%5FLOLA-Slope5m%5Fv20190515.pdf) at the lunar south pole. And so, what if the combined results of Griffin’s propulsion tests, NASA’s augmented insight into the mission, and Peregrine reviews did not provide enough confidence to NASA about Griffin’s ability to deliver VIPER safe and sound? If so, NASA’s decision may not be about saving additional costs to be spent on VIPER or approaching the US Congress for extra funds as much as it could be about expecting that the mission lander might not be up to the task after all, and in which case more testing would mount costs on that end too. ### Has VIPER affected other CLPS missions? ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/07/nasa-viper-rover-illustration.jpg) Illustration of the VIPER rover exploring the Moon’s south pole. [Image: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/lets-get-building) According to the aforementioned OIG CLPS report, “one NASA SMD \[Science Mission Directorate\] official stated that the Agency has removed at least one future CLPS mission to help pay for and ensure the success of VIPER.” Relatedly, recall that it’s been over a year since NASA was supposed to announce which CLPS vendor is being awarded a [payload suite delivery](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-new-instruments-for-priority-artemis-science-on-moon) to one of the (formerly-)volcanic [Gruithuisen Domes](https://jatan.space/unique-volcanic-domes-of-gruithuisen/) on the Moon in 2026\. Given the lack of such an announcement, two more CLPS missions supposed to follow the flight to Gruithuisen—[one to the lunar south pole](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-selects-new-instruments-for-priority-artemis-science-on-moon/) and one to mysterious [Ina](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/new-nasa-artemis-instruments-to-study-volcanic-terrain-on-the-moon)—have subsequently seen little progress as well. In the [announcement](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-ends-viper-project-continues-moon-exploration/) and follow-on briefings about NASA’s intention to cancel VIPER, the agency stated growing mission costs risking overstepping into budgets meant for other CLPS missions. Considering that NASA’s quoted cost to continue VIPER while accommodating launch delays is [at least $50 million](https://www.planetary.org/articles/nasa-cancels-viper) a year, which is approximately half the actual average cost of all other CLPS delivery contracts, it’s plausible to think the agency chose to be able to fly at least one additional CLPS mission instead of prioritizing VIPER. As Casey Dreier of The Planetary Society [notes](https://www.planetary.org/articles/nasa-cancels-viper): > From the perspective of NASA’s science leadership, however, finding $51 million in the existing budget presents some impossible choices. Within LDEP \[the Lunar Discovery and Exploration Program—VIPER’s budgetary home\], the only significant sources of funding available for VIPER would be to reduce the politically popular CLPS program, cut funding to scientific instrument development for CLPS missions, or cut funds for science instrumentation for upcoming Artemis missions. None of these were deemed acceptable tradeoffs. Additionally, Michael Greshko [notes](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/nasa-cancels-its-viper-moon-rover/) for Scientific American how the larger NASA budget constraints are acting in the background: > In [a draft NASA budget released on July 9](https://planetary.s3.amazonaws.com/assets/pdfs/FY2025-HAC-CJS-Committee-Report-NASA-Section.pdf), the House of Representatives’s Committee on Appropriations recommended giving between $458 million and $533 million to the NASA program that houses VIPER—up to $75 million more than the Biden administration had asked for. While this language would give NASA some flexibility to boost VIPER’s funding, it also creates a zero-sum game because Congress hasn’t signaled that it will raise NASA’s overall science budget. This drives home [the point](https://orbitalindex.com/archive/2024-07-24-Issue-279/) the Orbital Index (a Moon Monday sponsor) made about the US Congress micromanaging NASA spending: > Much of the issue is also appropriations micromanagement from Congress, with the broken legislative environment in the US leading to congressionally-mandated spending on unsustainable ‘jobs’ programs like SLS. As such, with NASA’s exploration and technology development funding—especially from the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/reference/space-launch-system/) and [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft)—not being transferrable to VIPER in any way, NASA chose to kill it in favor of more CLPS flights, hoping to convince the US Congress to fund a CLPS 2.0 for another decade. NASA sacrificing VIPER to save CLPS is rather ironic though since, as Eric Berger [reported previously](https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/04/nasas-other-moon-program-is-about-to-take-center-stage), NASA had briefly considered a traditional delivery for VIPER considering its importance for Artemis. But the higher costs and timelines for VIPER bypassing CLPS would’ve effectively killed the CLPS program, which NASA [SMD](https://science.nasa.gov/about-us/science-strategy) as CLPS’ managing body wouldn’t accept. ### Are VIPER’s launch delay costs really that high? It seems NASA did not provide the VIPER team an opportunity to propose cost-saving measures prior to announcing the intent to cancel the mission. As Marcia Smith [reports](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/viper-clears-acoustic-tests-as-scientists-question-proposed-cancellation/), VIPER’s Project Scientist Anthony Colaprete pushed back against NASA’s assertion that VIPER would induce added costs after going through the [standard series of environmental tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/) required to be cleared before it can launch to space. Colaprete noted that the VIPER rover has already passed launch vibrational and acoustic testing with no major problems, that is, with no substantial added costs to the mission. Thermal vacuum testing to simulate temperatures VIPER could face in space and on the Moon’s south pole is scheduled for end of August, wherein Colaprete doesn’t expect any surprises either because individual elements of VIPER have already passed this test prior to integration. ### Did NASA prematurely award the VIPER CLPS task order? Since NASA contracted VIPER’s delivery to Astrobotic [in 2020](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-selects-astrobotic-to-fly-water-hunting-rover-to-the-moon/), soon after the first batch of CLPS contracts [in 2019](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-selects-first-commercial-moon-landing-services-for-artemis-program/) and—crucially—before any of them could fly, the aforementioned NASA OIG report on CLPS posits the following: > Inserting a larger lander to accommodate VIPER into CLPS’s early schedule interfered with a progressive development approach. This introduced the added risk of beginning the first large lander delivery before knowledge could be gained from the success (or failure) of smaller deliveries. NASA has realized this in retrospect. As Jeff Foust [reported on The Space Review](https://www.thespacereview.com/article/4833/1): > Scaling up CLPS to accommodate VIPER, though, may have been premature. He \[Joel Kearns, the NASA SMD deputy associate administrator for exploration\] said VIPER required a “large and somewhat unique lander” compared to the smaller CLPS landers, but with the expectation at the time VIPER started that industry would move faster on those smaller landers, building up experience, than what happened. > > “We originally thought in the government that the first landings on the Moon would take place in 2021 and 2022 by CLPS,” he said, but in fact just happened this year. “We and the companies have not yet accrued enough experience to probably understand how to smoothly deliver such a large and sophisticated payload as VIPER to the lunar surface.” ### What next? ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/07/nasa-viper-rover-in-test-chamber.jpg) The VIPER rover in a test chamber. [Image: NASA](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/nasa-cancels-its-viper-moon-rover/) NASA [has said](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-ends-viper-project-continues-moon-exploration/) it will consider expressions of interest from the US industry as well as international partners to fly VIPER at no cost to NASA before going ahead and disassembling the rover next year. It will be some time before the viability of alternative solutions proposed via this route becomes clear. In any case, the US Congress will decide if NASA will need to reconsider flying VIPER somehow or if the agency can go ahead with the formal cancellation it desires. You can help push for VIPER’s revival by [signing](https://forms.gle/XDSzTra4NPSS1VC27) a [letter](https://planetary.s3.amazonaws.com/assets/pdfs/VIPER-community-letter-2024-07-23.pdf) addressed to members of the US Congress explaining the mission’s importance— even if you’re a non-US citizen like myself. Either way, Astrobotic will still attempt to land Griffin on the Moon’s south pole for NASA under their existing $323 million CLPS contract, albeit with a drab simulated mass replacing VIPER. Despite how NASA may put it, no other CLPS mission can perform [the depth and breadth of science](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) VIPER was supposed to. The advanced rover intended to explore areas in and around frigid [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) for over four months to help scientists determine the nature, accessibility, and abundance of the Moon’s [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) deposits. In comparison, most CLPS missions last a single lunar day (14 Earth days), are minimally mobile at best, and will carry only one of the four key VIPER instruments which otherwise were to work in tandem. Results from VIPER were to feed into NASA’s planning of crewed [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis/) missions but it would seem the first such astronauts will have to meet some of VIPER’s goals themselves—and even then they can’t meet them all. Never mind the separate fact that the crewed [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/) mission [is not realistically expected](https://spacenews.com/nasa-assessment-suggests-potential-additional-delays-for-artemis-3-lunar-lander/) to launch until later in the decade. The only missions that actually hit the kind of broad as well as specific goals VIPER had are CNSA’s [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#the-instrumental-and-increasingly-international-7) and the JAXA-ISRO [LUPEX](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-111/) rover. --- *Many thanks to* [***Open Lunar Foundation***](https://www.openlunar.org) *and* [***The Orbital Index***](https://orbitalindex.com) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday. If you love this curated community resource too,* [*join them*](https://jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday/) *and support independent writing and journalism.* --- ## ispace ready to rove ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/07/ispace-micro-rover-tenacious-m2-mission.jpg) The TENACIOUS lunar micro-rover. [Image: ispace Europe](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=5593) On July 25, ispace Europe [announced](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=5593) completing building their flight [rover](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4954), which will be aboard ispace Japan’s [second Moon mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-154/) launching end of 2024 on a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket. This update follows the company [completing environmental testing](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=5243) of the rover’s qualification model in April. The 54-centimeter wide, 5-kilogram micro-rover made of carbon fiber-reinforced plastics will explore the Moon’s surface with an HD camera on its front and back. The rover will also have a back-mounted shovel from Epiroc AB using which it will [collect lunar soil](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=3696) and [transfer its ownership](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-companies-to-collect-lunar-resources-for-artemis-demonstrations) to NASA as part of the latter’s move to set precedence for future resource use under the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords/). ispace Europe developed the micro rover with funding aid from the Luxembourg Space Agency under an ESA contract. Next up, the rover will be integrated with the ispace lander in Japan. While the overall mission is named M2/RESILIENCE, reflecting the spirited reattempt following ispace Japan’s [failed lunar touchdown attempt](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-129/) with the [M1 mission](https://jatan.space/ispace-japan-m1-moon-mission/) in April 2023, the rover carries the theme with the name TENACIOUS. Relatedly, ispace Japan announced on June 27 that the mission’s lander [passed thermal vacuum testing](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=5527). ispace engineers have also verified commanding the lander and receiving data from it. The ongoing tests are part of a [slew of launch and space environmental tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/) ispace is conducting at JAXA’s Tsukuba Space Center. ## More mission updates - [On July 23](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2024/07/24/nasas-rocket-on-roll-core-stage-arrives-at-vehicle-assembly-building/), the second core stage of the SLS rocket arrived [from Michoud](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-ships-moon-rocket-stage-ahead-of-first-crewed-artemis-flight/) to NASA’s Kennedy Space Center for final rocket assembly in the coming months, to be followed by its integration with the Orion spacecraft. If all goes well, this SLS rocket will launch the [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii) mission by end of mid-decade, pushing [four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) in the Orion capsule around the Moon and back. - Ling Xin [reports](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3271690/chinas-critical-third-stage-rocket-engine-passes-test-crewed-moon-mission) that China recently successfully test fired the high-energy hydrolox YF-75E engine. Three of these engines will power the third stage of China’s Long March 10 rocket, which will be the launch vehicle used to [send astronauts to the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/) starting end of decade. ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/07/esa-moonlight-graphic.jpg) [Image: ESA](https://www.esa.int/About%5FUs/Corporate%5Fnews/ESA%5Fadvances%5Fits%5Fplan%5Ffor%5Fsatellites%5Faround%5Fthe%5FMoon) - Following a [£2.9 million](https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-space-agency-backs-rolls-royce-nuclear-power-for-moon-exploration) award, the UK Space Agency is funding [£4.8 million](https://www.gov.uk/government/news/33-million-boost-for-national-space-programme) to a team led by Rolls-Royce to further develop a lightweight and modular autonomous nuclear micro-reactor with the hope of an initial demonstration on the Moon by 2030\. This will help future missions survive frigid lunar nights at lower costs. - The Luxembourg-based European Space Resources Innovation Center (ESRIC), in partnership with ESA’s Business in Space Growth Network, has [launched an accelerator program](https://www.esric.lu/news-detail?tx%5Fnews%5Fpi1%5Baction%5D=detail&tx%5Fnews%5Fpi1%5Bcontroller%5D=News&tx%5Fnews%5Fpi1%5Bnews%5D=36&cHash=6706f2b83422dcf7b03f994731ac7906) to help co-fund European organizations focused on developing technologies related to prospecting, extracting, and utilizing lunar resources. To start off, the accelerator aims to provide a total of €1 million for the first batch of ideas. - Ling Xin [reports](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3271365/research-body-eu-nato-state-joins-china-led-moon-project-ilrs) that on July 12, the non-profit Hungarian Solar Physics Foundation [became the 14th non-country](https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/VIxiTXxjn-ewa1ZeFyKjZg) to join the China-led long-term scientific base on the Moon’s south pole called the [International Lunar Research Station](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/) (ILRS). - In honor of the women “human computers” and “[Hidden Figures](https://www.imdb.com/title/tt4846340/)” contributing to early US spaceflight research as well as to the Apollo program, NASA has [named](http://www.collectspace.com/news/news-071924a-johnson-space-center-dorothy%5Fvaughan%5Fwomen%5Fapollo.html) one of the buildings in the Johnson Space Center as the “Dorothy Vaughan Center”. ### Indian Space Progress #18: A flat budget, increasing mass to orbit, continuing Chandrayaan, and pushes for private space URL: https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-18/ Last updated: 2025-04-30T06:55:37.000Z *I hope you enjoy this bird’s-eye view of all major developments in India’s space trajectory over the last two months!* 🚀 ## India’s space budget for FY2024 ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/07/chandrayaan-3-in-gslv-mk-iii-rocket-fairing.jpg) A tailor-made truck carrying the large and tall fairing of a Launch Vehicle Mark III rocket. It housed the Chandrayaan 3 spacecraft stack. [Image: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/chandrayaan3%5Fgallery.html) Despite the [many highs of 2023](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-11/) for Indian space, the [FY2024 budget](https://www.indiabudget.gov.in/doc/eb/sbe95.pdf) of $1.56 billion for the country’s Department of Space (DOS)—of which ISRO gets the major chunk—has essentially stayed flat. The 18% increase over the previous financial year may seem significant but that’s only because the revised total expenditure of $1.32 billion during FY2023 was lower than the amount allocated for it. Notably, DOS underutilized its space technology budget in FY2023 by about $150 million, a trait the country’s Ministry of Science & Technology as a whole [suffers from](https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/sustainable-funding-science-power-ambition-india/article67884760.ece). As Mukunth has [pointed out previously](https://rootprivileges.net/2024/03/02/why-not-increase-isro-budget/), it’s the latest example illustrating that increasing ISRO’s budget alone isn’t a solution in itself for continuing advances in space. There’s some more incentive for space startups though. Earlier this year, during the interim national budget announcement, India’s Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman had [announced](https://www.thehindu.com/business/budget/interim-budget-2024-1-lakh-crore-fund-to-help-india-leapfrog-in-deep-tech/article67801520.ece) the availability of $12 billion dollars in interest-free loans across 50 years for Indian tech startups—including space ones—to tap into. Now, Sitharaman has announced a pool of about $120 million in venture capital funding for space startups to apply for, a move many Indian space industry experts are [cautiously optimistic about](https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/18-hike-for-department-of-space-in-union-budget-lions-share-for-development-of-space-technologies/article68436318.ece). In any case, just like the government [opening up](https://analyticsindiamag.com/100-fdi-in-space-to-drive-investments-in-india/) approval-less foreign direct investments (FDI) for the country’s private space sector, this can be seen as a welcome *option* now available to India’s nascent startup ecosystem. What India’s flat FY2024 space budget gives a clearer picture of is ISRO’s continued limited approach to deep space exploration and human spaceflight despite the rhetoric. As I explained in my article about ISRO taking on [increasingly complex lunar and crewed exploration missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/), India’s approach to even attempt its ambitious milestone missions would be different than the US or China, and that it would progress gradually at best. Even without budget underutilization, ISRO simply lacks the kind of resources that NASA and CNSA enjoy, with governmental Indian space funding being only a tenth to twentieth of China and the US, and private funding for deep space exploration being nearly zero. ## Increasing mass to orbit, and a spaceplane While ISRO works with the Indian industry to [ramp up the production rate](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-16/) of India’s most powerful rocket, the [Launch Vehicle Mark III](https://www.isro.gov.in/GSLVmk3%5FCON.html) (LVM3), from the current two a year to four and then six, the agency is also [testing](https://www.isro.gov.in/Successful%5Fignition%5Ftest%5Fon%5Fsemi%5Fcryogenic%5FPITA.html) an engine upgrade to LVM3’s core stage. ISRO will replace its current two [Vikas engines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikas%5F%28rocket%5Fengine%29) with an indigenously built 2000 KiloNewton semi-cryogenic kerolox engine called SCE-200\. This will increase the rocket’s GTO capacity from \~4,000 kilograms to at least \~5,000\. ISRO is also testing [engine restart capability](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/Monthly%5Fsummary/Monthly%5FSummary%5FMarch%5F2024.pdf) for LVM3’s upper stage cryogenic engine to enable more complex mission profiles. At the [India Space Congress 2024](https://www.indiaspacecongress.com/agenda-2024/) in New Delhi late June, the Director of ISRO’s Liquid Propulsion Space Center, V. Narayanan, said that the target to launch an SCE-200 on an LVM3 is 2027, a point in time later than originally expected but still early enough to be leveraged by the [upcoming complex Chandrayaan and initial Gaganyaan missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/07/rlv-td-landing-3.jpg) ISRO’s spaceplane test vehicle RLV-TD autonomously landing on a runway. [Image: ISRO](https://x.com/isro/status/1804703778467443089) On June 23, ISRO [successfully landed](https://x.com/isro/status/1804695916617863425) their uncrewed, autonomous spaceplane prototype called the [Reusable Launch Vehicle Technology Demonstrator](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-14/) (RLV-TD) on a runway at Chitradurga, India for the third time. Notably, the craft reused the winged body and many flight systems from [the second landing test](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-14/) with minimal modifications, and steered through more stringent drop conditions. As seen in the [video](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qTS9EY1sRDQ), ISRO used an engine smoke marker this time to better trace the descent trajectory for future improvements. As Chethan Kumar [reported](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/rlv-re-entry-mission-to-use-gslv-with-pslv-last-stage-landing-gear-to-change-more/articleshow/111267553.cms), ISRO next aims to fly a [60% larger](https://www.wionews.com/india-news/exclusive-india-lands-unmanned-spaceplane-with-pin-point-accuracy-next-destination-is-space-578210) RLV (named Pushpak) as the third stage of a modified GSLV Mk II rocket so as to test the spaceplane’s atmospheric reentry from orbit. ISRO envisions the RLV not as a satellite deployer as much as a means to autonomously operate onboard payloads and experiments for a month or more in space and then bring them back to Earth for valuable follow-on studies. Media outlets have frequently [compared](https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/india-s-very-own-space-shuttle-launched-successfully-by-isro/story-53k4Yr6sdfxzj7BS9vEUSO.html) the RLV to NASA’s retired Space Shuttle but ISRO is neither designing Pushpak to carry humans nor is it intended to be a heavy-lift launch vehicle. As a highly autonomous platform, Pushpak is more akin to the flying [Boeing X-37B](https://www.boeing.com/defense/autonomous-systems/x37b/index.page) and Sierra Space’s upcoming [Dream Chaser](https://www.sierraspace.com/space-transportation/dream-chaser-spaceplane). --- *Many thanks to the* [***Takshashila Institution***](https://takshashila.org.in)*,* [***KaleidEO***](https://satsure.co/kaleidEO)*,* [***PierSight***](https://piersight.space)*,* [***Gurbir Singh***](https://gurbir.co.uk) *and* [***Arun Raghavan***](https://arunraghavan.net) *for sponsoring this month’s Indian Space Progress report. If you too love my work of trying to capture true trajectories of Indian space,* [*join them*](https://jatan.space/sponsor-indian-space-progress/)*!* --- ## Chandrayaan updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/06/isro-lunar-exploration-and-crewed-spaceflight-roadmap.jpg) An initial integrated lunar and crewed exploration roadmap for India. [Image: S. Somanath / ISRO](https://www.youtube.com/live/DNXTouOKNVk?feature=shared&t=9413) - Since official information from ISRO regarding India’s lunar and crewed exploration plans remains vague and scattered in bits and pieces, which also make it difficult for media reports to capture missions in context, I have compiled and laid down everything we know about ISRO’s plans for undertaking increasingly complex robotic Chandrayaan missions, where human spaceflight comes in, and what realistic timelines look like: [From Chandrayaan 3 to an Indian on the Moon 🌗](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/) - By combining optical, radar, neutron, and other data from NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lro/about/) (LRO), [complemented](https://doi.org/10.1029/2023JE007745) by the ISRO [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/)’s dual-frequency radar observations, a [new study](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2024.03.020) led by several Indian scientists estimates that the Moon’s poles host five to eight times more [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) 1-3 meters underground than near the surface. They also find that the extent of such water ice appears to be about twice as large on the lunar north than south. The study also suggests that the Moon’s past volcanism is the primary source of this subsurface water ice but [not all researchers agree](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/#the-search-for-lunar-water-deepens). Either way, the study has implications for the many upcoming lunar missions dedicated to studying the nature, abundance, and accessibility of lunar water, which include CNSA’s upcoming [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#the-instrumental-and-increasingly-international-7) mission, the JAXA-ISRO [LUPEX](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-111/) rover, and NASA’s [Lunar Trailblazer](https://jatan.space/nasa-lunar-trailblazer/) orbiter. - At the Secure World Foundation’s Summit for Space Sustainability, a Korean researcher [presented](https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/2024/Technical%5FPresentations/21AM/2%5FItem%5F15%5FKPLO%5FLessons%5FLearned%5FMoon-Jin%5FJeon%5Fas%5Fof%5F20%5FJune.pdf) on July 11 how NASA, ISRO, and KARI have been [voluntarily sharing information](https://spacenews.com/lunar-spacecraft-receive-dozens-of-collision-warnings/) about the exact trajectories of their active (near-)polarlunar orbiters. The agencies use the NASA [MADCAP](https://www.nasa.gov/cara/madcap/) software to predict and get notified about uncomfortably close approaches between the orbiters after which a decision can be taken for one of the craft to perform a diversion maneuver. Recall that in October 2021, ISRO commanded its [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) to [change its orbit](https://web.archive.org/web/20220725175353/https://www.isro.gov.in/update/15-nov-2021/chandrayaan-2-orbiter-ch2o-performs-evasive-manoeuvre-to-mitigate-critically) slightly for avoiding a close approach of about 3 kilometers to NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html) (LRO). In the [May 2023 summary](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/Monthly%5Fsummary/MonthlySummary%5FMay2023%5FEnglish.pdf) of India’s space activities, ISRO mentioned that on its request the LRO team postponed their spacecraft’s “Momentum Dumping” plan to avoid more close conjunctions. An August 2023 [blog post](https://www.isro.gov.in/Current%5FSpace%5FSituation%5Faround%5FMoon%5FAssessment.html) by ISRO alluding to the importance of managing growing lunar traffic mentioned the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter maneuvering to avoid a close approach to KPLO. Per the [May 2024 monthly summary](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/Monthly%5Fsummary/Monthly%5FSummary%5FMay2024.pdf) of Indian space activities, ISRO performed two more such maneuvers this past May to avoid running into KPLO. ## Private and commercial space updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/07/skyroot-vikram-1-proof-pressure-test.jpg) The three stages of the Skyroot Vikram-I rocket during their respective proof pressure tests. [Images: Skyroot](https://x.com/SkyrootA/status/1812683676871778566) - As of July 15, Skyroot [completed](https://x.com/SkyrootA/status/1812683676871778566) proof pressure testing all three stages of its upcoming small-lift rocket called Vikram-I. It’s the company’s latest milestone in the lead up to attempting an orbital flight later mid-decade, for which the company recently [raised $27.5 million](https://aviationweek.com/aerospace/commercial-space/indias-skyroot-raises-275-million-fresh-funding-round). Other recent Vikram-I milestones include [flight qualifying](https://twitter.com/SkyrootA/status/1671416833579286529) its Raman-I engine, which will provide roll attitude control, [hot](https://www.isro.gov.in/Support%5FSpaceStartup%5FRocketEngine.html) [firing](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1682745543343079424) the Raman-II engine powering Vikram-I’s fourth stage, and successfully [test firing](https://twitter.com/SkyrootA/status/1773253058476036453) the rocket’s second stage motor. Unfortunately, Skyroot and local competitor Agnikul [face an uphill battle](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-16/) to survive and be profitable this decade but a lot will ride on the first orbital demonstration going well too. - In what seems to be the first satellite export order for an Indian private company, Azista will [build and launch a satellite](https://ilaunch.space/media-release/a-thrust-vector-system-for-guidance-navigation-and-control-on-cubesats/) to fly a novel napthalene-based thrust vector system from Australia’s Boswell Technologies to help CubeSats get more effective guidance, navigation and control systems. Relatedly, recall that SpaceX’s Falcon 9 Transporter flight in June last year launched Azista-BST’s [first satellite](https://www.financialexpress.com/business/defence-indian-startup-azista-bst-aerospaces-first-satellite-launched-by-spacex-3124736) called AFR. The 80-kilogram satellite is the first of up to five Earth imagers the company hopes to operate within three years. In the long run, the company [hopes to leverage](https://www.azista-bst.com/azista-bst-aerospace-rolls-out-maiden-satellite-from-its-mass-manufacturing-factory) its big 50,000 sq. ft facility to mass produce eight satellites a month to provide commercial offerings to agricultural, strategic, and analytics customers in South East Asia. - ISRO and IN-SPACe, a DOS entity created to “promote, hand-hold, guide and authorize space activities”, put out a [call for proposals](https://www.inspace.gov.in/inspace?id=inspace%5Feoi%5Ffor%5Feo%5Fppp%5Fpage) on July 25 for the Indian private industry to propose building and managing Earth observation satellites under a Public Private Partnership. Other than providing cost-sharing incentives to the private industry, India hopes that this effort will improve and promote usage of Earth observation data from an access and distribution standpoint, which in turn could help create national demand for space launches—something ISRO Chief S. Somanath recently said is [currently missing](https://web.archive.org/web/20240616110619/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/tech/technology/satellite-launch-market-grim-need-to-create-internal-demand-isro-chairman-s-somanath/articleshow/111037258.cms) from the country’s space ecosystem beyond the baseline ISRO missions. - Building on its work to operate its own ground stations for [demonstrator missions](https://www.dhruvaspace.com/news/mission-success-dhruva-space-is-open-for-business-as-a-hosted-payload-provider-declares-success-of-leap-td-platform-onboard-isros-pslv-c58-poem-3) related to CubeSats and small satellites, Dhruva Space has received authorization from IN-SPACe to begin [offering ground stations as a commercial service](https://www.geospatialworld.net/news/dhruva-space-gsaas/). ## More Indian Space ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/07/aditya-l1-halo-orbit-with-and-without-maneuvers-1.jpeg) Plot visualizing Aditya-L1’s halo-orbit around the first Sun-Earth Lagrangian point (L1) without a trajectory correction maneuver (green) and with the performed one (blue). [Image: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/Aditya%5FL1%5FMission%5FCompletion%5Fof%5FFirst%5FHalo%5FOrbit.html) - ISRO’s [Aditya-L1](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-08/) solar telescope—which [began studying](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-12/#aditya-l1-begins-its-solar-staring) the Sun’s surface, atmosphere, its activities, and [the solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) from January this year—has [successfully completed its first halo orbit](https://www.isro.gov.in/Aditya%5FL1%5FMission%5FCompletion%5Fof%5FFirst%5FHalo%5FOrbit.html) of 178 days around the [first Sun-Earth Lagrangian point](https://www.isro.gov.in/Aditya%5FL1-MissionDetails.html) (L1). ISRO needed to command only three small maneuvers for Aditya-L1 to stay on course, which validates the complex flight dynamics software developed in-house by ISRO’s URSC center in Bengaluru for the mission. Thanks to redditor [u/ravi\_ram](https://www.reddit.com/r/ISRO/comments/1dtlmb4/comment/lbk081b/) for pointing out that you can visualize Aditya-L1’s orbit and those of other solar missions with a [web plotting tool](https://al1ssc.aries.res.in/orbit-tool). - Relatedly, ISRO confirmed that [unlike](https://www.isro.gov.in/ISROCapturestheSignaturesoftheRecentSolarEruptiveEvents.html) Aditya-L1’s other instruments, the solar observatory’s key coronagraph [VELC](http://velc.iiap.res.in/science) and its ultraviolet imager [SUIT](https://www.isro.gov.in/Aditya%5FL1%5FSUIT.html) in fact [did not observe](https://www.isro.gov.in/Aditya%5FL1%5FSUIT%5FVELC%5FCapture%5FSolarFury.html) the peak of aurora-causing solar flares and coronal mass ejections during May 10–11 because the instruments were in baking and calibration modes respectively. VELC and SUIT observed the aftermath of the solar storms May 14 onwards. ISRO has been frustratingly silent on the true nature of the calibration issues affecting these instruments. - Check out job opportunities [at ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/Careers.html), [SkyServe](https://tally.so/r/wdEXWV), [Pixxel](https://www.pixxel.space/careers), and [SatSure](https://satsure.keka.com/careers). ### Moon Monday #185: China’s lunar constellation plans, mission updates, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-185/ Last updated: 2025-02-03T10:31:46.000Z ## China’s ambition to build a lunar navcom constellation Ling Xin reports on China’s [ongoing studies](http://journal26.magtechjournal.com/kjkxjs/EN/10.16708/j.cnki.1000-758X.2024.0035) to have a phased constellation of 30+ satellites which would provide [high-precision navigation](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3270195/satnav-system-moon-chinese-scientists-plot-possible-route) as well as [high-bandwidth communications](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3270910/chinese-scientists-propose-information-superhighway-between-earth-and-moon) for most places on the Moon with up to quadruple coverage. [Earlier studies](https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4102-9%5F86) focused on a navcom constellation that optimizes for the lunar south pole. The overall intent is to support China’s ambitious [crewed lunar surface missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/) driving towards a [full-fledged Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/). A part of making this work would include China developing capabilities to monitor and track spacecraft across cislunar space—the space enveloping Earth and the Moon. This is similar to what the US is planning starting with the launch of Advanced Space’s [Oracle spacecraft](https://spacenews.com/air-force-research-laboratory-delays-lunar-experiment) later this decade to monitor cislunar traffic. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/07/china-lunar-navcom-constellation-concept-1.jpg) A three-stage concept of developing a cislunar navigation and communications constellation proposed by Chinese researchers. [Image: SCMP](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3270910/chinese-scientists-propose-information-superhighway-between-earth-and-moon) Since 2018, China has already deployed two communications relay orbiters, [Queqiao 1](https://www.planetary.org/articles/0519-change-4-relay-satellite) and [Queqiao 2](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-169/), in service of the [Chang’e 4](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/change-4) and [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) missions respectively on the [Moon’s farside](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). Queqiao 2 will also relay communications for China’s upcoming [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#the-instrumental-and-increasingly-international-7) and [Chang’e 8](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/#prepare-for-crew-and-double-down-with-mission-eight) lunar landers, which CNSA is targeting to launch in 2026 and 2028 respectively. Also, the Queqiao 2 launch carried two experimental Tiandu CubeSats, which [entered lunar orbit too](https://twitter.com/AJ%5FFI/status/1772184355357467099). In all, the Queqiao 2 mission is [testing and verifying technologies](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3250884/testing-testing-china-try-out-new-satellite-tech-change-6-lunar-mission) which will feed into China’s upcoming full-fledged navcom constellation. ### Why build a navcom constellation around the Moon? For one, such a system can enable cost-effective Moon missions since spacecraft would no longer need hefty communications hardware and rented ground infrastructure. Partner nations with smaller space budgets can take advantage of this to send their own lunar missions at lower costs, including to the [less explored](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) farside lunar surface. A navcom constellation can especially aid crew and hardware on the Moon’s poles, where Earth’s visibility is limited due to it being lower on the horizon than it was during the near-equatorial NASA Apollo missions. A navcom constellation will also aid [lunar-water-hunting](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) future rovers to better venture inside [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/), where Earth visibility worsens further. Moreover, a lunar navcom can provide a [common time reference](https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-00185-z) for the Moon, which would help swarms of lunar spacecraft operate safely, and also aid lunar-based fundamental physics and astronomy experiments including [farside radio astronomy](https://jatan.space/radio-astronomy-from-the-moon/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/07/lunar-pathfinder-relay-service.jpg) The Lunar Pathfinder will relay communications between Earth and robotic mission hardware at the Moon as a commercial service. [Image: SSTL](https://www.esa.int/Applications/Navigation/Galileo%5Fwill%5Fhelp%5FLunar%5FPathfinder%5Fnavigate%5Faround%5FMoon) Other than China, ESA also aims to have a navcom lunar constellation with its [Moonlight](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-98/) initiative. The [launch](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-picks-firefly-aerospace-for-robotic-delivery-to-far-side-of-moon) of UK’s [Lunar Pathfinder](https://jatan.space/nasa-esa-collaborate-on-lunar-pathfinder/) orbiter in 2026 will constitute ESA’s first Moonlight element. ESA will be Moonlight’s [anchor customer](https://www.esa.int/Applications/Telecommunications%5FIntegrated%5FApplications/Wanted%5Ffirms%5Fto%5Fconnect%5Fand%5Fguide%5FMoon%5Fmissions) but expects European companies to actively commercially provide lunar navcom services to missions globally. On the US side, last we heard, Lockheed Martin’s subsidiary [Crescent Space](https://www.crescentspace.com) was targeting a 2025 launch for its [first two navcom lunar orbiters](https://news.lockheedmartin.com/2023-03-28-Crescent-Space-to-Deliver-Critical-Services-to-a-Growing-Lunar-Economy). More potential competitors in the lunar navcom space include [ArkEdge Space](https://spacenews.com/japans-arkedge-space-closes-18-7-million-series-a-for-nanosatellite-projects), [Aquarian Space](https://spacenews.com/another-startup-joins-race-to-provide-high-speed-lunar-communications), and [Plus Ultra](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=2515). But only China has launched hardware yet. In a [recent paper](https://doi.org/10.11728/cjss2024.03.2023-0129) published in the Chinese Journal of Space Science, researchers proposed that China should integrate their Queqiao lunar satellites with the existing Earthbound Tianlian ones, which notably serve, among other things, China’s Tiangong space station. As Andrew Jones [highlighted](https://spacenews.com/china-could-develop-dual-relay-satellite-system-for-earth-moon-communications-to-reduce-geopolitical-risks/), the proposal’s driving rationale is to substantially improve surface coverage time and area for China’s upcoming ambitious [crewed lunar missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/) leading to a [full-fledged Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/). It would also allow redundancy if and when China faces ground station availability issues from its Moonbase partners across the globe. Chinese researchers have also suggested that when coupled with Earth-based ground stations, China’s navcom network can help CNSA track deep space missions with sub-kilometer accuracy all the way to Jupiter and even beyond. In fact, Queqiao 2 will try testing an element of this during the [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#the-instrumental-and-increasingly-international-7) mission currently targeting a 2026 launch. As noted by Chi Wang, et al. in a [December 2023 paper](https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwad329) on the scientific objectives of the Chang’e 7 mission, the LOVEX payload onboard the Queqiao 2 satellite will perform a deep space craft tracking experiment: > The LOVEX on the relay satellite is used \[sic\] to construct a 400 000-km baseline Moon–Earth VLBI measurement and observation experiment system to improve the accuracy of orbit determination in deep space and to carry out astrometry and astrophysics observation and study. ## Let’s talk VIPER? ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/07/viper-gets-its-mast.jpg) The VIPER lunar rover in a clean room at NASA’s Johnson Space Center while it was being assembled. [Image: NASA / Josh Valcarcel](https://www.nasa.gov/general/nasa-viper-robotic-moon-rover-team-raises-its-mighty-mast/) NASA [announced](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-ends-viper-project-continues-moon-exploration/) on July 17 that it intends to cancel the [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) mission that was supposed to fly on Astrobotic’s [Griffin lander](https://www.astrobotic.com/lunar-delivery/landers/griffin-lander/) mid-decade. The agency cited [continually rising costs](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-cancels-viper-lunar-rover/) and [more launch delays](https://spacenews.com/nasa-cancels-viper-lunar-rover/), and the risk of overstepping into budgets meant for other missions in the [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), as the cumulative reasons for the decision. NASA says it will consider expressions of interest from the US industry as well as international partners to fly VIPER at no cost to NASA before going ahead and disassembling the rover next year. The US Congress will decide if NASA will need to reconsider flying VIPER somehow or if the agency can go ahead with the formal cancellation it desires. In any case, Astrobotic will still attempt to land Griffin on the Moon’s south pole for NASA under their existing CLPS contract but with a simulated mass replacing VIPER. Despite how NASA may put it, no other CLPS mission can perform the depth and breadth of science VIPER was supposed to. The advanced rover intended to explore areas in and around [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) for over four months to help scientists determine the nature, accessibility, and abundance of lunar [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) deposits. In comparison, most CLPS missions last a single lunar day (14 Earth days) and are minimally mobile at best. Results from VIPER were to feed into NASA’s planning of crewed [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis/) missions but it would seem the first batch of such astronauts will have to meet some of VIPER’s goals themselves. The only missions that actually hit the kind of broad as well as specific goals VIPER had are CNSA’s [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#the-instrumental-and-increasingly-international-7) and the JAXA-ISRO [LUPEX](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-111/) rover. I want to cover what really happened to VIPER beyond what is already said and propagated, and everything that it affects going ahead. If you’d like to speak to me about the VIPER mission and its consequences, please reach out: [Email me: hey@jatan.space](mailto:hey@jatan.space) --- *Many thanks to* [***The Orbital Index***](https://orbitalindex.com) *and* [***Gordon Roesler***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/gordon-roesler-687a0426) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday. If you love this curated community resource too,* [*join them*](https://jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday/) *and support independent writing and journalism.* --- ## Intuitive Machines gears up for second Moon mission For Intuitive Machines’ [second Moon landing mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-155/) targeting launch between November 2024 and January 2025 as part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), the two organizations [have finalized](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/intuitive-machines-finalizes-landing-site-for-sold-out-im-2-lunar-prospecting-mission) the Nova-C spacecraft’s landing target to be a 200-meter diameter elliptical region on a rocky ridge on the Moon’s south pole which connects the Shackleton and de Gerlache craters. Neither Intuitive Machines nor NASA have specified the particular location or its coordinates but it’s an interesting development in any case because the mission’s landing site has now moved from 85°S to around 89°S. The latter presents better chances of finding [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) within 1 meter below the surface—the maximum extent of the Honeybee-Robotics-provided [TRIDENT drill](https://www.nasa.gov/polar-resources-ice-mining-experiment-1). The lander will analyze the excavated material for water ice and other such volatiles using the [MSolo](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/viper/rover-and-instruments#MSolo) mass spectrometer, a first such study. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/07/prime-1-trident-drill-and-msolo-mass-spectrometer-labels.jpg) Components of the Honeybee Robotics provided TRIDENT drill as flying on Intuitive Machines’ second Moon mission. [Image: NASA Langley](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cKHrRvhAQgY) In the meanwhile, Intuitive Machines [completed hot-firing](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/intuitive-machines-im-2-engine-qualification-advances-cargo-class-lander-development) its in-house developed VR900 methalox engine for the mission, which improves lander performance over [their first CLPS landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-166/) IM-1\. Jeff Foust previously [reported](https://spacenews.com/intuitive-machines-making-upgrades-to-second-lunar-lander/) that Intuitive Machines is refining several systems on its Nova-C lander with the hope of bagging full success this time around instead of the partial one that was IM-1—which NASA and Intuitive disappointingly [skewed the success criteria](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-166/) of and continues to at various space events when talking about the mission. ## More Moon NASA is progressing slowly on the mid-decade launch of the [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii) mission by an SLS rocket, which will push [four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) in an Orion capsule around the Moon and back. With a [successful test](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2024/07/19/nasa-kennedy-teams-complete-water-flow-tests-for-artemis-ii-mission/) of the [water deluge system](https://images.nasa.gov/details/KSC-20231024-MH-CSH01-0001-Artemis%5FII%5FWater%5FDeluge%5FTest%5F39%5FB-M1718), which will suppress the intense sounds of the launch, NASA is now about halfway through [preparing ground systems](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2024/06/10/nasa-kennedy-teams-test-upgraded-environmental-control-system-for-artemis-ii/) for the crewed rocket’s second liftoff off Earth. In the meanwhile, the core stage of SLS for the mission is [on its way to the Kennedy Space Center](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-ships-moon-rocket-stage-ahead-of-first-crewed-artemis-flight/) from Michoud for final rocket assembly followed by its integration with Orion. Jeff Foust [reports](https://spacenews.com/second-sls-core-stage-ready-to-ship-to-florida/) how the assembly process for SLS is now cleaner due to lessons from assembling the large rocket for [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-i). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/07/artemis-ii-sls-rocket-core-stage-1.jpg) The Artemis II SLS rocket core stage being transported towards NASA’s Pegasus ferry barge near the agency’s Michoud Assembly Facility in New Orleans. [Image: NASA / Eric Bordelon / Michael DeMocker](https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/artemis-ii-core-stage-on-the-move/) Andrew Parsonson [reports](https://europeanspaceflight.com/esa-targets-2031-for-first-argonaut-lunar-lander-mission/) that ESA plans the first launch of their large lunar lander called [Argonaut](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Exploration/Argonaut) to be in 2031 onboard an Ariane 64 rocket. Argonaut will be built by Thales Alenia or Airbus, and will be capable of deploying up to 2100 kilograms of payload mass on the Moon. With a planned launch cadence of 2 years starting 2031, ESA hopes for Argonaut to support NASA’s Artemis crewed missions with cargo supplies, large rover deliveries, and habitat-related infrastructure such as [lunar oxygen extraction](https://www.thalesgroup.com/en/worldwide/space/press-release/thales-alenia-space-wins-study-contract-develop-payload-extract) and [solar power supply](https://europeanspaceflight.com/the-european-charging-station-for-the-moon/). ### I’m an Open Lunar Affiliate! URL: https://jatan.space/open-lunar-affiliate/ Last updated: 2024-07-19T05:34:36.000Z I’m glad to share that alongside [many inspiring individuals](https://www.openlunar.org/affiliates) like [Louis Burtz](https://www.openlunar.org/directory/louis-burtz), [Ranjana Kaul](https://www.duaassociates.com/people/ranjana-kaul/) and [Yoav Landsman](https://www.linkedin.com/in/yoav-landsman/), I’ve been an Affiliate at the Open Lunar Foundation for a while now. We’re thrilled to aid the non-profit’s daunting work of [developing key technical and policy building blocks](https://www.openlunar.org/work) which aim to help ensure that the exploration of our Moon is cooperative and sustainable for everyone. 🚀🌙 In turn, Open Lunar’s work makes me proud also because they have been a kind sponsor of my [Moon Monday](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) blog+newsletter for four years now! 🌗 [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/07/open-lunar-affiliate.jpg)](https://www.openlunar.org/affiliates) [openlunar.org/affiliates](https://www.openlunar.org/affiliates) ### Moon Monday #184: Funding farside ventures, lunar traffic, and Moon Monday in video! URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-184/ Last updated: 2025-06-09T12:25:19.000Z ## On the intersection of ispace, NASA CLPS, funding, and science ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/07/ispace-us-apex-moon-lander-illustration.jpg) Illustration of the APEX 1.0 lunar lander design by ispace US. [Image: ispace](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4781) The [publicly traded](https://spacenews.com/first-ispace-mission-ready-for-lunar-landing-as-company-stock-starts-trading/) ispace Japan is taking another loan from the Sumitomo Mitsui Banking Corporation, amounting to [$62 million](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=5557), to continue working on its upcoming three Moon missions: - The company’s [second lunar lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-154/) M2/RESILIENCE, launching end of 2024 - The [Draper-led Moon mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-87/) part of NASA’s [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) program targeting a 2026 launch, wherein ispace’s [US subsidiary](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4781) is providing the large [APEX lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-147/). ispace US is also providing [ground communications](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=5509) and [relay services](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=5301) for the mission. - [Another Moon landing mission](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4943) by ispace Japan targeting a 2027 launch While ispace’s progress on M2/RESILIENCE has been going well on both [the lander](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=5527) and the [rover front](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=5243), it’s [Draper’s first CLPS mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-87/) targeting touchdown on the Moon’s farside which has been a driver of capital raises for ispace. In April, the company announced taking a [bridge loan of $45 million](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=5282) from Sumitomo Mitsui to majorly continue work on Draper’s CLPS mission. Jeff Foust [reported](https://spacenews.com/japanese-lunar-lander-company-ispace-raises-53-5-million-in-stock-sale/) in March that ispace raised $53.5 million through a stock sale, $47 million of which is being used for the Draper mission too. ispace’s share of Draper’s $77 million CLPS contract is supposedly $55 million. ispace has needed these multiple investments not only due to the resource intensive nature of doing Moon missions but that, as revealed in a recent [report on CLPS](https://oig.nasa.gov/office-of-inspector-general-oig/audit-reports/nasas-commercial-lunar-payload-services-initiative/) published by NASA’s Office of Inspector General, ispace US had to redesign the APEX lander to accommodate the needs of the NASA payloads on the mission: > Draper’s lander development progress was impacted by lander redesigns that caused a 12-month schedule delay. Draper subcontracted the lander’s design and development tasks to ispace, inc. (ispace). According to a NASA official, ispace’s original lander design was too small and not adequate for any CLPS delivery. ispace later redesigned a bigger lander, but it still did not meet the payload requirements. \[...\] Draper experienced significant schedule delays due to lander redesigns and when a major subcontractor fell behind schedule in obtaining external capital investments. To that end, some amount of ispace’s two loans from Sumitomo Mitsui will go towards the Draper CLPS mission too. The latest capital raise—including a previous [$80 million Japanese government grant](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4943) to launch a large lunar lander by 2027—brings ispace’s cumulative investment to about $490 million, probably the highest for a lunar company. There’s a silver lining for science on the Draper-led CLPS mission since the extra capital raised by ispace to continue mission development doesn’t (yet) seem to have cost significant additional money to NASA over the original contract, unlike the case of several other CLPS missions including the first ones that flew this year [from Astrobotic](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-159/) and [Intuitive Machines](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-166/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/07/clps-task-order-status-feb-2024-2.jpg) Status of NASA CLPS task orders as of February 2024\. Image: Screengrab from [NASA OIG’s CLPS report](https://oig.nasa.gov/office-of-inspector-general-oig/audit-reports/nasas-commercial-lunar-payload-services-initiative/) from June 2024 Note that while the table above shows Draper’s $77 million contract value being unchanged despite additional work required on lander development, NASA’s [original announcement](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-selects-draper-to-fly-research-to-far-side-of-moon/) of the CLPS task order states a contract value of $73 million. While not clear, this $4 milliondifference might be due to ispace having to [meet specific vibrational requirements](https://spacenews.com/ispace-revises-design-of-lunar-lander-for-nasa-clps-mission) of the NASA-funded payloads onboard. ### Science The science end of the Draper-led CLPS mission has been progressing well. The [two distinct seismometers](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2022/pdf/1576.pdf) to be aboard the ispace-provided lander to the geologically fascinating [Schrödinger crater](https://jatan.space/the-crowned-crater-of-schrodinger/) on the Moon’s farside [recently passed](https://www.nasa.gov/solar-system/moon/nasa-to-measure-moonquakes-with-help-from-insight-mars-mission/) the slew of [space launch and environmental tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/). The “Farside Seismic Suite” (FSS) payload suite is thus ready to fly. Data from over four months of its operations, combined with seismic measurements from the upcoming missions of [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#the-instrumental-and-increasingly-international-7), [Chang’e 8](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/#prepare-for-crew-and-double-down-with-mission-eight) and [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-selects-first-lunar-instruments-for-artemis-astronaut-deployment/) will help scientists better understand [the Moon’s internal structure and how it evolved](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). FSS will also help us know the [rate of seismic activity](https://doi.org/10.3847/PSJ/ad1332) and amount of [micrometeorite impacts](https://jatan.space/the-tiniest-of-impact-craters/) on the Moon’s farside, which is not well constrained at the moment but is needed to understand its potential impacts on human and robotic lunar exploration. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/07/ffs-science-clps.jpg) Science goals of the Farside Seismic Suite flying aboard the Draper-led, ispace-developed CLPS landing mission. Image: [M. Panning, et al.](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2022/pdf/1576.pdf) The mission lander will also carry [a drill, a probe, and a magnetic sounder](https://www.nationalacademies.org/event/06-25-2021/docs/DDF733FD65D56D559F052CC946914B5ECE2C67853F8A) to measure the farside crust’s internal heat flow and electrical conductivity in a way that will resolve some [murkiness of its structure](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). And there’s an experiment [to study electric and magnetic properties](https://www.universityofcalifornia.edu/news/uc-berkeley-put-experiment-surface-moon-next-2-years) in the region, which being shielded from Earth’s electromagnetic interference is apt for studying [the solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/)’s interactions with the lunar surface, and for characterizing the Moon’s radio emissions for [lunar-based radio astronomy](https://jatan.space/radio-astronomy-from-the-moon/) like studying [cosmology](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-118/) and [habitable exoplanets](https://www.planetary.org/articles/what-is-the-habitable-zone). And so, if ispace and Draper ultimately manage to deliver the lander to Luna and operate its instruments without NASA paying for work the agency didn’t task by itself, the mission would be a clear demonstration of the CLPS model working as intended; with the companies getting the fixed returns they originally proposed in their CLPS bids and researchers getting unique scientific lunar data at low costs and reasonably fast turnarounds. --- *Many thanks to* [***Astrolab***](https://astrolab.space) *and* [***Tim Glotch***](https://www.stonybrook.edu/commcms/geosciences/people/%5Ffaculty/glotch.php) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday. If you love this curated community resource too,* [*join them*](https://jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday/) *and support independent writing and journalism.* --- ## Coordinating lunar traffic At the Secure World Foundation’s Summit for Space Sustainability, a KARI researcher [presented](https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/2024/Technical%5FPresentations/21AM/2%5FItem%5F15%5FKPLO%5FLessons%5FLearned%5FMoon-Jin%5FJeon%5Fas%5Fof%5F20%5FJune.pdf) on July 11 how NASA, ISRO, and KARI have been [voluntarily sharing information](https://spacenews.com/lunar-spacecraft-receive-dozens-of-collision-warnings/) about the exact trajectories of their active (near-)polarlunar orbiters. The agencies use the NASA [MADCAP](https://www.nasa.gov/cara/madcap/) software to predict and get notified about uncomfortably close approaches between the orbiters after which a decision can be taken for one of the craft to perform a diversion maneuver. KARI has made South Korea’s first lunar orbiter [KPLO](https://jatan.space/kplo/) perform four such maneuvers so far, including one to avoid a close approach to Japan’s [SLIM spacecraft](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-161/) before its Moon landing—for which decisions were taken within a day. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/07/kplo-cams-kari-presentation.jpg) Slide from KARI’s [presentation](https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/2024/Technical%5FPresentations/21AM/2%5FItem%5F15%5FKPLO%5FLessons%5FLearned%5FMoon-Jin%5FJeon%5Fas%5Fof%5F20%5FJune.pdf) at SWF’s Summit for Space Sustainability in July 2024\. Slide credit: Moon-Jin Jeon of KARI, who leads KPLO mission operations Recall that in October 2021, ISRO commanded its [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) to [change its orbit](https://web.archive.org/web/20220725175353/https://www.isro.gov.in/update/15-nov-2021/chandrayaan-2-orbiter-ch2o-performs-evasive-manoeuvre-to-mitigate-critically) slightly for avoiding an uncomfortably close approach of about 3 kilometers to NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html) (LRO). In the [May 2023 summary](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/Monthly%5Fsummary/MonthlySummary%5FMay2023%5FEnglish.pdf) of India’s space activities, ISRO mentioned that on its request the LRO team postponed their spacecraft’s “Momentum Dumping” plan to avoid more such uncomfortably close conjunctions. An August 2023 [blog post](https://www.isro.gov.in/Current%5FSpace%5FSituation%5Faround%5FMoon%5FAssessment.html) by ISRO alluding to the importance of managing growing lunar traffic mentioned the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter maneuvering to avoid a close approach to KPLO. Per the [May 2024 monthly summary](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/Monthly%5Fsummary/Monthly%5FSummary%5FMay2024.pdf) of Indian space activities, ISRO performed two more such maneuvers this past May to avoid running into KPLO. ## More mission updates - For a different kind of lunar impacts, ESA has approved the [LUMIO](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FEngineering%5FTechnology/Shaping%5Fthe%5FFuture/LUMIO%5FNew%5FCubeSat%5FIlluminating%5FLunar%5FImpacts) (Lunar Meteoroid Impacts Observer) CubeSat mission. As its name suggests, LUMIO will monitor flashes of meteorite impacts, particularly on the Moon’s farside to determine its poorly constrained rate and potential impact (pun intended) to long-term robotic and crewed exploration. ESA aims to launch LUMIO in 2027 to the second Earth-Moon Lagrangian point (L2), from where it can continuously look at the Moon’s farside. The CubeSat also aims to demonstrate [autonomously determining its position](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2024/07/Eye%5Ftest%5Ffor%5Flunar%5Fimpact%5Fsurveyor) in space and navigating accordingly, independent of communications with Earth. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/07/lumio-mission-phases-1.jpg) Mission phases of LUMIO. [Image: ESA](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FEngineering%5FTechnology/Shaping%5Fthe%5FFuture/LUMIO%5FNew%5FCubeSat%5FIlluminating%5FLunar%5FImpacts) - For the mid-decade [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii) mission, which will push [four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) in an Orion capsule around the Moon and back, NASA has selected astronaut [Andre Douglas](https://www.nasa.gov/people/nasa-astronaut-andre-douglas/) as a backup crew member for the three NASA astronauts on the flight. Relatedly, CSA [announced](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/news/articles/2023/2023-11-22-astronaut-jenni-gibbons-designated-canadian-backup-artemis-ii.asp) in November last year that astronaut [Jenni Gibbons](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronauts/canadian/active/bio-jenni-gibbons.asp) will be [Jeremy Hansen](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronauts/canadian/active/bio-jeremy-hansen.asp)’s backup for Canada’s seat on the mission. Hansen is flying in return for CSA contributing the [Canadarm3](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-182/#one-robotic-arm-to-rule-them-all) robotic servicing system to the [Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway), which is an upcoming NASA-led international lunar orbital habitat. - Jeff Foust [reports](https://spacenews.com/nasa-assessment-suggests-potential-additional-delays-for-artemis-3-lunar-lander/) that an internal confirmation review conducted by NASA on the readiness of SpaceX’s [Lunar Starship](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-179/) gives the agency’s [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/) crewed Moon landing mission a 70% chance of launch by February 2028, nearly a year and a half later than the current public date of September 2026. ## More Moon - Andrew Jones [reports](https://spacenews.com/kazakhstan-joins-chinas-ilrs-moon-base-program/) that Kazakhstan [became the 12th country](https://web.archive.org/web/20240715110805/https://www.mfa.gov.cn/zyxw/202407/t20240703%5F11446684.shtml) to join the China-led long-term scientific base on the Moon’s south pole called the [International Lunar Research Station](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/) (ILRS). The two countries will explore using Kazakhstan’s iconic launch site Baikonur cosmodrome for lunar missions. Also, Sri Lanka’s Supreme Deep Space Pvt. Ltd. [joined](https://colombogazette.com/2024/06/09/sri-lanka-ventures-into-deep-space-exploration-with-china/) ILRS in June as the 13th non-nation organization, wherein in return for participating in China’s lunar missions, Supreme Deep Space intends to provide ground communications support for missions. And, researchers from both countries aim to collaborate on [3D-printing lunar infrastructure](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-180/#and-then-you-have-lunar-landing-pads). - NASA’s ARES division is [hiring a Subject Matter Expert](https://nasa.usajobs.gov/job/797023700) to conduct research on lunar samples & analogs and support of human & robotic Moon missions. - Related tangent: ARES-developed [Astromaterials 3D lets you (virtually) hold Moon rocks](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-71/#astromaterials-3d-lets-you-hold-moon-rocks) - Join the July 20 International Moon Day celebrations in [China](https://internationalmoonday.org/imd-2024-main-events/imd-2024-main-event-harbin/), [Germany](https://internationalmoonday.org/imd-2024-main-events/imd-main-event-rostock/), and [around the world](https://internationalmoonday.org/events/map/) and tell people [why we must explore our Moon](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/)! 🌝 ## Moon Monday but in video! There’s now a [comprehensive video](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-yrO%5FbD9YXo) on China’s insane scientific and technological advances in exploring the Moon. It’s based on 7 editions of my [Moon Monday](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) blog+newsletter, made in collaboration with the popular YouTube channel “The Space Race”. Sean and team did a great job at adapting my writing to something I’d never do. For those of you who wanted me to make videos, this is as close as you get and you will ever get. 🌝 [****Watch on YouTube**](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-yrO%5FbD9YXo) ### Moon Monday #183 and Indian Space Progress #17: The one where Chandrayaan and Gaganyaan converge URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/ Last updated: 2026-02-04T10:47:38.000Z The successful [touchdown of Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) on the Moon last year was pivotal for India’s space ambitions as well as for global lunar exploration. Having taken place amid many lunar landing failures, Chandrayaan 3 kept the [worldwide momentum for the Moon](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) going by [feeding](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/#a-lunar-region-never-explored) into the frenzy of sending robotic explorers to our cosmic companion. Chandrayaan 3 changed perceptions developed space powers had of India’s ability to explore space beyond Earth orbit. Internally too, paired with the [new national space policy](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-04/), the Moon landing signaled the Indian government to let ISRO not only [double down](https://www.deccanherald.com/india/first-step-for-chandrayaan-4-to-be-taken-by-year-end-isro-3082088) on lunar exploration but go many steps further and develop a roadmap for human spaceflight which converges with Chandrayaan at the Moon—best highlighted by late last year’s [announced national goal](https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1968368) of sending an Indian to Luna by 2040. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/06/isro-lunar-exploration-and-crewed-spaceflight-roadmap.jpg) An initial integrated lunar and crewed exploration roadmap for India. [Image: S. Somanath / ISRO](https://www.youtube.com/live/DNXTouOKNVk?feature=shared&t=9413) Now, to be clear, ISRO lacks the kind of resources for its space program that NASA and CNSA enjoy, with governmental Indian space funding being only a tenth to twentieth of China and the US, and private funding for deep space exploration being nearly zero. Despite the [many highs of 2023](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-11/) for Indian space, the [FY 2024-25 budget](https://www.indiabudget.gov.in/doc/eb/sbe95.pdf) of $1.58 billion for the country’s Department of Space—of which ISRO gets the major chunk—has essentially not budged. As such, India’s progress towards these lofty robotic and crewed lunar goals will be gradual at best. Timelines of missions even in the “Near Term” phase of the aforementioned roadmap should be taken as seriously as those under NASA’s [Artemis program](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/). Having said that, each milestone mission is interesting in itself for the space exploration abilities it unlocks for India and its partners. The biggest of those partners is now the US, thanks to last year’s joint government announcements of [broad Indo-US sci-tech collaborations](https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2023/06/22/joint-statement-from-the-united-states-and-india) as well as [India’s signing of the Artemis Accords](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-133/). Since official information from ISRO regarding India’s lunar and crewed exploration plans remains vague and scattered in bits and pieces, which also make it difficult for media reports to capture missions in context, this piece is my attempt at clarifying and laying down everything we know about ISRO’s plans for undertaking increasingly complex robotic Chandrayaan missions, where human spaceflight comes in, and what realistic timelines look like. ## Upcoming Chandrayaan missions [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f4b958ca0-69d4-429f-ac1e-cf5833eea28c_1100x800-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) The Chandrayaan 3 lander Vikram imaged by the mission’s rover Pragyan on August 30, 2023\. [Image: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/chandrayaan3%5Fgallery.html) The list of missions below is in a realistic order of their likelihood plus the definiteness of their objectives, with missions down the line being increasingly murky representations of the lunar capabilities India would like to achieve. - **Chandrayaan 4:** Lunar sample return mission (by end of decade) - **Chandrayaan 5 / ISRO-JAXA LUPEX:** A rover to study [polar lunar water](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) (by end of decade) **|** Potentially demonstrate frigid lunar night survival to enable long-term lunar missions (early 2030s) - **Chandrayaan 6:** Demonstrate [use of lunar resources](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-153/) towards [building infrastructure](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-180/#and-then-you-have-lunar-landing-pads) and habitats (mid 2030s) - **Chandrayaan 7** (late 2030s): Tap into lunar water for building fuel stations that ultimately sustain long-term lunar living, and potentially also enable advanced deep space missions that could [launch from Luna](https://jatan.space/the-moon-as-a-rocket-platform/) as part of their mission profile. ## Upcoming Gaganyaan missions ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/07/initial-gaganyaan-missions-after-first-crewed-flight.jpg) Initial set of Gaganyaan human spaceflight missions following ISRO’s first crewed orbital flight demonstration. Slide image: M. Mohan At the [India Space Congress 2024](https://www.indiaspacecongress.com/agenda-2024/) in New Delhi late June, the Director of ISRO’s Human Space Flight Center (HSFC), M. Mohan, provided clarity on what human spaceflight missions India aims to undertake after the initial demonstration of a [crewed orbital Gaganyaan flight](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-13/) mid-decade. - **ISS:** One of the [four Indian astronaut candidates](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-13/) will [fly to the International Space Station](https://spacenews.com/u-s-and-india-advance-human-spaceflight-cooperation/) early 2025 on a NASA-contracted Axiom Space mission aboard the SpaceX Crew Dragon capsule. The specific Axiom mission would either be Ax-4 or Ax-5, depending on the closing of many multi-organizational agreements involved in the deal. **Edit:** The mission [took place in 2025 successfully](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-29/). - **HLVM3-H1:** First crewed Gaganyaan flight with one or two astronauts (from the aforementioned four) flying on an indigenously developed rocket and crew capsule late mid-decade (Mission duration: [1 day](https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/on-indias-first-human-mission-gaganyaans-launch-date-isro-chief-sr-s-somanath-says-5996094)) - \[Note: The term HLVM3 refers to ISRO’s *human-rated* LVM3 rocket\] - The pacing item for this mission remains the Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS), whose feasibility ISRO is [still evaluating](https://www.reddit.com/r/ISRO/comments/1dsy4x7/feasibility%5Fstudy%5Ffor%5Fdesign%5Fdevelopment/), and so a crewed Gaganyaan flight will likely not take place mid-decade. - **HLVM3-H2:** Second crewed Gaganyaan flight (Mission duration: 3 days) - **LVM3-G4:** ISRO’s first cargo supply mission to the International Space Station (under consideration with ISS partner countries for end of decade) - \[Note: LVM3-G1 through LVM3-G3 are likely the mission names for the uncrewed Gaganyaan test flights taking place before HLVM3-H1\] - **BAS-B1:** First module of India’s upcoming space station called the Bharatiya Antariksha Station (BAS), which translates to “Indian Space Station”, to be put into Earth orbit (end of decade at best) - **LVM3-G5:** First cargo supply mission to BAS-B1 - **Multi-module BAS:** Late 2030s Obviously, setbacks in these missions would likely delay the next one by years. ## Where Chandrayaan and Gaganyaan converge - **HVM1:** An uncrewed test flight of a human-capable spacecraft going to the Moon and splashing back on Earth safely (early 2030s; mission akin to NASA’s [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-i)). - **HVM2:** A crewed flight to the Moon and back (mid-2030s; mission akin to [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii) and Apollo 8) - **Lunar cruiser:** A crew-capable ISRO spacecraft docking with the NASA-led [Gateway lunar orbital habitat](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/gateway/), and potentially supplying cargo via a robotic configuration (late 2030s) - **HVM3:** An Indian landing on Luna, with or without a potential Gateway docking in the mix (2040s; mission akin to [CNSA’s first crewed lunar mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/)) --- *You’re reading a combined special edition of my* [*Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday/) *and* [*Indian Space Progress*](https://jatan.space/tag/indian-space-progress) *newsletters! Many thanks to* [***Open Lunar Foundation***](https://www.openlunar.org)*,* [***Takshashila Institution***](https://takshashila.org.in)*,* [***KaleidEO***](https://satsure.co/kaleidEO)*,* [***PierSight***](https://piersight.space)*, and* [***Gurbir Singh***](https://gurbir.co.uk) *for sponsoring this piece!* *If you love my work too,* [*join them*](https://jatan.space/support) *and support independent writing and journalism.* --- ## Chandrayaan 4 sample return ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/07/chandrayaan-4-sample-return-mission-profile-consideration.jpg) One of the mission profiles and its elements considered for ISRO’s upcoming Chandrayaan 4 sample return mission. Newer studies show both launchers being LVM3s instead. Image: ISRO / S. Somanath Because India’s most powerful rocket, the [Launch Vehicle Mark III](https://www.isro.gov.in/GSLVmk3%5FCON.html) (LVM3), has less than half the payload capacity of China’s Long March 5 rocket which enabled CNSA to undertake the [Chang’e 5](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) and [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) sample return missions, ISRO’s approach to bringing lunar samples with [Chandrayaan 4](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-194/) instead involves two rocket launches from Earth. In a [March interview](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X5DLYbWAIDw) with Chethan Kumar for the Times of India, ISRO Chief S. Somanath said that with the preliminary studies of such a mission architecture complete, ISRO will soon submit a funding proposal to the Indian government for commissioning Chandrayaan 4. With Chandrayaan 3, the agency hit several extended goals too. One of these was pulling the mission’s [propulsion module](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/science/chandrayaan-3-mission-150kg-fuel-left-in-propulsion-module-life-span-now-years/articleshow/102866268.cms) from lunar orbit [to Earth orbit](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-157/), thereby demonstrating a small but key capability that will be required to pull off a robotic sample return mission in the future. One of the most complex parts of Chandrayaan 4 would be remotely docking two or more robotic modules in lunar orbit, a feat only China has achieved so far. And so—as Kalyan Ray [reports](https://www.deccanherald.com/india/first-step-for-chandrayaan-4-to-be-taken-by-year-end-isro-3082088)—ISRO will launch the \~$14 million SPADEX (space docking experiment) mission end of this year (but likely early next), wherein two spacecraft will practice docking in Earth orbit. This will buy down risk not only for Chandrayaan 4 but for the aforementioned Gaganyaan cargo flights to the International Space Station and India’s BAS-B1 station module later this decade. Naturally, all these missions will feed into enabling ISRO to send humans to the Moon, wherein large modules will need to safely dock with each other. ## The Indo-Japanese rover mission *Chandrayaan 5 LUPEX* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fd824027c-b2fc-4c73-9217-ce3f33a9fc6d_1477x1000-jpeg.jpg) ****Top left:** Illustration of an ISRO lander having delivered the stowed JAXA-built LUPEX rover to the Moon; ****Top right and bottom left:** The LUPEX rover traversing the lunar south pole; ****Bottom right:** An early LUPEX prototype testing drive system performance in a simulated lunar soil pit. Images: [JAXA](https://www.exploration.jaxa.jp/e/program/lunarpolar) / [Mitsubishi](https://www.yomiuri.co.jp/stream/2/20729) India and Japan are collaborating on a lunar polar rover mission called [LUPEX](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/). The nominal six-month mission comprises an ISRO-developed lander which will deliver a JAXA-built \~350-kilogram rover to [directly study](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/) the nature, abundance, and accessibility of [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) at the Moon’s south pole (between 89–90°S). This makes LUPEX similar to CNSA’s [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#the-instrumental-and-increasingly-international-7) and NASA’s [VIPER](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) missions. To safely and precisely land LUPEX amid unforgiving lunar polar terrain, ISRO will build the lander with input from both [Chandrayaan 3’s success](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) and [that of JAXA’s SLIM lunar lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-161). LUPEX builds on the previous Indo-Japanese lunar collaboration of ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter helping JAXA](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/) nail SLIM’s goal of a precision lunar landing. In the [March interview](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X5DLYbWAIDw) with Chethan Kumar for the Times of India, ISRO Chief Somanath said that work is progressing slowly on [new throttle-able engines](https://imgur.com/G5jLnW0) needed for the LUPEX mission’s big 6,000-kilogram ISRO lander. In a [November 2023 talk](https://www.youtube.com/live/nivAGxeDaSc?feature=shared&t=6051) at the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, Director of ISRO’s Space Applications Center [Nilesh Desai](https://www.sac.gov.in/Vyom/director) said that LUPEX will be executed in no less than five years—[as was to be realistically expected](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-152/) but not previously clarified by ISRO or JAXA. While the Japanese government has approved the LUPEX mission, India is yet to. This formal green light is expected soon but we aren’t there yet. The lander’s preliminary design review seems to be pending too. The rover’s development is [farther along](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-111/) but [its instruments](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-111/) aren’t finalized yet despite it being originally expected to be done over a year ago. Landing site [selection studies](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2024/pdf/1898.pdf) for LUPEX have been ongoing, feeding into as well as building on [ISRO’s ongoing aid to NASA](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/#isro-aids-artemis) for planning crewed Artemis missions. ### Lunar night survival ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f4fba04b6-fcdd-47a7-9b50-25dc9084f9d6_1024x399-jpeg.jpg) ****Left:** The nuclear device powering deep space missions like Mars 2020\. [Image: NASA](https://mars.nasa.gov/resources/24773/mars-2020s-mmrtg/); ****Right:** A radioactive plutonium-238 dioxide pellet, used in NASA’s Cassini mission as a power source. [Image: Los Alamos National Laboratory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Radioisotope%5Fthermoelectric%5Fgenerator%5Fplutonium%5Fpellet.jpg) Virtually nothing is known about this at the moment other than its core goal of demonstrating survival against frigid lunar nights. However, Chandrayaan 3 had another trick up its sleeve that might be relevant. The Times of India [confirmed](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/science/nuclear-energy-keeps-chandrayaan-3-propulsion-module-going/articleshow/104834737.cms) last year that there are two 1-watt radioisotope heater units (RHUs) on the Chandrayaan 3 [propulsion module](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/science/chandrayaan-3-mission-150kg-fuel-left-in-propulsion-module-life-span-now-years/articleshow/102866268.cms). ISRO hadn’t previously announced their presence. The mission’s Project Director P. Veeramuthuvel said the RHUs couldn’t be installed on the lander and rover for their lunar night survival due to mass constraints. The RHUs, made in collaboration with the [Bhabha Atomic Research Center](https://barc.gov.in/about/index.html), are based on the radioactive source of [Americium-241](https://barc.gov.in/ebooks/9788195473328/paper16.pdf). The Indian space agency’s foray into operational RHUs is a great sign as it’s precisely the technology that has enabled China to have its [Chang’e 4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chang%27e%5F4) lander and rover wake up after cold lunar nights. We might thus see an RHU on the Chandrayaan 5 lander. ## ISRO to contribute to the NASA-led lunar Gateway space station ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/07/PHOTO-2024-06-06-11-20-23.jpg) A slide showing major ambitious programs India is planning to ultimately enable a crewed lunar vehicle. Graphic: ISRO The second Indo-US collaboration meeting of the “initiative on Critical and Emerging Technology” (iCET) was held in New Delhi on June 17\. As per its [US White House briefing](https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2024/06/17/joint-fact-sheet-the-united-states-and-india-continue-to-chart-an-ambitious-course-for-the-initiative-on-critical-and-emerging-technology/), NASA and ISRO are exploring opportunities for India to participate in the upcoming NASA-led [Gateway lunar orbital habitat](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/gateway). While the briefing didn’t specify the nature of India’s contributions, ISRO’s aforementioned notional roadmap for Chandrayaan and Gaganyaan missions shows a crewed Gaganyaan “lunar cruiser” craft that can dock with the Gateway (something [I had predicted!](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-10/)). In a recent [Indian space industry meet](https://www.geospatialworld.net/artha/op-ed/4th-inspace-industry-meet/), ISRO Chief Somanath once again displayed the same roadmap on a slide while another slide showed the name “Gaganyaan-C”, with a subtitle that read “Lunar Fly By, Lunar landing, Return”. ## More rocket oomph needed ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/07/chandrayaan-3-launch-gslv-mk-iii.jpg) Liftoff of the Moonbound Chandrayaan 3 by an LVM3 rocket. [Image: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/chandrayaan3%5Fgallery.html) While India is the third nation this century to have announced the goal of sending a human to the Moon by itself, thereby bringing along a complex set of precursor missions, the country (again) doesn’t have the kind of resources that the US and China do. Big rockets are indispensable if India is to undertake such ambitious missions but the truth is Chandrayaan 3 alone filled LVM3’s payload capacity to the brim. However, ISRO has begun taking its first steps towards increasing its mass to orbit capabilities. The agency is [in the process](https://www.isro.gov.in/Successful%5Fignition%5Ftest%5Fon%5Fsemi%5Fcryogenic%5FPITA.html) of testing an engine upgrade to LVM3’s core stage, which would replace the existing two [Vikas engines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikas%5F%28rocket%5Fengine%29) with an indigenously built 2000 KiloNewton semi-cryogenic kerolox engine called SCE-200\. This will increase the rocket’s GTO capacity from \~4,000 kilograms to at least \~5,000\. ISRO is also testing [engine restart capability](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/Monthly%5Fsummary/Monthly%5FSummary%5FMarch%5F2024.pdf) for LVM3’s upper stage cryogenic engine to enable more complex mission profiles. At the [India Space Congress 2024](https://www.indiaspacecongress.com/agenda-2024/) in New Delhi late June, the Director of ISRO’s Liquid Propulsion Space Center (LPSC), V. Narayanan, said that the target to launch an SCE-200 on an LVM3 is 2027, a point in time later than originally expected but still early enough to be leveraged by the upcoming complex Chandrayaan and initial Gaganyaan missions. ISRO knows that even the semi-cryogenic LVM3 is a stopgap solution for its bigger ambitions, and so the agency has begun developing a partially reusable [Next Generation Launch Vehicle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Next%5FGeneration%5FLaunch%5FVehicle) (NGLV), which will have an expendable GTO capability of 10,000 kilograms. Heavier variants of the methalox-powered NGLV will follow to further increase mass to orbit. As Chethan Kumar [reported](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/soorya-project-team-for-rocket-to-build-space-station-ready-3rd-launch-pad-at-sriharikota-to-come-up/articleshow/108472896.cms) in March, the NGLV project has gotten a formal project team, and ISRO expects the rocket to take about a decade to launch. This leaves the semi-cryogenic LVM3 to muster more than would be usual for a rocket of its lift capacity. But it’s also partly why ISRO recently announced [ramping up LVM3’s production](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-16/#preparing-for-human-spaceflight) from the current rate of two a year to four and then six. *Aside: India’s planetary missions follow the fundamental ISRO principle of indigenous launches and self-sufficient missions as much as possible, and so ISRO using a foreign launcher like, say, the SpaceX Falcon 9 for such missions is not on the table unless absolutely needed.* ## More Chandrayaan! - My blog now has a [dedicated page](https://jatan.space/tag/chandrayaan/) for my ongoing exhaustive coverage of ISRO’s Chandrayaan Moon missions. From the big to the small, I love to track it all: [Chandrayaan coverage by Jatan Mehta 🌗](https://jatan.space/tag/chandrayaan/) - ISRO is [organizing a hackathon](https://isro.hack2skill.com/2024/) for students and early career researchers to work on problems that will directly contribute to India’s new space missions, including Chandrayaan. The hackathon challenges include automatic crater & boulder detection from Chandrayaan orbital imagery, identifying safe rover navigation routes based on lander imagery, auto-classification of spectral data from lunar orbit, and more! ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/07/me-speaking-at-india-space-congress-2024.jpg) Me giving a talk titled “From Chandrayaan 3 to an Indian on the Moon” at the [India Space Congress 2024](https://www.indiaspacecongress.com/agenda-2024/). Image: Event team I don’t prefer speaking at events because it’s an inefficient medium across the board, especially when an article on a blog can serve everyone better long-term. But if you could see how much I enjoy writing my [Moon Monday](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) blog+newsletter, it would be something like this image. :D ### Moon Monday #182: Lunar samples on Earth, a Canadian robotic arm, lander testing, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-182/ Last updated: 2026-07-27T08:09:28.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/07/chang-e-6-lunar-sample-capsule-container-and-team.jpg) ****Top left:** Chang’e 6 reentry capsule after safe descent and landing on Earth; ****Top right:** Chang’e 6 lunar sample container after being lifted out of the reentry capsule; ****Bottom:** Part of the Chang’e 6 sample return mission team from CNSA and CAST. Images: [Xinhua](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3267939/chinas-change-6-moon-mission-returns-earth-historic-lunar-far-side-cargo?campaign=3267939&module=perpetual%5Fscroll%5F0&pgtype=article) / [CCTV+](https://www.facebook.com/watch/?v=821456199919449&rdid=Tubmr9w5Im5ZzIkN) ## The first ever samples from the Moon’s farside are now cached on Earth After [successfully collecting samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-179/) from the Moon’s farside and stowing them in lunar orbit earlier by excellently orchestrating multiple Mooncraft over months, CNSA made the [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) mission’s lunar orbiter module [fly towards Earth](https://spacenews.com/change-6-heads-for-earth-with-first-ever-lunar-far-side-samples/) on June 21\. It hosted the 300-kilogram reentry capsule, which contained [1.93 kilograms](https://spacenews.com/china-gears-up-for-deep-space-missions-after-collecting-1935-grams-of-lunar-far-side-samples/) of lunar samples. When the orbiter module reached 5,000 kilometers away from Earth on June 25, it released the reentry capsule, which later performed a bounced atmospheric reentry in Earth’s atmosphere and[ safely descended and landed](https://spacenews.com/change-6-delivers-first-lunar-far-side-samples-to-earth-after-53-day-mission/) in China’s northern Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region at 06:07 UTC. As Andrew Jones [reports](https://spacenews.com/china-gears-up-for-deep-space-missions-after-collecting-1935-grams-of-lunar-far-side-samples/), the capsule was airlifted to the mission-designer CAST (the China Academy of Space Technology) in Beijing on June 26\. Technicians lifted the lunar sample capsule out of the reentry capsule during a ceremony celebrating the mission’s success. Next up, the National Astronomical Observatories of Chinese Academy of Sciences (NAOC) will unseal the sample container and prepare the farside lunar samples for storage. The Hong Kong Polytechnic University (PolyU), which designed Chang’e 6’s samplers mechanisms as Leonard David notes in his nice [sampling explainer](https://www.leonarddavid.com/heres-the-scoop-chinas-far-side-moon-mission/), has also setup lunar sample storage and sample analyzer facilities for scientific studies. The Chang’e 6 samples will be scientifically even more valuable than the [Chang’e 5 samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-156/). After results start coming in from later this year, the Chang’e 6 samples are expected to help scientists [solve a whole host of Moon mysteries](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2024/pdf/1873.pdf) such as understanding the [distinct lunar farside volcanism](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2024.118737) and why the farside is so [enigmatically different](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) from the familiar nearside—which is necessary to understand not just Luna’s evolution but [that of our Solar System](https://jatan.space/solar-system-history-101/). With the Chang’e 6 technology mission now accomplished, China now firmly looks forward to sending [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#the-instrumental-and-increasingly-international-7) and [Chang’e 8](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/#prepare-for-crew-and-double-down-with-mission-eight) to the Moon’s south pole in 2026 and 2028 respectively, followed by [landing humans on Luna](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/) by end of decade, and then building a hybrid crew-robotic [long-term Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/) in the 2030s. ## One robotic arm to rule them all ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f2fd6b7af-337b-432c-95b7-4170047c906e_1450x1080-jpeg.jpg) An illustration of Canada’s highly autonomous Canadarm3 robotics servicing system on the exterior of Gateway. [Image: CSA / NASA](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/multimedia/search/image/watch/12642) Following two incremental contracts, the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) is [now awarding CAD $1 billion](https://mda-en.investorroom.com/2024-06-27-MDA-SPACE-AWARDED-1B-CONTRACT-TO-DESIGN-AND-DELIVER-CANADARM3-FLIGHT-SYSTEM) (USD $730 million) to MDA Space for the final design, assembly, and testing of the [Canadarm3](https://asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/canadarm3/about.asp) robotics servicing system, which is Canada’s contribution to the NASA-led international [Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) lunar orbital habitat launching later this decade. In return for providing and operating this core element, Canada has secured [seats for their astronauts](https://www.canada.ca/en/space-agency/news/2020/12/a-canadian-astronaut-will-fly-to-the-moon.html) aboard multiple crewed Artemis missions, starting with [Jeremy Hansen](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronauts/canadian/active/bio-jeremy-hansen.asp) flying on NASA’s [Artemis II mission](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/missions/artemis-ii/mission.asp) around the Moon and back mid-decade. The highly autonomous Canadarm3 robotics system, including its dextrous arm, will perform many critical functions at the Gateway. These include robotic inspection, maintainence, and repairs, helping assemble new station modules and capture visiting spacecraft, aid astronauts during spacewalks, install and support scientific experiments, and more. As part of the contract, MDA will make a ground segment at its global headquarters in Brampton, Ontario to command and control Canadarm3. Canadarm3 has also bagged Canada dedicated time to perform science & technology experiments aboard the Gateway. In March 2023, CSA [announced](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/news/articles/2023/2023-03-29-significant-investments-to-further-propel-canadian-space-exploration.asp) it will invest $76.5 million over eight years in Canada-led Gateway experiments. CSA has also funded [seven biology-related Gateway experiments](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/news/articles/2023/2023-08-17-funding-to-support-the-canadian-space-industry-in-its-exploration-of-the-lunar-environment.asp) totaling $1.25 million. - **Related:** [*A gist of Gateway science*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-162/#a-gist-of-gateway-science) --- *Many thanks to* [***Off Planet Research***](https://offplanetresearch.com) *and* [***Arun Raghavan***](https://arunraghavan.net) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday. If you love this curated community resource too,* [*join them*](https://jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday/) *and support my work.* --- ## Mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/07/ispace-m2-resilience-lander-thermovac-chamber-JAXA-facility-1.jpg) ispace engineers moving the “RESILIENCE” Moon lander into a thermal vacuum chamber at the Tsukuba Space Center in Japan. [Image: JAXA / ispace](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=5527) - ispace Japan announced on June 27 that its [second lunar lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-154/) M2 (“RESILIENCE”), which is now assembled and has some payloads integrated too, has [passed thermal vacuum testing](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=5527) ahead of its Falcon 9 launch end of 2024\. ispace engineers also verified commanding and receiving data from the lander. The tests are part of a [slew of launch and space environmental tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/) ispace is conducting at JAXA’s Tsukuba Space Center. In April, ispace Europe [completed environmental testing](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=5243) of the qualification model of its micro rover, the flight model of which will fly on this second ispace lunar lander. - For the upcoming [Draper-led lunar farside mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-87/) part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), wherein ispace’s US subsidiary [is providing the APEX lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-173/#ispace-doubles-down-on-farside-moon-mission), ispace US [announced signing a deal](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=5509) with the Swedish Space Corporation (SSC) for the mission’s Earth-Moon communications. Specifically, the mission’s communications will be facilitated through SSC’s [four lunar space ground stations](https://sscspace.com/services/satellite-ground-stations/lunar-services/) across the globe. SSC’s ground stations have recently (commercially) served Moon missions by several space organizations, like for ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) landing. - Astrobotic [unveiled a terrestrial landscape](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-unveils-terrestrial-moonscape-for-payload-testing/) in Mojave for testing lunar hardware called the Lunar Surface Proving Ground (LSPG), which mimics conditions on the Moon’s south pole—from its rocky terrain and topography to the challenging long-shadow-lighting caused by the perpetually near-horizon Sun. In particular, Astrobotic will use LSPG to test its [Griffin lander](https://www.astrobotic.com/lunar-delivery/landers/griffin-lander/)’s navigation and precision landing systems before the flight lander carries NASA’s [VIPER CLPS rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) to study water ice on the Moon’s south pole mid-decade. Astrobotic’s first Moon mission in January this year [failed](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-159/), which has delayed VIPER’s launch. ## More Moon - ESA and the DLR Institute for Planetary Science are [ideating](https://luna-analog-facility.de/en/first-measurements-in-luna-hall-imaging-the-deep-floor-area-with-radar-waves/) on a “Polar Explorer” rover mission to study [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon, which sounds similar to CNSA [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#the-instrumental-and-increasingly-international-7), NASA [VIPER](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/), and the JAXA-ISRO [LUPEX](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-111/) missions. - Following the selection of three [Lunar Terrain Vehicle](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-171/) proposals for an Artemis crew-capable rover, NASA has released two white papers on [lunar mobility](https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/acr24-lunar-mobility-drivers-and-needs.pdf) and [lunar cargo](https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/acr24-lunar-surface-cargo.pdf) to summarize the agency’s thinking on these key elements comprising [Moon to Mars architecture](https://www.nasa.gov/moontomarsarchitecture) efforts. Recall that NASA [conducted](https://www.nasa.gov/general/nasa-conducts-annual-moon-to-mars-architecture-concept-review) its second annual Moon to Mars Architecture Concept Review in November 2023, after earlier conducting a [Concept Review](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/m2m-architecture-executive-summary.pdf) and [Definitions Document](https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20230002706/downloads/M2MADD%5FESDMD-001%28TP-20230002706%29.pdf). With [such a consultative process](https://spacenews.com/nasa-releases-architecture-for-human-exploration-of-the-moon-and-mars), the agency hopes to optimally [refine](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-96/#nasa-updates-moon-to-mars-objectives-on-feedback) its [Moon to Mars Objectives](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/moon-to-mars-objectives-.pdf) and the strategies employed to achieve them. - I’m delighted that the Open Lunar Foundation (a Moon Monday sponsor) [presented](https://mailchi.mp/openlunar.org/join-us-for-community-event-6253122) at the inaugural UN conference [on Sustainable Lunar Activities](https://spacewatch.global/2024/06/unoosa-hosts-un-conference-on-sustainable-lunar-activities/). A related project Open Lunar has been developing is a [Lunar Registry](https://www.openlunar.org/projects/lunar-registry) of objects and activities, hoping to improve transparency and understanding of Moon missions globally. ### Moon Monday #181: On South Korea’s lunar landing plan, national space agencies, an Indo-US gateway, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-181/ Last updated: 2024-06-24T13:59:26.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/06/szilard-m-crater-by-kplo.jpg) A spectacular view of our Moon as photographed by South Korea’s KPLO lunar orbiter. [Image: KARI](https://www.kari.re.kr/kplo/danuri/news/newsView.do?nttId=8650&pageIndex=1&searchCnd=&searchWrd=) ## Newly forged KASA aims to land on Luna At long last, South Korea [formed its space agency](https://www.reuters.com/science/south-korea-plans-mars-landing-2045-it-launches-first-space-agency-2024-05-30/) called the Korea Aerospace Administration (KASA) to consolidate and/or coordinate the country’s various space activities—which span space science research, rocket and spacecraft technology development, and private space activities. So far, each of these core activities tended to have distinct organizations working on or managing them, like the case of South Korea’s first lunar orbiter [KPLO](https://jatan.space/kplo/) which was developed and is being led by the Korea Aerospace Research Institute (KARI). Now, KASA is [considering](https://www.science.org/content/article/south-korea-launches-its-own-nasa) launching South Korea’s second lunar orbiter by end of decade, which might be a reconnaissance imager, but the big project on the horizon is an indigenously developed lunar lander planned for launch in 2032\. South Korea has been [ramping up its space funding](https://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20240313050582) to start the lander’s hardware development. As Kim Na-young [previously reported](https://en.yna.co.kr/view/AEN20231030010400320), the Moon lander project passed a preliminary feasibility study last October, and should officially begin this year with a budget of at least $393 million. The tentative plan is to make an \~1800-kilogram robotic lander. Several instruments and a small deployable rover will be aboard the lander. South Korea will also indigenously develop the rocket launching the spacecraft towards the Moon, achieving which would also provide the nation with better independent access to Earth orbit. Last year’s [successful launch](https://spacenews.com/south-koreas-kslv-2-rocket-launches-seven-satellites-one-unaccounted-for/) of South Korea’s homegrown KSLV-2 rocket provided a boost to the ambitious proposal of an indigenous Moon landing—a feat only achieved by five countries so far. In the meanwhile, KPLO has not only been capturing [beautiful high resolution images](https://www.kari.re.kr/kplo/danuri/news/newsView.do?nttId=8650&pageIndex=1&searchCnd=&searchWrd=) of the Moon’s surface but [uniquely studying it](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-159/#science-observations-by-south-korean-lunar-orbiter-going-strong) from orbit. KASA will use this data along with imagery from NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lro/about/) (LRO) to help identify good landing site candidates for South Korea’s Moon landing mission. *As an aside, KPLO even flew 18 kilometers above LRO last year and* [*imaged it*](http://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/images/1299)*! The feat required* [*precise coordination*](http://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/images/1299) *of orbital information between mission operators of the two orbiters. LRO was also made to slew by 20 degrees to allow the spacecraft’s back and radiator to be brightly illuminated by the Sun.* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/06/lunar-shackleton-crater-by-kplo-shadowcam-and-lro.jpg) A mosaic of the 21-kilometer wide Shackleton crater on the Moon’s south pole, stitched from images by an LRO camera and KPLO’s ShadowCam. The latter’s view, overlaid on the background LRO image, is the [highest-resolution image](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-moon-camera-mosaic-sheds-light-on-lunar-south-pole) yet of Shackleton, most of which is in [permanent shadow](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/). [Image: NASA / KARI / ASU / GSFC](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-moon-camera-mosaic-sheds-light-on-lunar-south-pole) Another interesting bit about South Korea’s Moon lander project comes from its [original 2022 proposal](https://spacenews.com/south-korea-seeks-459-million-for-lunar-lander-project) stating the mission duration as being one year, which if done can only imply three things: either South Korea intends to demonstrate the rare technology of lunar night survival on the mission or the lander will touchdown in a polar location where there is [near-constant sunlight](https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.1208.5587). The final option is to do both. The polar lunar night at favorably selected sites doesn’t last for 14 Earth days but just a few. To that end, NASA’s upcoming polar-water-studying [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) will periodically survive complete darkness for about [four Earth days](https://www.nasa.gov/viper/overview#MissionTimeline) by parking at pre-identified high-altitude spots offering such brief lunar nights. South Korea has also developed a [full-scale dirty thermovac chamber](https://www.kict.re.kr/researchResultWeb/getResearchResultView.es?mid=a20301000000&id=250) that accurately [simulates the dynamic electrostatic environment](https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/11/1/69) on the Moon’s surface. Such facilities not only let engineers and scientists test the functioning of full-scale hardware in lunar-like environments but help them understand how to mitigate long term damage to lunar hardware and astronaut suits from sticky moondust. Relatedly, the Orbital Index (a Moon Monday sponsor) has a good brief on moondust’s [curiously cohesive nature](https://orbitalindex.com/archive/2024-06-19-Issue-274/). ## Tangent: Stop calling national space agencies local NASAs The headline for KASA’s launch by the well-respected publication Science.org [reads as follows](https://www.science.org/content/article/south-korea-launches-its-own-nasa): **South Korea launches its own NASA** ![Screengrab from the Science.org article at https://www.science.org/content/article/south-korea-launches-its-own-nasa](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/06/bad-headline-by-science-org-for-kasa-launch.jpg) It’s high time western media publications stop calling national space agencies as being local versions of NASA. It’s hard to imagine readers of such outlets not understanding the terms “space agency” or “space organization”. Such headlines aren’t science communication but if anything a failure of that. They don’t highlight, or even identify, that each national space agency serves various purposes for their respective countries, some of which form and evolve uniquely in form and/or function, and, not all of which have parallels in NASA. The vice versa is also obviously true; that NASA too is unique in many ways. In case you’re wondering who else did such a thing, the New York Times has called ISRO “the local version of NASA”, among other [questionable explainers](https://jatan.space/the-nyt-continues-to-misrepresent-indian-space/). I abhor the like button on socials, [or social media itself](https://journal.jatan.space/an-internet-without-intent/) for that matter, but I admit I was genuinely glad to see [the support for this above thought](https://www.linkedin.com/posts/themoonmehta%5Fits-high-time-western-media-publications-activity-7209560384138002433-%5FYR4/) over on my LinkedIn from so many familiar and new faces. :) --- *Many thanks to* [***The Orbital Index***](https://orbitalindex.com) *and* [***Gordon Roesler***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/gordon-roesler-687a0426) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday. If you love this curated community resource too,* [*join them*](https://jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday/) *and support independent writing and journalism.* --- ## Chang’e 6 about to bring lunar samples to Earth After [successfully collecting samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-179/) from the Moon’s farside and stowing them in lunar orbit earlier this month by excellently orchestrating multiple Mooncraft, China is now [bringing the samples to Earth](https://spacenews.com/change-6-heads-for-earth-with-first-ever-lunar-far-side-samples/) for the finishing act of the robotic [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) space mission. It was expected that the Chang’e 6 orbiter module, hosting the sample capsule, would begin its journey towards Earth around June 21\. But as Andrew Jones [reports](https://spacenews.com/change-6-heads-for-earth-with-first-ever-lunar-far-side-samples/), CNSA frustratingly did not provide an official update about any return maneuver from the orbiter, with such news instead coming from enthusiastic [amateur radio observations](https://x.com/amsatdl/status/1803908033267011797). In any case, the orbiter module should release the sample capsule around June 25 when near Earth. The capsule will perform a bounced atmospheric reentry and hopefully safely descend and land in China’s northern Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, presumably [around 06:00 UTC](https://m.weibo.cn/status/OjR87nOiW). The Chang’e 6 samples will be scientifically even more valuable than the [Chang’e 5 samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-156/), expected to help scientists worldwide [solve a whole host of Moon mysteries](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2024/pdf/1873.pdf) such as understanding the [distinct lunar farside volcanism](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2024.118737) and why the farside is so [enigmatically different](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) from the familiar nearside—which is necessary to understand not just Luna’s evolution but [that of our Solar System](https://jatan.space/solar-system-history-101/). ## ISRO to contribute to the NASA-led Gateway ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/06/isro-lunar-exploration-and-crewed-spaceflight-roadmap.jpg) Screengrab of an integrated lunar and crewed exploration roadmap for India. [Image: S. Somanath / ISRO](https://www.youtube.com/live/DNXTouOKNVk?feature=shared&t=9413) The second Indo-US collaboration meeting of the “initiative on Critical and Emerging Technology” (iCET) was held in New Delhi on June 17\. As per its [US White House briefing](https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2024/06/17/joint-fact-sheet-the-united-states-and-india-continue-to-chart-an-ambitious-course-for-the-initiative-on-critical-and-emerging-technology/), NASA and ISRO are exploring opportunities for India to participate in the upcoming NASA-led [Gateway lunar orbital habitat](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/gateway). While the briefing doesn't specify the nature of India’s contributions, ISRO Chief S. Somanath has talked about a notional ISRO lunar roadmap in a [symposium talk](https://www.youtube.com/live/DNXTouOKNVk?feature=shared&t=9413) last year, which showed a crewed Gaganyaan “lunar cruiser” craft that can dock with the Gateway (something [I had predicted!](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-10/)). In a recent [Indian space industry meet](https://www.geospatialworld.net/artha/op-ed/4th-inspace-industry-meet/), Somanath once again displayed the same roadmap on a slide while another slide showed the name “Gaganyaan-C”, with a subtitle that read “Lunar Fly By, Lunar landing, Return”. Building on or leveraging a series of upcoming increasingly complex robotic Chandrayaan missions, an evolving [Gaganyaan](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-13/) program encompassing an Earthbound space station, and a new heavy-lift (partially reusable) rocket, the lunar cruiser vehicle seems to be ISRO’s hope towards enabling the [newly announced national goal](https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1968368) of sending an Indian to the Moon by 2040. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/06/PHOTO-2024-06-06-11-20-23.jpg) A slide showing major ambitious programs India is planning to ultimately enable a crewed lunar landing. Graphic: ISRO ## More Moon - NASA is [halfway through preparing ground systems](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2024/06/10/nasa-kennedy-teams-test-upgraded-environmental-control-system-for-artemis-ii/) for the mid-decade SLS rocket launch of [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii), which will push [four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) in an Orion capsule around the Moon and back. - Based on public metadata, Chandra Tungathurthi [discerns some operational information](https://moonandbeyond.blog/chandrayaan-2-ohrc-key-insights/) about ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/); notably that it can image at a higher resolution of up to 16 centimeters/pixel in certain cases, and that its stereo images typically offer horizontal and vertical resolutions of 28 and 100 centimeters respectively. I should note here that the blog post’s mention of the orbiter’s mapping focus shifting to polar regions recently doesn't only concern planning for the upcoming Indo-Japanese [LUPEX rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-111/) but also in major part to [ISRO’s ongoing aid to Artemis](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/#isro-aids-artemis) crewed mission planning. - On June 28, Friday, I’ll be speaking on lunar exploration and the role of our Moon in human spaceflight as part of a plenary panel at the [India Space Congress](https://www.indiaspacecongress.com) in New Delhi. If you’d like to connect with me for a meeting during the week, [get in touch](https://jatan.space/connect). ### Moon Monday #180: Rocket plume effects, landing pads, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-180/ Last updated: 2024-06-17T17:56:43.000Z ## The efforts to gauge plume effects of Moon landers ![](https://cdn.magicpages.co/spaceimpact.mymagic.page/2024/05/apollo-lander-plume-effects-1.jpg) A simulation showing plume effects from an Apollo Lunar Module when it’s five meters above the Moon’s surface. Plume gas velocity vectors are colored by velocity magnitude (blue=low, magenta=high). Streamlines indicate strong upward flow directions in vacuum. [Image: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/game%5Fchanging%5Fdevelopment/projects/PSI) Two [new](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2024.116136) [papers](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2024.116135) by Philip Metzger suggest that Apollo lander rocket plumes blasted out at least four times more lunar soil than previously thought. This work, [captured well](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/lunar-dust-could-sandblast-astronauts-on-the-moon-studies-warn/) by Michael Greshko for Scientific American, is part of an ongoing larger community effort to understand exactly how [landers plumes affect](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/game%5Fchanging%5Fdevelopment/projects/PSI) the local environment on the Moon. When Apollo 12 astronauts landed near the robotic Surveyor 3 spacecraft that had previously touched down on Luna and brought samples of it to Earth, it displayed [severe sandblasting damages and craters](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/strategies/Cour-PalaisEtAl%5FNASA-SP-284E%5FSurveyor%5F3%5FParticulate%5FImpacts.pdf) from the Apollo lander.Future astronauts in long-term habitats and even robotic surface activities [will need protection](https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2102.12312) from landers descending nearby. Some landings need to be near existing hardware if they carry supplies and other cargo. For engineers to arrive at optimal protection measures, a [White Paper](https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2102.12312) submitted by multiple authors to the [US Decadal Survey](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-74/) of 2023-2032 strongly suggested that all future NASA-funded landers carry not only descent imagers but also instruments that measure specific aspects of plume effects. A payload called [Stereo Cameras for Lunar Plume-Surface Studies](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/clps/tiny-nasa-cameras-to-picture-interaction-between-lander-moons-surface/) flew on Intuitive Machines’ [first lunar lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-165/) part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) but it [couldn’t image](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/clps/nasa-collects-first-surface-science-in-decades-via-commercial-moon-mission/) plume effects during the final landing phase due to an [anomalous hard landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-166/). A version of the payload is set to fly on Firefly’s [upcoming CLPS lander](https://fireflyspace.com/missions/blue-ghost-mission-1/) later this year so hopefully we get data from it. For the [Chang’e 5](https://jatan.space/change-5-landing-site/) sample return mission, Chinese researchers calculated its lander to have displaced about [336 kilograms](https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace9070358) of lunar material during touchdown whereas the latest number for the [Apollo 12](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/apollo-12) lander stands at [2600 kilograms](https://arxiv.org/abs/1503.00154). The Chinese researchers attributed the bulk of this dissimilarity to the contrast between the 13,300-newton, high thrust Apollo 12 engine and the 2900-newton, low thrust Chang’e 5 one. Of course, there are other factors too, such as thicknesses of the loosely bound material varying by landing sites. Ultimately, it’s important to understand plume effects on lunar soil from both low thrust and high thrust engines to comprehensively quantify and characterize risks posed to various kinds of future lunar hardware and habitats. Ongoing analysis of ejecta data from Chandrayaan 3’s [last minute lunar hop](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-143/) will also contribute to said end. Another key issue is that sandblasting and contamination of lunar material from their own lander is why astronauts will have to venture far away from their landing sites to obtain [pure surface samples](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). Furthermore, simulations have shown that water vapor emitted by lunar landers [could spread throughout the lunar exosphere](https://www.jhuapl.edu/news/news-releases/200813-spacecraft-exhaust-poses-challenge-for-lunar-ices) within 24 hours. As one protection measure against the various damaging effects mentioned above, NASA has been looking for [sufficiently elevated locations](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2021/nasa-s-artemis-base-camp-on-the-moon-will-need-light-water-elevation) for its envisioned [Artemis Moonbase](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept)—and which must also lie at least a kilometer away from the crewed and cargo landing areas. ## And then you have lunar landing pads ![](https://cdn.magicpages.co/spaceimpact.mymagic.page/2024/05/astroport-landing-pad-illustration.jpg) Illustration of a lunar landing pad construction system and its elements. [Image: Astroport / Tangram 3DS](https://explorationarchitecture.com/astroport-space-technologies-awarded-nasa-contract) As a more active lander-sandblasting protection measure though, NASA is funding the development of specific lunar infrastructure like dust-mitigating landing pads. - Last year as part of multiple public-private *Tipping Point* contracts, NASA [funded](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-partners-with-american-companies-on-key-moon-exploration-tech) a Redwire-led project with $12.9 million to [develop microwave heating technologies](https://redwirespace.com/newsroom/pads-roads-and-other-forms-of-infrastructure-on-the-moon) that could solidify and strengthen lunar soil for building infrastructure such as roads, foundations for habitats, and landing pads. The funding doesn’t seem to include a lunar surface demonstration though. - As part of a Lunar Surface Technology Research (LuSTR) solicitation in 2022, NASA [awarded \~$2 million](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/strg/lustr/NASA%5FSelects%5FThree%5FUS%5FUniversities%5Fto%5FDevelop%5FLunar%5FInfrastructure%5FTech) to the Colorado School of Mines who in partnership with Lunar Outpost and others are developing a [rover-enabled lunar landing pad construction system](https://lunaroutpost.com/lunar-outpost-colorado-school-of-mines-developing-technology-for-autonomous-lunar-excavation-and-construction) for a demonstration on Earth. - NASA has also [awarded a small contract](https://explorationarchitecture.com/astroport-space-technologies-awarded-nasa-contract) to Astroport to prototype parts of the technology that can melt lunar regolith, convert it to manufacturing feedstock, and use that to robotically assemble landing pads. Furthermore, Jack Kuhr [reports](https://payloadspace.com/lunar-infrastructure-startup-ethos-emerges-from-stealth/) that new startup Ethos Space Resources has melted lunar soil simulants on Earth and demonstrated the resulting material’s strength against rocket plumes. Ethos plans to build large landing pads for future [Lunar Starships](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-168/) with the help of the [FLEX rover](https://astrolab.space/flex) from Astrolab (a Moon Monday sponsor). Ethos plans for these pads to have embedded navigational beacons, which would aid [precision landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-161/)—because otherwise a lander touching down beside the pad would defeat the purpose of it all. ESA is interested in such technologies too, with the aptly named [PAVER project](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FEngineering%5FTechnology/How%5Fto%5Fmake%5Froads%5Fon%5Fthe%5FMoon) using powerful lasers to melt lunar soil simulants into glassy solid surfaces, which can then be used to create blocks of landing pads and roads. As part of [project MOONRISE](https://www.lzh.de/index.php/en/press-releases/2022/moonrise-lzh-and-tu-berlin-bring-3d-printing-moon-laser-and-ai), funded by Germany at €4.74 million, research teams at LZH and TU Berlin are developing an AI-supported compact laser system to build pads with 3D-printing. They’ve had successful basic terrestrial demonstrations, including under simulated lunar gravity in [an Einstein-Elevator](https://www.hitec.uni-hannover.de/en/large-scale-equipment/einstein-elevator/), and want to fly to the Moon for a real-world shot. Related to all of the above, Kevin Cannon’s [paper](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pss.2023.105780) elaborates that just like on Earth, not all soil on the Moon is suitable for construction. --- *Many thanks to* [***Off Planet Research***](https://offplanetresearch.com)*,* [***Gurbir Singh***](https://gurbir.co.uk) *and* [***Arun Raghavan***](https://arunraghavan.net) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday. If you love this curated community resource too,* [*join them*](https://jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday/) *and support my work.* --- ## China and Luna ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/06/change-6-lander-on-the-lunar-farside-imaged-by-lro.jpg) NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter imaged the Chang’e 6 lander from orbit on June 7\. [Image: NASA / GSFC / ASU / LROC](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/lro/nasas-lro-spots-chinas-change-6-spacecraft-on-lunar-far-side/) - Despite ESA(-aided) instruments onboard CNSA’s Change’e 6 lander [successfully collecting unique scientific data](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-179/) on the Moon’s farside, ESA’s international relations administrator Karl Bergquist [told SpaceNews](https://spacenews.com/esa-china-moon-cooperation-could-end-with-change-6/) that the space agency does not intend to continue collaborating on China’s upcoming [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#the-instrumental-and-increasingly-international-7) and [Chang’e 8](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/#prepare-for-crew-and-double-down-with-mission-eight) missions to the Moon’s south pole. Bergquist added ESA doesn’t intend to join the China-led long-term scientific base called the [International Lunar Research Station](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/) (ILRS) either, citing ESA’s embargo with Russia—China’s biggest ILRS partner. In the meanwhile, Russia [signed a law](http://publication.pravo.gov.ru/document/0001202406120003?index=1) on June 12 ratifying its ILRS involvement. In my opinion, ESA pulling back from clearly beneficial scientific cooperation with China based on a rather disparate Russian element is a poor strategy on Europe’s part, especially when the entire continent has no independent access to the lunar surface. In any case, this thankfully doesn’t affect the two independent instruments from Europe flying on [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#the-instrumental-and-increasingly-international-7): a Swiss-aided radiation monitor to measure incoming and outgoing radiation to and from Earth, and a retroreflector from Italy-based SCF Lab—just like the one they have on Chang’e 6. - On June 11, the China Manned Space Engineering Office (CMSEO) [added 10 new (unidentified) astronauts](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AsHZcrL6T3E) to its taikonaut corps, some of whom might fly on [China’s crewed lunar missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/) starting end of decade. Similar to ESA’s [Pangaea campaign](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/CAVES%5Fand%5FPangaea/What%5Fis%5FPangaea) to train future lunar astronauts in geology and sample collection, which is a highly valuable skill during excursions on the Moon, China will provide geology field training to astronaut candidates followed by activities in mission-specific training simulators akin to Apollo. - In the meanwhile, China [test fired three YF-100K prototype engines](https://spacenews.com/china-takes-small-step-towards-the-moon-with-rocket-test/) in preparation towards making the Long March 10 rocket that will fly astronauts to the Moon. ## More Moon - In an [interview](https://payloadspace.com/an-interview-with-ray-allensworth/) with Payload Space, Firefly’s spacecraft program director Ray Allensworth said the company is targeting November 16 to launch its [first Moon landing mission](https://fireflyspace.com/missions/blue-ghost-mission-1/). The *Blue Ghost* lander aims to [descend in the lava plains of Mare Crisium](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-70/#firefly-selects-goldilocks-landing-site-for-its-first-moon-mission) at 18.56°N, 61.81°E. It carries [several NASA instruments](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-firefly-aerospace-for-artemis-commercial-moon-delivery-in-2023) as part of the agency’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). These will primarily study the lunar environment. One of the lander’s legs will host [PlanetVac](https://www.planetary.org/sci-tech/planetvac), a low-cost soil sampling technology partially funded by The Planetary Society to enable future sample return missions from the Moon and Mars. The mission will also be NASA’s first attempt to get a [GPS lock from the Moon](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2021/nasa-explores-upper-limits-of-global-navigation-systems-for-artemis). - On June 12, Armenia [became the 43rd country](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-welcomes-armenia-as-43rd-artemis-accords-signatory/) to sign the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords) for cooperative lunar exploration. - On June 14, Srinivasa Hegde, the Mission Director of India’s first lunar orbiter Chandrayaan 1, passed away. Here’s my piece on [the impact of his work](https://jatan.space/interviewing-isro-chandrayaan-1-mission-director/). [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/06/chandrayaan-1-mission-director-srinivasa-hegde-2.jpg)](https://jatan.space/interviewing-isro-chandrayaan-1-mission-director/) Chandrayaan 1 Mission Director Srinivasa Hegde ### How I became a space writer and where it’s going URL: https://jatan.space/my-science-writing-journey/ Last updated: 2024-11-05T07:05:04.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/11/how-it-started-vs-how-it-is-going-1.jpg) How it started (2011) vs. How it’s going (2024) for me, [Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/about). ## Early days I started blogging in 2011 out of a desire to share the excitement of science with people. My initial writings were amateur to say the least, and remained so for years. But I kept writing anyway. Fast forward to 2020 and [my articles](https://jatan.space/about) have been published on [respected publications](https://jatan.space/published/) around the globe. Here is what my journey looked like. From 2011 through 2016, I blogged as a hobby. I was then a physics student pursuing a master’s degree, wanting to become an astrophysicist. Blogging was a way for me to share cool science facts I learnt along the way. As is typical for science folks, my writing was riddled with jargon, the dryness of passive voice, and unwieldy sentences. But I kept blogging. Many friends supported me then. In 2017, while doing an astrophysics research project, I got more serious and started putting out an article every week. I was publishing on Medium at the time, and it took off. I started getting thousands of followers, in part thanks to the growing platform itself. TeamIndus, a private space company building a Moon landing mission, took notice and reached out to me. Their marketing team wanted me to join them to write articles on the science and tech of the company’s Moon mission. Of course, I said yes. This was my first paid writing job. ## Professional publishing I continued writing my own blogs on space exploration on the side through 2018\. Inspired by [Emily Lakdawalla](https://www.lakdawalla.com/emily/)’s article on [challenges of collecting samples from other worlds](https://www.planetary.org/articles/0219-10-times-sample-collection), I wrote a [similar article on space-grade electronics](https://jatan.space/space-grade-electronics/) and tagged her on Twitter when sharing. The next thing I know is she loved the piece and asked me if [The Planetary Society](https://www.planetary.org/about), where she worked, can republish the article. That marked my first ever piece in a professional, global publication. In late 2018, I attended a conference where science journalists and scientists had gathered to discuss issues in science communication, and the way forward. That’s when I interacted with [Mukunth](https://nonorientable.net/), the Editor of [The Wire Science](https://science.thewire.in/), and he asked if I’d like to write freelance articles for them. From that point on, I started publishing about one article a month on The Wire Science. Mukunth is the one who beat academic writing out of me, and mentored me as an early career writer. In July 2019, the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) launched its most ambitious space mission yet, [Chandrayaan 2](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-2-moon-landing-mission/). With it, India hoped to land a spacecraft on the Moon. I took this opportunity to expand my writing to more Indian publications, like [The Print](https://theprint.in/author/jatan-mehta/) and [Open magazine](https://openthemagazine.com/author/jatan-mehta/). It’s around this time that I quit my job to pursue science writing and communication full-time. I was the [official live blogger for The Wire](https://science.thewire.in/spaceflight/chandrayaan-2-live-blog-updates-expert-commentary-of-a-historic-mission/) to cover Chandrayaan 2’s Moon landing phase, which tens of thousands of people read. Among those was [Arnab Bhattacharya](https://twitter.com/tifrarnab), a faculty member and science communicator at the revered [Tata Institute of Fundamental Research](https://main.tifr.res.in/) (TIFR) in Mumbai, India. He invited me to work at TIFR as a science communicator for a six-month position. This involved curating and writing content for their website, and handling their social media. In particular, I got to interview eminent scientists visiting the institute and communicate their work in context to a broader audience. After my brief stint at TIFR, I continued to freelance for media publications. ## Going solo In 2020, with the collated experience of different work environments and professional science writing for Indian publications, I expanded to foreign publications, getting my articles on [Universe Today](https://www.universetoday.com/author/jmehta/), [Supercluster](https://www.supercluster.com/editorial/trekking-to-mars-with-ula-chief-tory-bruno), [The Space Review](https://www.thespacereview.com/article/4036/1) and [SpaceNews](https://spacenews.com/author/jatan-mehta/). This was also required for sustenance as freelance writing for Indian publications doesn’t pay enough to get by on. I also started a way for my reading to [directly support my work](https://jatan.space/support) via donations. Having been in the science writing game for just a couple of years, I wasn’t expecting more than a few supporters. I’m happy to be wrong. At the end of 2020, more than 50 people had supported my work. To know that you have gained a reader’s trust and goodwill is an incredible feeling. However, the highlight of 2020 has been something even better. [The Planetary Society](https://www.planetary.org/about) has been building *comprehensive resource pages* for anyone to learn why and how we explore space. As part of this effort, I’ve been writing articles and guides for them throughout the year. [Jason Davis](https://www.planetary.org/profiles/jason-davis), their Editor, liked my work enough to give me the title of a [Contributing Editor](https://www.planetary.org/profiles/jatan-mehta) for the Society! Since then, my writing for them has only increased to cover more space topics, missions and themes, and more types of articles. Writing for a global organization like them, with a [fascinating and influential history](https://www.planetary.org/about/our-story), is full of learning new things, joy, purpose and satisfaction. I’d like to thank Jason for giving me these opportunities, and for pushing me to prune my words to their simplest form. In 2022, I took the first steps to become a truly independent writer by getting the first sponsors for [Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/s/moon-monday/archive), my one-of-a-kind newsletter covering lunar exploration, science and commercial developments from across the globe. I was interested to see if running sponsorships in an [ethical and transparent manner](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-sponsorship-details/) will actually work for a niche writer like me. And if it does, it would open up avenues for many more such niche creators across several fields. Three years later, Moon Monday has sustained [independent writing](https://jatan.space/about) with support from [several organizations](https://jatan.space/about/#sponsors-and-supporters) and [dozens of individuals](https://jatan.space/support). The same model has worked well for my monthly [Indian Space Progress](https://jatan.space/tag/indian-space-progress) newsletter too. My blog now has more than 7,000 subscribers worldwide, majority of which are planetary scientists and engineers, personnel at national space agencies, executives at space companies, and fellow writers & journalists. Many have become friends, including some people I’ve long admired. Moon Monday, and the great leveler that is independent web publishing, have led me to places I never thought I’d be at: 1. Delivered [an invited talk](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-163/#speaking-at-esa) at ESA, ESTEC in Netherlands. 2. Got [quoted in a Nature Editorial](https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-02685-4). 3. Moon Monday is featured as a resource on space community websites of [Lunar-L](https://www3.nd.edu/~cneal/Lunar-L), [NextGen](https://nextgenlunar.space/resources), [Centauri Dreams](https://www.centauri-dreams.org), and more. 4. Delivered the “[Early Career Featured Presentation](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/leag2023/technical%5Fprogram/?session%5Fno=104)” at the NASA-backed [LEAG](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag)’s 2023 annual meet. It’s truly gratifying to be able to write Moon Monday as the world’s only such resource and serve space communities worldwide. I’m now continuing through the decade with a lot of momentum to communicate the purpose and joy of exploring space and our Moon to everyone I can. If you’re an aspiring science writer, or a creator of any sort, I just ask you to look at the image at the top of this article. The 2011 me had no idea what the 2024 me is going to do. The takeaway is simple: Keep creating. --- *If you like my lifelong mission of communicating space and Moon exploration to people, kindly support my work to help keep it going.* [Support me ♡](https://jatan.space/support) – [**Jatan**](https://jatan.space/about) ### Mission Director of India’s Chandrayaan 1 lunar orbiter has passed away URL: https://jatan.space/interviewing-isro-chandrayaan-1-mission-director/ Last updated: 2024-12-20T12:00:31.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/06/chandrayaan-1-mission-director-srinivasa-hegde-1.jpg) Chandrayaan 1 Mission Director Srinivasa Hegde Today (June 14), Srinivasa Hegde, Mission Director of India’s first lunar orbiter Chandrayaan 1, passed away. Among its [many unique feats](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/), Chandrayaan 1 [discovered water on the Moon](https://jatan.space/how-nasa-and-chandrayaan-discovered-water-on-the-moon/), which encouraged many nations worldwide to explore our cosmic neighbor, and also catalyzed NASA—a key partner on the mission—to plan returning crew to the Moon with Artemis. Srinivasa Hegde worked at ISRO for 36 years, from 1978 to 2014\. At [ISRO’s Satellite Center](https://www.isro.gov.in/about-isro/u-r-rao-satellite-centre-ursc) in Bangalore, he was involved in planning, analysis, and operations for dozens of space missions. Having known him, this news of grief stirred up memories of working with him over five years ago during a brief but grateful period. His work on Chandrayaan 1 not only helped India launch its newfound planetary exploration program but was equally instrumental in forging international space collaborations between India and the US as well as India and Europe—an attribute we would be wise to remember and carry forward as we [mount many lunar missions](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) from around the globe. As part of my tribute to Srinivasa Hegde, I’m republishing below an interview of him I conducted in 2020 on his role in Chandrayaan 1, which also shows his optimism for exploring planets with robots and humans—and how India must be part of it all. The responses were edited for clarity, and related links and images have been added for the reader’s benefit. --- **What first got you interested in space exploration?** As a kid, I was influenced by my grandfather. He was a Sanskrit scholar and an astrologer, with a love for stars in the sky. He used to take me for early morning walks before dawn. During those days of reduced pollution, many constellations were clearly visible. He used to identify and explain all the constellations to me and I was intrigued. Besides, I was generally interested in science and reading up on new discoveries and happenings in the field. Then one day I came across a job opening at ISRO for which I applied and got selected. **Chandrayaan 1 was the first time India explored another world. What were the early stages of its conception like at ISRO?** Dr. K. Kasturirangan, who chaired ISRO from 1994 to 2003, wanted the organization to play a small role in India’s ambition to become a superpower. This planted the seed for undertaking more ambitious missions. The idea of a Moon orbiter was floated around and was received positively by everyone. At the time, ISRO already had geostationary satellites, which have plenty of fuel. The basic infrastructure was ready and the only delta required was adapting it to the Moon. Initial calculations showed that our PSLV rocket could provide an Earth-bound orbit beyond which the fuel on the spacecraft could be used to go to the Moon and perform orbital capture. In all, Chandrayaan 1 seemed like a logical extension of our capabilities. **What did your role as Chandrayaan 1’s Mission Director involve and what was your biggest challenge?** I was involved in all aspects of the Mission Design—the design of the various orbits, data management, orbit determination, strategies for course corrections, and so on. I was also involved in many aspects of operating the spacecraft. Chandrayaan 1 was the first ISRO project to [involve many foreigners who had their scientific instruments onboard](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2006/pdf/1704.pdf). As Mission Director, I was tasked with accommodating their needs. It posed challenges because they had diverse requirements. For instance, scientists behind the Mini-SAR payload wanted to calibrate the instrument when the spacecraft would be en-route to the Moon. They were unhappy with the fact that we couldn’t accommodate that due to certain changes in our launch schedule. However, at a later stage we provided them with a geometry in lunar orbit for calibration which they said was even better than what they originally asked for. **Was finding water on the Moon a primary scientific objective during the planning of Chandrayaan 1? Why was it important?** Absolutely. NASA missions to the Moon in the past decade had hinted at the possibility of water ice being trapped in [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) of the Moon. So it was crucial to confirm its presence as it has implications for future human settlements as well as getting insights on [the Moon’s origin](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/) and [evolution](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). **For Chandrayaan 1, ISRO solicited scientific instruments from other space agencies around the world. What was the driving philosophy behind that?** We had our own science payloads on Chandrayaan 1 but given the renewed global interest in the Moon after so many decades, we also wanted to provide the spacecraft as a platform for others we could collaborate with. And so ISRO put out an announcement of opportunity to scientists all over the world to pitch payloads for Chandrayaan 1\. We got instruments from ESA as well as NASA, including universities associated with them. I think the timing of Chandrayaan 1 was good as NASA’s next Moon mapper, [LRO](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lro/about/), was still a year away. **Tell us about the** [**discovery of water**](https://jatan.space/how-nasa-and-chandrayaan-discovered-water-on-the-moon/) **on the Moon by the NASA instruments onboard Chandrayaan 1 and more on the India-US partnership.** As discussed, NASA scientists were really interested in putting their instruments on Chandrayaan 1 and working with us to confirm the presence of water. The discovery ultimately came from two NASA-built instruments onboard—the Miniature Synthetic Aperture Radar (Mini-SAR) and the Moon Mineralogical Mapper (M3). Mini-SAR [found](https://www.nasa.gov/mission%5Fpages/Mini-RF/multimedia/feature%5Fice%5Flike%5Fdeposits.html) that more than 40 craters on the lunar poles reflected signals in patterns consistent with [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). However, there were still uncertainties like in previous missions about the detections really being water ice instead of false positives from some kinds of rock surfaces. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fa98b5132-b911-41be-898a-1bb13f8dded5_1342x1347-jpeg.jpg) Likely water ice on the Moon’s north pole (marked by green circles) found by Chandrayaan 1 instrument Mini-SAR. [Image: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/mission%5Fpages/Mini-RF/multimedia/feature%5Fice%5Flike%5Fdeposits.html) It was the M3 instrument that [confirmed](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=7218) water ice being present in the Moon’s polar craters based on how the surface absorbed infrared light. In fact, M3 detected water and hydroxyl molecules almost everywhere on the Moon. Scientists now knew for the first time that the lunar soil does hold trace amounts of water even in the non-polar regions. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f144af342-5b86-427e-95e0-76aa3451144e_1200x675-jpeg.jpg) Distribution of water ice on the lunar south pole (left) and north pole (right) as mapped by ISRO’s Chandrayaan 1 spacecraft. [Image: NASA](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=7218) The India-US partnership on Chandrayaan 1 also extended to NASA providing us access to its iconic Deep Space Network, which was used for communications with the spacecraft. **What was the most challenging scenario when operating Chandrayaan 1 in lunar orbit?** Oh, this is my favorite part! Chandrayaan 1 actually managed to [view a solar eclipse from the Moon](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-22/)! We were able to see the Moon’s shadow cast on Earth. In 2009, a year after launch, both the star sensors onboard the spacecraft had failed. With that, the spacecraft lost its ability to precisely point to a desired attitude in space. A mission failure was looming. Instead of losing the craft, we came up with a solution that involved using the Sun sensors to get knowledge of two spatial axes and take aid from the ground station to know the third. This data was utilized by the onboard gyroscopes to be able to point the spacecraft again with reasonable accuracy. The mission was back up and running. As the spacecraft passed between the Moon and Earth in its lunar orbit on July 22, 2009, it imaged the Moon’s shadow cast on our planet. This was a first for any lunar mission and completely executed when the spacecraft was in a non-nominal state. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/06/chandrayaan-1-captures-solar-eclipse-2009.gif) The totality shadow cast on Earth by the Moon during the total solar eclipse of July 22, 2009, as captured by Chandrayaan 1 from lunar orbit. Images: ISRO / GIF: Jatan Mehta **Do you think there’s enough water on the Moon’s poles to power large human settlements in the future?** It’s too early to comment but going by the [minimum amount estimated](https://www.nasa.gov/mission%5Fpages/Mini-RF/multimedia/feature%5Fice%5Flike%5Fdeposits.html) from Chandrayaan 1 Mini-SAR observations, it seems there could be enough. The [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) can reveal more details. **How is the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter positioned to provide us more insights on water on the Moon?** The Chandrayaan 2 orbiter has [upgraded instruments](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/). Its upgraded radar, that can penetrate deeper into the surface, will map the water ice trapped in the lunar poles and quantify its amount, something no one has adequately done yet. And its infrared spectrometer will build a global, high-resolution map of water concentrations in the lunar soil, and how the amount changes in response to the lunar environment. **How can India compete with China and the US in the renewed return to the Moon?** It is difficult as both these nations have enormous resources. But the spectrum of science that can be done on the Moon is vast and our strategy so far has been to fill crucial gaps in our current understanding, like the discovery of water. **Which planetary destination do you think India should aim for next and why?** Saturn’s moon [Enceladus](https://jatan.space/when-will-we-explore-enceladus-to-find-life/). It is mostly covered with fresh, clean ice, making it one of the most reflective bodies in the Solar System. It is known to host water underneath that icy surface. After Cassini spacecraft’s [discovery of organic compounds](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/jpl/new-organic-compounds-found-in-enceladus-ice-grains) in Enceladus’ plumes, it has become, to me, by far the most interesting object in our Solar System. **What does having a planetary exploration program mean for a country like India?** It plays an important role in eventual settlement of space. Doing such missions means we gain new capabilities and experiences, all of which give us a good starting point for future endeavors. For instance, the most notable thing in Chandrayaan 2 is that all of its cutting-edge scientific instruments are designed and built indigenously. **What are your thoughts on India sending its own astronauts to space, aka the Gaganyaan program?** Sending humans to space involves too many challenges, like ruggedization of the spacecraft and launcher, having enough fuel at all stages, complex trajectories, multi-layered redundancy in spacecraft functions, etc. At every stage, there should be a means to get back humans safely and there is little to no tolerance for failure. With all those requirements, Gaganyaan is certainly a very expensive undertaking. But it has to be done sooner or later for space settlements, so why not now? **Throughout your career at ISRO, how have you seen the landscape for women in STEM change?** There are many [women at ISRO](https://jatan.space/book-review-those-magnificent-women-and-their-stories/) who are doing exceptional work. Over the years they have rightly assumed increasingly higher and more versatile positions inside ISRO’s various missions and centers. This includes women who aren’t necessarily photogenic and don’t feel the need to be in the limelight. **Should humanity establish permanent presence on the Moon first or Mars?** The Moon is good from an [energy point of view](https://jatan.space/the-moon-as-a-rocket-platform/) though it has limited areas for potential habitability, like lava tubes or polar regions. But Mars has a relatively more conducive environment, a near-24-hour day, relatively benign temperatures and is, in general, a more hospitable place. If huge rockets like SpaceX’s [Starship Super Heavy](https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/starship/) are available in the future, then energy is not really a problem and Mars becomes a natural target after the Moon. *Originally published at* [*Supercluster*](https://www.supercluster.com/editorial/indias-role-in-the-new-race-to-the-moon)*.* ### Moon Monday #179: Chang’e 6 samples in lunar orbit, a fiery Starship, a critique of CLPS, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-179/ Last updated: 2024-06-10T13:20:53.000Z *I’m truly excited to welcome* [*Astrolab*](https://astrolab.space) *as the latest yearly sponsor of my* [*Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) *blog+newsletter!* 🚀 *California-based Venturi Astrolab Inc. (Astrolab) is developing a fleet of large multi-purpose rovers for advanced exploration of our Moon. To that end, Astrolab leads one of the three teams NASA selected earlier this year to mature their designs for a* [*versatile Lunar Terrain Vehicle*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-171/) *(LTV), which the agency hopes to use with and without crew across Artemis missions starting end of decade.* 🌗 *What I have always loved about the Astrolab-led LTV bid is that unlike other proposals, their* [*FLEX*](https://astrolab.space/flex) *rover has a publicly known* [*functional terrestrial prototype*](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SfT6HIc9OPw)*—tested for mobility as well as crewed, remote, and payload deployment operations. Astrolab is also the only company to have publicly announced plans to* [*send a demonstration rover*](https://astrolab.space/news/blog/145)*, one with* [*customer payloads*](https://spacenews.com/astrolab-announces-first-customers-for-commercial-lunar-rover-mission)*.* ✨ ## Chang’e 6 samples await in lunar orbit ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/06/chang-e-6-lander-with-sampling-arm-on-the-moon-upscaled.jpg) A small rover deployed by the Chang’e 6 Moon lander captured this view of the lander, showing its large sampling arm and the ascender module up top. The lander lies on the Moon’s farside at [153.99° W, 41.64° S](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?prjExtent=-5221688.1665765%2C-1467732.4084261%2C-3942620.3673887%2C-743473.9323902&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&isCesiumEntityDetailsEnabled=true&showCompass=true&trailType=1&wideTrail=true&features=206.01455000%2C-41.63839000%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Chang’e+6+landing+site%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKWbJYNOZLRfImq3ioA&proj=16), within the [Apollo](https://jatan.space/peak-ringed-apollo-crater/) impact crater. [Image: CNSA / CLEP](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2024/06/First%5Fnegative%5Fion%5Fdetector%5Fon%5Fthe%5FMoon) In a span of a week, China’s [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) lander successfully [touched down](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-178/) on the Moon’s farside on June 1, [collected](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3265265/change-6-probe-blasts-moon-first-ever-dark-side-samples) up to 2 kilograms of soil and rock samples using a still drill and a movable complementary surface scoop (a process aided by a [terrestrial replica CNSA setup](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465652/n6465653/c10541840/content.html) of the sampling area to test and verify sampling strategies as well as context-providing lander instruments comprising cameras, a ground penetrating radar, and a mineral spectrometer), used its arm to [move the samples](https://x.com/AJ%5FFI/status/1797859994433642698) to a [sealed container](https://x.com/AJ%5FFI/status/1797861861108691350), deployed a small 5-kilogram rover to [tactically photograph](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3265548/chinas-change-6-selfie-moons-far-side-taken-ai) the Chang’e 6 lander, [launched the samples](https://twitter.com/AJ%5FFI/status/1797859663616352274) to lunar orbit as part of an ascent module on June 3, which [autonomously determined](https://spacenews.com/change-6-moon-samples-collected-and-launched-into-lunar-orbit/) its position and orientation with aid from the [Queqiao 2](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-169/) communications relay lunar orbiter, and then [docked](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CmMhOhVMwDQ) with the Chang’e 6 orbiter [on June 6](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/n6758823/n6758838/c10546600/content.html) following [four orbital adjustments](https://spacenews.com/change-6-spacecraft-dock-in-lunar-orbit-ahead-of-journey-back-to-earth/), about 30 minutes after which the lunar samples were transferred to the Earth-return capsule. That’s one impressive way to perform what’s so far looking like a very nominal mission, including the orchestration of many modules the kind that will help China [land humans on Luna](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/), which the country hopes to achieve by end of decade. China is the only nation to have performed robotic rendezvous and docking at the Moon. The Chang’e 6 orbiter will soon jettison the ascent module, which CNSA will deorbit to crash into the Moon similar to Apollo missions. The Chang’e 6 orbiter will remain in lunar orbit until June 20 or 21, awaiting a window for returning to Earth. On its way towards our planet around June 25, it will release the sample-hosting capsule, which will perform a bounced atmospheric reentry and hopefully safely descend and land in China’s northern Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. The Chang’e 6 samples will be scientifically even more valuable than the [Chang’e 5 samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-156/), expected to help scientists worldwide [solve a whole host of Moon mysteries](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2024/pdf/1873.pdf) such as understanding the [distinct farside volcanism](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2024.118737) and why the farside is so [enigmatically distinct](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) to the familiar nearside—which is necessary to understand not just Luna’s evolution but [that of our Solar System](https://jatan.space/solar-system-history-101/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/06/chang-e-6-lander-on-the-moon.jpg) A panorama from the Chang’e 6 lander, showing one of its legs, the small rover’s tracks on the left, and the sampling arm and its surface digs. [Image: CNSA / CLEP](https://x.com/SegerYu/status/1798688466026594539) In the meanwhile, Chinese scientists are already thinking ahead on how to glean more scientific value from lunar samples. Researchers at the China Institute of Atomic Energy (CIAE) are [using particle accelerators to detect Iron-60](https://phys.org/news/2024-05-approach-capability-uncover-clues-supernovae.html) in simulated lunar samples. Iron-60 is a rare isotope produced by exploding stars, and identifying its trace existence in actual lunar samples soon would be another way scientists [utilize the Moon to understand the Universe beyond](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-118/). Other than collecting samples, Chang’e 6 mission operators turned on two European instruments aboard the lander: the [Negative Ions at the Lunar Surface](https://presentations.copernicus.org/EPSC2022/EPSC2022-992%5Fpresentation-h642517.pdf) (NILS) payload from ESA and the Swedish Institute for Space Physics, and the French space agency’s [Detection of Outgassing RadoN](https://sciences-techniques.cnes.fr/en/dorn-french-instrument-change-6-mission) (DORN) detector. NILS already [detected negatively charged particles](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/First%5Fdetection%5Fof%5Fnegative%5Fions%5Fon%5Fthe%5FMoon) on the Moon’s farside, a world first. These particles are produced due to highly energetic [solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) particles slamming the Moon’s surface and kicking up secondary particles. NILS is the first European instrument to operate from the Moon’s surface, and is also Europe’s first such collaboration with China. Furthermore, ESA has been providing ground station tracking and orbital confirmation support for Chang’e 6, similar to how [ESA has been helping](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Operations/ESA%5FGround%5FStations/ESA%5Fsupports%5FIndian%5Flunar%5Fand%5Fsolar%5Fmissions) ISRO’s Chandrayaan missions. ## NASA’s road to the Moon continues via Starship ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/06/spacex-starship-ift-4-second-stage-reentry.jpg) Magnificent view of the IFT-4 SpaceX Starship second stage during atmospheric reentry. [Image: SpaceX](https://x.com/SpaceX/status/1798792222743122164) SpaceX’s fourth launch of its fully integrated [Starship Super Heavy](https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/starship) rocket on June 6 was a [comprehensive success](https://spacenews.com/starship-survives-reentry-during-fourth-test-flight/), with both the Super Heavy booster and the Starship second stage completing their flights and performing controlled soft oceanic splashdowns. The latter’s victorious outcome was especially dramatic, as it survived a [fiery reentry](https://x.com/SpaceX/status/1798792222743122164) despite losing many heat shield tiles and actuating a burnt-through flap. With this flight, SpaceX has cleared another milestone in a long path to put humans on the Moon again since NASA has [selected](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) Starship’s lunar variant for the [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/) crewed landing mission later this decade. But much like the biggest of Starship ambitions, the Lunar Starship [as envisioned](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-168/) needs a [high launch cadence for adequate in-orbit refueling](https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/11/what-nasa-wants-to-see-from-spacexs-second-starship-test-flight), for which a key decider will be the heat shield; specifically how well SpaceX can get it to perform on the second stage, and how fast the company can refurbish such Starships. Peter Hague [captures it well on his blog](https://planetocracy.org/p/starship-flight-4-a-turning-point) Planetocracy: > If due to the thermal protection system or other reasons SpaceX is unable to cheaply and quickly reuse second stages, then the Starship project as envisioned may be in trouble. There are multiple ways the Starship program could turn out. I think we can rule out total failure of the program at this point as very unlikely — but it might be that first stage reuse works, while second stage reuse proves too hard for SpaceX. That would be disappointing, but not the end of the world. > > A partially reusable Starship would be a rocket with almost twice the payload of a Saturn V (as it would not have to carry tonnes of reuse equipment) but with the economics of a Falcon 9\. Being able to launch a vehicle in this class perhaps 100 times a year would be revolutionary in itself. Ultimately, it means that we would likely have a US crewed lunar landing enabled via Starship in some form but the hope, of course, is that SpaceX continues to clear immense technical hurdles in developing Starship and provides NASA with a concrete road to the Moon. *Related: Is dearMoon’s Starship flight cancellation purely a financial setback? I* [*doubt it*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-178/#more-mission-updates)*.* Also relatedly, NASA and SpaceX [conducted a terrestrial test](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/esdmd/artemis-campaign-development-division/human-landing-system-program/nasa-astronauts-practice-next-giant-leap-for-artemis/) of astronauts interacting with full-scale developmental hardware of an airlock, its deck, and an [elevator](https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/nasa-astronauts-test-spacex-elevator-concept-for-artemis-lunar-lander) part of SpaceX’s Lunar Starship. The astronauts put on [Axiom-provided spacesuits](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-taps-axiom-space-for-first-artemis-moonwalking-spacesuits) and pressurized them outside the airlock. The tests aimed to simulate the mobility environment crew will face on the Moon, and accordingly evaluated procedures, checkouts, specific movements coupled with mobility aids, effectiveness of the control panels, and more. NASA says the tests confirmed that the amount of space available in the Starship airlock, on its deck, and in the elevator are sufficient for astronauts to work with. --- *Many thanks to* [***Astrolab***](https://astrolab.space) *and* [***Sanket Suman Dash***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/sanketsumandash/) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday. If you love this curated community resource too,* [*join them*](https://jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday/) *and support my work.* --- ## A critique of CLPS ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fc7696af5-aa5e-4cb0-b0f1-82204430e2bd_3262x2160-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of Intuitive Machines’ lander on the Moon with NASA’s PRIME-1 drill attached. [Image: Intuitive Machines](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/nasa-intuitive-machines-announce-landing-site-location-for-lunar-drill) The [latest report](https://oig.nasa.gov/office-of-inspector-general-oig/audit-reports/nasas-commercial-lunar-payload-services-initiative/) from NASA’s Office of Inspector General has criticized ways in which NASA has been handling its [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) to send agency-funded payloads aboard private lunar landers, presenting a commercially unattractive outcome too: > The total value of NASA’s eight delivery task orders increased from an initial value of $781.4 million to $984.3 million as of February 2024\. Since CLPS’s inception in 2018, five of eight task orders have experienced cost increases, and seven of eight have experienced schedule delays. Five of the eight experienced both cost increases and schedule delays. Further, two task orders were terminated, one of which had already been paid $66.1 million of the $81.3 million task order value based on milestones performed. > > \[...\] > > NASA built the CLPS business model assuming the commercial lunar delivery market would mature with time. However, more than 5 years after the initiative was established, the market is still heavily dependent on NASA task order funding. Vendor officials told us that about 20 percent of demand for lunar delivery services come from commercial or international entities, while NASA provides the other 80 percent. NASA officials also have not conducted any new market studies to assess demand or capability growth across this industry since 2017. > > \[...\] > > NASA deviated from its original, hands-off strategy for the initiative and from its plan for incremental progress towards larger missions. Rather, the Agency’s aggressive lander development schedules led to increasingly risk-averse practices and policies. For example, NASA insight and oversight increased, and more detailed vendor proposals were required. This resulted in higher costs and delayed delivery schedules while threatening the initiative’s ability to achieve its broad objectives. > > \[...\] > > We found that NASA-directed changes, including augmented insight and landing site changes, led to $171.4 million in project cost increases. Finally, we found CLPS lacks a detailed management plan that could outline a disciplined approach, promote accountability for how the Agency measures success, and help the initiative weigh competing priorities. ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/06/Apollo8-Earthrise.jpg) - [Bill Anders](https://www.nasa.gov/former-astronaut-william-a-anders/), who [showed us Earth](https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/apollo-8-astronaut-bill-anders-captures-earthrise/) from the Moon during his Apollo 8 flight, passed away at the age of 90 [in a self-piloted plane crash](https://www.fox13seattle.com/news/william-anders-wa-plane-crash). > We came all this way to explore the Moon, and the most important thing is that we discovered the Earth. - The NASA-funded and Advanced Space-led [CAPSTONE](https://www.nasa.gov/smallspacecraft/capstone/) lunar orbiter has now [completed 18 months in lunar orbit](https://advancedspace.com/first-commercial-lunar-orbiter-successfully-completed-all-operational-objectives-capstone-continues-moon-operations-to-inform-future-missions/), meeting most of its mission objectives. As a literal pathfinding mission for the upcoming NASA-led international [Gateway orbital habitat](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/gateway/), CAPSTONE has been test-flying the fuel-efficient [Near-Rectilinear Halo Orbit](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/a-lunar-orbit-that-s-just-right-for-the-international-gateway) (NRHO) the lunar station will be in. [Results](https://advancedspace.com/subject/papers-presentations) from it are helping NASA refine the orbit’s mathematical models based on the exact propellant and resources CAPSTONE consumed to maintain desired operations, including the 25 maneuvers it has performed to date. CAPSTONE has also [continued to cross-communicate](https://advancedspace.com/advanced-spaces-resilient-capstone-mission-for-nasa-is-operating-at-the-moon-for-445-days-continues-to-transform-exploration-with-cutting-edge-technology) with NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lro/about/) (LRO) to work towards demonstrating autonomous position determination and navigation in lunar orbit, that is, without relying on or [chocking up](https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/08/nasas-artemis-i-mission-nearly-broke-the-deep-space-network) Earthly ground stations. The [CAPSTONE team](https://advancedspace.com/capstone-mission-team) deserves the fruits of the mission’s successes, for they practically [fully recovered](https://advancedspace.com/capstone-mission-recovery-success-update) a failing spacecraft and managed to have it enter NRHO despite a faulty valve in one of its eight thrusters—which is still stuck! - With a [second hot fire test](https://europeanspaceflight.com/the-exploration-company-completes-testing-of-nyx-moon-engine-prototype/) of its prototype Huracan engine, The Exploration Company is inching towards its desire to send their Nyx Moon spacecraft to Luna. The company hopes to one day have Nyx Moon [supply up to 5,000 kilograms of cargo](https://www.exploration.space/nyx-v2) to the NASA-led Gateway. The capsule can bring 2,000 kilograms worth of material from the Gateway to Earth too. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/06/chandrayaan-mug-a47.jpg) Enter the Chandrayaan coffee mug. From [a47.in](https://www.a47.in), who sadly are not sponsoring my exhaustive coverage of Chandrayaan Moon missions: 🚀🌗 ### Moon Monday #178: The fourth Chinese lunar landing, dearMoon, mission updates, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-178/ Last updated: 2024-10-28T11:44:25.000Z *I’m over the Moon to share that* [*Open Lunar Foundation*](https://www.openlunar.org) *is continuing to be a sponsor of my* [*Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) *blog+newsletter for the fourth year in a row!* 🌗 *Open Lunar is a non-profit organization that brings together and enables a diverse set of experts to* [*develop key technical and policy building blocks*](https://www.openlunar.org/work) *which help ensure that the global exploration of our Moon is peaceful, cooperative, and sustainable.* 🚀 *It’s a mission I like so much—alongside the people—that I’m glad to also share that I’ve been aiding Open Lunar’s work in a small way as part of a group of* [*Affiliates*](https://www.openlunar.org/affiliates) *who believe in the cause.* 🌙 ## China lands one more time on the Moon’s farside ![](https://cdn.magicpages.co/spaceimpact.mymagic.page/2024/06/chang-e-6-lander-shadow-and-surface-just-before-touchdown.jpg) A fantastic view from a camera onboard the Chang’e 6 lander which shows the spacecraft’s shadow on the Moon and dust blowoff just moments before touchdown. [Image: CNSA / CLEP](https://www.sastind.gov.cn/video/0602ce6dl2.mp4) Following a 14-minute descent from an altitude of \~15 kilometers in its lunar orbit, China’s [Chang’e 6 lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) successfully [touched down](https://spacenews.com/change-6-lands-on-far-side-of-the-moon-to-collect-unique-lunar-samples/) on the Moon’s farside on June 1, resting at [153.99° W, 41.64° S](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?prjExtent=-5221688.1665765%2C-1467732.4084261%2C-3942620.3673887%2C-743473.9323902&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&isCesiumEntityDetailsEnabled=true&showCompass=true&trailType=1&wideTrail=true&features=206.01455000%2C-41.63839000%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Chang’e+6+landing+site%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKWbJYNOZLRfImq3ioA&proj=16) near the southern rim of the 500-kilometer wide [Apollo](https://jatan.space/peak-ringed-apollo-crater/) impact crater. This marks China’s fourth successful nominal landing in four tries. It’s also only the second farside lunar touchdown after [Chang’e 4](https://www.eoportal.org/satellite-missions/chang-e-4). At this point, China is making lunar landings seem easy while other countries work towards achieving the complex task as a routine. Much like most modern lunar landers, Chang’e 6 used several key technologies to descend onto a safe spot: a variable thrust engine, optical imagery, onboard maps, hover phases to [detect hazards to avoid](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/), and shock-absorbing crush core legs for the final free fall. Chang’e 6 also used a laser-based LiDAR sensor to map the local landing area in 3D before the final landing phase. Interestingly, CNSA’s [news release](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465652/n6465653/c10541840/content.html) also mentions landing aid from another sensor: > To prevent interference to optical sensors by lunar dust during landing, the lander is also equipped with gamma-ray sensors to accurately measure the height through particle rays, ensuring that the engine can be shut down on time and the lander can touch down smoothly on the lunar surface. 0:00 /0:32 1× A sped-up interpolated video showing the view from Chang’e 6 during its lunar descent and landing. [Video: CNSA](https://www.sastind.gov.cn/video/0602ce6dl2.mp4) ![](https://cdn.magicpages.co/spaceimpact.mymagic.page/2024/06/chang-e-6-landing-site.jpg) The Chang’e 6 landing site \[153.99° W, 41.64° S\]—blue dot—in the [3.98-billion-year old](https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JE005590), 500-kilometer wide [Apollo](https://jatan.space/peak-ringed-apollo-crater/) impact crater. [Image: LROC Quickmap / ASU / GSFC](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?prjExtent=-5233049.8996074%2C-1439013.7783284%2C-3991829.4205016%2C-736185.9429372&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&isCesiumEntityDetailsEnabled=true&showCompass=true&trailType=1&wideTrail=true&features=206.01455000%2C-41.63839000%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Chang’e+6+landing+site%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0yioA&proj=16) Since Chang’e 6’s surface mission of [sample collection](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) is on the Moon’s farside, the side we can’t see from Earth, mission operators have been commanding the lander and receiving data from it via relays from the [Queqiao 2](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-169/) lunar orbiter launched earlier in February. However, China frustratingly continues to not share even high-level information about its space activities in near-real-time with the public. At the time of writing this, it’s hard to know if and how exactly the Chang’e 6 lander collected its samples, and what they look like. We don’t have any images from the surface despite it being two days since the landing. ## More mission updates ![](https://cdn.magicpages.co/spaceimpact.mymagic.page/2024/06/nasa-farside-seismic-suit-in-lab.jpg) JPL engineers and technicians prepare NASA’s Farside Seismic Suite for testing in simulated lunar gravity, which is about one-sixth of Earth’s. [Image: NASA / JPL-Caltech](https://www.nasa.gov/solar-system/moon/nasa-to-measure-moonquakes-with-help-from-insight-mars-mission/) - NASA’s [first farside mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-87/) via its [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) is progressing gradually. The [two distinct seismometers](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2022/pdf/1576.pdf) meant to fly in 2026 aboard the Draper-led, NASA-funded lander to the farside Schrödinger crater [recently passed](https://www.nasa.gov/solar-system/moon/nasa-to-measure-moonquakes-with-help-from-insight-mars-mission/) the slew of [space launch and environmental tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/). The “Farside Seismic Suite” (FSS) payload suite is thus ready to fly. Data from over four months of its operations, combined with seismic measurements from the upcoming missions of [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#the-instrumental-and-increasingly-international-7), [Chang’e 8](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/#prepare-for-crew-and-double-down-with-mission-eight) and [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-selects-first-lunar-instruments-for-artemis-astronaut-deployment/) will help scientists better understand [the Moon’s internal structure and how it evolved](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). FSS will also help us know the [rate of seismic activity](https://doi.org/10.3847/PSJ/ad1332) and amount of [micrometeorite impacts](https://jatan.space/the-tiniest-of-impact-craters/) on the Moon’s farside, which is not well constrained at the moment. In the meanwhile, ispace US—who is providing the lander for the Draper-led mission—[has been raising capital](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-173/#ispace-doubles-down-on-farside-moon-mission) to double down on realizing the spacecraft. - After continuing to defy JAXA’s own expectations by surviving three frigid lunar nights in a row, the solar-powered [SLIM lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-161) unfortunately [did not wake up](https://x.com/SLIM%5FJAXA/status/1795310224548798726) during the previous lunar day at its landing site. JAXA says it will try communicating with the lander again when the Sun rises high enough in SLIM’s sky after June 10. --- *Many thanks to* [***Open Lunar Foundation***](https://www.openlunar.org) *and* [***Sanket Suman Dash***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/sanketsumandash/) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday. If you love this curated community resource too,* [*join them*](https://jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday/) *and support my work.* --- ## Is dearMoon’s cancellation purely a financial setback? ![](https://cdn.magicpages.co/spaceimpact.mymagic.page/2024/06/dearmoon-starship-illustration.jpg) Illustration of the dearMoon Starship above Luna. [Image: SpaceX / dearMoon](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7wrk5u8FgbM) [Citing](https://x.com/yousuckMZ/status/1796778107359359253) delays and uncertainty in the launch year, Japanese billionaire Yusaku Maezawa [has cancelled](https://x.com/dearmoonproject/status/1796759847817625933) his purchase of SpaceX’s [dearMoon](https://dearmoon.earth) Starship mission, which aimed to fly [himself and eight more people](https://spacenews.com/japanese-billionaire-selects-crew-for-circumlunar-starship-flight) around the Moon and back. Would-be-mission flyers expressed disappointment with the poor internal communications regarding the cancellation, including [the Everyday Astronaut](https://x.com/Erdayastronaut/status/1796760324055404627), [Rhiannon Adam](https://x.com/blackbirdsfly/status/1796828380819509312) and [Brendan Hall](https://static1.squarespace.com/static/52f1be97e4b022ddbd0edaf7/t/665b2fcd3b6ee5509a6c54f2/1717252177655/dearMoon). While it’s not surprising that dearMoon would’ve never launched in 2023—or even 2024—and that Maezawa’s [net worth dropping by half](https://www.forbes.com/profile/yusaku-maezawa/) since booking the mission in 2018 certainly played a role in the decision, I disagree with most of the coverage [calling the mission a low priority](https://arstechnica.com/space/2024/06/heres-why-a-japanese-billionaire-just-canceled-his-lunar-flight-on-starship/)—that it would be a [distraction](https://payloadspace.com/a-dear-john-for-dearmoon/) from SpaceX’s development for the [Artemis III Lunar Starship mission](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) to land humans on the Moon for NASA. Sans the critical landing element, Artemis III and dearMoon share virtually every developmental milestone Starship needs to hit for safely and successfully carrying humans to the Moon and back—from in-orbit refueling to a high launch cadence. In other words, a Starship *program* capable of realizing Artemis III even later in the decade can easily fly dearMoon too, as the latter lies squarely along the former’s developmental path. Recall also that Dennis Tito and his wife Akiko Tito [purchased 2 out of 12 seats](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/spacex-sells-another-starship-circumlunar-mission-this-one-to-dennis-tito) for a circumlunar Starship mission as of October 2022\. There have been no updates on the mission since then. Let’s not forget either that it’s exactly these kinds of commercial missions that NASA said it wants to promote to forge a lunar economy. In fact, the ability to carry out commercial lunar flights was a key evaluation criteria for NASA when awarding lunar lander developmental awards. Here’s an example quote from an [interim source selection document](https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/source-selection-statement-appendix-n.pdf) while NASA [was progressing](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-selects-five-u-s-companies-to-mature-artemis-lander-concepts/) in its selection of [sustainable lunar landers](https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/nextstep-appendix-p-human-landing-system-sustaining-lunar-development/) (which ultimately led to the agency shortlisting SpaceX’s [Lunar Starship](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-spacex-second-contract-option-for-artemis-moon-landing-0) and Blue Origin’s [Blue Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/) landers): > NASA recognizes the need to foster the commercial development of expertise and technologies required for reusable, sustainable, and human-rated landing systems. As one component of multiple HLS procurements, Appendix N will help NASA and U.S. industry accomplish this goal by procuring critical studies and risk reduction activities in support of sustainable human lunar lander services. Not only will this work meaningfully advance the research and development necessary to meet NASA’s long-term crewed lunar landing requirements, but it will also have commercial applications beyond NASA’s needs. While there’s no doubt about Lunar Starship’s future potential, the delays and now the dearMoon mission cancellation are a clear sign of Starship milestones proving to be even more complex to achieve than initially anticipated. **Related read:** [*The Lunacy of Artemis*](https://idlewords.com/2024/5/the%5Flunacy%5Fof%5Fartemis.htm) *by Maciej Cegłowski (I don’t endorse the article wholly but agree with many aspects of it. It’s worth reading either way.)* ## More Moon - On May 30, [Peru](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-welcomes-peru-as-41st-artemis-accords-signatory/) and [Slovakia](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-welcomes-slovakia-as-new-artemis-accords-signatory/) signed the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords) for cooperative lunar exploration. Slovakia is the 19th European nation to sign the Accords but it’s Peru joining as the seventh Latin American country that’s interesting to me. The other Latin American signatories are Brazil, Colombia, Mexico, Argentina, Ecuador, and Uruguay. Of these, the latter four along with the new Accords signee Peru are [members](https://www.gob.mx/sre/en/articulos/signing-of-the-convention-establishing-alce-the-latin-american-and-caribbean-space-agency-283235) of the recently formed “[Latin American and Caribbean Space Agency](https://qz.com/2114990/why-latin-america-needs-its-own-space-agency)”, or ALCE. Inspired in part by the model of the European Space Agency, ALCE aims to pool resources of Latin American nations to better their space activities and its impact. - ESA and NASA astronauts [provided feedback](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/New%5Fmilestone%5Ffor%5Fthe%5FGateway%5Flife%5Finside%5FLunar%5FI-Hab) on the usability of initial mockups of the ESA-led, Thales-provided [Lunar I-Hab](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Gateway%5FLunar%5FI-Hab) habitation module, the flight version of which will be part of the upcoming NASA-led [Gateway lunar orbital habitat](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/gateway) later this decade. This exercise will allow including major changes before the upcoming critical design review phase, after which assembly and integration of Lunar I-Hab can begin. ![](https://cdn.magicpages.co/spaceimpact.mymagic.page/2024/06/arizona-jett5-artemis-moonwalk-simulation.jpg) Mock spacesuits and a tool cart mimic the equipment Artemis astronauts might use during excursions on the Moon. [Image: NASA / Josh Valcarcel](https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-01533-3) Last month NASA conducted the highest fidelity Moonwalk simulation exercise yet in a lunar-esque volcanic field in Arizona for the upcoming [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/) mission intended to land two astronauts on the Moon’s south pole. Science writer Alexandra Witze [covered the activities, their rationale, and importance](https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-01533-3) right from the mission’s backroom. > To mimic the lighting conditions at the lunar south pole, JETT5 organizers built a ‘Sun cart’ — essentially a giant spotlight wheeled onto the landscape. To Rubins and Douglas, the light looked like the distant Sun hovering just above the horizon. The astronauts carefully navigated their way across the dim landscape, relying on a few personal lights to aid their work. \[...\] The point of JETT5 was to develop tools and procedures that will work for Artemis III astronauts on the lunar surface. > > \[...\] > > Not everything went smoothly during the night-time EVA. The flight-operations team deliberately built in some challenges, including dropping video communications with the astronauts any time they travelled too far from the lander. An artificial, 20-minute delay on downloading imagery meant that the science team often couldn’t see real-time photos of the rocks the astronauts were picking up. ### Indian Space Progress #16: An unsorted launch market, ISRO’s most powerful rocket, and more URL: https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-16/ Last updated: 2025-04-30T06:56:10.000Z *I’m thrilled to welcome* [*PierSight*](https://piersight.space) *as the latest sponsor of my monthly* [*Indian Space Progress*](https://jatan.space/tag/indian-space-progress) *blog+newsletter!* 🚀 *Ahmedabad-based PierSight Space, which* [*raised $6 million*](https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/tech/funding/ocean-surveillance-startup-piersight-raises-6-million-led-by-alpha-wave-global-elevation-capital/articleshow/106671267.cms) *recently and also* [*won the INDUS-X challenge*](https://piersight.space/blog/piersight-wins-us-india-challenges-indus-x-for-oil-spill-detection) *for oil spill detections, aims to build a constellation of synthetic aperture radar satellites for persistent ocean monitoring.* 🌏🛰️ *Personally, I have learnt much about space and lunar instruments from PierSight CEO and friend* [*Gaurav Seth*](https://www.linkedin.com/in/gauravseth93/)*, and so I’m glad to have his company be part of the* [*organizations supporting my work*](https://jatan.space/about/#sponsors-and-supporters) *of independent space writing and journalism.* ## On the Agnikul launch, and where the company might land ![](https://cdn.magicpages.co/spaceimpact.mymagic.page/2024/05/agnikul-sorted-launch-1.jpg) Launch of the SOrTeD demonstrator vehicle on May 30, 2024\. [Image: Agnikul](https://x.com/AgnikulCosmos/status/1796035200964809043) After persevering through four scrubbed launch attempts over a month, Chennai-based space startup Agnikul launched its first rocket demonstrator mission called “Suborbital Tech Demonstrator” (SOrTeD) on May 30\. Unlike what many national and international media reports have implied though, and which tweets [from the company](https://x.com/AgnikulCosmos/status/1796035200964809043) or [ISRO](https://x.com/isro/status/1796009306929738239) don’t actively clarify against, the single-stage SOrTeD vehicle *was not* intended to reach space. It was not just a suborbital mission but a squarely sub-space one, unlike competitor Skyroot’s 2022-launch of [Prarambh](https://www.isro.gov.in/mission%5Fprarambh.html), which achieved an apogee of 89.5 kilometers—versus the less than 10 of SOrTeD. As can be gauged from Sibu Tripathi’s [previous report](https://www.indiatoday.in/science/story/agnikul-cosmos-test-flight-agnibaan-sorted-mission-launch-isro-2517371-2024-03-21), SOrTeD’s true goal was to demonstrate and learn from a controlled minute-long flight, using a minimal rocket structure powered by the in-house developed 3D-printed semi-cryogenic kerolox engine called Agnilet. The flight was successful at that goal. Having said that, the private company did not livestream the launch nor share even high-level flight parameters. Based on [the launch video](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VOmKjir96Jk), which came through unofficial means, the engine burnout seems to have happened [about five seconds earlier](https://www.indiatoday.in/science/story/agnikul-cosmos-test-flight-agnibaan-sorted-mission-launch-isro-2517371-2024-03-21) than expected. Since we don’t know the differences between the achieved and intended trajectory though, including the maximum altitude SOrTeD achieved, it’s hard to gauge discrepancies. ISRO [provided the flight termination system](https://www.isro.gov.in/flight%5Ftermination%5Fsystem.html) for SOrTeD, which thankfully didn’t need to be activated. ISRO [also helped](https://www.isro.gov.in/HandholdingStartups.html) the company with mission reviews, flight tracking, and enabled Agnikul to set up their private launchpad at the Sriharikota spaceport. ### The turbulent trajectory ahead ![](https://cdn.magicpages.co/spaceimpact.mymagic.page/2024/05/sslv-d2-launch.jpg) Launch of the second SSLV rocket on February 10, 2023\. [Image: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/mission%5FSSLV%5FD2%5FGallery.html) Agnikul will use data from the SOrTeD mission to characterize the performance of their systems and prepare for future launches. The company [raised $26.7 million](https://techcrunch.com/2023/10/16/agnikul-funding-india-space-tech-startup) last year to start working towards multiple orbital launch attempts of their [customizable Agnibaan](https://www.agnikul.in/#/products) small-lift launch vehicle. Agnibaan can loft a maximum of 300 kilograms to a 700-kilometer Earth orbit. While SOrTeD is certainly a positive step for Agnikul, a space-reaching orbital test flight will require hitting or absorbing many more milestones. As such, it’s hard to see the company making an orbital attempt in 2025 [as claimed](https://www.deccanherald.com/science/space/major-milestone-agnikul-carries-out-successful-sub-orbital-launch-of-agnibaan-indias-second-privately-built-rocket-3044272). Competitor Skyroot is further along in attempting an orbital flight of their small-lift rocket called Vikram-I. The company successfully [test fired](https://twitter.com/SkyrootA/status/1773253058476036453) the rocket’s second stage motor called Kalam-250 in March. The company also recently [raised $27.5 million](https://aviationweek.com/aerospace/commercial-space/indias-skyroot-raises-275-million-fresh-funding-round), hoping to launch Vikram-I by end of year. 2025 remains realistic though. Other recent Vikram-I milestones include [flight qualifying](https://twitter.com/SkyrootA/status/1671416833579286529) its Raman-I engine, which will provide roll attitude control, [hot](https://www.isro.gov.in/Support%5FSpaceStartup%5FRocketEngine.html) [firing](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1682745543343079424) the Raman-II engine powering Vikram-I’s fourth stage, and the first stage [passing pressure testing](https://twitter.com/SkyrootA/status/1736576104272421090). However, the trouble is neither company has announced a confirmed payload customer for their orbital flights, [citing only letters of intent](https://techcrunch.com/2024/05/29/india-agnikul-3d-printed-rocket-launch/?guccounter=1) and MoUs with potential customers thus far. Furthermore, both Skyroot and Agnikul also need to compete with ISRO’s own SSLV rocket, which not only has had a [successful orbital demonstration](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-02/) already but [will be productionized](https://www.livemint.com/companies/news/isro-arm-targets-10-commercial-sslv-launches-by-2026-11678114241233.html) via an impending industry handover. As such, my concern is that even after demonstrating successful orbital flights, Indian private rocket companies might find themselves strapped for customers in an already [cut-throat market](https://web.archive.org/web/20230102031113/https://europeanspaceflight.substack.com/p/more-vehicles-than-customers-1446755). It’s hard enough being a rocket company out of US soil; an Indian entity only faces even more hurdles. While the Indian government has [opened up](https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=2007876) approval-less foreign direct investments (FDI) for the country’s private space sector, launch vehicle companies are only allowed to freely seek up to 49% in FDI, likely for national security reasons but which do hamper an Indian rocket startup’s ability to scale. With the nature of the competition laid out above, and without a high launch cadence, it will be an uphill battle for these companies to survive and be profitable this decade—unless they pivot to serving the country’s strategic needs? ## Preparing for human spaceflight ISRO has been doing a comprehensive $240-million upgrade to the second launchpad at Sriharikota in the lead up to [indigenously launching astronauts to space](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-13/) mid-decade as part of its Gaganyaan program, U Tejonmayam [reports](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/a-small-stepway-for-man-a-giant-leap-for-india/articleshow/109201596.cms). This includes an egress system and guesthouses for crew. Every major launchpad system will have redundancies, including launch checkout systems. Relatedly, at part of a recent visit to ISRO by the US Ambassador to India Eric Garcetti, the Indian space agency chief S. Somanath discussed an intent to have future Gaganyaan cargo modules provide supplies to the International Space Station. This builds on the interest previously shown by private US companies to leverage parts of Gaganyaan’s technology stack. Chethan Kumar [reported](https://web.archive.org/web/20230630012711/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/blue-origin-keen-on-using-lvm3-for-commercial-space-activities/articleshow/101352730.cms) last year that Blue Origin and ISRO are keen on using the [Launch Vehicle Mark III](https://www.isro.gov.in/GSLVmk3%5FCON.html) (LVM3)—India’s rocket of choice for Gaganyaan—to launch capsules to service Blue’s upcoming commercial space station called [Orbital Reef](https://www.orbitalreef.com). Voyager Space [announced](https://voyagerspace.com/2023/07/10/voyager-space-signs-mou-with-isro-and-in-space-to-explore-utilization-of-gaganyaan-spacecraft-for-the-starlab-space-station) similar intentions last year for its upcoming [Starlab](https://starlab-space.com) commercial space station for which it has partnered with Airbus. --- *Many thanks to the* [***Takshashila Institution***](https://takshashila.org.in)*,* [***KaleidEO***](https://satsure.co/kaleidEO)*,* [***PierSight***](https://piersight.space)*,* [***Gurbir Singh***](https://gurbir.co.uk) *and* [***Arun Raghavan***](https://arunraghavan.net) *for sponsoring this month’s Indian Space Progress report. If you too love my work of trying to capture true trajectories of Indian space,* [*join them*](https://jatan.space/sponsor-indian-space-progress/)*!* --- ## Ramping up India’s most powerful rocket ![](https://cdn.magicpages.co/spaceimpact.mymagic.page/2024/05/chandrayaan-3-launch-gslv-mk-iii.jpg) Liftoff of the Moonbound Chandrayaan 3 by a LVM3 rocket. [Image: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/chandrayaan3%5Fgallery.html) The LVM3 rocket itself is on an interesting inflection point. Long known as the GSLV Mk III, India’s most powerful rocket has launched [seven times](https://www.isro.gov.in/LVM3%5FLaunchers.html) so far—all successfully. These flights notably include [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/)’s launch last year as well as the complex orbital deployment of two sets of 36 OneWeb satellites, which lent ISRO a [small but definitive place](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-03/) in the medium-lift global space launch market. Now ISRO wants to ramp up LVM3’s production rate from two a year to four, and then six, via a public-private partnership with the Indian industry as formally stated on May 10 in a [Request for Qualification](https://www.nsilindia.co.in/sites/default/files/Executive%20Summary%20-%20RFQ%20for%20ISRO%27s%20Heavy%20Lift%20Launcher%2C%20LVM3%20Production%20under%20a%20PPP%20with%20NSIL.pdf) from NewSpace India Limited (NSIL), a Department of Space company tasked with commercializing Indian space technologies. [Citing](https://www.nsilindia.co.in/sites/default/files/u1/LVM3%20RFQ%5FPress%20Release.pdf) “substantial demand for launching communication satellites in GTO and satellites for Mega constellations in LEO”, NSIL and ISRO say they hope for 60 to 65 launches of the LVM3 across a decade. This move is the latest in a broader effort to increase production rates of ISRO’s launch vehicle fleet via industry handovers, [starting with the PSLV](https://www.nsilindia.co.in/sites/default/files/Press%20Release-%20Contract%20signed%20for%20production%20of%2005%20nos%20PSLV-XL.pdf) and then [followed by](https://www.livemint.com/companies/news/isro-arm-targets-10-commercial-sslv-launches-by-2026-11678114241233.html) the [SSLV](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-02/). In parallel, ISRO will upgrade LVM3’s core stage to an indigenously built 2000 KiloNewton semi-cryogenic kerolox engine, replacing the existing two [Vikas engines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikas%5F%28rocket%5Fengine%29). This will increase the rocket’s GTO capacity from \~4,000 kilograms to \~5,000\. ISRO is also testing [engine restart capability](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/Monthly%5Fsummary/Monthly%5FSummary%5FMarch%5F2024.pdf) for LVM3’s upper stage cryogenic engine. If ISRO is successful at increasing LVM3’s production rate as well as payload capacity within the next few years, such a steady flow of this launch vehicle could finally allow the space agency to equitably serve not just its human spaceflight and commercial launch ambitions but its planetary missions too, which have otherwise been deprioritized like in [the case of Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-09/#chandrayaan-3-updates) and [Shukrayaan](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-100/) in favor of hitting commercial or Gaganyaan milestones. Tangent: ISRO has also been making progress in improving the performance of the PSLV’s fourth stage with an [additively manufactured engine](https://www.isro.gov.in/ISRO%5Fsuccessfully%5Fconducts%5Flong-duration%5Fhot%5Ftests.html) and [lightweight carbon-carbon composite nozzle](https://www.isro.gov.in/ISRO%5FDevelops%5FLightweight%5FCarbon%5FCarbon%5FNozzle%5Ffor%5FRocket%5FEngines.html) coming soon down the line. For the latter, Mukunth makes an interesting related comment: [Infinity in 15 kilograms](https://rootprivileges.net/2024/04/19/infinity-in-15-kilograms/). ## More private and commercial updates - Following the release of India’s much-awaited [new space policy](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-04/) early last year, and the government allowing private Indian space companies to get [foreign direct investments](https://analyticsindiamag.com/100-fdi-in-space-to-drive-investments-in-india/) (FDI), IN-SPACe [released new guidelines](https://www.inspace.gov.in/sys%5Fattachment.do?sys%5Fid=5d532e37877102503b0f0d060cbb35cf) and procedures for companies conducting space activities, as an implementation of the new space policy. However, Ashwin Prasad [points out](https://www.deccanherald.com/opinion/new-guidelines-could-hamper-indias-promising-space-industry-3035235) how the guidelines bring into question IN-SPACe’s ability to be an effective authorizer while the entity also faces conflicts in its paradoxical role of being both a *promoter* and *regulator* of private Indian space activities. - Bengaluru- and Cupertino-based SkyServe successfully [conducted their first orbital demonstration](https://www.financialexpress.com/business/defence/skyserve-leads-earth-observation-revolution-with-smartphone-moment-in-space/3490753/) of smart Earth imaging. In mid-April, the company uplinked their [edge computing](https://newsletter.terrawatchspace.com/p/edge-computing-for-earth-observation) software stack called [STORM](https://www.skyserve.ai/products/storm) on European partner D-Orbit’s satellite, which was launched in 2022 on a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket. Within a minute of the satellite photographing a large area in the Egypt-Sinai Peninsula, STORM corrected errors in the imagery, detected and masked clouds and water, identified vegetation, and more, after which it sent back memory-friendly image files to Earth. SkyServe is demonstrating that satellites can do more than what they were envisioned for at launch, and that actionable data can be served faster. The company’s next mission in a series of[ progressive demonstrations](https://blog.skyserve.ai/p/skyserve-technology-demonstrations) will be on another satellite that’s already in orbit as well. SkyServe has [partnered](https://spacenews.com/loft-orbital-and-skyserve-partner-on-ai-powered-earth-observation-application/) with US-based Loft Orbital to have their YAM-6 satellite—launched aboard a[ Falcon 9 Transporter on March 4](https://spacenews.com/spacex-launches-tenth-transporter-rideshare-mission/)—perform automated tasking and sequencing based on the part of Earth it is observing. ## More Indian Space - The recent aurora-causing solar flares and coronal mass ejections were [observed by ISRO spacecraft](https://www.isro.gov.in/ISROCapturestheSignaturesoftheRecentSolarEruptiveEvents.html) too, specifically by the [Aditya-L1](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-08/) solar telescope and the [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/)—which doesn’t just study the Moon’s surface but [observes the Sun](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-orbiter-is-also-a-sun-watcher/) too. Notably, ISRO’s post about observing these eruptive solar events mentions measurements by all of Aditya-L1’s instruments except the coronagraph [VELC](http://velc.iiap.res.in/science) and the ultraviolet imager [SUIT](https://www.isro.gov.in/Aditya%5FL1%5FSUIT.html), which are facing calibration issues the nature of which ISRO has been frustratingly silent on. - The [third India Space Congress](https://www.indiaspacecongress.com) will take place in New Delhi from June 26-28, with an [agenda](https://www.indiaspacecongress.com/agenda-2024/) that spans the whole spectrum of the Indian space technology industry. I will be a speaker on a lunar-related panel, and if you’d like to connect with me for a meeting, [get in touch](https://jatan.space/connect). ### Moon Monday #177: China’s lunar base, the depths of polar water, mission updates, and mountains URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/ Last updated: 2026-08-03T13:49:46.000Z *Welcome to the fourth Chinese lunar special after* [*Moon Monday #174*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/)*,* [*#175*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/) *and* [*#176*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/)*. In this edition, the top story focuses on contextualizing all we know about China’s plans to create a long-term Moonbase.* ![](https://cdn.magicpages.co/spaceimpact.mymagic.page/2024/05/china-russia-ilrs-moonbase.jpg) An artist’s concept showing initial plans for the Sino-led scientific Moonbase on the Moon’s south pole. [Image: CNSA / Roscosmos](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l2P5kFTBuOs) Through a [CASC news release](https://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4092519/content.html) on April 26, chief designer of China's lunar exploration program Wu Weiren revealed that the upcoming Sino-led long-term Moonbase called the [International Lunar Research Station](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465652/n6465653/c6812150/content.html) (ILRS) will have an orbital presence too. While this element of the otherwise surface-based ILRS located on the Moon’s south pole will only exist circa 2045, the news page says the space station will be of “considerable scale” and host multiple continuous experiments. CNSA’s [Queqiao satellite constellation](https://spacenews.com/china-wants-a-lunar-satellite-constellation-to-support-deep-space-missions) should be fully online by then to serve the navigation and communications needs of the many orbital and surface lunar assets operated by China and its currently [about two dozen partners](https://spacenews.com/serbia-becomes-latest-country-to-join-chinas-ilrs-moon-base-project/). China [aims](https://english.spacechina.com/n17212/c4092519/content.html) to have 50 nation partners and 500 international organizational collaborators for ILRS. Following [China’s first crewed Moon landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/), currently targeting 2030, the country will focus on building the surface phase of ILRS circa 2035\. Key to realizing this is a new super heavy-lift—and [eventually reusable](https://spacenews.com/china-scraps-expendable-long-march-9-rocket-plan-in-favor-of-reusable-version)—Saturn-V class rocket called the Long March 9\. China [announced](https://m.weibo.cn/status/OaSM0asjG) in April that it aims to test launch a Long March 9 by 2032\. The rocket can put [50,000 kilograms](https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/R1lngfn70pof4EHD9Gl8Eg) of spacecraft hardware on a Moon-ward trajectory, which is almost twice the performance of the [Long March 10](https://spacenews.com/china-claims-progress-on-rockets-for-crewed-lunar-landings-and-moon-base/) and NASA’s current [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/reference/space-launch-system/) both of which will be used to send humans to Luna. Relatedly, Andrew Jones [reported](https://web.archive.org/web/20230513182734/https://www.space.com/china-rocket-engine-test-site-moon-program-video) in May 2023 that China started using an [advanced new facility](http://www.spacechina.com/n25/n2014789/n2014804/c3793458/content.html) in Tongchuan dedicated to test firing huge rocket engines, starting with the ones being prototyped and built for the Long March 9 and 10. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/03/farside-moon-and-earth-change-5-t1.jpg) Earth and our Moon as seen from beyond the lunar farside by China’s Chang’e 5 T1 test spacecraft on October 28, 2014\. [Image: CAST](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/earth-and-the-moon-from-change5t1) Once the Long March 9 is operational, China intends to use it to deliver huge amounts of cargo, and possibly even more crew, to the ILRS Moonbase. The rocket will deliver critical infrastructure for sustainable surface hubs via missions named ILRS-1 through 5\. This includes infrastructure for energy needs, communications, transportation services (including landers, rover, hoppers, and ascent vehicles), scientific research equipment, in-situ resource utilization technologies, and more. The ILRS Moonbase will host large-scale science and technology experiments continually via remotely operated robots and, when available, via humans. It was in 2023 that China [finalized key scientific goals](https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202303/1287773.shtml) of ILRS, as stated by Zou Yongliao, head of the lunar and deep space exploration division at the Chinese Academy of Sciences. These goals are: - Learning about [our Moon’s evolution & structure](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) - Conducting [lunar-based astronomy](https://jatan.space/radio-astronomy-from-the-moon/) for [doing cosmology](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-118/) and studying [habitable exoplanets](https://www.planetary.org/articles/what-is-the-habitable-zone) - [Observing the Sun](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) and [Earth](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-147/#shape-observes-earth-as-an-exoplanet) from the scientifically unique vantage point of our Moon - Conducting lunar-based experiments like studying [plant growth](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-77/) Building on [Chang’e 8](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/#prepare-for-crew-and-double-down-with-mission-eight) and China’s [first crewed landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/), ILRS will also see multiple demonstrations related to extracting and using local lunar resources such as [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/), and [melting soil](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FEngineering%5FTechnology/How%5Fto%5Fmake%5Froads%5Fon%5Fthe%5FMoon) to create 3D-printed structures. Relatedly, a [recent document](https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/lsc/space-resources/LSC2024/English%5FChinas%5Fsubmission%5Fto%5Fthe%5Fworking%5Fgroup%5Fon%5Fspace%5Fresources.pdf) China submitted to the UN COPUOS concerning the legality of utilizing lunar resources suggests that the country sees such activities as permissible under current international law in much the same way the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords/) does. Some western experts saw China’s action as a [positive development](https://spacenews.com/china-outlines-position-on-use-of-space-resources/) since it can now enable—in principle—[a mutual dialogue](https://spacewatch.global/2024/03/spacewatchgl-geopolitics-china-and-the-moon/) for cooperative resource governance amid a decidedly international fora. In the Explainer Series by Spaceport SARABHAI, Professor Yun Zhao [provides high-level context](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=drrcbpMoIP0) on China’s legal space landscape and the lens through which the country might view such activities. ## The search for lunar water deepens ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f2893e3d1-0952-4f29-891b-c0802fa9f3b6_900x460-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of volcanism on the Moon releasing water vapor. [Image: Olga Prilipko Huber](https://www.brown.edu/news/2017-07-24/moonwater) By combining optical, radar, neutron, and other data from NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lro/about/) (LRO), [complemented](https://doi.org/10.1029/2023JE007745) by the ISRO [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/)’s dual-frequency SAR observations, a [new study](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2024.03.020) led by several Indian scientists estimates that the Moon’s poles host five to eight times more [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) 1-3 meters underground than near the surface. They also find that the extent of such water ice appears to be about twice as large at the lunar north than south. --- *Update from Nov 2025 and May 2026:* The Chandrayaan 2 orbiter has [continued characterizing the lunar poles](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-250/#mission-updates) using its advanced radar to map potential [water ice deposits](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and gauge surface roughness, densities, and porosities. A [new study](https://doi.org/10.1038/s44453-026-00038-9) also found particularly strong hints of water ice deposits in doubly shadowed craters lying within [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) on the lunar south pole. --- The study has implications for the many upcoming lunar missions dedicated to studying the nature, abundance, and accessibility of lunar water, which include CNSA’s upcoming [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#the-instrumental-and-increasingly-international-7) mission, the NASA [VIPER](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) and JAXA-ISRO [LUPEX](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-111/) rovers, and NASA’s [Lunar Trailblazer](https://jatan.space/nasa-lunar-trailblazer/) orbiter. *\[Tangent:* [*ISRO aids Artemis*](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/#isro-aids-artemis)*\]* The study also suggests based on various factors that the Moon’s past volcanism is the primary source of this subsurface water ice. And indeed, a [May 2022 paper](https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/PSJ/ac649c) aggregating and analyzing results from multiple orbiters and studies has also posited volcanism to be a viable source of lunar polar water deposits. But not all researchers agree. A [February 2022 study](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-28289-6) analyzed water and other volatiles detected by NASA’s [LCROSS spacecraft](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=2009-031B) to determine the likelihood of their source being volcanoes, comets, [micrometeorites](https://jatan.space/the-tiniest-of-impact-craters/), the [solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/), or even [the Earth’s atmosphere](https://www.gi.alaska.edu/news/earths-atmosphere-may-be-source-some-lunar-water). The volatile ratios from the study suggested comets to be the most abundant lunar water source followed by micrometeorites. A [related 2020 study](https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GL089509) supports this view too since it found that even temporary atmospheres created by the peak volcanic Moon over 3 billion years ago were likely inefficient in transferring and depositing lots of volatiles to [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s poles. Scientists figuring out this and other related Moon mysteries will help us know not just [how our Moon evolved](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) but also what kinds of processes drive the evolution of airless planetary bodies across the Solar System. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f4283062d-4d29-4384-8869-556df93ae48b_1950x1950-jpeg.jpg) The Lunar Trailblazer orbiter will follow up on a key discovery by the [Chandrayaan 1](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/) mission: water and hydroxyl (blue and violet on the map) on the Moon. [Image: ISRO / NASA](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/images/pia12237-water-detected-at-high-latitudes) --- *Many thanks to* [***Open Lunar Foundation***](https://www.openlunar.org)*,* [***Off Planet Research***](https://offplanetresearch.com) *and* [***The Orbital Index***](https://orbitalindex.com) *for* sponsoring *this* week’s *Moon* Monday! *If you love this curated community resource too,* [](https://jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday/)[*join them*](https://jatan.space/support) *and* support *my work*. --- ## More mission updates - Philip Sloss [reports](https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2024/05/gateway-launch-date/) that the launch of the first two modules forming the NASA-led [Gateway lunar orbital habitat](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/gateway) could now be as late as December 2027 instead of September 2025\. The Gateway’s [HALO habitat module](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-northrop-grumman-finalize-moon-outpost-living-quarters-contract/) is [undergoing](https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/a-home-for-astronauts-around-the-moon/) a series of structural stress tests after which its components and subsystems can be outfitted later this year. For its [SpaceX Falcon Heavy launch](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-awards-contract-to-launch-initial-elements-for-lunar-outpost), HALO will be docked to the [PPE propulsion](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-artemis-contract-for-lunar-gateway-power-propulsion) module pre-launch. The PPE structure is now ready for installation of its propulsion system components, starting with tanks. NASA will conduct the critical design review for the integrated spacecraft in the second half of 2024. - *Also see:* [*A gist of Gateway science*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-162/#a-gist-of-gateway-science) - For a future Moon landing mission currently targeting a 2027 launch, ispace is [exploring the feasibility](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=5446) of using radioactive heater units (RHUs) from the University of Leicester to enable the lander to survive frigid lunar nights. The university is doing said technology development in collaboration with the UK’s National Nuclear Laboratory, with funding and support from ESA, UKSA, and the UK International Bilateral Fund. Recall that ispace Japan was awarded a [$80 million government grant](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4943) in October 2023 to develop and launch this lander, whose design is called *Series 3*. It will carry more than 100 kilograms of payload to the Moon as opposed to the 30-kilogram capacity of Series 1, which flew on the company’s [Mission 1](https://jatan.space/ispace-japan-m1-moon-mission/) and will fly for [Mission 2](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-154/) too later this year. Based on the mass class and known information about the Series 3 lander, it seems similar to or borrowing from the [Series 2 / APEX](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-147/) lander being developed by ispace US for an upcoming NASA [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) mission [via partner Draper](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-87/). ## Explore the Moon’s mountains [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9f9814d9-dd0b-478c-aebd-d2eef3a9df30_951x714-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/volcanic-rock-land-of-montes-carpatus/) A landscape of lunar mountains, part of the [Montes Carpatus](https://jatan.space/volcanic-rock-land-of-montes-carpatus/) volcanic range. [Image: NASA / LRO / ASU / GSFC](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/1002) - With cool elevation graphs and pictures, Jim Singh explores [our Moon’s highest, lowest, and tallest spots](https://moonsummits.carrd.co). 🌖📏 - [The intense way Moon mountains form](https://jatan.space/exploring-moon-mountains/) ☄️…💥 - [Gallery: Luna’s marvelous mountains](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-moon-mountains/) 🏔️✨ ## More Moon - At the [second workshop](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-engages-in-artemis-accords-workshop-to-advance-exploration/) of multiple countries that have signed the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords/), hosted by CSA from May 21–23, officials from 24 nations discussed how countries exploring the Moon should avoid interference with activities of others doing so, could have better interoperability, and can share scientific data as widely as possible, all building upon the bare minimum set of mission information expected to be shared publicly such as expected launch dates, the nature of mission activities, and landing sites. ![](https://cdn.magicpages.co/spaceimpact.mymagic.page/2024/05/meeting-george-at-usbic.jpg) Honestly, very few things feel as satiating as running into people at a conference who [express](https://www.linkedin.com/posts/georgeweinmann%5Fmoonmonday-jatanmehta-activity-7199662945226690561-Yg21/) how much they love my blog [jatan.space](https://jatan.space/). Multiple people did that at a [US-India Commercial Space meet](https://in.usembassy.gov/advancing-space-collaboration-ambassador-garcettis-bengaluru-visit-strengthens-u-s-india-commitment-to-technological-innovation/) last week. I love being an [independent writer](https://jatan.space/about) but such moments make the challenges worthwhile. ### Moon Monday #176: The anatomy of China’s first crewed lunar landing, CLPS updates, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-176/ Last updated: 2025-08-18T08:56:41.000Z *Welcome to the third Chinese lunar special after* [*Moon Monday #174*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) *and* [*Moon Monday #175*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/)*. In this edition, the top story focuses on contextualizing all that comprises China’s first crewed Moon landing mission.* ![](https://cdn.magicpages.co/spaceimpact.mymagic.page/2024/05/cgi-concept-of-china-crewed-moon-landing-mission.jpg) CGI concept of China’s first crewed Moon landing mission. [Image: PhilLeafSpace](https://m.weibo.cn/detail/4922740148013011) It’s incredible how China has made systematic strides with their Moon missions. The successful lunar orbiters [Chang’e 1](https://www.eoportal.org/satellite-missions/chang-e-1) and [Chang’e 2](https://www.eoportal.org/satellite-missions/chang-e-2) led to the Moon landing of [Chang’e 3](https://www.eoportal.org/satellite-missions/chang-e-3) in 2013, which in turn led to the farside lunar landing of [Chang’e 4](https://www.eoportal.org/satellite-missions/chang-e-4) later in the decade. CNSA once again upped engineering complexity by [bringing lunar samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-156/) to Earth with Chang’e 5 in 2020, and hopes to do it again with the ongoing [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) mission of collecting the first ever samples from the Moon’s [enigmatically distinct farside](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). CNSA is already preparing for a 2026 launch of [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#the-instrumental-and-increasingly-international-7), which should provide scientists with a tactile sense of the true nature and accessibility of [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) deposits on the Moon’s south pole. Two years later, China hopes to demonstrate technologies like building 3D-printed bricks out of lunar soil as part of [Chang’e 8](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/#prepare-for-crew-and-double-down-with-mission-eight). Combined, these two missions will allow China to continue charting a clear path that leads to putting humans on the Moon by end of decade—work on which also seems to be progressing well. At a recent press conference, leading officials from the China Manned Space Engineering Office [said](https://spacenews.com/china-on-track-for-crewed-moon-landing-by-2030-space-official-says/) that elements of China’s first crewed lunar landing mission have progressed into prototype production and test stages. While not yet announced, owing to the mission’s complexity, it can be expected that China will conduct at least one uncrewed lunar landing and a crewed lunar orbital flight before attempting to land humans on Luna. It will be interesting to see if China maintains the Chang’e naming scheme for crewed or crew-linked Moon missions or calls them something else entirely. ![](https://cdn.magicpages.co/spaceimpact.mymagic.page/2024/05/long-march-2f.jpg) China’s Long March 2F rocket flying with astronauts, with a lunar backdrop. Image: Xinhua Recall that China’s crewed Moon landing plan involves building a giant new rocket called [Long March 10](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long%5FMarch%5F10), which will take off from a new launchpad in Wenchang. The Long March 10 will be capable of sending 27,000 kilograms of payload on a trajectory to Luna, matching the performance of NASA’s current [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/reference/space-launch-system/) and more than tripling China’s ability to send things to the Moon compared to their current best Long March 5 rocket—from which [the 10 is derived](https://spacenews.com/chinas-new-rocket-for-crewed-moon-missions-to-launch-around-2026). Andrew Jones [reported](https://web.archive.org/web/20230513182734/https://www.space.com/china-rocket-engine-test-site-moon-program-video) in May 2023 that China begun using a [new advanced facility](http://www.spacechina.com/n25/n2014789/n2014804/c3793458/content.html) in Tongchuan dedicated to test firing huge rocket engines, including the ones being prototyped and built for the Long March 10. For the crewed landing mission end of decade, a Long March 10 rocket will launch a \~26,000-kilogram spacecraft named [*Mengzhou Y*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-230/), which will carry three to four astronauts to lunar orbit. There it would dock with the similarly massive [*Lanyue* lunar lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-237/)—itself launched on another Long March 10\. After the docking, two astronauts will transfer to the lander for a lunar touchdown, and return to orbit after exploring the Moon for at least six hours, and possibly a few days. In July 2023, the China Manned Space Agency (CMSA) [solicited science payload proposals](http://www.cmse.gov.cn/gfgg/202307/t20230717%5F54065.html) for the mission’s lander. Similar to the instruments [NASA will deploy on Artemis III](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-170/), CMSA wants these payloads to focus on lunar geology, physics, life sciences, and solar and astronomical observations. Unlike Artemis III though, CMSA is open to in-situ resource utilization demos being proposed as well! 🛰️ **I’d like to express thanks and give a shoutout to* [***Andrew Jones**](https://www.linkedin.com/in/andrew-jones-1a768b3/) *for his reporting on China’s space program. It’s his years-long coverage of China’s evolving crewed landing plans that allowed me to put together many major—and minor—chunks of this overview.* ### Not a limited mission scope While China’s first crewed mission may be of a short duration, do not consider it too limited and Apollo-like against the [expansive ambitions](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept) of Artemis, as was recently implied by [Ars Technica](https://arstechnica.com/space/2024/05/china-just-launched-another-ambitious-lunar-mission-is-nasa-falling-behind/) and [Payload Space](https://payloadspace.com/payload-research-chinas-2024-space-day-updates/). Other than the long-term [ILRS Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/) plans, the hardware elements themselves leave room for better missions. For one, China is [designing the spacesuits](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-195/#a-sino-suit-for-luna) such that astronauts should be able to explore the lunar surface [for at least eight hours](https://spacenews.com/china-sets-out-preliminary-crewed-lunar-landing-plan/) at a time, which implies an expansive next set of missions. Furthermore, CMSA [solicited industry proposals](https://english.news.cn/20230529/d072333c56424753bec141dc75c35b67/c.html) for the first landing mission’s rover in May 2023, which the crew can drive [up to 10 kilometers](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-200/) from the landed site. That’s more than the range of the rover driven by Apollo astronauts but does fall short of the 20-kilometer peak of the upcoming [Artemis Lunar Terrain Vehicle](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-171/). 10 kilometers is nevertheless a decent range for long duration missions. ### China’s delays will likely be technical in nature While China’s goal for a crewed Moon landing doesn’t face significant internal political blockages, like those the US needs to deal with to push the Artemis program forward, technical delays are always possible. In fact, it’s the engineering failures that have primarily slowed down China’s lunar ambitions. Recall that a failure of the Long March 5 rocket [delayed Chang’e 5 by three years](https://spacenews.com/china-rolls-out-long-march-5-rocket-to-launch-change-5-lunar-sample-return-mission/). Likewise, the Long March 10 is an even more complex launch vehicle which could take time getting to an operational flight safe enough for humans to fly on. Chang’e 6 got delayed by two years despite having the same broad design as Chang’e 5\. Why? Its communications relay satellite [Queqiao 2](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-169/) needed a rethink—but which now is the beginning of a more ambitious [communications constellation](https://spacenews.com/china-wants-a-lunar-satellite-constellation-to-support-deep-space-missions) around the Moon. Likewise, China’s crewed landing system might face realization complexities that induce delays. Either way, it’ll be good to have a second nation from Earth land humans on Luna. --- *Many thanks to* [***The Orbital Index***](https://orbitalindex.com)*,* [***Narayan Prasad***](https://narayanprasad.com) *and* [***Gurbir Singh***](https://gurbir.co.uk) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday. If you love this community resource too,* [*join them*](https://jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday/)*!* --- ## Mission updates ![](https://cdn.magicpages.co/spaceimpact.mymagic.page/2024/05/viper-rover-assembled.jpg) Engineers test the VIPER rover’s wheel movement and rotation in a clean room at NASA’s Johnson Space Center. [Image: NASA / Helen Arase Vargas](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/viper/mission-manager-update-viper-rover-approved-to-move-into-environmental-testing/) - Jeff Foust [reports](https://spacenews.com/intuitive-machines-making-upgrades-to-second-lunar-lander/) that for Intuitive Machines’ [second Moon landing mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-155/) targeting launch end of year as part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), the company is refining several systems on its Nova-C lander with the hope of bagging full success this time around instead of the partial one with their first CLPS mission IM-1—which NASA and Intuitive disappointingly [skewed the success criteria](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-166/) of. - NASA’s upcoming [VIPER CLPS rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) designed to study water ice on the Moon’s south pole seems to have gotten its four wheels and completed its assembly as the mission team is now [preparing to send the vehicle](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/viper/mission-manager-update-viper-rover-approved-to-move-into-environmental-testing/) for the [standard series of environmental tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/) designed to ensure VIPER can withstand the harsh conditions of launch, in space, and at the Moon. VIPER intends to explore areas in and around [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) for over four months to unravel the nature, abundance, and accessibility of lunar [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) deposits to help NASA plan crewed Artemis missions. While VIPER was nominally being planned for a November 2024 launch onboard Astrobotic’s Griffin lander, the company’s [failed](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-159/) first Moon mission in January might induce delays and likely also more tests and associated costs/funds. - ispace Europe [announced](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=5379) that the upcoming [Draper-led CLPS mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-87/)—wherein ispace’s [US subsidiary](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4781) is providing the [APEX](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-147/) lander to touchdown on the Moon’s farside—will carry a location-measuring payload from Romania-based Control Data Systems. A rover will deploy it on the lunar surface to test the precision of localization measurements via pings from the lander. - *Also see:* [*ispace doubles down on farside Moon mission*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-173/#ispace-doubles-down-on-farside-moon-mission) ## More Moon ![](https://cdn.magicpages.co/spaceimpact.mymagic.page/2024/05/artemis-i-orion-heat-shield-issues.jpg) The Artemis I Orion spacecraft lost big chunks of its heat shield material in several places, and some of its separation bolts melted and eroded. [Image: NASA / OIG](https://oig.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/ig-24-011.pdf) - Marcia Smith [reports](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/paul-hill-leading-irb-on-orions-heat-shield/) that NASA is getting an independent review of the [concerning damage](https://spacenews.com/nasa-inspector-general-report-highlights-issues-with-orion-heat-shield/) incurred by the Orion spacecraft’s heat shield [during Artemis I’s flight](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-107/) in 2022 to better understand why it didn’t work as designed. Earlier this month, a [public report](https://oig.nasa.gov/office-of-inspector-general-oig/audit-reports/nasas-readiness-for-the-artemis-ii-crewed-mission-to-lunar-orbit/) by NASA’s Office of Inspector General (OIG) revealed to the US taxpayers that the heat shield had taken a deeper beating than the agency let on a few months after the mission, then [deeming it to be a non-blocker](https://spacenews.com/no-major-issues-found-with-artemis-1-mission) for the upcoming crew-carrying [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii/) launch in late 2025\. Understanding the issue is [a primary blocker](https://spacenews.com/nasa-still-studying-orion-heat-shield-erosion-from-artemis-1) for Artemis II because there’s [no other way to test](https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/12/nasas-orion-spacecraft-is-about-to-face-its-final-test-and-its-a-big-one) the shield at a relevant scale. Recall that NASA already [installed](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2023/06/27/orion-heat-shield-installed-for-nasas-artemis-ii-mission) the Artemis II Orion’s heat shield in June 2023. - On May 15, Lithuania [became the 40th nation worldwide](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/artemis-accords-reach-40-signatories-as-nasa-welcomes-lithuania/) and the 18th in Europe to sign the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords) for cooperative lunar exploration. - To maximize [scientific gains](https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/artemis-iii-science-definition-report-12042020c.pdf) from lunar samples brought to Earth by Artemis astronauts, the Lunar Exploration Analysis Group (LEAG)—which [helps](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag/reports/) the agency with scientific, technical, commercial, and operational analysis to form and meet its lunar exploration objectives—is seeking input from the lunar community at large via a [15-minute survey](https://forms.gle/Sab8uXSYEn1Yv4qW7). It seems like the survey is open to scientists outside the US, which is great. Inputs from this survey are expected to directly aid the [12-person ](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-selects-geology-team-for-the-first-crewed-artemis-lunar-landing)[Artemis III Geology Team](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-selects-geology-team-for-the-first-crewed-artemis-lunar-landing), which will not only provide sampling strategies for [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and [special lunar materials](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) of interest but also be involved in initial studies of returned samples. ### Moon Monday #175: China helps Pakistan kickstart lunar exploration, and preps for crew with Chang’e 8 URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-175/ Last updated: 2025-04-14T08:28:07.000Z *This week the Chinese lunar theme continues from* [*Moon Monday #174*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) *as we try to get a contextual understanding of the country’s lunar endeavors—information about which is otherwise usually scattered in bits and pieces.* ![](https://cdn.magicpages.co/spaceimpact.mymagic.page/2024/05/illustration-of-chang-e-6-in-orbit.jpg) Illustration of the Chang’e 6 spacecraft stack in lunar orbit. [Image: CNSA / CGTN](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/change-6) ## New craft around Luna, including a first for Pakistan On May 8, China’s [Chang’e 6 sample return](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) spacecraft stack [successfully entered](https://web.archive.org/web/20240510040656/https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/n6758823/n6758838/c10524180/content.html) an elliptical orbit around our Moon. It was the 3,000-newton engine on the orbiter module which performed the braking burn, slowing the spacecraft stack enough to be captured by Luna’s gravity. Shortly after, Chang’e 6 [deployed](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465652/n6465653/c10529860/content.html) Pakistan’s 7-kilogram CubeSat called [ICUBE-Q](https://www.ist.edu.pk/icube-q) in orbit, making it the country’s first mission exploring our cosmic companion. [Developed](https://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2024/05/02/pakistan-over-the-moon/) by Pakistan’s Institute of Space Technology (IST) with [aid from](https://spacenews.com/pakistan-becomes-latest-country-to-join-chinas-ilrs-moon-project) China’s Shanghai Jiaotong University, ICUBE-Q hosts two optical cameras and a magnetometer. Scientists hope the orbiter will detect potential signs of [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s poles. It was [last year](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/n6758823/n6758838/c10407028/content.html) that Pakistan formally joined the upcoming China-led long-term [scientific base](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-120/#more-on-the-sino-russian-moonbase) on the Moon’s south pole called the [International Lunar Research Station](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/) (ILRS). Interestingly, [CNSA’s post](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465652/n6465653/c10529860/content.html) announcing ICUBE-Q’s orbital deployment mentions that Pakistan also wants to fly hardware onboard China’s upcoming Chang’e 8 mission (more on it below), and that Pakistan has applied to study [lunar samples brought to Earth by Chang’e 5](https://moon.bao.ac.cn/moonSampleMode/index.html). ![](https://cdn.magicpages.co/spaceimpact.mymagic.page/2024/05/20210107_CE5C0000YJYX03501GP_3.jpg) A close look at a Chang’e 5 lunar sample, labelled CE5C0000YJYX03501GP. [Image: CNSA](https://moon.bao.ac.cn/moonSampleMode/infoDetail.html?sampleId=CE5C0000YJYX03501GP) To me, this development begs a question: why isn’t India applying to study Chang’e 5 samples too? Sure, India and China aren’t on friendly terms but so aren’t US and China, and yet NASA managed to [secure a remarkable exception](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-156/) from the US Congress for the country’s researchers to be able to apply to access and study Chang’e 5 samples. Indian space science stands to benefit from studying these samples both academically as well as practically, the latter for ISRO’s not-yet-commissioned [Chandrayaan 4](https://www.reddit.com/r/ISRO/comments/1cq6zc2/some%5Fdetails%5Fon%5Fproposed%5Fchandrayaan4%5Flunar/) mission which intends to bring lunar samples later this decade. Indian science research institutions applying to study Chang’e 5 samples could naturally open windows for access to Chang’e 6 samples too. **Also see:** [*How not to interpret Pakistan joining China’s long-term lunar exploration plans*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-150/) ## Prepare for crew and double down with mission eight ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f8527c977-0027-4b01-8c2c-fb398ba88ebd_1084x850-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of the Chang’e 8 lander on the Moon’s south pole. [Image: CNSA](https://spacenews.com/china-outlines-change-8-resource-utilization-mission-to-the-lunar-south-pole) After CNSA’s upcoming [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#the-instrumental-and-increasingly-international-7) mission helps scientists get a tactile sense of the true nature and accessibility of [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) deposits on the Moon’s south pole, the agency will follow it up with Chang’e 8 two years later. Launching on a Long March 5 rocket in 2028, the mission will comprise a lander, a rover, and a [dextrous mobile robot](https://hkust.edu.hk/news/research-and-innovation/hkust-leads-change-8-international-cooperation-project) to collectively explore with [14 instruments](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465645/n6465648/c10393163/part/10393179.pdf) the local geology and environment. Most crucially, with Chang’e 8, CNSA aims to test technologies most relevant to begin [sending crew](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-137/) to the Moon starting end of decade. As Ling Xin [reported](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3251854/china-calls-developers-change-8-mission-make-and-assemble-moon-bricks), CNSA called for domestic proposals for 9 out of 14 of the Chang’e 8 instruments in February. [One such payload](https://www.space.com/space-exploration/human-spaceflight/building-blocks-how-china-plans-to-make-bricks-on-the-moon-for-lunar-habitats) on the lander will melt lunar soil and transform it via 3D printing into test bricks. Another instrument will monitor and inspect this process. Chang’e 8’s \~100-kilogram [dextrous mobile robot](https://hkust.edu.hk/news/research-and-innovation/hkust-leads-change-8-international-cooperation-project)—which will move around quickly by lunar robotic rover standards—will carry the 3D-printed parts from the lander to a working area and assemble basic structures as a demonstration of in-situ utilization of lunar resources. The robot will also fetch rock and soil samples for the lander’s spectrometers to determine their chemical composition, which will likely include [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). CNSA might leave some samples on the Moon for future missions to retrieve them and bring to Earth. Just like Chang’e 7, and similar to the lunar seismometers selected to fly on the NASA-funded [Draper-led CLPS mission](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2022/pdf/1576.pdf) and [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-selects-first-lunar-instruments-for-artemis-astronaut-deployment/), Chang’e 8 will have a seismometer to help scientists better understand the lunar interior and also constrain the [rate of seismic activity](https://doi.org/10.3847/PSJ/ad1332) and amount of [micrometeorite impacts](https://jatan.space/the-tiniest-of-impact-craters/) on the lunar south pole, which will help safely plan long duration crewed missions to the region in the future. What’s also notable about Chang’e 8 is that China has further increased the scope of international contributions. While Chang’e [6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) and [7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#the-instrumental-and-increasingly-international-7) each offer space for 15-20 kilograms of international instruments, China has been [accepting proposals](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465645/n6465648/c10393163/part/10393179.pdf) for scientific instruments, technology payloads, and even system-level contributions amassing 200 kilograms for Chang’e 8. **January 2025 update:** The international payloads include a 35-kilogram [rover from Pakistan](https://tribune.com.pk/story/2509494/suparcos-rover-to-explore-lunar-surface) as the latter’s first, and Thailand’s [Lunar Pathfinder](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-205/#thailand-and-china) as the country’s first Moon mission. Andrew Jones has [reported](https://spacenews.com/china-embraces-commercial-participation-in-moon-mission-for-the-first-time/) that Chang’e 8 will also carry two five-kilogram mobile robots developed by the private Chinese company ‘STAR.VISION’ in collaboration with universities from China and Turkey. This would make it the first payload from a Chinese company flying commercially on a Chang’e spacecraft. --- *Many thanks to* [***Off Planet Research***](https://offplanetresearch.com)*for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday. If you love this community resource too,* [*join them*](https://jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday/) *and support my work.* --- ## More Moon - Andrew Jones [reports](https://spacenews.com/china-selects-new-space-missions-including-lunar-far-side-astronomy-and-terrestrial-exoplanet-survey/) that as part of a new set of cutting-edge space science projects, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) is backing a mission comprising 10 small lunar orbiters which when on the lunar farside will measure faint but unique radio signals from our Universe’s ‘Dark Age’—a slice of time right before the first stars were born. It makes the mission’s goal similar to NASA’s upcoming [LuSEE-Night](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-118/) lunar payload. - ispace Japan’s [second Moon lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-154/)—launching end of 2024—will [carry a memory disk](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=5311) by UNESCO, which aims to showcase and preserve the linguistic diversity of many human cultures from across the globe. Relatedly, Lonestar also recently [announced their memory bank](https://www.dezeen.com/2024/05/10/big-moon-3d-printed-data-storage/) for the Moon, which will be on Intuitive Machines’ [second Moon lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-155/) part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) as proof-of-concept. Recall that Lonestar [raised $5 million](https://spacenews.com/lonestar-raises-5-million-for-lunar-data-centers) last year towards establishing virtual and hardware-based commercial [lunar data centers](https://spacenews.com/lonestar-emerges-from-stealth-with-plans-for-lunar-data-centers). - NASA’s Office of Technology, Policy, and Strategy is [asking the lunar community](https://www.nasa.gov/organizations/otps/otps-seeks-input-from-the-lunar-community-to-inform-a-framework-for-further-work-on-non-interference-of-lunar-activities/) to help NASA craft a “deconfliction” framework that helps evaluate the value of landing regions, suggests how to avoid contaminating their natural states to the extent possible, and helps reduce interference to it by other missions. The call is an extension of said office’s [published report](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/lunar%5Flanding%5Fand%5Foperations%5Fpolicy%5Fanalysis%5Ffinal%5Freport%5F24oct2022%5Ftagged%5F0.pdf) last year, which prompted NASA and its partners to plan for [several policy and technical challenges](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-101/#avoiding-hardware-damage-and-conflict-on-the-moon) that could stem from Moon landing missions clustering at the relatively small [water-hosting](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) south pole. - Andrew Jones reports that Serbia—which isn’t an ESA member—[became the 11th country](https://spacenews.com/serbia-becomes-latest-country-to-join-chinas-ilrs-moon-base-project/) to join the China-led long-term [scientific base](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-120/#more-on-the-sino-russian-moonbase) on the Moon’s south pole called the [International Lunar Research Station](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-177/) (ILRS). - [Communicating lunar exploration via podcasts and panels](https://jatan.space/communicating-space-exploration-via-panels-podcasts-and-media/) ### Communicating space exploration via media roundtables, podcasts, and news outlets URL: https://jatan.space/communicating-space-exploration-via-panels-podcasts-and-media/ Last updated: 2024-05-11T11:29:43.000Z ![](https://cdn.magicpages.co/spaceimpact.mymagic.page/2024/05/speaking-at-duke-space-diplomacy-lab-round-table.jpg) [Image: Duke University’s Space Diplomacy Lab](https://sites.duke.edu/rethinkingdiplomacy/sdls-2024-space-media-roundtable-roundup-optimism-in-outer-space/) I’ve been speaking about exploring space, our Moon, and science writing on multiple forums lately, more so than the usual. But I didn’t want to share each of these talks and interviews as individual blog posts, and then also promote them all on like five social networks. These “modern” ways of reaching humans on the Web are, frankly, stupid and a waste of time. And so I’m batching all recent (recorded) talks and sharing them as this one blog+newsletter post, which I feel should be worth your browsing time. ## Duke University’s Space Diplomacy Lab I was invited by the Duke University’s Space Diplomacy Lab to speak at [their Annual Media Roundtable](https://sites.duke.edu/rethinkingdiplomacy/sdls-2024-space-media-roundtable-roundup-optimism-in-outer-space/) alongside Kristin Fisher, CNN’s Space Correspondent. Here’s the [video](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YM7PoDzgB%5FY). I first spoke about how learning the exact nature of the Moon’s [water ice deposits](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) is the most interesting thing to look forward to in lunar exploration. I then contextualized India’s [recent space developments](https://jatan.space/tag/indian-space-progress) in the international scene, and highlighted the scope and potential of the country’s [Gaganyaan program](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-13/) to send humans to space. Last but certainly not the least, I highlighted how people in power jumping the gun with policy recommendations based on shallow narratives about lunar missions by other countries must account for engineering and scientific factors or else it could adversely affect international cooperation and collaboration, [like for the US and China](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/). > But this you would only understand if you have scientists and engineers talking to policy makers. \[...\] As journalists, our job is to simplify and clarify the layers of what scientists and engineers do, as well as the geopolitical and policy elements. *Related:* [*Did China choose the same lunar landing sites as the US for Chang’e 7? Or is it the other way round?*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#the-instrumental-and-increasingly-international-7) ## Speaking on the Space Industry podcast The Space Industry podcast by [satsearch](https://satsearch.co/)—or what I like to call the Amazon for the space industry and companies—featured me as their guest on [Episode 60](https://blog.satsearch.co/2024-03-26-podcast-on-planetary-science-and-lunar-exploration-with-jatan-mehta)! We discuss planetary and lunar exploration themes of various countries, and what [independent space writing](https://jatan.space/about) has been like for me these past few years. Oh, and I might have said that the commercial lunar ecosystem doesn’t exist. :) Give it a listen on [Apple Podcasts](https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/planetary-science-lunar-exploration-and-space-in/id1557185803?i=1000650472371), [Spotify](https://open.spotify.com/episode/2V9lRz7ajiQnlsBxDgcERg?si=PyAK94kgRTCrLRX-X5u3qg), or [directly](https://share.transistor.fm/s/f4b36e8d). ## Keep looking up! I enjoyed talking to [Abhinav Yadav](https://abhinavspace.substack.com/about) on his podcast [Traveling Through Space](https://abhinavspace.substack.com/podcast) which features science communicators. We [spoke about](https://open.spotify.com/episode/3Vju5XIm2NiGmGWyySlJre) why it’s so important to get people to look up at our Moon and wonder! I also explain the writing process I follow for my weekly [Moon Monday](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) blog+newsletter. Tune in on [Apple Podcasts](https://podcasts.apple.com/in/podcast/keep-looking-up-with-jatan/id1728527876?i=1000645488560) or [Spotify](https://open.spotify.com/episode/3Vju5XIm2NiGmGWyySlJre), or listen [directly](https://abhinavspace.substack.com/p/ep2-keep-looking-up). ## Sustainable and commercial lunar exploration? A panel discussion The Asia Pacific Oceania Space Association [hosted a panel discussion](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SsTr0TKCzGc) on what would it take to have sustainable and commercial exploration of the Moon. Are we there yet with the latter? Hint: we are not. On my end of the panel, I stressed that we don’t even know the true nature, abundance, and accessibility of lunar [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) deposits yet, which is something upcoming missions like NASA’s [VIPER](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/), the ISRO-JAXA [LUPEX rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-111/), and CNSA [Chang’e 7](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/#the-instrumental-and-increasingly-international-7) will help us converge on. And so talks about imminent Moonbases and sustainable lunar presence are more aspirational at this point than being housed on facts. But we should remember that there are many more [reasons to explore our Moon](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) anyway. Lastly, I had the opportunity to help explain a wider audience why the US White House recently [asked NASA](https://spacenews.com/white-house-directs-nasa-to-develop-lunar-time-standard/) to create an independent time standard for the Moon; [got quoted](https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-sci-tech/lunar-time-standard-moon-9260264/) on the Indian Express to that end. ⏳ ... ⌛️ ... 🌙 --- If you like my efforts to promote global space and Moon exploration among people at large, I’d appreciate your support: [Sponsor my independent writing ♡](https://jatan.space/support) If you’d like me to speak at your event, conference, or podcast, get in touch: [Email me: hey@jatan.space](mailto:hey@jatan.space) ### Moon Monday #174: Launch of Chang’e 6, the instrumental 7, and claims that are questionable URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/ Last updated: 2025-06-16T14:33:37.000Z *This week’s* [*Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) *is a* [*Chinese lunar program*](https://jatan.space/tag/china-and-luna/) *special, covering the incredible Chang’e 6 and 7 missions, with some commentary questioning claims and narratives around some of China’s decisions. At 2600 words, this is likely the longest Moon Monday ever so grab a coffee or beverage of your choice and enjoy an uninterrupted read.* ![](https://cdn.magicpages.co/spaceimpact.mymagic.page/2024/05/change-6-launch.jpg) Launch of the Chang’e 6 sample return Moon mission by a Long March 5 rocket. The launch [attracted](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465652/n6465653/c10522480/content.html) hundreds of thousands of excited spectators at and around the coastal Wenchang Space Launch Center. [Image: CNSA / Xinhua](https://english.news.cn/20240503/12266387c16d4859a376bf5cbddc1798/c.html) ## On Chang’e 6 and its rich sampling site On May 3 at 9:30 UTC, a Chinese Long March 5 rocket [launched](https://www.youtube.com/live/WpDd8VFHXf8?feature=shared&t=3101) Chang’e 6, the world’s first spacecraft designed to fetch samples from the [Moon’s farside](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). About 37 minutes after liftoff, the 8200-kilogram Chang’e 6 spacecraft stack [separated](https://www.youtube.com/live/WpDd8VFHXf8?feature=shared&t=5338) from the rocket, entering—per CNSA—its planned orbit of [200 by 380,000 kilometers](https://english.news.cn/20240503/12266387c16d4859a376bf5cbddc1798/c.html). Chang’e 6’s complex 53-day mission involves orchestrating four spacecraft: an orbiter, a lander, an ascender, and a reentry capsule (returner). The combined stack will reach Luna on [May 7](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3261346/chinas-change-6-blasts-mission-fetch-first-rock-samples-far-side-moon), and attempt entering into its orbit by firing the orbiter’s engines. At some unspecified point the Chang’e 6 lander, carrying atop it the ascender, will separate from the orbiter. In [early June](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3261346/chinas-change-6-blasts-mission-fetch-first-rock-samples-far-side-moon), the lander will attempt a soft touchdown within the [3.98-billion-year old](https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JE005590), 500-kilometer wide [Apollo](https://jatan.space/peak-ringed-apollo-crater/) impact crater on the Moon’s farside, specifically in one of the [three candidate regions](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41550-023-02038-1) near Apollo’s southern rim each of which differ in their ages and geology. The Chang’e 6 lander’s instrument suite—comprising cameras, a ground penetrating radar, and a mineral spectrometer—will provide the context necessary to identify the best spots to drill and scoop samples from. As Andrew Jones [reports](https://spacenews.com/chinas-change-6-is-carrying-a-surprise-rover-to-the-moon/), the lander hosts a surprise mini-rover [carrying](http://www.sic.ac.cn/xwzx/kydt/202405/t20240506%5F7153287.html) an infrared spectrometer which might help. After the lander collects up to two kilograms of lunar farside material and loads them into the ascent vehicle, the latter will launch itself into lunar orbit and carefully dock with the orbiter. The samples will then be transferred to the reentry capsule. After the ascender is jettisoned, the orbiter will return towards Earth on [June 25](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3261346/chinas-change-6-blasts-mission-fetch-first-rock-samples-far-side-moon) and release the capsule, which will perform a bounced atmospheric reentry to hopefully safely descend and land in China’s northern Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. ![](https://cdn.magicpages.co/spaceimpact.mymagic.page/2024/05/chang-e-6-mission-profile.jpg) Chang’e 6 mission profile (with an edit to correct the landing date). [Graphic: SCMP](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3261346/chinas-change-6-blasts-mission-fetch-first-rock-samples-far-side-moon) The Chang’e 6 lunar samples will be scientifically even more valuable than the [Chang’e 5 samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-156/). Since the Apollo crater is embedded in the Moon’s largest, deepest, and oldest crater, the 2500-kilometer-wide [South Pole-Aitken (SPA) basin](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2008/pdf/1626.pdf), the diversity of materials within Chang’e 6 samples could help scientists worldwide solve a whole host of Moon mysteries—from explaining why the lunar farside is so [enigmatically distinct](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) to the familiar nearside, which is necessary to understand not just Luna’s evolution but [that of our Solar System](https://jatan.space/solar-system-history-101/), to better understanding [our Moon’s origin](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/). Since the three Chang’e 6 landing regions along the Apollo crater’s southern rim have [different ages and geological features](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41550-023-02038-1), the Chang’e 6 samples would help solve [differing extents of these Moon mysteries](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2024/pdf/1873.pdf)—depending on where Chang’e 6 decides to land, a decision CNSA will take before descent based on engineering and operational constraints. ![](https://cdn.magicpages.co/spaceimpact.mymagic.page/2024/05/change-6-landing-regions-within-apollo-crater.jpg) ****Top left:** The Chang’e 6 landing zone (red box) in the Apollo crater within the South Pole-Aitken basin (black circle); ****Bottom left:** The three Chang’e 6 candidate landing regions (colored lines); also marked with a white cross is the [Chang’e 4 landing site](https://jatan.space/change-4-landing-site-farside-von-karman-crater/); ****Right:** Zoomed in view of the three candidate landing regions lying along the southern rim of the Apollo crater. [Images: Xingguo Zeng, Wei Zuo, et al.](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-023-02038-1#Fig1) ## Is China landing in the Apollo crater to signal the US of a race? Forbes [published an article](https://www.forbes.com/sites/gregautry/2024/05/04/space-race-20-is-on-change-6-heads-to-the-moon/) by Greg Autry that implies the same: > There is a serious race to the Moon in a quest for mineral resources and China is sending us a message with this mission. Chang’e 6 will land in the resource-rich South Pole-Aitken (SPA) basin. Specifically, China is targeting a crater called “Apollo” which is named in honor of America’s great lunar achievement. Apollo’s interior and adjacent craters are named for Apollo astronauts and memorialize deceased NASA employees including the lost crew of the Space Shuttle Columbia. Chang’e 6 will literally raise a communist Chinese flag there. The Chinese are extremely careful with protocol, any small slight is intentional. Imagine being so deep in your own narrative that you find even the name of the region hosting a mission’s landing site to be an intentional declaration of a race and active hostility. Yes, China has its own political gains from choosing to go to the Moon’s farside a second time with another unique mission but as far as the landing site itself is concerned, reading the [Chang’e 6 landing site paper](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41550-023-02038-1) and its related trail firmly reveals its selection to be a purely engineering and scientific process based on [operational abilities and constraints](https://static-content.springer.com/esm/art:10.1038/s41550-023-02038-1/MediaObjects/41550%5F2023%5F2038%5FMOESM1%5FESM.pdf). Maybe, just maybe, every single space decision of China—or that of any other country—doesn’t orbit the US. More importantly, recall that late last year NASA [secured a remarkable exception](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-156/) from the US Congress for the country’s researchers to be able to apply to access and study China-brought [Chang’e 5 samples](https://moon.bao.ac.cn/moonSampleMode/index.html). This is the sort of bridge that doesn’t get built in a day. But weaponizing even the most mundane, emergent aspects of a complex mission is the kind of aggressive propaganda that further fuels distrust and impedes global scientific progress. Thankfully, so far it seems like the policy of international (and US) access to Chang’e 5 lunar samples will extend to Chang’e 6. ## International instruments onboard ![](https://cdn.magicpages.co/spaceimpact.mymagic.page/2024/05/change-6-spacecraft-stack.jpg) The Chang’e 6 spacecraft stack, with the lander and orbiter prominently visible. [Image: CNSA](https://www.leonarddavid.com/category/space%5Fnews/) The Chang’e 6 mission also carries various international payloads. Its orbiter will deploy Pakistan’s 7-kilogram CubeSat called [ICUBE-Q](https://www.ist.edu.pk/icube-q), making it the country’s first Moon mission. [Developed](https://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2024/05/02/pakistan-over-the-moon/) by Pakistan’s Institute of Space Technology (IST) with aid from China, ICUBE-Q hosts two optical cameras and a magnetometer, and hopes to detect potential signs of [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s poles. The Chang’e 6 lander carries [three instruments](https://web.archive.org/web/20191217061438/https://gbtimes.com/china-invites-international-cooperation-in-change-6-moon-sample-return-mission) from Europe: 1. The French space agency’s [DORN](https://sciences-techniques.cnes.fr/en/dorn-french-instrument-change-6-mission) instrument will measure the noble gas radon leaking out of the Moon’s surface, which would be [independent evidence](https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abl4920) that our Moon and Earth do indeed have a [common origin](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/). DORN will also study volatile gases such as water vapor in the Moon’s exosphere. 2. Italy-based SCF Lab’s [INRRI](https://www.lnf.infn.it/esperimenti/etrusco/MOONLIGHT-2.html) retroreflector will reflect laser pulses from lunar orbiters to make precise distance measurements and aid their navigation. 3. [NILS](https://presentations.copernicus.org/EPSC2022/EPSC2022-992%5Fpresentation-h642517.pdf), an instrument from the Swedish Institute for Space Physics, will detect highly energetic neutral [solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) atoms slamming and getting reflected from the Moon’s surface. This will help scientists study surface elements as well as [local magnetic fields](https://jatan.space/swirls-on-the-moon/). --- *Many thanks to* [***Open Lunar Foundation***](https://www.openlunar.org)*,* [***Kris Zacny***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/kris-zacny-8a71ba1) *of Honeybee Robotics, and* [***Gordon Roesler***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/gordon-roesler-687a0426) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday. If you love this community resource too, please* [*join them*](https://jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday/) *and support my work.* --- ## Cue Queqiao 2 Since Chang’e 6’s surface mission will be on the Moon’s farside, the side we can’t see from Earth, mission operators will command the lander and receive data from it via the recently launched [Queqiao 2](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-169/) relay orbiter, which China [successfully tested](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/n6758823/n6758838/c10503942/content.html) in April. Queqiao 2 will also relay communications for China’s upcoming Chang’e 7 (more on that below) and [Chang’e 8](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-148/) landers, currently targeting launch in 2026 and 2028 respectively. The Queqiao 2 mission is [testing and verifying technologies](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3250884/testing-testing-china-try-out-new-satellite-tech-change-6-lunar-mission) that will feed into the upcoming [Queqiao satellite constellation](https://spacenews.com/china-wants-a-lunar-satellite-constellation-to-support-deep-space-missions), the world’s first lunar [navigation & communications](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-98/) service. The Queqiao constellation could also provide communications support for [China’s first crewed Moon landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-137/), currently targeting a launch by 2030. ## The instrumental and increasingly international 7 ![](https://cdn.magicpages.co/spaceimpact.mymagic.page/2024/05/better-change-7-lander-orbiter-illustration.jpg) Illustration of the Chang’e 7 lander and orbiter. [Image: CMG](https://news.cgtn.com/news/2023-06-05/China-sets-record-in-sixth-rocket-engine-trial-of-crewed-lunar-mission-1knNhdQYU6I/index.html) CNSA is targeting launching the [Chang’e 7](https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwad329) lander and orbiter in 2026\. The lander, after touching down in one of the [key identified landing regions](https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/EGGNRR4jfK5J8978aH8ing) on the Moon’s south pole, [will deploy](https://weibo.com/6618567819/KcpftkBxA?type=comment#%5Frnd1619422059900) a rover and one or two hoppers. Similar to the NASA [VIPER](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) and JAXA-ISRO [LUPEX](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-111/) missions, one of the Chang’e 7 elements will use a drill to sample materials in nearby [permanently shadowed areas](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) from varying depths. These will be fed into a heating furnace for the onboard Lunar Water Molecular Analyzer (LWMA) to detect [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other volatile resources like ammonia. Chang’e 7 will also carry a ground-penetrating radar to map the local subsurface, make local magnetic field measurements, and carry spectrometers to measure the composition of the local lunar material. In similar vein to the seismometers selected to fly to the Moon on the NASA-funded [Draper-led CLPS mission](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2022/pdf/1576.pdf) and [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-selects-first-lunar-instruments-for-artemis-astronaut-deployment/), Chang’e 7 will have one to help scientists better understand the lunar interior and also constrain the [rate of seismic activity](https://doi.org/10.3847/PSJ/ad1332) and amount of [micrometeorite impacts](https://jatan.space/the-tiniest-of-impact-craters/) on the lunar south pole, which will help safely plan lengthier crewed missions to the region in the future. Moreover, on April 24, CNSA [announced](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465652/n6465653/c10517200/content.html) that Chang’e 7 will carry six international scientific instruments. The orbiter will carry a hyperspectral mineral mapping camera made by Egypt and Bahrain, a three-kilogram instrument duo from Thailand to study [solar storms](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) and cosmic rays respectively, and a Swiss-aided radiation monitor to measure incoming and outgoing radiation to and from Earth. For Egypt, Bahrain, and Thailand, this mission represents their first study of Luna. On the other hand, the lander will carry a Russian lunar dust & plasma analyzer, a telescope from the International Lunar Observatory Association, and another retroreflector from Italy-based SCF Lab just like Chang’e 6. The Chang’e 7 lander was supposed to [carry UAE’s second lunar rover](https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/CkjacBB3c4L%5FUbwNbeFPvA) too but the partnership [was apparently blocked](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3214396/us-tech-rules-bar-uae-moon-rover-chinas-change-7-mission-sources) by US export control rules. **Also see:** [*A tale of lunar collaboration between JAXA and ISRO*](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/) ## Did China choose the same lunar landing sites as the US? Or is it the other way round? ![](https://cdn.magicpages.co/spaceimpact.mymagic.page/2024/05/change-7-landing-site-candidates.jpg) Some of the Chang’e 7 candidate landing sites on the Moon’s south pole. [Image: DSEL](https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/EGGNRR4jfK5J8978aH8ing) Western media has tended to cover the Chang’e 7 candidate landing site near Shackleton crater as being “[the same](https://www.anasda.de/archive-2nd-february-2024)” as what NASA desires for the [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/) crewed Moon landing mission. In fact, Gizmodo [titled it](https://gizmodo.com/china-change-6-moon-landing-shackleton-crater-artemis-1851209296) “China Oversteps NASA in Choosing Coveted Shackleton Crater for Its Moon Lander”. So, did China really choose the same lunar landing sites as the US? Well, such framing is easily questionable: - Firstly, it was always likely, and known, that the robotic Chang’e 7 would land on the Moon’s south pole before the crewed Artemis III does. So can we even call the former to be choosing “the same site” as the latter? - Artemis III has [13 candidate landing zones](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-91/) at the moment, which is not exactly a “selection”. - More importantly, [Shackleton](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?prjExtent=-45889.7771344,-38944.9285191,52961.6166342,18295.9426589&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4XyA&isCesiumEntityDetailsEnabled=true&showCompass=true&trailType=1&wideTrail=true&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypOOKbRFdAJgQSfyJqt6XAMYiBCnrIsibsXLVgydAA4AnJNyEZlarIpA&proj=17) is a big 21-kilometer wide crater, and the number of mission-favorable areas on the rim and nearby ridges are relatively plenty. Even if both missions ultimately chose Shackleton as the main landing region, they may be reasonably far away not just in time but in space too. While, yes, the water-hosting lunar south pole not being a massive place could eventually mean potential contest between countries—and companies—for some common sites but much before that comes the fact that there are purely engineering and scientific factors that make landing site selections converge to some locations. For example, the Sun [perpetually circling](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) the lunar polar horizon coupled with [rocky terrain](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/SPole%5FSRidgemap%5FLOLA-Slope5m%5Fv20190515.pdf) automatically render [higher altitude areas desirable power-wise](https://arxiv.org/abs/1208.5587) for touchdown—which is what most lunar polar missions end up converging to. I highlighted this point in an invited [Media Roundtable](https://sites.duke.edu/rethinkingdiplomacy/sdls-2024-space-media-roundtable-roundup-optimism-in-outer-space/) discussion hosted by the Duke University recently: > It’s important to keep in mind that not all decisions are taken with the geopolitical adversary in mind. Some of them are purely engineering. But this you would only understand if you have scientists and engineers talking to policy makers. The narrative can cause issues to scale up, and then convert into a lot of unfriendliness that could be impact everyone badly…As journalists, our job is to simplify and clarify the layers of what scientists and engineers do, as well as the geopolitical and policy elements. Scientists and engineers on both sides of the pond understand these technical factors but they aren’t the only ones in the space chain. Such factors should be considered first before jumping the gun with policy recommendations and changes that are based on shallow narratives. Again, these could also adversely affect international cooperation and collaboration. Ultimately, alarmist propaganda also makes discussing the real challenges more difficult. ## Orion’s heat shield took a deeper beating than thought ![](https://cdn.magicpages.co/spaceimpact.mymagic.page/2024/05/artemis-i-orion-heat-shield-issues.jpg) The Artemis I Orion spacecraft lost big chunks of its heat shield material in several places, and some of its separation bolts melted and eroded. [Image: NASA / OIG](https://oig.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/ig-24-011.pdf) A critical [new public report](https://oig.nasa.gov/office-of-inspector-general-oig/audit-reports/nasas-readiness-for-the-artemis-ii-crewed-mission-to-lunar-orbit/) by NASA’s Office of Inspector General (OIG) finally reveals to the US taxpayers, with pictures, that the [heat shield](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/after-15-years-1000-tests-orion-s-heat-shield-ready-to-take-the-heat) of the [Artemis I Orion](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-107/) spacecraft did in fact incur more damage than the agency let on a few months after the mission, then [deeming it to be a non-blocker](https://spacenews.com/no-major-issues-found-with-artemis-1-mission) for the crew-carrying [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii/) launch. Several places on the heat shield lost big chunks instead of melting away. Even though the crew module ended up being safe, debris from these chunks could’ve damaged Orion’s parachutes, thus potentially threatening lives of future astronauts riding the capsule. Moreover, three out of four “separation bolts” on the shield substantially melted and eroded, allowing some heat to reach the crew module. More such hot gas entering the vehicle could risk lives. Jeff Foust [reports](https://spacenews.com/nasa-inspector-general-report-highlights-issues-with-orion-heat-shield/) that for Artemis II, NASA will install additional thermal protection material in the bolt gaps to circumvent this issue. Understanding exactly why the heat shield didn’t work perfectly as designed is thus [a primary blocker](https://spacenews.com/nasa-still-studying-orion-heat-shield-erosion-from-artemis-1) for Artemis II because there’s [no other way to test it](https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/12/nasas-orion-spacecraft-is-about-to-face-its-final-test-and-its-a-big-one) at a relevant scale. Recall that NASA already [installed](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2023/06/27/orion-heat-shield-installed-for-nasas-artemis-ii-mission) the Artemis II Orion’s heat shield in June 2023. ## More Moon - As part of the pre-launch testing of the Artemis II Orion spacecraft stack, which will carry [four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) around the Moon and back no earlier than September 2025, engineers completed checking that Orion’s electromagnetic emissions [don’t cause interference](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2024/04/30/nasas-artemis-ii-orion-spacecraft-completes-electromagnetic-testing/) with the spacecraft itself, or more specifically, with the functioning of its various components. - Ling Xin [reports](https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-01223-0) that by synthesizing data from CNSA’s [Chang’e 1–4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese%5FLunar%5FExploration%5FProgram#Phase%5FI%5F%28robotic%29:%5FOrbital%5Fmissions) missions, NASA’s [LRO](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lro/about/) and twin [GRAIL](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/grail/) orbiters, and ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 1](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/) orbiter, China has made the highest resolution geological map of our Moon yet. [The map](https://www.scidb.cn/en/detail?dataSetId=972277454573928448), which took more than 100 researchers over a decade to compile, is free to use for non-commercial purposes, including lunar geology research and science communications. China itself is using the maps to support its growing lunar ambitions. The team is also working on furthering the map’s resolution, including making high-accuracy, derived regional maps suitable for advanced mission planning. ![](https://cdn.magicpages.co/spaceimpact.mymagic.page/2024/05/highest-res-geologic-moon-map-2024-1.jpg) [Image: Chinese Academy of Sciences / Xinhua](https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-01223-0) --- *If you liked this exhaustive edition of Moon Monday, please consider supporting my work by* [*sponsoring future editions*](https://jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday/) *of this community resource.* *Thank you for reading!* ***–*** [***Jatan***](https://jatan.space/about) ### Indian Space Progress #15: An ISRO-JAXA collaboration for the Moon, aiding Artemis, and more URL: https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-15/ Last updated: 2026-02-22T10:59:41.000Z *In this month’s* [*Indian Space Progress*](https://jatan.space/tag/indian-space-progress) *edition, I want to highlight how increasing independence in being able to plan and execute planetary missions can lead to uniquely impactful collaborations between organizations globally. India’s* [*Chandrayaan program*](https://jatan.space/tag/chandrayaan/) *has been becoming incrementally indigenous, and the two stories below highlight its utility with the case of the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter.* ## How ISRO’s Chandrayaan 2 orbiter helped JAXA nail SLIM’s Moon landing ![](https://cdn.magicpages.co/spaceimpact.mymagic.page/2024/04/jaxa-slim-lander-on-the-moon-captured-by-isro-chandrayaan-2-orbiter-ohrc.jpeg) Japan’s SLIM spacecraft on the Moon as imaged by India’s Chandrayaan 2 orbiter on March 16, 2024\. [Image: ISRO / Chandra Tungathurthi](https://moonandbeyond.blog/how-slim-jaxa-landed-on-moon/) On January 19, the Japanese space agency JAXA’s [SLIM lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-161) touched down on the Moon [merely 55 meters away](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=25.1936969%2C-13.348254%2C25.2931201%2C-13.2942446&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&trailType=0&features=25.25074900%2C-13.31603100%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22SLIM+landing+site%22%7D%7C25.24890200%2C-13.31551000%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22SLIM+target+landing+site%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFOOZLRfImqnioA&proj=10) from the center of its target spot, making it the [most precise robotic planetary landing](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-japans-moon-sniper-mission-hit-its-mark/) in history. A key part of how it achieved this feat is a tale of collaboration between JAXA and ISRO. At the heart of SLIM’s precision landing ability is a technology JAXA calls “vision-based navigation”. During its descent, SLIM snapped images of the Moon and compared them to preloaded onboard orbital maps within just a few seconds to determine where it is and where it needs to go. These maps come from NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lro/about/) (LRO), ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/), and JAXA’s own [SELENE](https://www.kaguya.jaxa.jp/index%5Fe.htm) craft, each uniquely useful at various heights. In a [post-landing media release](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/en/outreach/announcements/files/SLIM-pressconf-20240125.pdf), SLIM’s Project Manager Shinichiro Sakai mentioned that the mission used Chandrayaan 2’s imagery not just during the lander’s final descent phase but also to decide the final target landing area pre-launch. This is because Chandrayaan 2’s Orbiter High Resolution Camera (OHRC) boasts a general imaging resolution of [0.2-0.3 meters/pixel](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-51/#science), which is about twice LRO’s finest. “JAXA sent us a request in 2021 to image SLIM’s landing site, and so we planned an orbital passover of the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter to acquire OHRC images for them,” says Amitabh Singh, head of ISRO’s Planetary and Space Science Data Processing Division and a lead scientist on the OHRC team. Then in 2023, ISRO provided JAXA with more images of the landing site from different sun angles, which helped JAXA engineers tune SLIM’s algorithms to instantly identify boulders and other hazards regardless of specific lighting conditions. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/04/jaxa-slim-lander-lunar-surface-image-superimposed-on-image-by-isro-chandrayaan-2-orbiter.jpg) This image shows pictures of the Moon taken by Japan’s SLIM lander (blue boxes) when it was at about 50-meter altitudes. They are superimposed on the background view previously snapped by ISRO’s Chandrayaan 2 orbiter. The red frame shows the safe landing zone that SLIM autonomously selected based on hazards it detected. [Image: ISRO / JAXA / SLIM](https://global.jaxa.jp/press/2024/01/20240125-1%5Fe.html) Even though most modern robotic landers—including most recently India’s own [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) and the US-based Intuitive Machines’ [Odysseus](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-166/) lander—can find a good landing spot on their own during the final phase of a landing, the lack of an apt last-mile map affects the landing precision. When SLIM was roughly 50 meters above the Moon’s surface, it [hovered](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/en/outreach/announcements/files/SLIM-pressconf-20240125.pdf) and identified touchdown hazards below it using vision-based navigation with Chandrayaan-2 imagery. But at this point one of its two main engine nozzles mysteriously detached, and the resulting off-center thrust made SLIM go sideways. SLIM’s guidance system identified this anomaly, and decided to descend using the hover-phase and onboard imagery while continually trying to stabilize its orientation with the working main engine and smaller thrusters. While SLIM’s vertical velocity of 1.4 meters per second on touchdown was well within acceptable bounds, the eastward lateral motion and touchdown orientation weren’t nominal, causing it to flip on the surface with its solar panels facing away from the sun. Even when afflicted, SLIM could see and target a safe spot to touch down upon and manage to avoid a crash. India and Japan now look ahead to their next lunar mission called [LUPEX](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-111/), which is a collaborative effort. The nominal six-month mission comprises an ISRO-developed \~6000-kilogram lander which will deliver a JAXA-built \~350-kilogram rover to directly study the nature, abundance, and accessibility of [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) at the Moon’s south pole (between 89–90°S). To safely and precisely land LUPEX amid its unforgiving polar terrain, ISRO will build the lander with input from both [Chandrayaan 3’s success](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) and [that of SLIM](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-161). ## ISRO aids Artemis ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/03/artemis-iii-candidate-landing-regions.jpg) The 13 candidate landing zones for NASA’s Artemis III crewed Moon mission on the Moon’s south pole. [Image: NASA / LRO / GSFC / ASU](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-identifies-candidate-regions-for-landing-next-americans-on-moon) | [**Browse them on a map*](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/layers?extent=-123.1287296%2C-80.2286323%2C62.2044887%2C-76.8446639&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4XyA&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypOOKWbJYZdAJgQWfyJqv5JwDGKIQp0ADgCcWRL2LkBSikA&proj=17) For ISRO, SLIM’s case also highlights how Chandrayaan 2 can provide advanced orbital data to help NASA better filter [landing zones](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-91/) for the agency’s Artemis program to land humans on the Moon—especially as the 2009-launched LRO [gracefully ages](https://web.archive.org/web/20230524214410/https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-extends-exploration-for-8-planetary-science-missions/). While this has mostly remained an [untapped opportunity](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-116), Amitabh says collaboration for the same has started. He adds that due to the [rocky](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/SPole%5FSRidgemap%5FLOLA-Slope5m%5Fv20190515.pdf) nature of the lunar south pole, knowing the height information of terrain features is as important as the imaging resolution. “We use OHRC stereo images to get four times better height point resolution than LRO,” which really helps safely plan a lander’s last leg of the journey. At the last [annual meeting](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/leag2023/technical%5Fprogram) of the NASA-backed Lunar Exploration Analysis Group ([LEAG](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag)) in September 2023, LRO project scientist and [Science Lead](https://www.nasa.gov/solar-system/nasa-appoints-lunar-science-leads-for-artemis-iii-artemis-iv-missions) for [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/), Noah Petro, reaffirmed this collaborative value by saying: > The Chandrayaan 2 orbiter data is helping build on the LRO foundation by filling important needs, and we’re very much looking forward to more data from the mission! Some such progress was also seen at the [54th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/technical%5Fprogram/) (LPSC) in 2023, where Wes Patterson of the LRO team collaborating with ISRO SAC scientists [described](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/pdf/2397.pdf) how they’re using complementary radar data from LRO and the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter to uniquely characterize the [Artemis III candidate zones](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-91/). This included getting valuable information on landing hazards within those sites, better *seeing* [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) than optical imagers, and gaining a better, broad sense of the physical states of the regions from inferred physical properties. At the [55th LPSC](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2024/technical%5Fprogram/) last month, signs of such work continued to be visible as lunar researchers presented their work of using Chandrayaan 2 orbiter data to help downselect areas within the Artemis III candidate zones [via infrared](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2024/pdf/1449.pdf) and [multi-band radar](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2024/pdf/2274.pdf) measurements, the former to help find spots with [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and the latter to help reduce false positives from terrain with rough textures only seeming like water ice. As a related tangent, the UK Space Agency [announced](https://www.gov.uk/government/news/new-funding-ensures-uk-role-in-global-exploration-to-the-moon-mars-and-venus) in February that it’s funding Royal Holloway, University of London (RHUL) with £306,000 to develop software for the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter to help its multi-band radar better [detect underground water ice](https://arxiv.org/abs/2104.14259) on the Moon’s south pole. UKSA, RHUL, and ISRO hope to use the same advancement for mapping Venus in high resolution using the radar on India’s upcoming [Shukrayaan orbiter](https://jatan.space/isro-venus-orbiter-launch-2024/). \[Note: Shukrayaan is not yet a commissioned mission from the Indian Government, and might not launch before end of decade.\] *This story is partly excerpted, adapted, and enhanced from my article on* [*precision Moon landings and the future*](https://jatan.space/precision-moon-landings-and-the-future/)*.* --- *Many thanks to the* [***Takshashila Institution***](https://takshashila.org.in)*,* [***KaleidEO***](https://satsure.co/kaleidEO) *and* [***Gurbir Singh***](https://gurbir.co.uk) *for sponsoring this month’s Indian Space Progress report. If you love my work too,* [*join them*](https://jatan.space/sponsor-indian-space-progress/)*!* --- ## More Indian Space ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/04/Screenshot-2024-04-30-at-5.47.45-PM.jpg) ISRO slightly delayed three launches in 2023 to avoid an orbital collision. [Source: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/Indian%5FSpace%5FSituational%5FAssessment%5FReport%5FISSAR2023.html) - Doubling down on space sustainability goals, ISRO Chief S. Somanath [announced](https://www.isro.gov.in/Debris%5FFree%5FSpace%5FMissions.html) on April 16 at the annual meet of the Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IADC) that India wants to achieve debris-free \[new\] space missions by 2030\. Relatedly, ISRO released its 2023 space situational awareness report this month. The PDF isn’t public on the Web but ISRO has provided a [good summary](https://www.isro.gov.in/Indian%5FSpace%5FSituational%5FAssessment%5FReport%5FISSAR2023.html) blog post. Also related: Bengaluru-based Digantara [opened up](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/bengaluru-gets-asias-1st-dedicated-space-domain-awareness-centre/articleshow/109438222.cms) Asia’s first dedicated center for space traffic monitoring on April 19\. The center will also allow Digantara to assemble their upcoming satellite constellation dedicated to space-based tracking of orbital objects—a world first. The company [raised $10 million](https://spacenews.com/indian-ssa-startup-raises-10-million) in June 2023 for the same. - Hyderabad-based Dhruva Space [raised $15 million](https://www.dhruvaspace.com/news/dhruva-space-announces-inr-123-crores-usd-15-million-for-series-a-fundraise-round), and will use the funds to begin setting up the [previously announced](https://www.dhruvaspace.com/news/first-look-at-dhruva-space-280-000-square-foot-assembly-integration-testing-facility-for-spacecraft-manufacturing-in-hyderabad) 26,000 square-meter spacecraft manufacturing facility. On a related note, recall that in August 2023, New Space India Limited (NSIL)—a government company commercializing Indian space technologies—[transferred](https://www.isro.gov.in/ISRO%5FTransfers%5FIMS1SatelliteBus.html) the technology of ISRO’s [IMS-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian%5FMini%5FSatellite%5Fbus) small satellite bus to Dhruva Space and another private firm Alpha Design Technologies, marking the beginning of such satellite tech transfers to the private Indian space industry as part of a broader national push for commercializing space. ISRO has flown IMS-1 on three Earth observation missions. - KaleidEO, a subsidiary of Bengaluru-based [SatSure](https://theprint.in/features/bengaluru-firm-has-eyes-in-sky-to-fix-problems-on-ground-crops-insurance-claims-floods/1364852) (and an *Indian Space Progress* sponsor), [announced](https://satsure.co/kaleidEO-aerial-testing.html) on April 18 successfully testing their in-house developed optical and multispectral imager on an aircraft to validate its performance. Recall that SatSure [raised $15 million](https://www.satsure.co/india-and-promus-ventures.html) in August 2023 with an aim to build KaleidEO’s four 100-kilogram, Very Low Earth Orbit satellites touting these imagers. The company hopes to launch the satellites in Q3 2026\. SatSure has many [job openings](https://satsure.keka.com/careers) right now. ### Moon Monday #173: An array of NASA Artemis & CLPS updates, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-173/ Last updated: 2024-04-29T15:17:25.000Z *I’m delighted to share that* [*The Orbital Index*](https://orbitalindex.com/) *is continuing being a* [*Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) *sponsor for the third year in a row!* 🚀 *Their* [*crisp, technical archive*](https://orbitalindex.com/archive) *of weekly space updates over the last five years is genuinely worth perusing, and searching within, because* [*Andrew*](https://www.linkedin.com/in/cantino/)*,* [*Ben*](https://www.linkedin.com/in/blachman/) *and* [*Sarajane*](https://www.linkedin.com/in/sarajane-crawford/) *ensure it’s well curated and broad in perspectives—traits which partly inspired me to start Moon Monday in the first place.* *Lastly, thank you everyone for your wishes; I’ve* [*settled into Bengaluru*](https://journal.jatan.space/mumbai-to-bangalore/)*. Welcome back to an action-packed edition of the world’s only newsletter dedicated to all things lunar, globally. On that note, I'm also glad to announce that Moon Monday now has more than 7,000 subscribers! 🌏*🌙 ## VIPER, the lunar water hunter, coming together ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/04/viper-gets-its-mast.jpg) The VIPER lunar rover in a clean room at NASA’s Johnson Space Center with its mast installed. [Image: NASA / Josh Valcarcel](https://www.nasa.gov/general/nasa-viper-robotic-moon-rover-team-raises-its-mighty-mast/) NASA’s upcoming [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/), part of the agency’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) designed to study [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s south pole, is progressing well in its assembly, with the latest hardware addition being [its tall mast](https://www.nasa.gov/general/nasa-viper-robotic-moon-rover-team-raises-its-mighty-mast/). The multipurpose mast hosts a pair of pan-able, steerable panoramic stereo navigation cameras, two LED headlights, and [gimballing communications antennas](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/ames/engineers-test-vipers-very-nimble-gimbal/) which can maintain their orientation even as VIPER moves in various directions. VIPER intends to explore areas in and around [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) for over four months to unravel the nature of lunar [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) deposits, assess their resource potential, and help determine how accessible they really are. This will help NASA plan crewed [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis/) missions. While VIPER was nominally being planned for a November 2024 launch onboard Astrobotic’s Griffin lander, the company’s [failed](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-159/) lunar mission last month might induce delays, and very likely more tests and associated costs/funds. *Also see:* [*Astrobotic to fly its novel CubeRover on the Griffin lander after all*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-172/#astrobotic-to-fly-cuberover-on-griffin-after-all) ## ispace doubles down on farside Moon mission ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/04/ispace-us-apex-moon-lander-illustration.jpg) Illustration of the APEX 1.0 lunar lander design by ispace US. [Image: ispace](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4781) ispace Japan is taking a [bridge loan of $45 million](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=5282) from the Sumitomo Mitsui Banking Corporation to majorly continue work on [Draper’s first CLPS Moon mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-87/) targeting a 2026 launch, wherein ispace’s [US subsidiary](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4781) is providing the [APEX](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-147/) lander to touchdown on the Moon’s farside. Relatedly, Jeff Foust [reported](https://spacenews.com/japanese-lunar-lander-company-ispace-raises-53-5-million-in-stock-sale/) last month that the [publicly traded](https://spacenews.com/first-ispace-mission-ready-for-lunar-landing-as-company-stock-starts-trading/) company raised $53.5 million through a stock sale, $47 million of which will be used for the Draper-led mission. At 300 kilograms, APEX has 10 times more payload capacity than the compact Series 1 lander design, which ispace Japan flew on the company’s [Mission 1](https://jatan.space/ispace-japan-m1-moon-mission/) (M1) last year, and will do so again this year for [M2](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-154/). In October 2023, ispace announced being awarded a [$80 million Japanese government grant](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4943) to develop and launch a lunar lander by 2027, which can carry more than 100 kilograms of payload to the Moon’s surface. Some amount of the bridge loan will also go towards the development of this mission. To meet the Draper-led CLPS mission’s science goals, APEX will also deploy two Blue-Canyon-provided [lunar satellites](https://www.draper.com/press-release/nasa-awards-draper-73-million-deliver-suite-payloads-moon-2025) to relay communications between the lander and Earth. Post this primary mission, ispace will move the satellites into a polar orbit to [provide commercial communications](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=5301) between Earth and hardware on the Moon’s south pole for several years. As a tangent, recall that each of these satellite will also carry a [NASA-grant-funded](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/armstrong/nasa-selects-nine-technologies-for-commercial-flight-tests-2/) payload from Rhea Space called the Jervis Autonomy Module (JAM), which will let the satellites autonomously determine their orbits by imaging and identifying multiple celestial objects. As such, they won’t need to rely on terrestrial ground stations to know their positions. Rhea Space [says](https://www.rheaspaceactivity.com/post/rhea-space-activity-expands-lunar-intelligence-lunint-business-with-two-lunar-payloads) they’re also adapting JAM to capture high-resolution images of the Moon’s surface for mapping purposes. --- *Many thanks to* [***The Orbital Index***](https://orbitalindex.com)*,* [***Gurbir Singh***](https://gurbir.co.uk) *and* [***Arun Raghavan***](https://arunraghavan.net) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday. If you love this community resource too,* [*join them*](https://jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday/)*!* --- ## More Artemis updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/04/vertical-solar-panel-nasa-concept.jpg) Illustration of a large vertical solar array on the Moon. [Image: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-industry-to-mature-vertical-solar-array-technologies-for-lunar-surface) - NASA is further funding [Ceres Robotics](https://www.ceresrobotics.com) to develop their [50-plus-kilowatt vertical solar arrays](https://www.einnews.com/pr%5Fnews/706663813/ceres-robotics-inc-announces-moonpower-lunar-grid-and-wins-nasa-contract) for potential deployment on [maximally sunlit sites](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/271) on the Moon’s south pole in support of future crewed Artemis missions. That’s a minimum five fold increase in power than the 10-kilowatt vertical arrays for which NASA made [developmental awards](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/three-companies-to-help-nasa-advance-solar-array-technology-for-moon) to Astrobotic, Honeybee Robotics, and Lockheed Martin. Ceres says their 23.5-meter tall arrays called C-Towers—being prototyped in partnership with Voyager Space—can auto-deploy, retract for relocation, track the Sun, stay stable on steep terrain, and be resistant to abrasive lunar dust all while minimizing mass and stowed volume for easing their launch and delivery to Luna. - NASA published a [source selection statement](https://sam.gov/opp/68c8ce37ec2d40689a7335d5dbf1f6eb/view) on April 9, providing details on how the agency [selected](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-selects-companies-to-advance-moon-mobility-for-artemis-missions/) teams led by Intuitive Machines, Lunar Outpost, and Venturi Astrolab to mature their respective designs for a [versatile Lunar Terrain Vehicle](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-171/) (LTV). NASA intends to use this unpressurized rover on a firm, fixed price service basis across Artemis missions starting with [Artemis V](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/) end of decade. The selection statement reveals that NASA ruled out proposals from Leidos, Astrobotic, and Blue Origin. Jeff Foust [highlights more such notable points](https://spacenews.com/nasa-document-outlines-selection-of-lunar-rover-companies/) from the statement but what stood out to me is that Astrolab proposed delivering their LTV earlier than NASA asked for by flying aboard the SpaceX Starship lander that will [carry crew for Artemis IV](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-spacex-second-contract-option-for-artemis-moon-landing-0). - Eric Berger [reports](https://arstechnica.com/space/2024/04/nasa-may-alter-artemis-iii-to-have-starship-and-orion-dock-in-low-earth-orbit/) that NASA is privately considering modifying the upcoming [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/) crewed Moon landing mission to an Earth or lunar orbiting one in order to gain confidence that the [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) and [Lunar Starship](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon/) can safely dock with each other, and then to test out the latter’s habitability systems. If NASA decides to go ahead with this or another such non-lunar-landing plan, the mission might be called Artemis IIS in Apple style. - In the week of April 15, [Switzerland](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-welcomes-switzerland-as-newest-artemis-accords-signatory/), [Sweden](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-embraces-sweden-as-newest-member-of-artemis-accords-family/), and [Slovenia](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/slovenia-signs-artemis-accords-joins-pursuit-of-safer-space/) signed the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords) for cooperative lunar exploration, bringing the total number of nation-signees to 39 globally and 17 in Europe. 🌗 ***Reminder:** *There are now dedicated pages for NASA’s* [**Artemis*](https://jatan.space/tag/artemis/) *and* [**CLPS*](https://jatan.space/tag/clps/) *programs on my blog so you can now browse my ongoing contextual coverage of both topics with ease.* ## More Moon - Continuing to defy JAXA’s own expectations, the solar-powered [SLIM lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-161) survived the frigid lunar night for the third time and [reestablished contact](https://twitter.com/SLIM%5FJAXA/status/1783330118683050427) with Earth on April 23\. SLIM has faced some hardware deterioration, which combined with hot temperatures around the near-equatorial-noon have sadly meant that JAXA has been unable to operate SLIM (other than limited use of the optical imager) to specifically continue some of its leftover science goals. - As part of the ongoing [five-year, CAD $150 million](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/news/articles/2023/2023-03-29-significant-investments-to-further-propel-canadian-space-exploration.asp) lunar exploration program called [LEAP](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/funding-programs/programs/leap), Canada is investing only [CAD $8.6 million](https://ici.radio-canada.ca/rci/en/news/2065797/budget-national-space-council) for the fiscal year 2024-25\. The creation of a National Space Council as part of the budget announcement is welcome news though. - Laser Zentrum Hannover and TU Berlin, with €4.75 million in funding from the German Space Agency, [aim to demonstrate](https://www.astrobotic.com/next-step-toward-the-moon-lzh-and-tu-berlin-partner-with-astrobotic/) laser-melted 3D printing on the Moon on Astrobotic’s [third lunar mission](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-purchases-falcon-heavy-launch-services), which aims for a south polar touchdown in 2026\. Relatedly, NASA [is awarding](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-partners-with-american-companies-on-key-moon-exploration-tech) Astrobotic with $34.6 million to [demonstrate power transmission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-138/) on the Moon, which seems to be planned to take place as part of the same mission hosting the 3D printing demo. - Andrew Jones [reports](https://spacenews.com/nicaragua-signs-up-to-chinas-ilrs-moon-program/) that on April 24, Nicaragua became the tenth country to join the upcoming China-led long-term [scientific base](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-120/#more-on-the-sino-russian-moonbase) on the Moon’s south pole called the [International Lunar Research Station](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-32/) (ILRS). Also, Ling Xin [reports](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3259734/two-major-space-institutes-africa-join-china-led-moon-project) that Ethiopia’s Space Science and Geospatial Institute (SSGI) and the Kenya Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST) signed intents to join ILRS as organizations. Per the Global Times, the Arab Union for Astronomy and Space Sciences [seems to have joined](https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202404/1311177.shtml) ILRS as an organization as well. ### Moon Monday #172: On Japan’s road to landing on Luna; mission updates, micro rovers, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-172/ Last updated: 2024-04-27T19:09:46.000Z **Life update:* This week I’m* [*moving to Bengaluru*](https://journal.jatan.space/mumbai-to-bangalore/)*, the space hub of India. Looking ahead, I’m excited to expand my space horizons and coverage by continually existing where the country’s space epicenter is.* **Announcement:* With no Moon missions launching this month, and no major updates expected from ongoing missions, I’ve decided to take the coming Monday off for* [*Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) *to help make my move to another city less hectic. Fear not though, as today’s Moon Monday is packed with updates and esoteric details* 🤓*. And, of course, the Moon Monday of April 29 will cover all updates between now and then so you’ll miss nothing. One last thing: the next* [*Indian Space Progress*](https://jatan.space/tag/indian-space-progress) *edition will be published as usual, around end of month.* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/04/jaxa-toyota-lunar-cruiser-rover-illustration.jpg) Illustration of Japan’s crewed, pressurized rover for NASA’s Artemis program. A large solar panel covers [the other side](https://global.jaxa.jp/press/2019/03/images/20190312a%5F02%5Fen.png). Astronaut added for (rough) scale. [Image: JAXA / Toyota](https://global.toyota/en/album/images/27059582) ## Two Japanese astronauts will land on the Moon via NASA Artemis On April 10, the US and Japan [jointly announced](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-japan-advance-space-cooperation-sign-agreement-for-lunar-rover/) that NASA will land two Japanese astronauts on the Moon as part of Artemis missions in return for JAXA providing NASA with a pressurized, habitable rover. A crew of two can live inside the rover, without spacesuits, and explore the lunar surface for up to an amazing 30 days—down from the originally intended 42 though. Per the [implementing agreement](https://www.mext.go.jp/content/20240411-mxt%5Fuchukai02-000035256%5F1.pdf), NASA will arrange for the rover’s launch and delivery to the Moon’s south pole. As Marcia Smith [reported](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/biden-and-kishida-first-non-us-astronaut-on-the-moon-will-be-japanese/), this might be done using a [cargo variant](https://spacenews.com/blue-origin-and-spacex-start-work-on-cargo-versions-of-crewed-lunar-landers) of either a [SpaceX Starship](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-spacex-second-contract-option-for-artemis-moon-landing-0) crewed lander or [Blue Origin’s Blue Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/). NASA currently plans to use the Japanese rover starting with Artemis VII, with an aim to deliver it in 2031\. It’s an optimistic schedule considering that [Artemis V](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/) is unlikely to fly before 2030\. It’s possible a Japanese astronaut will land on Luna via Artemis V. While the joint announcement states “a Japanese national to be the first non-American astronaut to land on the Moon”, it conveniently ignores China’s plans to land two astronauts on Luna [end of decade](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-137/). Note that the Japanese rover—built by Toyota, JAXA, and Mitsubishi—will be even more capable and versatile than the unpressurized Artemis [Lunar Terrain Vehicle](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-171/). Both rovers will serve NASA’s [Artemis Base Camp](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept) plan, which aims to build the infrastructure necessary for at least a few astronauts to live long-term on Luna. Both rovers will be remotely operable from Earth, and have some autonomous capabilities too, so as to ensure efficient scientific use when crewed missions aren’t ongoing, which will be at least 11 months a year per current planning of Artemis missions. In emergency situations, such as astronauts losing access to their surface habitat, the Japanese rover’s [seven square meters of cabin space](https://toyotatimes.jp/en/toyota%5Fnews/1039.html) can accommodate four astronauts for short periods until their pickup from lunar orbit arrives. The Japan Times [previously reported](https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2023/07/22/business/corporate-business/toyota-moon-rover) that the rover will use solar energy and water to produce hydrogen and oxygen through electrolysis during the day, and generate electricity using fuel cells at night. JAXA hopes to eventually use natively sourced [lunar water](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and [oxygen](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-153/) as supplies for the rover if feasible. We also know from JAXA’s presentation at the [LEAG 2022 Annual Meeting](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/leag2022) that the rover can even enter small [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) if traverse routes involve slopes less than 20 degrees. ### A collaborative Gateway Atsushi Nakajima, Project Manager of the Space Systems Division at Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, [says](https://toyotatimes.jp/en/toyota%5Fnews/1039.html) that work by Mitsubishi and Toyota in building JAXA’s upcoming [LUPEX lunar rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-111/), combined with engineering and scientific data from the mission, will contribute directly to the development of Japan’s pressurized rover for Artemis. JAXA has partnered with ISRO to land LUPEX by end of decade to directly study the nature, abundance, and accessibility of [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) at 89°S. Seeing that both Japan and India have [signed the US-led Artemis Accords](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-133/) for cooperative lunar exploration, it’s great to see some of its virtues in action with these positive US-Japan, Japan-India, and [India-US](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-helped-slim-land-on-the-moon/#a-helping-hand-for-artemis) collaborations. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/04/jaxa-htv-x-vehicle-approaching-lunar-gateway-illustration-1.jpg) Illustration of Japan’s HTV-X(G) cargo supply spacecraft approaching the NASA-led Gateway lunar orbital habitat. [Image: JAXA](https://japan-forward.com/japan-developing-spacecraft-to-deliver-supplies-to-moon-orbiting-station) With the crewed, pressurized lunar rover, Japan has doubled down on its strategy to be a critical logistical supplier for NASA’s Artemis program. Previously, Japan got an astronaut seat aboard the upcoming NASA-led [Gateway lunar orbital habitat](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/gateway) in return for JAXA providing critical life support systems and infrastructure components for the station’s [Lunar I-Hab](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Gateway%5FLunar%5FI-Hab) crew module. Japan is also developing the advanced [HTV-X(G)](https://humans-in-space.jaxa.jp/en/htv-x) spacecraft to supply cargo to the Gateway starting 2030\. These capabilities will allow the Gateway to sustain crewed and uncrewed operations for long periods. In February 2023, JAXA [recruited two new astronaut candidates](https://www.jaxa.jp/press/2023/02/20230228-1%5Fj.html), one of which could fly to the Gateway. It’s intriguing though that ESA hasn’t already secured a single Artemis seat for a European astronaut to land on the Moon. That’s despite the agency having [bagged three seats](https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-55906695) from NASA aboard the Gateway in return for contributing the Orion spacecraft’s critical [service module](https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/space/esm), major parts of the [Lunar I-Hab](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Gateway%5FLunar%5FI-Hab), the [Lunar Link](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Gateway%5FLunar%5FLink) communications module, and the [Lunar View](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Gateway%5FLunar%5FView) refueling and cargo module! ## Queqiao 2 ready to serve spacecraft at Luna China announced that it successfully [tested relaying communications](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/n6758823/n6758838/c10503942/content.html) between its [Queqiao 2 lunar orbiter](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-169/), launched last month, and the [Chang’e 4](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/change-4) spacecraft lying on the Moon’s farside on April 6\. Two days later, CNSA tested communications between Queqiao 2 and the currently Earthbound [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-126/) spacecraft, which China aims to launch on a Long March 5 rocket this May to bring about two kilograms of samples from the [Apollo impact crater](https://jatan.space/peak-ringed-apollo-crater/) on the Moon’s farside. These samples should be scientifically even more valuable than the [Chang’e 5 samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-156/) as it would be our first tactile window into our Moon’s [mysterious farside](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/04/chang-e-5-sample-return-mission-illustration.jpg) Illustration of the Chang’e 5 spacecraft on the Moon with its sample collector. Chang’e 6 has a similar spacecraft configuration. [Image: CGTN](https://astronomycommunity.nature.com/posts/the-moon-s-last-gasp-dating-the-youngest-lunar-sample) Relatedly, Ling Xin [reports](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3258530/china-hear-pitches-nasa-scientist-other-researchers-study-change-5-lunar-samples) that CNSA has invited 10 scientists from the US, Europe, and Asia to pitch their plans to study Chang’e 5 lunar samples on April 26\. For the US, this opportunity comes shortly after NASA [secured an exception](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-156/) from the Congress for US researchers to be able to apply for accessing China-brought [lunar samples](https://moon.bao.ac.cn/moonSampleMode/index.html) and get associated grants. The US scientists presenting their pitches on April 26 [include](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3258530/china-hear-pitches-nasa-scientist-other-researchers-study-change-5-lunar-samples) lunar geochemist and Apollo sample curator [Ryan Zeigler](https://ares.jsc.nasa.gov/people/bios/ryan-a-zeigler/). --- *Many thanks to* [***Epsilon3***](https://www.epsilon3.io) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday. If you love this community resource too,* [*join them*](https://jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday/)*!* --- ## A micro rover for the Moon passes terrestrial tests ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/04/ispace-europe-micro-rover-m2-mission.jpg) ispace Europe’s micro rover and some humans. [Image: ispace](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=5243) ispace Europe [says](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=5243) it completed environmental testing of the qualification model of its micro rover, the flight model of which will be aboard ispace Japan’s [second Moon mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-154/) launching end of 2024\. With drive tests on simulated lunar terrain beds also previously done, the rover team will now build and test the flight model while ispace’s spacecraft integration team in Japan practice the rover’s integration into the lander using the qualification model. The [5-kilogram micro-rover](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4954) will explore the Moon’s surface with an HD camera on the both its front and back. The rover will also have a back-mounted shovel from Epiroc AB, using which it will [collect lunar soil](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=3696) and [transfer its ownership](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-companies-to-collect-lunar-resources-for-artemis-demonstrations) to NASA as part of the latter’s move to set precedence for future resource use under the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords/). ispace Europe is developing the micro rover with funding aid from the Luxembourg Space Agency under an ESA contract. ## Astrobotic to fly CubeRover on Griffin after all ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/04/astrobotic-cube-rover-test.jpg) An Astrobotic CubeRover prototype traverses in a simulated lunar terrain testbed developed by NASA. [Image: NASA / Kim Shiflett](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/commercial-cuberover-test-shows-how-nasa-investments-mature-space-tech) Speaking of micro rovers, Astrobotic—which was originally supposed to fly its versatile [CubeRover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-93/#meet-the-versatile-cuberover-from-astrobotic) on a Masten Space lander as part of NASA’s [CLPS ](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/)program—[indirectly announced](https://www.astrobotic.com/spacefarer-cuberover-joint-lunar-rover-demonstration-on-griffin-1/) that the rover will fly on its own [Griffin](https://www.astrobotic.com/lunar-delivery/landers/griffin-lander/) CLPS lander, whose primary task is to deliver NASA’s [water-ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) studying [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) to the lunar south pole. While NASA and Astrobotic have been targeting the mission’s launch in November 2024, Astrobotic’s [failed first lunar mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-159/) in January will certainly induce delays, and very likely more tests and associated costs/funds. Recall that following Masten’s [Chapter 11 bankruptcy filing](https://spacenews.com/masten-space-systems-files-for-bankruptcy) in September 2022, its CLPS mission came to an end. Shortly after, Astrobotic [acquired Masten Space](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-acquires-masten-space-systems), including much of its space technology portfolio [for $4.5 million](https://spacenews.com/court-approves-sale-of-masten-assets-to-astrobotic). Debra Needham, Program Scientist at NASA’s Exploration Science Strategy and Integration Office, said at the [2023 annual LEAG meeting](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/leag2023/technical%5Fprogram) in September that the agency plans to “strategically manifest payloads” from Masten’s mission onto other landers as feasible. There haven’t been any updates on that front thus far. But Astrobotic appears to have more liberty in manifesting its CubeRover, which is not a NASA payload in itself but is [backed by NASA funding](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-small-business-tipping-point-contracts-advance-small-moon-rover) and has an agency-funded [neutron spectrometer](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/where-s-the-water-two-resource-hunting-tools-for-the-moon-s-surface) onboard. In any case, Astrobotic’s announcement says the rover will be jointly operated with Canada-based Mission Control, who is providing the rover with its Spacefarer software platform, which uses autonomous feature detection and other smarts to enable faster commanding, drives, and data collection. Recall that Mission Control [already flew](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=2591) an earlier version of this system for $3 million on UAE’s Rashid rover aboard ispace Japan’s first lunar lander, which though unfortunately [crashed on Luna](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-129/). These projects got funded through CSA’s [LEAP initiative](https://asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/funding-programs/programs/leap/default.asp), which is investing [CAD $150 million](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/news/articles/2023/2023-03-29-significant-investments-to-further-propel-canadian-space-exploration.asp) in lunar exploration over 5 years. Recently, CSA [funded](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/funding-programs/programs/leap/contributions-awarded.asp) Mission Control with CAD $3.5 million for demonstrating classifying terrain features with an onboard AI system, which is likely where the Astrobotic partnership comes in. On Astrobotic’s end, the CubeRover mission is critical to get right. NASA [is awarding](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-partners-with-american-companies-on-key-moon-exploration-tech) Astrobotic with $34.6 million to [demonstrate power transmission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-138/), and one other award for [lunar night survival](https://www.astrobotic.com/cuberover-funded-for-survive-the-lunar-night-mission), on future Moon missions. ## More Moon - NASA has [started pre-launch testing](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/kennedy/altitude-chamber-gets-upgrade-for-artemis-ii-spacecraft-testing-begins/) the Orion spacecraft stack which will carry [four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) around the Moon and back no earlier than September 2025 for the agency’s [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii) mission. For better testing, NASA re-activated an Apollo-era facility, which will simulate vacuum environments for a wide range of altitudes to increase confidence in Orion for the crewed flight. - For astronauts to get a sense of how it will be like to live on the [Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/gateway/) later this decade, and for project designers to better cater to the needs of astronauts, teams are now testing various setups of astronaut living quarter beginning with moving around in [low-fidelity, life-sized mockups](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Lunar%5FI-Hab%5Fmock-up%5Fall%5Fset) and performing tasks [in virtual reality](https://www.nasa.gov/general/through-astronaut-eyes-virtual-reality-propels-gateway-forward/). - I had the opportunity to help explain a wider audience why the US White House recently [asked NASA](https://spacenews.com/white-house-directs-nasa-to-develop-lunar-time-standard/) to create an independent time standard for the Moon; [got quoted](https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-sci-tech/lunar-time-standard-moon-9260264/) on the Indian Express to that end. ⏳... ⌛️ ... 🌙 - **Job listing:** The Swedish Institute of Space Physics is [hiring a postdoctoral researcher](https://irf.varbi.com/en/what:job/jobID:716300/iframeEmbedded:0/where:4) to work on how the solar wind interacts with the lunar exosphere, using particle data analysis from lunar landers and orbiters.[ ](http://www.irf.se/vacancies) ### Moon Monday #171: One giant leap for rovers, special pages for Artemis & CLPS, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-171/ Last updated: 2024-04-09T06:10:08.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/04/nasa-ltv-infographic-draft.jpg) Desired capabilities of the Artemis Lunar Terrain Vehicle. [Image: NASA](https://sam.gov/api/prod/opps/v3/opportunities/resources/files/90f14b078fad4da587e2f6fbbfe60768/download?&token=) On April 3, NASA [selected](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-selects-companies-to-advance-moon-mobility-for-artemis-missions/) teams led by Intuitive Machines, Lunar Outpost, and Venturi Astrolab to mature their designs for a versatile Lunar Terrain Vehicle (LTV), one of which will be used on a firm, fixed price service basis by NASA across Artemis missions starting with [Artemis V](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/) end of decade. The service order awards across 10 years have a combined maximum potential value of $4.6 billion. Eric Berger [reports](https://arstechnica.com/space/2024/04/nasa-asks-the-commercial-space-industry-for-a-rugged-long-lived-lunar-rover/) that for now NASA is awarding the selected teams a few tens of millions of dollars each to advance their rover designs. Relatedly, in May 2023, the China Manned Space Agency (CMSA) announced [soliciting industry proposals](https://english.news.cn/20230529/d072333c56424753bec141dc75c35b67/c.html) for the country’s first crewed lunar rover, which will be driven by the first two Chinese astronauts on the Moon [end of decade](https://spacenews.com/china-sets-sights-on-crewed-lunar-landing-before-2030/). ### LTV, a giant leap for rover-kind Since NASA intends to sustain its return to the Moon, the LTV will be far more capable—as NASA [laid out in its solicitation](https://sam.gov/opp/16c5e42788c4406d8687cb22ec5d3a70/view)—than the [Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV)](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/apollo%5Flrv.html) driven by Apollo astronauts, and more sophisticated than even the current crop of Mars rovers. - The LTV will be an unenclosed, all-electric rover that two suited astronauts can drive on the Moon for up to 20 kilometers on an 8-hour roundtrip without having to recharge. That’s roughly thrice Apollo LRV’s range and twice its drive time. - Unlike Apollo, the LTV will be used across multiple Artemis missions for at least 10 years. This means the LTV must survive frigid night-time temperatures on the Moon’s south pole every month, which can last from several hours up to at least 150 hours even in favorably selected high-altitude locations. That’s even better than NASA’s upcoming [water-ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) studying [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/), which is being designed to survive complete darkness periods of [about 96 hours](https://www.nasa.gov/viper/overview#MissionTimeline) by parking at pre-identified high-altitude spots during its mission. - The LTV should be able to traverse 20-degree slopes, and in general navigate the challenging [rugged terrain](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/SPole%5FSRidgemap%5FLOLA-Slope5m%5Fv20190515.pdf) at the Moon’s south pole. Within this slope limit, the LTV should be able to spend up to two hours in [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/), where temperatures drop [well below -180 degrees Celsius](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/96). Combined with the same requirement for [Artemis spacesuits](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-80/), this sets the stage for astronauts exploring and bringing cryogenic samples of [pristine, precious lunar volatiles](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) to Earth for meticulous lab studies, [an identified key priority](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/artemis-iii-science-definition-report-12042020c.pdf) for [Artemis science](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-170/). To that end, NASA would also like the LTV to have a robotic manipulator arm for deploying science instruments and more. Exciting stuff! - Given LTV’s criticality to astronauts being able to safely return to the lander or a future Artemis Base Camp after or during traverses, the rover’s mobility must be at least single-fault tolerant. - NASA wants the LTV to be remotely operable from Earth, and that it should have sufficient autonomous capabilities. These requirements chiefly come from NASA’s [Science Mission Directorate](https://science.nasa.gov/about-us/science-strategy) to ensure efficient scientific use of the rover when a crewed mission isn’t ongoing, which will be at least 11 months a year per current planning of Artemis missions. - In addition to a carrying a suited crew of two weighing about 550 kilograms, the LTV must transport up to 250 kilograms of cargo, science instruments, lunar samples, and technology demonstration payloads between desired points on the Moon. For non-crew traverses, the LTV should be able to carry 1600 kilograms at reduced speeds. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/04/astrolab-flex-rover-testing.jpg) Field testing of a terrestrial prototype of the FLEX lunar rover with two astronauts. [Image: Astrolab](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=79fAZKI6FJ8) Unlike concepts by Intuitive Machines (via [Northrop Grumman](https://www.northropgrumman.com/space/lunar-terrain-vehicle)) and [Lunar Outpost](https://www.lockheedmartin.com/en-us/news/features/2021/lunar-terrain-vehicle.html) (which [switched sides](https://web.archive.org/web/20230418233108/https://lunaroutpost.com/lunar-outpost-joins-lockheed-martin-team-for-next-generation-moon-rover/) from Northrop to Lockheed Martin for the LTV bid), only the Astrolab-led [FLEX](https://astrolab.space/flex) has a [fully-functional terrestrial prototype](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SfT6HIc9OPw) as far as we know, and which has been tested for mobility, crewed, and remote operations, including test deployments of a variety of large payloads. Astrolab is also the only company to have publicly announced a plan to send a demonstration rover much before Artemis V, with one FLEX heading to the Moon on a [2026](https://astrolab.space/news/blog/145) Starship launch carrying [at least eight customer payloads](https://spacenews.com/astrolab-announces-first-customers-for-commercial-lunar-rover-mission) worth $160 million. It should be noted that the LTV is just one of the two rover types part of NASA’s [Artemis Base Camp](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept), which aims to build the infrastructure necessary for at least a few astronauts to live long-term on the Moon. The other rover is a pressurized, habitable one, which would enable astronauts to explore the Moon’s south pole for up to 42 days at a time. NASA is [expected to](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/president-biden-nasa-to-welcome-japanese-astronaut-aboard-gateway) but hasn’t yet formally confirmed including the upcoming JAXA-Toyota [autonomous crewed pressurized rover](https://global.jaxa.jp/press/2019/03/20190312a.html) to said end. JAXA hopes to land [a Japanese on the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-79/) via an Artemis mission in return for providing this advanced crewed pressurized rover. Relatedly, recall that last year Canada [said](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/news/articles/2023/2023-03-29-significant-investments-to-further-propel-canadian-space-exploration.asp) it will invest $1.2 billion over 13 years to develop a “Lunar Utility Vehicle”, which aims to provide critical assistance to Artemis astronauts on future missions. Canada hopes that [just like how](https://www.canada.ca/en/space-agency/news/2020/12/a-canadian-astronaut-will-fly-to-the-moon.html) contributing their [Canadarm3](https://asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/canadarm3/about.asp) robotics servicing system to the upcoming NASA-led [Gateway lunar orbital habitat](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/gateway) bagged seats for their astronauts on circumlunar Artemis missions, such a rover will enable a Canadian to walk on the Moon. --- *Many thanks to* [***Epsilon3***](https://www.epsilon3.io) *and* [***Off Planet Research***](https://offplanetresearch.com)*for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday. If you love this community resource too,* [*join them*](https://jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday/)*!* --- ## Renamed Gateway elements and redesigned RS-25s The [HALO habitat module](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-northrop-grumman-finalize-moon-outpost-living-quarters-contract/), part of the NASA-led [Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/gateway), is [set to undergo a series of tests](https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/a-home-for-astronauts-around-the-moon/) ahead of final outfitting and preparations for a late 2025 launch [on a SpaceX Falcon Heavy](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-awards-contract-to-launch-initial-elements-for-lunar-outpost) rocket. HALO will be docked to the [PPE propulsion](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-artemis-contract-for-lunar-gateway-power-propulsion) module before launch. In the meanwhile, ESA [decided to rename](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/New%5Fnames%5Ffor%5Fthe%5FGateway) their Gateway contributions, the modules of which will be added to the HALO-PPE Gateway later this decade. The Gateway’s [i-HAB](https://liquifer.com/gateway-i-hab) habitation module is now called the [Lunar I-Hab](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Gateway%5FLunar%5FI-Hab), the [ESPRIT](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/European%5FGateway%5Fmodule%5Fto%5Fbe%5Fbuilt%5Fin%5FFrance%5Fas%5FThomas%5FPesquet%5Freadies%5Ffor%5Fsecond%5Fspaceflight) communications module the [Lunar Link](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Gateway%5FLunar%5FLink), and the ERM Gateway refueling and cargo module the [Lunar View](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Gateway%5FLunar%5FView)—owing to its windows which will surely provide breathtaking views of space, our Moon, and Earth to astronauts. *Also see:* [*A gist of Gateway science*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-162/#a-gist-of-gateway-science) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/04/rs-25-engine-nozzle-being-lifted-at-a-nasa-stennis-stand.jpg) A RS-25 engine nozzle being lifted at a test stand at NASA’s Stennis Space Center. [Image: NASA / Danny Nowlin](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/stennis/nasa-achieves-milestone-for-engines-to-power-future-artemis-missions/) On April 3, NASA [completed a second and final campaign](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/stennis/nasa-achieves-milestone-for-engines-to-power-future-artemis-missions/) of 12 hot fire tests of the [redesigned](https://www.nasa.gov/centers/stennis/news/release/2023/NASA-Continues-Test-Series-for-Redesigned-Artemis-Moon-Rocket-Engines) [RS-25](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/sls%5Frs25%5Fengine%5Ffs%5F508.pdf) engine. This means contractor Aerojet Rocketdyne can now produce such RS-25s for NASA to power future [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/reference/space-launch-system/) flights starting with [Artemis V](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/) end of decade. The agency has awarded the company contracts to provide 24 new engines, supporting SLS launches up to Artemis IX. The hot fire tests included eight 500-second firings—the same amount of time as required during an SLS mission—and four longer burns for ensuring margins. Engineers and operators also [test flight-like gimbaling](https://www.nasa.gov/centers/stennis/news/releases/2023/NASA-Tests-Critical-In-Flight-Capability-During-RS-25-Engine-Hot-Fire) of the engine, which during a mission helps stabilize the rocket as well as keep it on its intended trajectory. Like the engine used in the first test campaign, the second one also features new components like a nozzle, hydraulic actuators, flex ducts, and turbo pumps. The aim with the second set of hot fires though was to [test production reliability](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/start-your-engines-nasa-to-begin-critical-testing-for-future-artemis-missions) by validating the performance of a second set of hardware. NASA says the new RS-25 engines should cost over 30% less to produce, from the current $100 million+, but a [scathing May 2023 report](https://oig.nasa.gov/docs/IG-23-015.pdf) from NASA’s Office of Inspector General pointed out that this projected figure excludes project management and overhead costs. ## Thailand and China collaborate on lunar exploration ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/04/thailand-china-ilrs-signing-event.jpg) A delegation led by Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn of the Kingdom of Thailand visits CNSA for cooperation on lunar and space exploration. [Image: CNSA](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465652/n6465653/c10497120/content.html) On April 5, Thailand [joined](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465652/n6465653/c10497120/content.html) the upcoming China-led long-term [scientific base](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-120/#more-on-the-sino-russian-moonbase) on the Moon’s south pole called the [International Lunar Research Station](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-32/) (ILRS), becoming [the ninth country](https://spacenews.com/thailand-joins-china-led-ilrs-moon-base-initiative/) to do so. This move comes after Thailand’s largest space research organization, the National Astronomical Research Institute of Thailand (NARIT), [joined](https://www.narit.or.th/index.php/en-news/3552-en20231005-01) the ILRS project in September 2023. As Ling Xin [reported](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3237651/thai-lunar-weather-instrument-set-join-chinas-change-7-mission-moon) previously, NARIT has a 3-kilogram instrument duo onboard China’s upcoming [Chang’e 7](https://doi.org/10.34133/space.0026) orbiter to study [solar storms](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) and cosmic rays respectively. China is aiming to launch the orbiter in 2026 alongside the namesake [lander](https://www.leonarddavid.com/china-outlines-permanently-shadowed-crater-exploration-lunar-resource-utilization-plans). NARIT also operates the Thai National Radio Telescope, which could be used to monitor spacecraft trajectories of ILRS missions in the future. 🛰️ ***Aside:** *There’s no good way to follow official news from CNSA. And so I’ve created* [**an RSS feed*](https://www.inoreader.com/stream/user/1004599027/tag/CNSA%20News) *so you can easily follow such updates via* [**a feed reader*](https://journal.jatan.space/why-use-rss/)**.* ## More Moon - The US White House has [asked NASA](https://spacenews.com/white-house-directs-nasa-to-develop-lunar-time-standard/) to develop a strategy by the end of 2026 for creating an independent time standard for the Moon, a Coordinated Lunar Time (LTC) that ties back in to Earth’s UTC. Rather than the White House’s [policy document](https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Celestial-Time-Standardization-Policy.pdf) though, it’s Elizabeth Gibney’s article from last year which [better explains](https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-00185-z) why an independent lunar time is desirable, how ESA and NASA have already been working towards the same, and how it would enable swarms of spacecraft to better operate at Luna. - [Alan Stern](https://alanstern.space) has [joined ispace US](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=5194) as a scientific advisor. His scientific accomplishments in space exploration are well recognized but less known is that he was also the principal investigator of the [LAMP instrument](https://ode.rsl.wustl.edu/Moon/pagehelp/Content/Missions%5FInstruments/Lunar%20Reconnaissance%20Orbiter%20%28LRO%29/LAMP/Intro.htm) aboard NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lro/about/). LAMP has [helped indicate](https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2023JE007863) potential [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) deposits within lunar polar [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/). - You can now browse my ongoing contextual coverage of NASA’s Artemis and CLPS programs via dedicated pages for those topics on my blog: [🧑🏽‍🚀 Artemis coverage by Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/tag/artemis/) [🌖 CLPS coverage by Jatan Mehta](https://jatan.space/tag/clps/) ### Moon Monday #170: Science on Artemis III; ispace and CLPS, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-170/ Last updated: 2024-05-19T15:10:38.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/04/apollo-11-passive-seismic-experiment-buzz-aldrin.jpg) Apollo 11 astronaut Buzz Aldrin beside the solar-powered seismic experiment he just deployed. The experiment’s antenna is pointed at Earth. [Image: NASA](https://moon.nasa.gov/resources/13/apollo-11-seismic-experiment) ## NASA selects science instruments to be deployed on the Moon by Artemis III astronauts In a historic return since Apollo, NASA aims to land astronauts on our Moon again in late 2026 with [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/). What science instruments will they carry to deploy on the lunar south pole for [advancing our understanding](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) of the Moon much [like Apollo did](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/)? Following a [competitive request for instrument proposals](https://nspires.nasaprs.com/external/solicitations/summary.do?solId=%7b76053627-8933-47CD-B627-C5DCDD474076%7d&path=&method=init) that NASA issued last May for the same, the agency [announced on March 26](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-selects-first-lunar-instruments-for-artemis-astronaut-deployment/) the first three payloads to be part of Artemis III. These will be deployed by astronauts on the lunar surface during their moonwalks. The experiments are: 1. The Lunar Environment Monitoring Station (LEMS), which contains compact, autonomous seismometers designed to monitor local lunar shakes for at least three months. With LEMS data, scientists will try to characterize the structure of the local crust and mantle. Combined with data from the [two distinct lunar-night-surviving seismometers](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2022/pdf/1576.pdf) on the [Draper-led](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-87/) lunar farside mission in 2026 part of NASA’s [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) program, LEMS will help us better understand [the Moon’s internal structure and how it evolved](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). LEMS will also help us know the [rate of seismic activity](https://doi.org/10.3847/PSJ/ad1332) and amount of [micrometeorite impacts](https://jatan.space/the-tiniest-of-impact-craters/) on the Moon’s south pole, which will help safely plan future, lengthier crewed missions in the region. 2. The Lunar Effects on Agricultural Flora (LEAF), which will investigate how well plants photosynthesize, grow, and adapt in the intense radiation environment on the Moon’s surface, and how the low lunar gravity affects it all. Also see: China’s [Chang’e 4 biological experiment](https://www.universetoday.com/163831/china-set-up-a-tiny-farm-on-the-moon-in-2019-how-did-it-do) and [Plants grow in Apollo lunar soil, but barely like it](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-77/). 3. The Lunar Dielectric Analyzer (LDA), which is a JAXA payload to measure exactly how the lunar soil propagates electric fields, which in turn will help scientists better search for and locate [water ice and other volatiles](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) crucial to future mission planning. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/03/artemis-iii-candidate-landing-regions.jpg) The 13 candidate landing zones for NASA’s Artemis III crewed Moon mission on the Moon’s south pole. [Image: NASA / LRO / GSFC / ASU](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-identifies-candidate-regions-for-landing-next-americans-on-moon) | [Browse them on a map](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/layers?extent=-123.1287296%2C-80.2286323%2C62.2044887%2C-76.8446639&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4XyA&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypOOKWbJYZdAJgQWfyJqv5JwDGKIQp0ADgCcWRL2LkBSikA&proj=17) ### Timeline of Artemis science planning While the agency’s selection of the SpaceX [Lunar Starship lander](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) in 2021 and [Axiom spacesuits](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-taps-axiom-space-for-first-artemis-moonwalking-spacesuits) in 2022—over and above the standard [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) and [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) part of every Artemis mission—largely represent the technology stack to be used for Artemis III, the science end has been catching up to it lately. Below is the timeline for all major milestones in Artemis science planning. - **December 2020:** The mission’s [Science Definition Team](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/Artemis/) laid out [their priorities](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/artemis-iii-science-definition-report-12042020c.pdf). - **March 2022:** NASA revealed the [Artemis science structure](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-112/), comprising an internal Artemis Science Team, an external Geology Team, \~10 Participating Scientists (which will include international researchers), and an Instruments Team. - **August 2022:** NASA announced [13 candidate landing zones](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-91/) for Artemis III. The agency has since been soliciting [community input](https://jatan.space/nasa-taps-top-scientist-for-crewed-moon-return/) to filter said sites but hasn’t yet down-selected a subset. - **March 2023:** NASA [announced](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-appoints-lunar-science-leads-for-artemis-iii-artemis-iv-missions) Noah Petro as the mission’s Science Lead. - **May 2023:** NASA [solicits competing proposals for instruments](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-130/) to be deployed on Artemis III, and with it the selection of the Instruments Team. - **August 2023:** NASA announced the [12-person ](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-selects-geology-team-for-the-first-crewed-artemis-lunar-landing)[Artemis III Geology Team](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-selects-geology-team-for-the-first-crewed-artemis-lunar-landing) led by [Brett Denevi](https://hub.jhu.edu/experts/profiles/brett-denevi). The competitively selected team, with a $5.1 million budget, will specify the mission’s science objectives, [help plan and optimize](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Exploration/Mapping%5Fthe%5FMoon) the crew’s activities and traverses, and provide sampling strategies for [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and [more lunar materials](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) of interest. The team will also be involved in pre- and post-mission activities such as astronaut training, initial studies of returned samples, and writing preliminary mission science reports. - **March 2024:** Where we’re now—NASA announced the first set of experiments to be deployed on Artemis III. Members of these teams will become part of the Artemis III Instruments Team. In Moon Monday #130, I provided more context on [NASA’s payload selection criteria for Artemis III](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-130/#the-kinds-of-instruments-nasa-seeks-for-artemis-iii). Note that the *Artemis Science Team* comprises several NASA researchers common across [all Artemis missions](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis/) to ensure that high-level lunar science goals of the US scientific community are being kept in mind at every stage of Artemis planning. They also interface between each *Artemis Geology Team* and the rest of NASA. --- *Many thanks to* [***Epsilon3***](https://www.epsilon3.io) *and* [***Open Lunar Foundation***](https://www.openlunar.org)*for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday. If you love this community resource too,* [*join them*](https://jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday/)*!* --- ## ispace Japan sells stock to continue work on NASA CLPS Moon landing ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/04/ispace-us-apex-moon-lander-illustration.jpg) Illustration of the APEX 1.0 lunar lander design by ispace US. [Image: ispace](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4781) Jeff Foust [reports](https://spacenews.com/japanese-lunar-lander-company-ispace-raises-53-5-million-in-stock-sale/) that the [publicly traded](https://spacenews.com/first-ispace-mission-ready-for-lunar-landing-as-company-stock-starts-trading/) ispace Japan raised $53.5 million through a stock sale to fund development of an upcoming mission as the company continues to face operating losses from the resource intensive nature of Moon missions. About $47 million of said money will be used for [Draper’s first Moon mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-87/) part of NASA’s [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) program targeting a 2026 launch, wherein ispace’s US subsidiary is providing the lander called [APEX](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-147/) to land on the lunar farside. In September 2023, ispace US [announced a new HQ](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4781) in Denver, Colorado where the company will manufacture the APEX lander—previously called [Series 2](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-42/). APEX is larger and more capable than the compact Series 1 lander design, which ispace Japan flew on the company’s [Mission 1](https://jatan.space/ispace-japan-m1-moon-mission/) (M1) last year, and will do so again this year for [M2](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-154/). APEX features 300 kilograms of payload capacity, ten times more than Series 1\. Jeff Foust [reported in September 2023](https://spacenews.com/ispace-revises-design-of-lunar-lander-for-nasa-clps-mission) that APEX’s structure had to be redesigned primarily to meet the vibrational requirements of the [NASA payloads onboard](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-draper-to-fly-research-to-far-side-of-moon) the Draper-led CLPS mission. ispace’s share of the CLPS contract is supposedly $55 million out of [$73 million](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-selects-draper-to-fly-research-to-far-side-of-moon/), though the latter is an old number that may have gone up like was the case with CLPS flights of Astrobotic and Intuitive Machines. In October 2023, ispace Japan announced being awarded a [$80 million Japanese government grant](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4943) to develop and launch a large lunar lander by 2027\. It can carry more than 100 kilograms of payload to the Moon’s surface. More details are unclear but ispace calls the new lander design *Series 3*, which based on its mass class and provided descriptions seems similar to or derived from APEX. In any case, ispace seems to be on track to launch its [second Moon mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-154/) (M2) by end of 2024, which is aptly named “RESILIENCE” to reflect the spirited reattempt after M1’s crash. ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/03/farside-moon-and-earth-change-5-t1.jpg) Earth and our Moon as seen from beyond the lunar farside by China’s Chang’e 5 T1 test spacecraft on October 28, 2014\. [Image: CAST](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/earth-and-the-moon-from-change5t1) - Defying JAXA’s own expectations once again, the solar-powered [SLIM lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-161) managed to [reestablish contact](https://twitter.com/SLIM%5FJAXA/status/1773190431758508138) with Earth on March 27, surviving the frigid lunar night for a second time. But since conditions around the near-equatorial-noon continue to prove too hot, JAXA is unable to operate scientific equipment on SLIM to continue with some of its leftover mission goals. - Andrew Jones [reports](https://spacenews.com/china-appears-to-be-trying-to-save-stricken-spacecraft-from-lunar-limbo/) that China raised the orbit of at least one twin satellite last week—whose March 13 launch on a Long March 2C rocket had come as a surprise. It was [reported](https://spacenews.com/surprise-chinese-lunar-mission-hit-by-launch-anomaly/) that an upper rocket stage malfunction meant the satellites, called DRO-A and DRO-B, weren’t injected into the intended trajectories to the Moon. China supposedly launched the satellites to demonstrate some autonomous lunar navigation technologies, thus complementing the [Queqiao 2 mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-169/) launched on March 20\. Well, I keep complaining about communications issues with space programs, usually with India and the US, but China is obviously opaque on another level. - Between December 2023 and March 2024, three more organizations have joined the upcoming China-led long-term [scientific base](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-120/#more-on-the-sino-russian-moonbase) on the Moon’s south pole called the [International Lunar Research Station](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-32/) (ILRS): 1) PT Universal Satelit Indonesia ([UniSat](https://twitter.com/AJ%5FFI/status/1738443460904948162)), 2) the Asociación de Astronomía de Colombia ([ASASAC](http://dsel.cc/#/spaceFileDetail/fileDetail?httpUrl=%2Fueditor-demo%2Fhtml%2F20240327%2FNGqtdXHrrK.html)), and 3) Kyrgyzstan’s [Arabaev Kyrgyz State University](https://m.weibo.cn/detail/5009307479574837). Andrew Jones helpfully [lists all 17 organizations](https://spacenews.com/china-adds-new-moon-base-project-partners-but-struggles-to-attract-national-level-participation/) part of ILRS. - **Sponsored listing:** Companies building for the Moon can now leverage Epsilon3’s new [Automation capability](https://www.epsilon3.io/behind-the-console/epsilon3-launches-automation-capability), purpose-built to safely streamline complex spacecraft assembly, integration, testing, and operational procedures. Epsilon3’s web-based platform is used by Blue Origin, Astrobotic, Redwire, Firefly, ispace, and more organizations creating for Luna. ### Indian Space Progress #14: On ISRO landing a spaceplane, and perspectives on Indian space URL: https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-14/ Last updated: 2024-03-30T14:42:30.000Z *An update about the last Indian Space Progress edition before we begin this one: My* [*review of India’s Gaganyaan mission*](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-13/) *to send astronauts to space has been republished on Jeff Foust’s revered community blog* [*The Space Review*](https://www.thespacereview.com/article/4756/1)*!* ^\_^ ## How ISRO is building a reusable spaceplane ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/03/rlv-td-lex-02-pushpak.jpg) ISRO’s spaceplane test vehicle autonomously lands on a runway. [Image: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/RLV%5FLanding%5FExperiment.html) Almost a year after ISRO [successfully landed](https://www.isro.gov.in/Reusable%5Flaunch%5Fvehicle%5Fautonomous%5Flanding%5Fmission.html) an uncrewed, autonomous spaceplane prototype on a runway at Chitradurga, India, the space agency [conducted another such landing test](https://www.isro.gov.in/RLV%5FLanding%5FExperiment.html) on March 22\. The winged vehicle is internally called the Reusable Launch Vehicle Technology Demonstrator (RLV-TD), and was recently officially named *Pushpak* by the Indian Prime Minister—after the flying chariot in Hindu mythology. Like in the previous test, Pushpak was dropped from a height of 4.5 kilometers by an Indian Air Force helicopter such that its descent simulates an approach from space. But unlike the last time, as Chethan Kumar [reports](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/isro-completes-2nd-rlv-landing-trial/articleshow/108719233.cms), the plane was dropped away from the runway—which lay four kilometers downrange. Pushpak then course-corrected on its own and maneuvered itself to the runway, where it deployed a parachute to kill much of its velocity of 350 kilometers per hour and steadily came to a halt. ISRO [says](https://www.isro.gov.in/RLV%5FLanding%5FExperiment.html) engineers strengthened the airframe structure and landing gear for this test so it could tolerate higher landing loads. ### Aiming for orbit ISRO is planning a third landing test of the spaceplane later this year with more stringent drop conditions. If it goes well too, in its next flight Pushpak will [attempt an orbital re-entry](https://www.wionews.com/india-news/exclusive-india-lands-unmanned-spaceplane-with-pin-point-accuracy-next-destination-is-space-578210) after being launched on a modified GSLV rocket. In 2016, ISRO had [launched](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bw7iv5O8%5FLc) a heat-shield-enabled Pushpak to an altitude of 65 kilometers and hypersonic speeds. It [successfully steered itself](https://spaceflightnow.com/2016/05/23/india-flies-winged-space-plane-on-experimental-suborbital-launch) 450 kilometers downrange to a sea splashdown in a targeted zone. When operational, a [60% larger](https://www.wionews.com/india-news/exclusive-india-lands-unmanned-spaceplane-with-pin-point-accuracy-next-destination-is-space-578210) Pushpak will comprise the second stage or equivalent of an Indian [reusable launch vehicle](https://www.isro.gov.in/RLVTD.html) (RLV). In fact, it’s to this aspirational end that the winged body and all flight systems from the 2023 test were reused in the flight last week, after being re-certified. ISRO envisions the orbital Pushpak to spend up to a month in space, autonomously operate onboard payloads and experiments, and then de-orbit itself for atmospheric reentry leading to a runway landing. At some point, ISRO has also intended to test [air-breathing propulsion](https://www.isro.gov.in/ScramjetEngineTechnology.html) on a future flight to assess its viability as part of Pushpak’s ongoing design ideation. **What India’s spaceplane isn’t:** Media outlets have frequently [compared](https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/india-s-very-own-space-shuttle-launched-successfully-by-isro/story-53k4Yr6sdfxzj7BS9vEUSO.html) the RLV-TD/Pushpak to NASA’s retired Space Shuttle. But ISRO is neither designing Pushpak to carry humans to space nor is it intended to be a heavy-lift launch vehicle. As a highly autonomous platform, Pushpak will be much more akin to the flying [Boeing X-37B](https://www.boeing.com/defense/autonomous-systems/x37b/index.page) and Sierra Space’s upcoming [Dream Chaser](https://www.sierraspace.com/space-transportation/dream-chaser-spaceplane). Note that the RLV is also different from ISRO’s other upcoming partially reusable rocket called the [Next Generation Launch Vehicle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Next%5FGeneration%5FLaunch%5FVehicle) (NGLV), which is much bigger. It recently [got a formal project team](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/soorya-project-team-for-rocket-to-build-space-station-ready-3rd-launch-pad-at-sriharikota-to-come-up/articleshow/108472896.cms) but ISRO expects the NGLV to take about a decade to launch. Both the NGLV and RLV are exciting projects that could boost [India’s rocket fleet](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-03/) but are a low priority as ISRO remains focused on its [Gaganyaan program](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-13/) to indigenously send humans to space this decade. ## Lunar and space science updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/03/peary-crater-isro-chandrayaan-2-orbiter.jpg) The most plausible locations of water ice within the polar Peary crater, as mapped by the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter’s radar. [Image: ISRO](https://arxiv.org/abs/2104.14259) - The [POLIX](https://web.archive.org/web/20220128195554/https://www.rri.res.in/~bpaul/polix.html) polarimeter on India’s [recently launched](https://www.isro.gov.in/PSLV%5FC58%5FXPoSat%5Fliftoff%5Fonboardvid.html) second space telescope called [XPoSat](https://www.isro.gov.in/XPoSat.html) has [begun scientific observations](https://www.isro.gov.in/POLIX%5FXPoSat%5Fobservations.html). Over the next few years, POLIX will study the polarization of X-rays emitted by various cosmic objects, which uniquely informs scientists about the physical nature of those objects—such as the strength and distribution of their magnetic fields. NASA launched the [IXPE](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/imaging-x-ray-polarimetry-explorer-ixpe) space telescope on a similar mission in December 2021\. IXPE and XPoSat are the world’s only telescopes dedicated for said purpose. When scientists are able to utilize and combine unique data from both these telescopes, we’ll get new insights into many bright X-ray sources, including pulsars, binary stars, and galactic cores. XPoSat’s other instrument XSPECT [began observations in January](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-12/). - In an [interview](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X5DLYbWAIDw) with Chethan Kumar for the Times of India, ISRO Chief S. Somanath said that work is progressing slowly on [new throttle-able engines](https://imgur.com/G5jLnW0) needed for the 6,000-kilogram ISRO lander which will deliver JAXA’s [LUPEX rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-111/) to the Moon’s south pole by end of decade to study [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other volatiles. Somanath added that ISRO is preparing a funding proposal for the Chandrayaan 4 sample return mission now that preliminary studies are done. - At the [55th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2024/technical%5Fprogram/) (LPSC) this month, several Indian lunar researchers presented their recent work. I found the following of note for this blog & newsletter: - Initial [elemental composition measurements](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2024/pdf/1135.pdf) from the [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) rover - ISRO’s Chandrayaan 2 orbiter data helping NASA downselect areas within the [Artemis landing zones](https://jatan.space/nasa-taps-top-scientist-for-crewed-moon-return) using [infrared](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2024/pdf/1449.pdf) and [radar](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2024/pdf/2274.pdf) measurements, the former to help find spots with [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and the latter to help reduce false positives from terrain having rough textures. - On February 14, the UK Space Agency [announced](https://www.gov.uk/government/news/new-funding-ensures-uk-role-in-global-exploration-to-the-moon-mars-and-venus) that it will fund Royal Holloway, University of London (RHUL) with £306,000 to develop software for ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) to help its multi-band radar better [detect underground water ice](https://arxiv.org/abs/2104.14259) on the Moon’s south pole. UKSA, RHUL, and ISRO hope to use the same advancement for mapping Venus in high resolution using the radar on India’s upcoming [Shukrayaan orbiter](https://jatan.space/isro-venus-orbiter-launch-2024/). Note: Shukrayaan is not yet a commissioned mission from the Indian Government, and might not launch before end of decade. --- *Many thanks to the* [***Takshashila Institution***](https://takshashila.org.in)*,* [***KaleidEO***](https://satsure.co/kaleidEO)*,* [***Gurbir Singh***](https://gurbir.co.uk) *and* [***Arun Raghavan***](https://arunraghavan.net) *for sponsoring this month’s Indian Space Progress report. If you love my work too,* [*join them*](https://jatan.space/sponsor-indian-space-progress/)*!* --- ## More Indian space updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/03/skyroot-kalam-250-stage-2-rocket-motor-firing.jpg) Firing of the Kalam-250 second stage rocket motor ([video](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5oHfEuhcaXk)) part of the upcoming orbital launch vehicle Vikram-I. [Image: Skyroot](https://twitter.com/SkyrootA/status/1773253058476036453/photo/1) - The new [INSAT-3DS](https://www.isro.gov.in/GSLV-F14%5FINSAT-3DS%5Fmission.html) meteorological satellite, which ISRO [launched](https://www.youtube.com/live/jynmNenneFk?feature=shared&t=2077) on February 17, has [begun imaging Earth](https://www.isro.gov.in/INSAT-3DS%5Fimaging%5FEarth.html). - US-based Loft Orbital and India-based SkyServe have [partnered](https://blog.skyserve.ai/p/mission-denali) to utilize the former’s YAM-6 satellite—launched on a [Falcon 9 Transporter mission on March 4](https://spacenews.com/spacex-launches-tenth-transporter-rideshare-mission/)—with SkyServe’s [edge computing](https://newsletter.terrawatchspace.com/p/edge-computing-for-earth-observation) platform so as to enable analyzing Earth observation images in near real-time and power more analytics from it. - With [help from ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/ISRO%5FFacilitates%5FIndian%5FStartup%5FRocket%5FMotor%5FTest.html), Hyderabad-based Skyroot successfully [test fired](https://twitter.com/SkyrootA/status/1773253058476036453) the Kalam-250 second stage motor part of its upcoming orbital rocket Vikram-I. The company recently [raised $27.5 million](https://aviationweek.com/aerospace/commercial-space/indias-skyroot-raises-275-million-fresh-funding-round), hoping to launch Vikram-I by end of year. 2025 remains more likely though. Skyroot previously launched [suborbital test mission ](https://www.isro.gov.in/mission%5Fprarambh.html)[*Prarambh*](https://www.isro.gov.in/mission%5Fprarambh.html)in November 2022, becoming India’s first such privately developed rocket. Other recent milestones for Skyroot in the lead up to launch of Vikram-I include [flight qualifying](https://twitter.com/SkyrootA/status/1671416833579286529) its Raman-I engine, which will provide roll attitude control, [hot](https://www.isro.gov.in/Support%5FSpaceStartup%5FRocketEngine.html) [firing](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1682745543343079424) the Raman-II engine powering Vikram-I’s fourth stage, and the Vikram-I first stage [passing pressure testing](https://twitter.com/SkyrootA/status/1736576104272421090). ## Some key perspectives on Indian space Casey Dreier of The Planetary Societyhas an [excellent interview of Gurbir Singh](https://www.planetary.org/articles/history-motivations-indias-space-program) (a sponsor of *Indian Space Progress*) on the unique origin, paths, and motivations of India’s space program. > **Casey Dreier:** You write that, unlike the space programs being established at the time in the U.S. and Soviet Union, India’s program from the outset was wholly non-military and built to meet the social needs of its huge population. It was really almost inwardly directed as a modernizing force rather than a demonstration of technological competition or global hegemony. > > **Gurbir Singh:** Having lived under suppression, under the control of another nation, was seen as a national humiliation. India did not want to return to that. There was a desire for self-sufficiency rather than some sort of hegemony or sense of superiority over other countries. India is probably the only country with a space program which had entirely non-military foundations, although since then, it has grown to include military aspects. This is worth highlighting also because something as basic as the origin of the Indian space program is what [the New York Times misrepresents](https://jatan.space/the-nyt-continues-to-misrepresent-indian-space/), among other things fundamental to how Indian space functions. Jayant Murthy, a renowned astrophysicist who just had [an asteroid named after him](https://www.wionews.com/science/international-body-names-asteroid-after-indian-scientist-professor-jayant-murthy-in-rare-honour-703414) by the International Astronomical Union for his contributions, encapsulated his critique of the current direction of Indian space in a [new interview for The Hindu](https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/our-world-is-built-on-basic-science-and-part-of-basic-science-is-rationality/article67993614.ece): > **Preeti Zachariah:**What do you think of India’s current space program? > > **Jayant Murthy:** I think the space program has done very well. There are many places where we can do better. For instance, the Chinese space program used to be well behind us, but now, in 20 years, it is far ahead. > > But the current revamp is good for ISRO. It was always supposed to be the Indian Space Research Organization, but they ended up getting into routine things. How is your 100th PSLV ( Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle) going to be different from your 99th? > > It is good that they are getting into private industry, but the main problem, I see, with the revamp is that the government has still not realized that space is still driven by government money. They are expecting private investors to come in, and that is not realistic. They have projected a lot of money being put into the system, but I think it may be difficult. When many Indian startups have failed to explicitly talk about customers even during the highs of their marketing & communications tied to engineering milestones, it’s hard to disagree with Jayant Murthy’s take. For more such perspectives on Indian space, I also recommend checking out [Memory Monologues](https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLe7sU8yiNcX8%5FrEMh6Mn4aKHMS6SzyQXd) and [Perspectives](https://www.spaceportsarabhai.org/#perspectives) from Spaceport SARABHAI, India’s first space think tank. ### Moon Monday #169: Queqiao 2 and South Korea leap for the Moon, and more mission updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-169/ Last updated: 2026-03-16T07:30:57.000Z ## China doubles down on lunar infrastructure with the launch and orbital insertion of Queqiao 2 ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/03/queqiao-2-launch-long-march-8-rocket.jpg) The March 20, 2024 launch of the Queqiao 2 lunar orbiter on a Long March 8 rocket. [Image: CNSA](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/n6758823/n6758838/c10488507/content.html) On March 20 at 00:31 UTC, China’s Long March 8 rocket [launched](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/n6758823/n6758838/c10488507/content.html) the 1200-kilogram Queqiao 2 lunar communications relay satellite on a Moon-ward trajectory with an orbit of 200 by 420,000 kilometers. Andrew Jones reports that Queqiao 2 [entered an elliptical orbit](https://spacenews.com/chinas-queqiao-2-relay-satellite-enters-lunar-orbit/) around the Moon on March 24\. With its 4.2-meter wide parabolic antenna, Queqiao 2 will relay communications between Earth and China’s upcoming [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-126/) sample return craft on the Moon’s farside. The four key modules of the 8200-kilogram [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-126/) Mooncraft [arrived](https://spacenews.com/chinas-change-6-probe-arrives-at-spaceport-for-first-ever-lunar-far-side-sample-mission) at China’s Wenchang spaceport in January, with CNSA aiming for launch on a Long March 5 rocket this May to bring about two kilograms of samples from the [Apollo impact crater](https://jatan.space/peak-ringed-apollo-crater/) on the Moon’s farside. These samples should be scientifically even more valuable than the [Chang’e 5 samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-156/) as it would be our first tactile window into our Moon’s [mysterious farside](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). In contrast, the first [Queqiao](https://www.planetary.org/articles/0519-change-4-relay-satellite) relay satellite has been halo-orbiting the Earth-Moon Lagrangian point #2 and relaying communications for the farside [Chang’e 4](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/change-4) mission since 2018\. With Queqiao aging, China will utilize Queqiao 2 for Chang’e 4 as needed. CNSA expects Queqiao 2 to orbit the Moon stably for eight years. It will also relay communications for the upcoming [Chang’e 7 & 8](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-148/) landers, currently targeting launch in 2026 and 2028 respectively. As Zhang Tong [reported previously](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3250884/testing-testing-china-try-out-new-satellite-tech-change-6-lunar-mission), the Queqiao 2 launch also carried two experimental Tiandu CubeSats. They [entered lunar orbit too](https://twitter.com/AJ%5FFI/status/1772184355357467099), and will soon test and verify technologies to feed into the [Queqiao constellation](https://spacenews.com/china-wants-a-lunar-satellite-constellation-to-support-deep-space-missions), China’s upcoming lunar navigation & communications service similar to ESA’s [Moonlight](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-98/) project. Queqiao 2 could also provide communications support for [China’s first crewed Moon landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-137/#china%E2%80%99s-first-crewed-moon-landing-plan), currently targeting a launch by 2030, as well as to other Moonbound spacecraft from international partners. Chang’e 7, Chang’e 8, and the first Chinese crewed Moon mission are all part of the first phase of the [upcoming](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-32/) China-led long-term [scientific Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-120/#more-on-the-sino-russian-moonbase) called the International Lunar Research Station (ILRS). It’s been rumored that Chang’e 7 or 8 will deploy another navcom orbiter to join Queqiao 2 and begin expanding the constellation. The Planetary Society [notes](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/queqiao-2-chinas-bridge-for-lunar-exploration) that Queqiao 2 has some key science goals too: > Queqiao-2 will also carry three science payloads. These will play a part in the [overall science goals](https://academic.oup.com/nsr/article/11/2/nwad329/7503932?login=false) of the multi-spacecraft Chang’e-7 mission. The Energetic Neutral Atom Imager for Earth’s magnetotail imaging (GENA) and the Extreme Ultraviolet Camera for Earth’s plasmasphere observation (EUC) will study Earth's magnetotail and plasmasphere, and how the solar wind interacts with the Earth's magnetosphere and the ionosphere. > > A Moon-Earth very-long-baseline interferometry (VLBI) measurement and observation experiment (LOVEX) is also included, designed to improve the accuracy of determining the orbits of spacecraft in deep space. It will create a 400,000-kilometer (250,000-mile) baseline between Queqiao-2 and radio telescopes on Earth. The experiment will also carry out radio astronomical observations and test capabilities for astrophysics and astrometry, making precise measurements of stars’ locations in the sky. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/03/farside-moon-and-earth-change-5-t1.jpg) Earth and our Moon as seen from beyond the lunar farside by China’s Chang’e 5 T1 test spacecraft on October 28, 2014\. [Image: CAST](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/earth-and-the-moon-from-change5t1) --- *Many thanks to* [***Epsilon3***](https://www.epsilon3.io)*,* [***Joseph Biernat***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/joseph-j-biernat-24858425) *and* [***Dany Waller***](https://danywaller.github.io/) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday. If you love this community resource too,* [*join them*](https://jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday/)*!* --- ## CAPSTONE continues extended Moon mission ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/03/capstone-approaching-the-moon-1.jpg) Illustration of the CAPSTONE spacecraft approaching the Moon. [Image: Advanced Space](https://advancedspace.com/capstone-tcm4-success-update) The NASA-funded and Advanced Space-led [CAPSTONE](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/small%5Fspacecraft/capstone) lunar orbiter continues its extended mission. Earlier this month, the spacecraft demonstrated—with simulated data sent by the mission team—an advanced ability to [detect and classify system anomalies using machine learning](https://advancedspace.com/advanced-space-demonstrates-artificial-intelligence-for-spacecraft-autonomy-at-the-moon/). These tests are part of a broader push for autonomous operations of spacecraft in lunar orbit. This year CAPSTONE has [continued to cross-communicate](https://advancedspace.com/advanced-spaces-resilient-capstone-mission-for-nasa-is-operating-at-the-moon-for-445-days-continues-to-transform-exploration-with-cutting-edge-technology) with NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html) (LRO) to demonstrate autonomous navigation in lunar orbit, that is, without relying on Earthly ground stations. Being able to autonomously determine position and navigation states means future lunar satellites can operate more efficiently by [not blocking](https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/08/nasas-artemis-i-mission-nearly-broke-the-deep-space-network) as much of the precious but limited bandwidth of NASA’s Deep Space Network or other such ground stations. Relatedly, NASA [funded](https://advancedspace.com/selected-nasa-sbir-2023-awards) Advanced Space last year to develop a mission design and planning tool which will increase the autonomy and safety of lunarbound spacecraft along various trajectories. This tool would also benefit crewed missions such as those under [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis). Another way CAPSTONE is proving useful to NASA is it’s test-flying the same fuel-efficient [Near-Rectilinear Halo Orbit](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/a-lunar-orbit-that-s-just-right-for-the-international-gateway) to be flown by the NASA-led international [Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/gateway/) lunar orbital habitat later this decade. The CAPSTONE team has [published some papers](https://advancedspace.com/subject/papers-presentations) to that end. ## South Korea leaps for the Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/03/tsiolkovskiy-crater-by-kplo.jpg) A spectacular view of the Tsiolkovskiy crater on our Moon’s farside, as imaged by South Korea’s KPLO spacecraft. [Image: KARI](https://www.kari.re.kr/kplo/danuri/news/newsView.do?nttId=8650&pageIndex=1&searchCnd=&searchWrd=) Celestial Citizen [notes](https://celestialcitizen.substack.com/p/threes-a-party) that South Korea is [ramping up its space funding](https://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20240313050582) with an eye on landing a robotic spacecraft on the Moon in 2032 using indigenous technologies. This move comes as the country is finally forming a dedicated space agency in May called the Korea Aerospace Administration (KASA), which will be distinct from the already existing Korea Aerospace Research Institute (KARI) leading the country’s first lunar orbiter [KPLO](https://jatan.space/kplo/). As Kim Na-young [previously reported](https://en.yna.co.kr/view/AEN20231030010400320), South Korea’s Moon lander project passed a preliminary feasibility study last October, and will officially begin this year with a budget of $393 million. The tentative plan is to make an \~1800-kilogram robotic lander. A rover will be onboard the lander alongside other instruments. KPLO has been capturing beautiful high resolution images—see [Tsiolkovskiy](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/projections?camera=-1414321.771%2C1745837.301%2C-844417.384%2C6.283%2C-1.571%2C0.000%2C2400269.708%2C60.000&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4XyA&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFOOZLRfImqnioA&proj=22) and [Szilard M](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/projections?camera=-495523.212%2C1749911.889%2C1031616.634%2C6.283%2C-1.571%2C0.000%2C2090925.095%2C60.000&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4XyA&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFOOZLRfImqnioA&proj=22)—and South Korea will use these along with LRO ones to help identify good landing site candidates for the Moon landing mission. South Korea has also developed a [full-scale dirty thermovac chamber](https://www.kict.re.kr/researchResultWeb/getResearchResultView.es?mid=a20301000000&id=250) that accurately [simulates the dynamic electrostatic environment](https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/11/1/69) on the Moon’s surface. Such facilities not only let scientists test the functioning of full-scale hardware in lunar-like environments but help them understand how to mitigate long term damage to lunar hardware and astronaut suits from notorious moondust. Relatedly, China opened up a [Lunar Simulation Chamber](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3253623/worlds-largest-space-environment-simulator-launched-northeast-china) last month. ## More mission updates - Jeff Foust [reports](https://spacenews.com/intuitive-machines-on-firmer-footing-after-lunar-landing/) that Intuitive Machines’ [second Moon mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-155/) part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) could slip from its November launch to next year due to the agency considering moving the [landing location](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/clps/nasa-intuitive-machines-announce-landing-site-location-for-lunar-drill) further down south in hopes of accessing [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/)—the primary goal of the mission for NASA. - Late last year ESA released a [call for proposals](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Preparing%5Ffor%5Fthe%5FFuture/Discovery%5Fand%5FPreparation/To%5Fthe%5FMoon%5FESA%5Fseeks%5Fideas%5Ffor%5Fsmall%5Flunar%5Fmissions) for small Moon missions under €50 million to fly before end of decade to meet parts of ESA’s [exploration and science goals](https://www.esa.int/terraenovae). Evan Gough [reports](https://www.universetoday.com/166234/its-time-to-study-lunar-lava-tubes-heres-a-mission-that-could-help/) one proposal that came in is a small lunar leaper bot that will jump around and explore [lunar lava tubes](https://jatan.space/underground-lava-tubes-on-the-moon-marius-hills/). Previously, ESA was [considering a 2033 mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-69/#the-promise-of-lunar-lava-tubes-and-an-esa-mission) to explore a lunar pit that has an opening to a lava tube but with no updates in over a year, the project seems to be on a halt. - Astrobotic [hired four former leading NASA figures](https://www.astrobotic.com/four-veteran-space-industry-leaders-join-astrobotic-as-the-company-builds-griffin-1/) in key engineering and advisory roles ahead of its critical [Griffin lander](https://www.astrobotic.com/lunar-delivery/landers/griffin-lander) launch contracted by NASA to deliver the agency’s water-studying [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) to the Moon’s south pole. Astrobotic’s [failed](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-159/) first lunar mission in January will certainly induce delays in VIPER’s launch. ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/03/illustration-of-icon-constructing-lunar-infrastructure.jpg) Illustration of ICON’s lunar construction technology in action on the Moon. [Image: ICON / BIG-Bjarke Ingels Group](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-icon-advance-lunar-construction-technology-for-moon-missions) - Eric Berger [reports](https://arstechnica.com/space/2024/03/the-us-government-seems-serious-about-developing-a-lunar-economy/) that following DARPA’s [selection of 14 companies](https://www.darpa.mil/news-events/2023-12-05) in December 2023 to conduct [lunar infrastructure studies](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-157/#prepping-for-lunar-infrastructure-galore) as part of the 10-year Lunar Architecture study (LunA-10) on how best to build key *commercial* infrastructure pieces for sustaining human presence on the Moon, the defense organization now seeks more information from companies in six key technology areas: centralized heating and cooling hubs, efficient bulk lunar regolith processing to extract low abundance minerals, low-altitude satellites for better resource prospecting, silicon wafer manufacturing that taps into ISRU infrastructure, microbial biomanufacturing and recycling, and a GPS-like lunar positioning system. Related tangent: Northrop Grumman says DARPA is further funding their LunA-10 study of a [lunar railroad network](https://news.northropgrumman.com/news/releases/northrop-grumman-to-develop-concept-for-lunar-railroad) to transport humans, supplies, and resources. - Apollo 10 commander and peacemaker in the Apollo-Soyuz mission [Thomas Stafford](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-administrator-pays-tribute-to-space-pioneer-thomas-stafford/) passed away at 93. - **Sponsored listing:** Open Lunar Foundation is hiring a [Program Coordinator](https://www.openlunar.org/recruit) to schedule and administer the organization’s many project pipelines, liaison with Open Lunar fellows and project leads, support the community, and aid with research and documentation. [Apply here](https://openlunar.typeform.com/prgrmcrdntr) by April 18. ### Moon Monday #168: Starship Artemis, mission updates, and results from recent lunar craft URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-168/ Last updated: 2024-03-18T15:19:36.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/03/starship-ift-3-1.jpg) Techno-scenic launch of the third fully integrated Starship Super Heavy launch-and-landing vehicle. [Image: SpaceX](https://twitter.com/SpaceX) ## NASA’s road to Luna advances through Starship SpaceX’s [third launch](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/spacex-scores-many-successes-on-third-starship-test-flight/) of its fully integrated [Starship Super Heavy](https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/starship) rocket on March 14 achieved orbital velocity, clearing a major milestone of the long path to putting humans on the Moon again since NASA has [selected](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) Starship’s lunar variant to land crew for the [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/) mission. The flight wasn’t wholly successful as SpaceX lost both the Starship stages during their respective descents but I like how Peter Hague captured the test’s essence [on his blog Planetocracy](https://planetocracy.substack.com/p/the-meaning-of-starship): > Despite the fact that there is obvious work to do, it is worth noting that all the issues remaining with Starship and Superheavy are in phases of flight exclusive to its reuse. As an expendable vehicle, it would have had a successful flight. SpaceX also [tested transferring cryogenic fuel](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/esdmd/artemis-campaign-development-division/human-landing-system-program/nasa-artemis-mission-progresses-with-spacex-starship-test-flight/) between the upper stage Starship’s tanks as part of a [Tipping Point award](https://www.nasa.gov/technology/2020-nasa-tipping-point-selections/) demonstration for NASA. It’s something SpaceX might need to perform at least 10 times between Starships for each crewed Artemis Moon landing attempt. Engineers are reviewing the test data to understand how the transfer went, including how super-chilled liquids moved within the tanks during flight, and how that affected Starship’s stability. [SpaceX and NASA are still figuring out](https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/11/what-nasa-wants-to-see-from-spacexs-second-starship-test-flight) how many refueling launches will a typical Artemis landing need. Again, the larger perspective to consider is [the huge deal](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-101/) that is [Artemis IV](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artemis%5F4), for the crewed landing of which NASA chose an [upgraded Lunar Starship](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-spacex-second-contract-option-for-artemis-moon-landing-0) as a critical mission element. If successful, in just one mission after Artemis III’s crewed landing demonstration, NASA will have upgraded its entire lunar transportation stack—from improving payload capacity to lunar orbit by 10,000 kilograms with the [SLS](https://www.nasa.gov/reference/space-launch-system/) rocket’s [Block 1B](https://www.nasa.gov/general/nasa-expanding-lunar-exploration-with-upgraded-sls-mega-rocket-design/) variant to sending the first astronauts to the US-led [Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) orbital habitat to having an upgraded crewed (Starship) lander enabling an extended surface mission of up to 33 days instead of Artemis III’s 6.5-day stay. Artemis IV’s architecture, to be reinforced with [Artemis V](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/) via Blue Origin’s Blue Moon lander instead of Starship, is the template NASA hopes to keep using in future missions leading to an [Artemis Moonbase](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept). It’s thus far more important to get all Artemis IV and V elements right—including Starship—than to worry about crewed Moon landings being delayed a bit more due to this not-fully-successful Starship flight. We have waited decades for a [return to our Moon](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/), and just as long for a fully reusable space launch system. We can wait a few years more. ## China set to launch Queqiao 2 ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/03/farside-moon-and-earth-change-5-t1.jpg) Earth and our Moon as seen from beyond the lunar farside by China’s Chang’e 5 T1 test spacecraft on October 28, 2014\. [Image: CAST](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/earth-and-the-moon-from-change5t1) China seems all set to launch its 1200-kilogram [Queqiao 2](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-150/) communications relay satellite on a Long March 8 rocket tomorrow, March 19, [reports](https://spacenews.com/china-rolls-out-rocket-for-queqiao-2-lunar-satellite-launch/) Andrew Jones. Queqiao 2’s 4.2-meter wide parabolic antenna will relay communications between Earth and CNSA’s upcoming lunar missions, including the [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-126/) sample return craft and the [Change’e 7 & 8](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-148/) landers. As Zhang Tong [reported previously](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3250884/testing-testing-china-try-out-new-satellite-tech-change-6-lunar-mission), Queqiao 2 will also deploy two experimental Tiandu CubeSats to test and verify technologies to feed into the [Queqiao constellation](https://spacenews.com/china-wants-a-lunar-satellite-constellation-to-support-deep-space-missions), China’s upcoming lunar navigation & communications service similar to ESA’s [Moonlight](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-98/) project. Relatedly, the four key modules of the 8200-kilogram [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-126/) Mooncraft [arrived](https://spacenews.com/chinas-change-6-probe-arrives-at-spaceport-for-first-ever-lunar-far-side-sample-mission) at China’s Wenchang spaceport in January, with CNSA aiming for launch on a Long March 5 rocket this May to bring about two kilograms of samples from the [Apollo impact crater](https://jatan.space/peak-ringed-apollo-crater/) on the Moon’s farside. These samples should be scientifically even more valuable than the [Chang’e 5 samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-156/) as it would be our first tactile window into our Moon’s [mysterious farside](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). Related tangent: Andrew Jones [reports](https://spacenews.com/surprise-chinese-lunar-mission-hit-by-launch-anomaly/) that after a surprise March 13 launch of a Long March 2C rocket, China may have lost the two small satellites onboard called DRO-A and DRO-B. The satellites, supposedly launched with the objective of demonstrating autonomous lunar navigation, now seem lost due to the rocket not inserting them into the intended trajectory to the Moon. --- *Many thanks to* [***Epsilon3***](https://www.epsilon3.io) *and* [***Off Planet Research***](https://offplanetresearch.com) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday. If you love my work too,* [*join them*](https://jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday/)*.* --- ## More mission updates - NASA’s [FY2025 Presidential budget request](https://www.planetary.org/space-policy/nasas-fy-2025-budget) essentially remains flat with an ask of $25.4 billion from the US Congress. Said Congress is providing NASA with [$24.9 billion](https://www.planetary.org/space-policy/nasas-fy-2024-budget) for FY2024—two billion less than the [FY2024 Presidential request](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-119/) and half a billion less than [FY2023](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-109/). However, just like how the US Congress [prioritized and maintained](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-gets-significant-cut-in-final-fy2024-appropriations/) funding for the [Artemis program](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/) for FY2024, it’s expected to do the same for FY2025. - In an [interview](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X5DLYbWAIDw) with Chethan Kumar for Times of India, ISRO Chief S. Somanath said that work is progressing slowly on [new throttle-able engines](https://imgur.com/G5jLnW0) needed for the 6,000-kilogram ISRO lander, which will deliver JAXA’s [LUPEX rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-111/) to the Moon’s south pole by end of decade to study [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other volatiles. Somanath added that ISRO is preparing a funding proposal for the Chandrayaan 4 sample return mission now that preliminary studies are done. - Interlune, which [raised $15.6 million](https://payloadspace.com/lunar-resource-extraction-startup-interlune-raises-15-6m/) last month, says it [wants to mine Helium-3](https://payloadspace.com/he-3s-all-that-for-interlune/) on the Moon. ## Welcome to the era of precision Moon landings With the SLIM Moon mission, Japan has brought us into a whole new regime of precision landings. One with big implications for the future of lunar exploration and science, including NASA’s Artemis program. To piece together [this story](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-japans-moon-sniper-mission-hit-its-mark/), I spoke to experts from JAXA, NASA, and ISRO. The article has been published as a feature on *Scientific American*: [🌖 Read: Precision Moon landings and the future 📌](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-japans-moon-sniper-mission-hit-its-mark/) ## Lunar research from LPSC ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/03/u-k-th-lunar-maps-by-kplo.jpg) Distribution of Uranium, Potassium, and Thorium on the Moon as measured by KPLO’s Gamma ray spectrometer (left), compared to maps from JAXA SELENE, CNSA Chang’e 2, and NASA Lunar Prospector respectively (right, top to bottom). [Image: K. J. Kim, et al.](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2024/pdf/1884.pdf) At the [55th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2024/technical%5Fprogram/) (LPSC) last week, lunar researchers from several countries presented their recent work. I thought it would be interesting to highlight some new results based on data from recent Moon missions as that’ll be apt for the broader lunar community reading this blog. - Preliminary [lunar maps of Uranium, Potassium, And Thorium](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2024/pdf/1884.pdf) by [KPLO](https://jatan.space/kplo/)’s gamma ray spectrometer. Related: NASA’s ultra-sensitive [ShadowCam](https://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/about) imager aboard KPLO helps scientists [better study the LCROSS impact](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2024/pdf/1913.pdf) site. - [Five years of lunar farside radiation measurements](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2024/pdf/1144.pdf) from [Chang’e 4](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/change-4)’s Lunar Lander Neutron And Dosimetry Experiment - [Landing site assessment](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2024/pdf/1682.pdf) for Australia’s first lunar rover, [Roo-ver](https://www.space.gov.au/meet-roo-ver) - Initial [elemental composition measurements](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2024/pdf/1135.pdf) from the [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) rover, and [laser-ranging](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2024/pdf/2259.pdf) the retroreflector on the Chandrayaan 3 lander with [LRO](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html) - ISRO’s Chandrayaan 2 orbiter data helping NASA downselect areas within the [Artemis landing zones](https://jatan.space/nasa-taps-top-scientist-for-crewed-moon-return) using [infrared](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2024/pdf/1449.pdf) and [radar](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2024/pdf/2274.pdf) measurements, the former to help find spots with [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and the latter to help reduce false positives from terrain having rough textures. - Related: [How India’s Chandrayaan 2 orbiter helped Japan nail SLIM’s Moon landing, and where Artemis comes in](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-helped-slim-land-on-the-moon/) Also at LPSC, and [as part of](https://nspires.nasaprs.com/external/solicitations/summary!init.do?solId=%7BCCF1C796-C426-2A96-0664-91648897CCA8%7D&path=open) NASA’s Lunar Discovery and Exploration Program, the agency announced that it is granting about [$3 million each to five researchers](https://science.nasa.gov/directorates/smd/nasa-awards-grants-for-lunar-instrumentation/) for developing advanced instruments to fly on upcoming [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/artemis/#missions) or [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) missions by end of decade. ### A follow-up on my critique of the IM-1 Moon mission’s narrative URL: https://jatan.space/im-1-critique-follow-up/ Last updated: 2024-03-14T11:00:35.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/03/intuitive-machines-im-1-lander-on-the-moon-firing.jpg) A dramatic view of the Odysseus lunar lander still firing its main engine after making contact with the Moon. [Image: Intuitive Machines](https://twitter.com/Int%5FMachines/status/1762919217089720716/photo/1) In *Moon Monday #166*, I wrote how Intuitive Machines and NASA [skewed the success criteria](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-166/) of the former’s first Moon landing mission. I did not think the article would be taken as well as it was: **Celestial Citizen, in their** [**latest Continuum newsletter**](https://celestialcitizen.substack.com/p/goodnight-odie)**:** > While a private endeavor like Intuitive Machines may not have the same transparency obligations that a government agency does, shouldn’t they still be honest about their weak points in addition to their triumphs? Fellow space writer Jatan Mehta perfectly summarizes these questions in his newsletter, [Jatan’s Space](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-166/), with “why is it not enough to celebrate the genuine feats Intuitive Machines did achieve?” Is *partial success* not enough (to America)? **The Orbital Index (a Moon Monday sponsor) in** [**Issue #259**](https://orbitalindex.com/archive/2024-03-06-Issue-259/)**:** > Jatan has a [well-articulated piece](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-166/) on his discomfort with NASA and Intuitive Machines calling IM-1 an “unqualified success,” especially given that LRO spotted its landing location 1.5 km from its original target and the limited data that was able to be downlinked from its payloads. It is a success, certainly, but perhaps with some qualifications. **Science Writer and Editor Mukunth, in his blog post** [**To the Moon – or the stock market?**](https://peregrination.net/2024/03/06/intuitive-machines-odysseus-nasa-clps/)**:** > Even if Intuitive Machines isn't implicitly required to follow NASA's communications policies, NASA needs to ensure the companies it contracts to fly its payloads – to ease its own path to the moon in future – do. As Jatan also pointed out, the onus to communicate lies with NASA: CLPS is publicly funded and without it missions like Odysseus wouldn't happen. We need explicit policies to streamline these companies' communications expectations to follow NASA's rather than their share prices. I’ll be honest. I was surprised by the uptake, especially because at the time of writing my article, most publishers and public reactions I had come across were on nothing but a blanket hail spree. In any case, I laid out quite a few specific questions in my article. They remain unanswered, and so if you have an informed perspective that my global audience can benefit from, do [reach out](mailto:hey@jatan.space). Even if you write a public rebuttal on your site, and I encourage that, I’m happy to link to it on my [Moon Monday](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) newsletter in the interest of the public conversation. Ultimately, I believe rooting for the Moon does not mean being only a cheerleader. ### Welcome to the era of precision Moon landings URL: https://jatan.space/precision-moon-landings-and-the-future/ Last updated: 2024-12-19T17:41:26.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/03/jaxa-slim-lander-on-the-moon-by-lro.jpg) JAXA’s SLIM spacecraft on the Moon as imaged by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter. [Image: NASA / GSFC / ASU](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/1358) To piece together [this story](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-japans-moon-sniper-mission-hit-its-mark/), I spoke to experts from JAXA, NASA, and ISRO. When Japan’s solar-powered [SLIM lander](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/en/missions/spacecraft/current/slim.html) made a lopsided-but-successful touchdown on the Moon on January 19, most news coverage focused on the feat as a historic first for the nation—only the fifth after the US, the former Soviet Union, China and India to ever achieve a soft lunar landing. But the most historic aspect of SLIM—which stands for Smart Lander for Investigating Moon—wasn’t the mere fact of its landing but rather its remarkable circumstances. Designed by JAXA, the mission used autonomous navigation to demonstrate an unprecedentedly precise landfall in unusually treacherous lunar terrain, coming to rest close to the center of its boulder-strewn and crater-pocked target site despite [losing](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/en/outreach/announcements/files/SLIM-pressconf-20240125.pdf) one of its two main engines during its descent. The landing is a milestone in lunar exploration that will undoubtedly lead to more as future missions use lessons from SLIM to pull off precise landings of their own to quickly access points of scientific or technological interest upon touchdown. “With SLIM we demonstrated that accessing specific spots of scientific interest on the Moon can now be done with small missions, too, instead of having traditional, more expensive missions deliver large rovers that drive long distances to reach desired areas,” says Masaki Fujimoto, deputy director general of JAXA’s Institute of Space and Astronautical Science. ## A lunar bull’s eye ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f6ed0f2dc-d28d-443c-9f44-8a5b1d67f918_640x480-jpeg.jpg) The flipped SLIM spacecraft on the Moon as imaged by the LEV-1 crawler bot. [Image: JAXA / TOMY / SONY](https://jda.jaxa.jp/result.php?lang=e&id=7e06883b03d41b4836ddfed96ea72a52) SLIM’s achievement is best understood via what engineers call the “landing ellipse,” which is the area inside which a spacecraft is expected to touch down. In an ideal world, a lander would reach the center of this ellipse, which is advertised as the target landing site. In reality, even minuscule errors in navigation, guidance and control make it a near certainty that landers will miss this spot. A lander’s distance away from the ellipse center defines the achieved precision. JAXA set an ambitiously tight landing ellipse of 100 by 100 meters for SLIM, and the spacecraft managed to touch down about [55 meters](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=25.1936969%2C-13.348254%2C25.2931201%2C-13.2942446&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&trailType=0&features=25.25074900%2C-13.31603100%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22SLIM+landing+site%22%7D%7C25.24890200%2C-13.31551000%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22SLIM+target+landing+site%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFOOZLRfImqnioA&proj=10) from its center. This makes SLIM the most precise robotic planetary landing in history by a considerable margin. The runner-up is China’s Chang’e 3 lander, which in 2013 landed some [90 meters off-center](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284345092%5FGuidance%5FSummary%5Fand%5FAssessment%5Fof%5Fthe%5FChang'e-3%5FPowered%5FDescent%5Fand%5FLanding) from its landing ellipse; but Chang’e 3’s landing ellipse also spanned an area 3,600 times as large as that of SLIM, giving the Chinese spacecraft vastly more room for error—a distinction that matters for mission planners. “Precision landings allow you to reliably study more rock and soil types by planning an optimal touchdown point. This way you can land in, say, an impact-melt region and then drive over easily to a mare basalt,” says Benjamin Farcy, a postdoctoral researcher at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center. “Without precision landings, a typical rover with a range of a kilometer might not cover both lithologies.” At the heart of SLIM’s precision-landing ability is a technology JAXA calls “vision-based navigation.” To determine its location and trajectory during its descent, SLIM snapped images of the Moon’s surface for near-real-time comparison with orbital maps preloaded in its memory. These maps come from NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html) (LRO), ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) and JAXA’s own [SELENE](https://www.kaguya.jaxa.jp/index%5Fe.htm) craft. Each set of maps offered its own advantages for different phases of SLIM’s descent. For example, Chandrayaan 2’s Orbiter High-Resolution Camera (OHRC) offered the [highest spatial resolution](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-51/) and thus was most useful for SLIM’s final descent phase. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f97f68c5f-76f2-4e31-b1bf-45d9f3ae5e94_1350x850-jpeg.jpg) The SLIM lander’s lunar surface images taken from about 50-meter altitudes (blue boxes) superimposed on the background image by ISRO’s Chandrayaan 2 orbiter. The SLIM footprint in the red frame is the safe landing zone that it autonomously set based on hazards it detected. [Image: ISRO / JAXA / SLIM](https://global.jaxa.jp/press/2024/01/20240125-1%5Fe.html) In a [post-landing media release](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/en/outreach/announcements/files/SLIM-pressconf-20240125.pdf), SLIM’s Project Manager Shinichiro Sakai mentioned that the mission team used Chandrayaan 2’s imagery not just for the lander’s final descent phase but also to select the final target landing area pre-launch. “JAXA sent us a request in 2021 to image SLIM’s landing site, and so we planned an orbital pass-over of the Chandrayaan-2 orbiter to acquire images \[for the agency\],” says Amitabh Singh, head of ISRO’s Planetary and Space Science Data Processing Division and a lead scientist on the OHRC team. Later in 2023 ISRO provided JAXA with more images of the landing site from different sun angles, which helped engineers tune SLIM’s algorithms to instantly identify boulders and other hazards. Even though modern robotic landers, including India’s own [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/), can self-identify a good landing spot during the final phase of a landing, the lack of an apt last-mile map affects the landing precision. When SLIM was roughly 50 meters above the lunar surface, it [hovered](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/en/outreach/announcements/files/SLIM-pressconf-20240125.pdf) for a second time and successfully identified touchdown hazards below it using vision-based navigation with Chandrayaan-2 imagery. But at this point one of its two main engine nozzles [mysteriously detached](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/en/outreach/announcements/files/SLIM-pressconf-20240125.pdf), and off-center thrust made SLIM go sideways. SLIM’s guidance system identified this anomaly and descended using imagery captured during the hover phase while continually trying to stabilize its orientation with the other main engine and smaller thrusters. While SLIM’s vertical velocity of 1.4 meters per second on touchdown was well within acceptable bounds, the eastward lateral motion and touchdown orientation weren’t nominal, causing it to flip on the surface with its solar panels facing away from the sun. Even when afflicted, SLIM could see and target a safe spot to touch down upon and manage to avoid a crash. ## A new era of lunar exploration ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fef632dbd-24f2-4587-a44e-a147ba330d92-heic.jpg) Flight model of the SLIM Moon lander at the Spacecraft and Fairing Assembly Building at Japan’s Tanegashima launch complex. [Image: JAXA](https://jda.jaxa.jp/search.php?lang=e&page=1&keyword=SLIM&library=1&category1=&category2=&category3=&category4=&page%5Fpics=20) When paired with rapidly advancing instrumentation for planetary missions, precision landings can help answer some fundamental questions that previously demanded expensive and complex sample return missions. In a [2021 paper](https://doi.org/10.3847/PSJ/abee7f) published in the *Planetary Science Journal*, Farcy and team suggested that by using precision-landing techniques even low-cost missions such as those under [NASA’s CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) could reap outsized rewards by targeting very specific sites of great scientific interest where in situ measurements—rather than costly acquisition of specimens for analysis back on Earth—could clarify some murky chapters of lunar history. But that doesn’t mean precision landings wouldn’t benefit sample return missions, too. Such efforts tend to be [roverless](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/change-5-mission-profile) to reduce mission complexity and cost, as most recently seen with China’s Chang’e 5 mission from 2020, which brought home 1.7 kilograms of [geologically young volcanic lunar material](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-156). A precision touchdown can ensure high-fidelity science results for immobile landers by allowing them to reach and collect exactly what they came for. A sample return mission to the [South Pole–Aitken Basin](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2008/pdf/1626.pdf) (SPA)—the Moon’s largest, deepest confirmed impact structure—has been assessed as a [top exploration priority](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-74) in the last three [Planetary Science and Astrobiology Decadal Surveys](https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/26522/origins-worlds-and-life-a-decadal-strategy-for-planetary-science). This report is produced every 10 years by the U.S. scientific community to guide future NASA missions. Scientists think the impact that created the SPA [excavated and scattered](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-39/) some of the Moon’s insides. “The SPA is the one place where we think the Moon’s mantle is exposed on the surface,” Farcy says. “If you want to study these materials, precision landing will let you better target them.” [Sampling key SPA areas](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-24626-3) will help reveal the exact conditions in which the Moon [formed](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin) and [evolved](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon). To that end, China is launching the [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174) mission this year to return about two kilograms of SPA samples. There’s also NASA’s [Artemis program](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis), which aims to send humans to the lunar south pole as early as late 2026\. While none of those currently planned crewed landings target the SPA, scientists have identified some Artemis candidate landing sites which [could host mantle material](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2021/lro-deep-secrets-of-moon) ejected by impacts on the SPA. Because the first two crewed Artemis landings, Artemis III and IV, will not carry a rover, the absence of a targeted precision-landing capability could limit astronauts to gathering materials within a few footsteps from their spacecraft. Starting with Artemis V, though, plans call for crews driving the [Lunar Terrain Vehicle](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-171/), potentially allowing them to access sites up to 20 kilometers away. Even then, pinpoint touchdowns may prove critical for Artemis missions to access [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) lying inside south polar [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/)—a primary goal of the program. The terrain there is [rocky with steep slopes](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/SPole%5FSRidgemap%5FLOLA-Slope5m%5Fv20190515.pdf), with only small isolated areas of flatness for a lander to perch upon. There, veering mere meters off target could mean the difference between a triumphant landing near the rim of a water-ice-hosting crater or a fatal tumble down its walls. ## A high-precision partnership Of course, Artemis astronauts will presumably be able to control their lander’s descent just like their Apollo-era predecessors, but even then automated abilities would help achieve milestones. Moreover, NASA [recently asked](https://spacenews.com/blue-origin-and-spacex-start-work-on-cargo-versions-of-crewed-lunar-landers) SpaceX and Blue Origin to begin work on cargo versions of their crewed lunar landers for future Artemis missions. These will need automated SLIM-like precision landings to reliably deliver supplies for astronauts, starting with Artemis VII in the 2030s. SLIM’s descent in a boulder-prone region and a nontrivial slope was thus a helpful emulation of aspects of a polar landing. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f3323c8ed-34ff-4302-b479-88ebb20f6926_1915x1038-jpeg.jpg) Elevation and slope maps at the Moon’s south pole. The terrain is very rocky, requiring missions to use precision landing technologies. [Image: LPI](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas) In fact, for its next Moon mission, which is planned to launch before the end of the decade, JAXA is partnering with ISRO to have its [LUPEX rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-111/) directly study the nature, abundance and accessibility of water ice at a polar landing site. To safely and precisely land LUPEX amid treacherous polar terrain, ISRO will build the lander with input from both Chandrayaan 3’s success and [that of SLIM](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/en/outreach/announcements/files/SLIM-pressconf-20240125.pdf). For ISRO, SLIM’s case also highlights how Chandrayaan-2 can provide advanced orbital data to help NASA better filter [Artemis landing-site candidates](https://jatan.space/nasa-taps-top-scientist-for-crewed-moon-return), especially as the LRO, launched in 2009, [gracefully ages](https://www.nasa.gov/solar-system/update-nasa-extends-exploration-for-8-planetary-science-missions/) into obsolescence. Stereo images from Chandrayaan-2’s OHRC, Singh says, could prove especially vital for ensuring successful Artemis landings because they offer a “four times better height-point resolution than images from LRO,” allowing incoming spacecraft to better discern the topographical lay of the land. At last year’s [annual meeting](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/leag2023/technical%5Fprogram) of the NASA-backed [Lunar Exploration Analysis Group](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag) in September 2023, LRO project scientist and [science lead](https://www.nasa.gov/solar-system/nasa-appoints-lunar-science-leads-for-artemis-iii-artemis-iv-missions) for Artemis III, Noah Petro, reaffirmed this collaborative value by saying, “\[The Chandrayaan-2 orbiter\] data is helping build on the LRO foundation by filling important needs, and we’re very much looking forward to more data from the mission.” *Originally published on* [*Scientific American*](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-japans-moon-sniper-mission-hit-its-mark/)*.* --- *Related articles I’ve written previously:* - [*Our two-faced Moon*](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) - [*How NASA decides where to land on Mars*](https://jatan.space/how-nasa-choses-mars-landing-sites/) [***→ Commission an article***](https://jatan.space/commission-an-article/) ### Moon Monday #167: NASA’s lunar budget, mission updates, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-167/ Last updated: 2024-03-29T12:58:04.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/03/spacex-lunar-starship-and-blue-origin-blue-moon-landers-for-nasa-artemis-crewed-landings.jpg) Illustrations of SpaceX’s Lunar Starship and Blue Origin’s Blue Moon lunar landers respectively. NASA has contracted these to land Artemis astronauts on the Moon this decade and next. Images: [SpaceX](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-spacex-second-contract-option-for-artemis-moon-landing-0) / [Blue Origin](https://www.blueorigin.com/news/nasa-selects-blue-origin-for-mission-to-moon) ## NASA’s FY2024 budget for Luna The US Congress will provide NASA with [$24.9 billion](https://www.planetary.org/space-policy/nasas-fy-2024-budget) for FY2024, a budget two billion less than the [Presidential request](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-119/) and half a billion less than [FY2023](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-109/). Accounting for inflation only makes the cut deeper. However, the US Congress has [prioritized and maintained similar levels](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-gets-significant-cut-in-final-fy2024-appropriations/) of funding for [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/), which not only includes sustaining development and production of the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) and [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/meet-nasas-orion-spacecraft/) architecturally required for astronauts to reach lunar orbit but also the full requested $1.9 billion for the crewed lunar landing providers [SpaceX](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-spacex-second-contract-option-for-artemis-moon-landing-0) and [Blue Origin](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/). As Marcia Smith [notes](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-gets-significant-cut-in-final-fy2024-appropriations/), NASA also gets the requested $380 million for continued development of [advanced lunar spacesuits](https://www.axiomspace.com/axiom-suit) for which the agency [chose Axiom Space and Collins](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-80/) in 2022. What isn’t clear yet is what ensued of the $459 million budget request for NASA’s [Lunar Discovery and Exploration](https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/programs/lunar-discovery-exploration) (LDEP) program, particularly to ensure full funding for the [CLPS lunar landings](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) necessary to enable diverse surface science and technology demonstrations. Quite a lot of CLPS feeds forward into Artemis planning since LDEP is the organizational unit chiefly integrating and coordinating [Artemis science efforts](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-130/) across NASA as well as with the agency’s commercial and international partners. Today, March 11, at 1PM ET, NASA Administrator Bill Nelson will deliver his [annual “State of NASA” address](https://plus.nasa.gov/scheduled-video/state-of-nasa/), which will include the agency’s Presidential budget request for FY2025\. This will be followed by a [media teleconference](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-to-highlight-artemis-us-space-leadership-during-annual-address/) at 2:30 PM ET. ## Mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/03/jpl-cadre-rovers-in-clean-room-1.jpg) Members of the NASA CADRE team pose in a JPL clean room with the Moonbound CADRE rover. [Image: NASA / JPL-Caltech](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/images/pia26165-cadre-atlo-team-presents-completed-rovers) - NASA JPL [completed building and testing](https://www.nasa.gov/technology/nasas-network-of-small-moon-bound-rovers-is-ready-to-roll/) the three shoebox-sized [CADRE rovers](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/game%5Fchanging%5Fdevelopment/projects/CADRE), which will fly to the Moon aboard Intuitive Machines’ [third Moon lander](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-mission-to-reiner-gamma/) part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) sometime next year. The rovers passed the [standard suite of environmental tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/) every spacecraft is supposed to go through before launch. Engineers also tested CADRE’s cooperative autonomous driving abilities in JPL’s [Mars Yard](https://www-robotics.jpl.nasa.gov/gallery/mars-yard-tour-video/) with full-scale [engineering models](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/images/pia25667-cadre-mini-rover-drives-over-a-rock) because during the mission the solar-powered rovers aim to autonomously navigate the landed region in the magnetic swirl of [Reiner Gamma](https://jatan.space/swirls-on-the-moon/) to demonstrate collective mapping. The rovers will have multistatic ground penetrating radars to create 3D images of the subsurface structure with a depth of up to 10 meters. - [Draper’s first Moon mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-87/) part of NASA’s [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) program targeting a 2026 launch will see the ispace-provided [APEX lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-147/) also deploy [two lunar satellites](https://www.draper.com/press-release/nasa-awards-draper-73-million-deliver-suite-payloads-moon-2025) whose job will be to relay communications between the lander and Earth. This is similar to how China’s Queqiao spacecraft [provides a connection](https://www.planetary.org/articles/20180615-queqiao-orbit-explainer) to Chang’e 4 operating on the Moon’s farside. Jeff Foust [reports](https://spacenews.com/rhea-space-activity-to-fly-navigation-payloads-on-lunar-lander-mission/) that each Draper-mission satellite will carry a [NASA-grant-funded](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/armstrong/nasa-selects-nine-technologies-for-commercial-flight-tests-2/) payload from Rhea Space called the Jervis Autonomy Module, or JAM, which will let the satellites autonomously determine their orbits by imaging and identifying multiple celestial objects. As such, they won’t need to rely on terrestrial ground stations to know their positions. Rhea Space [says](https://www.rheaspaceactivity.com/post/rhea-space-activity-expands-lunar-intelligence-lunint-business-with-two-lunar-payloads) they’re also adapting JAM to capture high-resolution images of the Moon’s surface for mapping purposes. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/03/blue-origin-blue-moon-mark-1-lander-illustration.jpg) Illustration of the Blue Moon Mark 1 lander. [Image: Blue Origin](https://www.blueorigin.com/blue-moon/mark-1) - Blue Origin [says](https://payloadspace.com/blue-origins-2025-lunar-landing-goal/) it will launch its [Blue Moon Mark 1](https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/10/jeff-bezos-shows-off-new-moon-lander-design-for-nasa/) robotic lander to Luna next year. With two [self-funded](https://spacenews.com/blue-origin-aims-to-launch-first-lunar-lander-in-2025/) Mark 1 flights, Blue Origin wants to test and refine critical landing systems before graduating them to the Mark II lander, which will land astronauts on the Moon for NASA with [Artemis V](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/) end of decade. Since Blue Origin is also a [NASA-approved lander provider](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/new-companies-join-growing-ranks-of-nasa-partners-for-artemis-program) for the [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), the company intends to pitch and fly more Mark 1 landers to carry the agency’s science & technology payloads to the Moon. Mark 1’s payload capacity of 3,000 kilograms surpasses all current CLPS landers but SpaceX’s [Lunar Starship](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-spacex-second-contract-option-for-artemis-moon-landing-0), whose crew variant is currently targeting landing astronauts for NASA with [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/) and [Artemis IV](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-101/) in late 2026 and 2028 respectively. Note that NASA requires both Blue Origin and SpaceX’s crewed landers to touchdown within 100 meters of the targeted spots on the Moon’s [rocky south pole](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/SPole%5FSRidgemap%5FLOLA-Slope5m%5Fv20190515.pdf). This is something the robotic Mark 1 will attempt. It’s also precisely what JAXA’s robotic SLIM lander [achieved earlier this year](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-161/). --- *Many thanks to* [***Epsilon3***](https://www.epsilon3.io)*,* [***Open Lunar Foundation***](https://www.openlunar.org) *and* [***Gurbir Singh***](https://gurbir.co.uk)*for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday. If you love my work too,* [*join them*](https://jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday/)*.* --- ## More Moon - Andrew Jones [reports](https://spacenews.com/china-outlines-position-on-use-of-space-resources/) on a [recent document](https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/lsc/space-resources/LSC2024/English%5FChinas%5Fsubmission%5Fto%5Fthe%5Fworking%5Fgroup%5Fon%5Fspace%5Fresources.pdf) submitted by China to the UN COPUOS concerning the legality of extracting and using lunar resources, which seems to suggest that China sees such activities as permissible under current international law in much the same way the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords) does. Western experts are seeing China’s submission and tone as a [positive development](https://spacenews.com/china-outlines-position-on-use-of-space-resources/) since it can now, in principle, enable a mutual dialogue on space resource governance in a cooperative way amid a decidely international fora. - GITAI—which recently [moved its headquarters to the US](https://gitai.tech/2023/11/17/gitai-shifts-headquarters-and-parent-company-from-japan-to-the-united-states-as-leadership-secures-permanent-lawful-residency) from Japan and [won funding](https://gitai.tech/2023/12/06/gitai-usa-inc-triumphs-in-securing-darpa-luna-10-project-with-innovative-lunar-robotics-solution) from DARPA for the [LUNA-10](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-157/) lunar infrastructure project—has made an impressive terrestrial demonstration of [constructing and deconstructing a five-meter communications tower](https://gitai.tech/2024/03/05/gitai-successfully-demonstrates-robotics-construction-capabilities-for-lunar-communications-towers/) using its [under-development lunar rover](https://gitai.tech/2023/07/05/gitai-usa-has-successfully-completed-significant-countermeasures-for-the-lunar-environment/) and three [inchworm robotic arms](https://gitai.tech/2022/08/16/gitai-develops-inchworm-type-robotic-arm/). The [video](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jg8nTe1QlEQ) is fascinating. GITAI has previously raised [$61 million](https://payloadspace.com/gitai-raises-an-additional-15m-of-funding) for their rover’s development with an aim to launch in 2026—though it might take longer. - Scott Manley provides a very good [overview of NASA’s Surveyor program](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4BmJNx4e8%5FY), which robotically landed spacecraft on the Moon in the late 1960s before the agency sent astronauts on Apollo. Related: [The time NASA figured our Moon is cratered all the way down](https://jatan.space/its-craters-all-the-way-down/). ## A follow-up on my critique of IM-1’s narrative I did not think my critique of [Intuitive Machines and NASA skewing the success criteria](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-166/) of the former’s first Moon landing mission would be taken as well as it was: **Celestial Citizen, in their** [**latest Continuum newsletter**](https://celestialcitizen.substack.com/p/goodnight-odie)**:** > While a private endeavor like Intuitive Machines may not have the same transparency obligations that a government agency does, shouldn’t they still be honest about their weak points in addition to their triumphs? Fellow space writer Jatan Mehta perfectly summarizes these questions in his newsletter, [Jatan’s Space](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-166/), with “why is it not enough to celebrate the genuine feats Intuitive Machines did achieve?” Is *partial success* not enough (to America)? **The Orbital Index (a Moon Monday sponsor) in** [**Issue #259**](https://orbitalindex.com/archive/2024-03-06-Issue-259/)**:** > Jatan has a [well-articulated piece](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-166/) on his discomfort with NASA and Intuitive Machines calling IM-1 an “unqualified success,” especially given that LRO spotted its landing location 1.5 km from its original target and the limited data that was able to be downlinked from its payloads. It is a success, certainly, but perhaps with some qualifications. **Science Writer and Editor Mukunth, in his blog post** [**To the Moon – or the stock market?**](https://peregrination.net/2024/03/06/intuitive-machines-odysseus-nasa-clps/)**:** > Even if Intuitive Machines isn't implicitly required to follow NASA's communications policies, NASA needs to ensure the companies it contracts to fly its payloads – to ease its own path to the moon in future – do. As Jatan also pointed out, the onus to communicate lies with NASA: CLPS is publicly funded and without it missions like Odysseus wouldn't happen. We need explicit policies to streamline these companies' communications expectations to follow NASA's rather than their share prices. I’ll be honest. I was surprised by the uptake, especially because at the time of writing my article crticizing the mission’s communications, most publishers and public reactions I had come across were on nothing but a blanket hail spree. In any case, I laid out quite a few specific questions in my article. They remain unanswered, and so if you have an informed perspective that my global audience can benefit from, do [reach out](mailto:hey@jatan.space). Even if you write a public rebuttal on your site, and I encourage that, I’m happy to link to it on Moon Monday in the interest of the public conversation. Ultimately, I believe rooting for the Moon does not mean being only a cheerleader. ### Indian Space Progress #13: Prepping for India’s Yuri Gagarin moment, and more updates URL: https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-13/ Last updated: 2024-08-30T09:27:43.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/03/gaganyaan-astronauts-visual.jpg) The selected Gaganyaan astronauts at the inaugural ceremony at ISRO’s Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre. [Image: ISRO](https://twitter.com/IAF%5FMCC/status/1762391875275669631) ## India selects first set of Gaganyaan astronauts Unveiling four years of secrecy, the Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi announced on February 27 [the first four astronauts](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/gaganyaan-mission-pm-modi-bestows-astronaut-wings-to-prashanth-nari-ajit-krishnan-angad-prathap-shubhanshu-shukla/articleshow/108035217.cms) selected to fly on the country’s initial set of human spaceflight missions mid-decade via ISRO’s ambitious [Gaganyaan](https://www.isro.gov.in/Gaganyaan.html) program. The selectees are all test pilots and Group Captains, namely Prasanth Nair, Angad Prathap, Ajit Krishnan and Shubhanshu Shukla. They have received extensive training in India and Russia, and at least one of them will receive advanced training [in the US](https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2023/01/31/fact-sheet-united-states-and-india-elevate-strategic-partnership-with-the-initiative-on-critical-and-emerging-technology-icet) at NASA facilities sometime this year. The announcement of Gaganyaan astronauts is a great time to review India’s progress in putting people in space. Let’s do that with this human spaceflight special of my [Indian Space Progress](https://jatan.space/tag/indian-space-progress) newsletter! 🧑🏽‍🚀 **But first, where are the women astronauts?** When asked, ISRO [says](https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/gaganyaan-isro-explained-why-no-woman-among-4-pilots-chosen-for-gaganyaan-mission-5136599) women aren’t in this astronaut batch because being a test pilot was a key requirement, which India had none of in females at the time of selection. Well, that might be true but India does have the [highest global percentage](https://www.aljazeera.com/economy/2022/8/9/how-does-india-have-twice-as-many-women-airline-pilots-than-us) of female airline pilots. The [fighter pilot number](https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/women-fighter-jet-pilots-indian-air-force-rajnath-singh-experimental-scheme-1907465-2022-02-01) is increasing too. More firmly, Susmita Mohanty [convincingly argues](https://theprint.in/opinion/why-does-gaganyaan-crew-have-no-women-history-shows-india-has-no-excuses) in a piece for The Print how the arbitrary selection criteria doesn’t hold water when compared to initial female astronaut selections worldwide. I agree when Mohanty says: “We have missed a great opportunity as a nation. We could have created history.” > **Aside:* For the benefit of my global readers, here’s a brief para on Indians that have already been to space:* [*Rakesh Sharma*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakesh%5FSharma) *was the first Indian to visit Earth orbit, where he spent seven days in 1984 aboard a Soviet* [*Salyut 7*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salyut%5F7) *space station. Kalpana Chawla, the first Indian woman in space, held a US citizenship when she flew in 1997 on the Space Shuttle Columbia, the same vehicle Chawla was aboard in 2003 too but which got* [*destroyed during atmospheric reentry*](https://www.nasa.gov/remembering-columbia-sts-107/)*, killing Chawla and her crewmates.* [*Sunita Williams*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunita%5FWilliams) *is an Indian origin but US-born astronaut who is set to fly to the International Space Station again this year aboard the* [*first crewed Starliner flight*](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/boeing-cft/) *by Boeing as part of NASA’s Commercial Crew program.* With Gaganyaan, India aims to send its people to space using its own rockets, capsules, and associated technologies. The first crewed Gaganyaan flight will carry no more than two of the four aforementioned astronauts to a 400-kilometer low Earth orbit, where they will spend three days in the Crew Module. If successful, India will then be only the world’s fourth nation to indigenously send humans to space, after Russia, the US, and China. India hopes to clinch this Yuri Gagarin moment of its own by end of 2025 but delays are expected. ### India’s crawls and leaps toward indigenous human spaceflight For well over a decade, ISRO had been [inching towards some baseline technologies](https://jatan.space/astronauts-begin-training-for-gaganyaan-in-russia/) necessary to even plan such a massive feat despite [roadblocks](https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/human-space-flight-mission-off-isro-priority-list-531828) and [delayed funding](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Spaceflight-stuck-due-to-budget-CAG/articleshow/12860797.cms). The Indian government finally [formally green-lit](https://theprint.in/india/governance/govt-clears-rs-10000-crore-gaganyaan-mission-to-send-3-astronauts-to-space-by-2022/170348) the human spaceflight program in 2018\. Progress on technological components has been faster ever since, with 2022 bagging a successful integrated parachute test [demonstrating safe capsule splashdown](https://www.isro.gov.in/Gaganyaan%5FParachute%5FSystem%5FTest.html) in the event one of the three main chutes fail to open. [More parachute tests](https://www.isro.gov.in/Rail%5FTrack%5FRocket%5FGaganyaan%5FPrachutes.html) followed last year, including tests [specific to drogue chutes](https://www.isro.gov.in/Drogue%5FParachute%5FTest.html). In February 2023, ISRO began [practicing sea recovery trials](https://www.isro.gov.in/Recovery%5Ftrials%5FGaganyaan%5FMission.html) with a representative crew module, which simulates the mass, center of gravity, size, and externals of the actual Crew Module. In April 2023, ISRO [completed](https://www.isro.gov.in/Vikas%5Fengine%5Ftest%5Fcampaign.html) human-rating the [liquid-fueled Vikas engine](https://www.isro.gov.in/Vikas.html) after an extensive test period of three years, demonstrating higher structural margins, better health monitoring, off-nominal recoveries, and redundancy in many of its associated systems. Two Vikas engines power the core stage of the [Launch Vehicle Mark III](https://www.isro.gov.in/GSLVmk3%5FCON.html) (LVM3), India’s most powerful rocket and the vehicle of choice for sending astronauts to space. Likewise in February 2024, ISRO [completed human-rating](https://www.isro.gov.in/Successful%5Fcompletion%5FHuman%5Frating%5FCE20%5FCryogenic%5Fengine.html) LVM3’s CE-20 cryogenic upper stage after a comprehensive set of 39 engine tests. In May 2023, ISRO [qualified](https://www.isro.gov.in/cmps.html) the Crew Module’s propulsion system, which will provide controlled atmospheric descent to complete each Gaganyaan flight and bring astronauts back home. In case of an abnormal launch, the same system will keep the crew module stable between a height of 3 to 70 kilometers. In July 2023, ISRO [successfully](https://www.isro.gov.in/SMPS%5FTest.html) [tested](https://www.isro.gov.in/smps.html) the Service Module’s propulsion system ([video](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1684449425828245504)), which features five 440-newton engines and sixteen 100-newton reaction control thrusters. During Gaganyaan missions, it’s the service module that will inject astronauts in the Crew Module into orbit, circularize it to a 400-kilometer altitude and maintain it, and eventually provide the de-boost maneuver for the crew module before separating from it. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f12a29dd4-6baa-478d-87ef-8522c0640c85_2400x1600-jpeg-1.jpg) Launch of a representative Gaganyaan crew module and its attached escape system on October 21, 2023 for an abort test. [Image: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/tvd1%5Fgallery.html) ISRO then conducted a [successful abort test](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-10/) in October 2023, which means the crew escape system can safely carry astronauts away from the launch vehicle in the case of an emergency. S. V. Krishna Chaitanya has [reported](https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2023/oct/07/gaganyaan-mission-crew-safety-test-to-be-undertaken-shortly-says-isro-2621748.html) that next up ISRO will better test aspects of the crew module’s parachute system by dropping a representative module from a 4-kilometer altitude using a heavy-lift helicopter. This will be followed by [another abort test](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/gaganyaan-isro-will-attempt-air-drop-test-using-chopper-pad-abort-planned-too/articleshow/104684621.cms), where the escape system will lift the module away while the rocket is on the launchpad itself to simulate pad emergencies. ISRO did conduct one such test [in 2018](https://web.archive.org/web/20181122034003/https://www.isro.gov.in/update/05-jul-2018/successful-flight-testing-of-crew-escape-system-technology-demonstrator) but this redo is necessary because there have been substantial design changes to Gaganyaan since. **Growing scope and international interest:** As part of an unprecedented set of [broad-sweeping India-US agreements](https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2023/06/22/joint-statement-from-the-united-states-and-india) in 2023 centered around collaborative science & technology advancements, NASA will carry one of the four aforementioned Indian astronauts to the International Space Station later this year. NASA and private US companies have also shown interest in leveraging parts of Gaganyaan’s technology stack for a post-ISS future. Chethan Kumar [reported](https://web.archive.org/web/20230630012711/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/blue-origin-keen-on-using-lvm3-for-commercial-space-activities/articleshow/101352730.cms) last year that Blue Origin and ISRO are keen on using LVM3 to launch crew capsules to service Blue’s upcoming commercial space station called [Orbital Reef](https://www.orbitalreef.com). Voyager Space [announced](https://voyagerspace.com/2023/07/10/voyager-space-signs-mou-with-isro-and-in-space-to-explore-utilization-of-gaganyaan-spacecraft-for-the-starlab-space-station) similar intentions last year for its upcoming [Starlab](https://starlab-space.com) commercial space station for which it has partnered with Airbus. The Indian government [directed ISRO](https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1968368) in October 2023 to create an Indian Space Station in Earth orbit by 2035, and even send the first Indian to the Moon by 2040\. To realize these ambitions, the Indian Department of Space (DOS) and ISRO are developing a roadmap for crewed and lunar exploration, which will comprise an orbital module before the space station, a series of Chandrayaan missions, the development of a partially reusable [Next Generation Launch Vehicle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Next%5FGeneration%5FLaunch%5FVehicle) (NGLV), and more. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/03/isro-lunar-exploration-and-crewed-spaceflight-roadmap.jpg) Screengrab of a notional integrated lunar and crewed exploration roadmap for India. [Image: S. Somanath / ISRO](https://www.youtube.com/live/DNXTouOKNVk?feature=shared&t=9413) --- *Many thanks to the* [***Takshashila Institution***](https://takshashila.org.in)*,* [***SkyServe***](https://skyserve.ai)*,* [***KaleidEO***](https://satsure.co/kaleidEO) *and* [***Gurbir Singh***](https://gurbir.co.uk) *for sponsoring this month’s Indian Space Progress report. If you love my work too,* [*join them*](https://jatan.space/sponsor-indian-space-progress/)*.* --- ## India’s space budget mismatch its ambitions Despite India’s increasingly complex human spaceflight and planetary exploration ambitions for later this decade and early next, the [FY 2024-25 budget](https://www.indiabudget.gov.in/doc/eb/sbe95.pdf) for its Department of Space (DOS)—which includes ISRO’s activities—improved marginally from $1.51 billion last year to $1.58 billion; even if it may be the interim budget with the national election coming up. [dos-isro-2024-25-interim-budget.pdf302 KBdownload-circle](https://cdn.magicpages.co/spaceimpact.mymagic.page/2024/03/dos-isro-2024-25-interim-budget.pdf "Download") Notably, DOS underutilized its space technology budget in FY 2023-2024 by about $150 million, a trait the country’s Ministry of Science & Technology as a whole [suffers from](https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/sustainable-funding-science-power-ambition-india/article67884760.ece). As Mukunth [points out in a post](https://rootprivileges.net/2024/03/02/why-not-increase-isro-budget/), this is but the latest example illustrating that increasing ISRO’s budget alone isn’t a solution in itself for continuing advances in space. Separately, as part of the broader national budget announcement, India’s Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman [announced](https://www.thehindu.com/business/budget/interim-budget-2024-1-lakh-crore-fund-to-help-india-leapfrog-in-deep-tech/article67801520.ece) the availability of $12 billion dollars in interest-free loans over 50 years for Indian tech startups, including space ones, to tap into. ## More mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/03/insat-3ds-gslv-mk-ii-launch.jpg) A GSLV Mk II rocket heading to space on February 17, carrying the INSAT-3DS satellite. [Image: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/GSLV%5FF14%5FINSAT%5F3DS%5Fgallery.html) - On February 17, a GSLV Mk II rocket successfully [launched and deployed](https://www.youtube.com/live/jynmNenneFk?feature=shared&t=2077) ISRO’s 2274-kilogram [INSAT-3DS](https://www.isro.gov.in/GSLV-F14%5FINSAT-3DS%5Fmission.html) meteorological satellite into its intended geosynchronous transfer orbit. Combined with the [previous successful Mk II launch](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-05/) in May 2023, ISRO has now satisfied the [launch criteria](https://web.archive.org/web/20210521074645/https://trs.jpl.nasa.gov/bitstream/handle/2014/45660/14-4572%5FA1b.pdf) to finally push the [$1.5 billion](http://syntheticapertureradar.com/nasa-isro-sar-project-nisar) high-profile [NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar](https://nisar.jpl.nasa.gov) (NISAR) Earth observation satellite to space later this year. - ISRO intentionally [deorbited](https://www.isro.gov.in/press-meet-reentry-cartosat-2.html) the 17-year old Cartosat-2 Earth imager to avoid creating space debris. It burned up in our atmosphere on February 14. - Relatedly, following the release of India’s much-awaited [new space policy](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-04/) early last year, in December ISRO [opened up access](https://analyticsindiamag.com/isros-bhoonidhi-matches-nasas-space-standards) to 5-meter resolution remote sensing data from 44 of its satellites, making it among the highest resolution datasets of its kind in the world available to the public. ## More Indian Space - Following the release of India’s much-awaited [new space policy](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-04/) early last year, the government has now [formally opened up](https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=2007876) approval-less foreign direct investments (FDI) in the Indian private space sector. Companies can now seek up to 74% FDI for satellite-related businesses, 49% for launch vehicles, and 100% for components and subsystems. Shyam Upadhyay has a [good report](https://analyticsindiamag.com/100-fdi-in-space-to-drive-investments-in-india/) gathering reactions from startups and industry veterans. - ISRO [started work](https://techcrunch.com/2024/02/28/india-isro-new-spaceport-small-rocket-launches/) on a dedicated 8 square-kilometer spaceport at [Kulasekarapattinam](https://maps.app.goo.gl/7zqyoZJtrdz5PfcD9) in Tamil Nadu. While Sriharikota will remain India’s primary spaceport, this one will be used to launch ISRO’s new [SSLV rocket](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-02/) and small-lift private launchers starting 2026\. The new spaceport will enhance the performance of these rockets for sun-synchronous polar orbits because now they won’t need to follow a less fuel efficient curved path in order to avoid flying over Sri Lanka. - Following Amazon Web Services [signing an MoU](https://www.aboutamazon.in/news/aws/isro-and-aws-tie-up-for-space-tech) with ISRO and IN-SPACe last year to offer some free cloud computing services to startups and research institutes under the [AWS Activate](https://aws.amazon.com/activate) program, the trio is now offering an [accelerator program](https://www.geospatialworld.net/news/aws-first-space-tech-accelerator-program-india/) for Indian startups. - **Sponsored listing:** Space author and *Indian Space Progress* sponsor [Gurbir Singh](https://gurbir.co.uk) is offering all his [books and audiobooks](https://gurbir.co.uk/shop/) on space exploration at 50% discount for my readers. Use the coupon **JMS50**. Not sponsored: I found Gurbir’s book [The Indian Space Programme](https://gurbir.co.uk/shop/the-indian-space-programme/) to be a great overview of the country’s road to space. ### Moon Monday #166: An intuitive 98% success, Artemis updates, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-166/ Last updated: 2024-09-30T14:06:37.000Z *An FYI before we begin: If you follow me on social media—especially LinkedIn, Twitter, the Fediverse or Bluesky—read this life update from my other blog:* [*Embracing a simple but effective digital life*](https://journal.jatan.space/digital-detox/)*.* ## An intuitive success criteria? ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/03/intuitive-machines-im-1-lander-on-the-moon-firing.jpg) A dramatic view of the Odysseus lunar lander still firing its main engine after making contact with the Moon. [Image: Intuitive Machines](https://twitter.com/Int%5FMachines/status/1762919217089720716/photo/1) It turns out more retrospective corrections are needed for the February 22 [oblique Moon landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-165/) of Intuitive Machines’ Odysseus spacecraft part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions). Previously, the publicly traded company prematurely [stated](https://twitter.com/Int%5FMachines/status/1760838333851148442) post-landing that Odysseus is “upright”, only to correct it in a [media briefing](https://spacenews.com/im-1-lunar-lander-tipped-over-on-its-side) timed to the closing of the stock market an entire day later. Now it turns out even the [NASA LiDAR onboard](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/langley/nasas-laser-navigation-tech-enables-commercial-lunar-exploration), which Intuitive Machines and NASA were [prompt to praise](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-tech-contributes-to-soft-moon-landing-agency-science-underway) for its last-minute role as a mission savior, actually [did not assist Odysseus’ landing](https://arstechnica.com/space/2024/02/it-turns-out-that-odysseus-landed-on-the-moon-without-any-altimetry-data/) in the last 15 kilometers of descent due to a [delay in processing its data](https://spacenews.com/intuitive-machines-and-nasa-call-im-1-lunar-lander-a-success-as-mission-winds-down/). It’s incredible that Odysseus even rough-landed, as it was relying purely on its inertial measurement unit (IMU) and optical navigation data. But it also means the LiDAR didn’t contribute for essentially the entire descent. Are we supposed to believe that descent telemetry on Mission Control screens—which wasn’t shown or visualized on the web stream unlike Chandrayaan 3 or SLIM—never made it clear to the company and NASA that the LiDAR readings weren’t coming through to the lander’s navigation system? Or that it wasn’t clear in the following few days either? In any case, with the Sun no longer illuminating the panel that was keeping Odysseus alive in its fallen position on the Moon, Intuitive Machines put the spacecraft [in sleep mode](https://twitter.com/Int%5FMachines/status/1763336637432385813) on February 29\. As Jeff Foust has [summarized](https://spacenews.com/intuitive-machines-and-nasa-call-im-1-lunar-lander-a-success-as-mission-winds-down/), NASA and Intuitive Machines declared the IM-1 mission an “unqualified success”, one that “met very high level mission objectives to touch down softly on the Moon—softly and safely—and return scientific data.” Is it okay to call a visibly rough landing a soft and safe one? Unfortunately, this whole narrative reminds me of when ISRO retrospectively [called the Chandrayaan 2 mission a “98% success”](https://science.thewire.in/aerospace/if-chandrayaan-2-was-a-90-95-success-is-the-answer-whats-the-question/) despite the crashed lander. And so this lunar enthusiast now needs to do some hard reality checks. While yes, as I’ve said in [the opaque victory of Odysseus](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-165/), the IM-1 mission is a success *for Intuitive Machines*, and Eric Berger has a [great overview](https://arstechnica.com/space/2024/02/it-turns-out-that-odysseus-landed-on-the-moon-without-any-altimetry-data/) of the many (previously undisclosed) hurdles the company’s persevering engineers crossed to get to the Moon, I also want to present some questions that not enough seem to be asking. Firstly, JAXA’s SLIM lander was arguably in a worse situation than Odysseus after it also tipped over on reaching the Moon as it [couldn’t even generate power](https://twitter.com/SLIM%5FJAXA/status/1749320575103995954) until the Sun circled to the other side. And yet JAXA provided a [press update](https://www.youtube.com/live/nvXLt3ET9mE?feature=shared&t=11589) within 2 hours of the landing which sincerely accepted SLIM’s mixed outcomes. In fact, JAXA had explicitly defined and distributed its various success criteria in the [pre-launch press kit](https://global.jaxa.jp/countdown/slim/SLIM-mediakit-EN%5F2310.pdf), which it honored. Can the same things be said for Odysseus? Now, sure, Intuitive Machines doesn’t have an obligation to be as transparent as a tax-funded agency. But so didn’t Astrobotic and ispace, who nevertheless [showed greater transparency](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-125) in their communications [despite failure](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-159). In any case, the NASA-funded payloads onboard Odysseus come from US taxpayers, where the communications onus remains. Here, the situation is that most NASA payloads collected or transmitted [limited data](https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-00613-8), and whose specifics weren’t revealed initially. A payload called [Stereo Cameras for Lunar Plume-Surface Studies](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/clps/tiny-nasa-cameras-to-picture-interaction-between-lander-moons-surface/) was flown on Odysseus to specifically study the lander’s [engine plume effects](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/game%5Fchanging%5Fdevelopment/projects/PSI) on lunar soil during the final descent phase. NASA says the payload [did not do said imaging](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/clps/nasa-collects-first-surface-science-in-decades-via-commercial-moon-mission/). And yet the agency states in the same release that “the bottom line is every NASA instrument has met some level of their objectives.” A [subsequent report](https://arstechnica.com/science/2024/02/that-moment-when-you-land-on-the-moon-break-a-leg-and-are-about-to-topple-over/) by Eric Berger reads: > As of Wednesday \[February 28\], NASA had been able to download about 50MB of data. The baseline for success was a single bit of data. Was this criteria for success made clear and public pre-launch? Is collecting only some data acceptable to be qualified as a success? Would the Principal Investigators and scientists hoping for or relying on that data agree with that assessment beyond being thrilled to get to the Moon at all? And if those indeed are the goals—to acquire some data and excuse everything else by citing low costs, et al.—then maybe let’s also call India’s [Mangalyaan](https://jatan.space/reviewing-mission-mangalyaan/) Mars orbiter a massive scientific success [rather than a technological one](https://jatan.space/missing-science-from-mangalyaan/). Why is it not enough to celebrate the genuine feats Intuitive Machines did achieve? Being the first to lunar land using cryogenic methalox engines is impressive. So is making it to the Moon alive using only optical navigation and an IMU! But is such partial but also modular success not enough to quench our enthusiasm for lunar exploration? Or do we believe only in binary outcomes now? Should the fact that the main engine continued firing despite Odysseus having touched the Moon not be deemed a concern as it can damage the lander and its payloads? Should having a broken leg constitute a soft touchdown? While, yes, IM-1 was certainly a difficult mission to have undertaken but so was every other Moon mission with various firsts. Space is hard for everyone. Does a partial success of IM-1 halt the CLPS program? As I’ve already [said](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-165/), it’s quite the opposite! So why retrospectively shift goalposts? And if IM-1 is an “unqualified success” but also a “[flight test](https://spacenews.com/intuitive-machines-and-nasa-call-im-1-lunar-lander-a-success-as-mission-winds-down/)”, should the “shots on goal” approach of CLPS count IM-1 as a wholly successful mission or a mission at all? Edit on March 14, 2024: [A follow-up on my critique of the IM-1 Moon mission’s narrative](https://jatan.space/im-1-critique-follow-up/) --- *Many thanks to* [***Epsilon3***](https://www.epsilon3.io)*,* [***The Orbital Index***](https://orbitalindex.com) *and* [***Gordon Roesler***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/gordon-roesler-687a0426)*for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday. If you love my work too,* [*join them*](https://jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday/)*.* --- ## Artemis updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/03/lunar-shackleton-crater-by-kplo-shadowcam-and-lro.jpg) A mosaic of the 21-kilometer wide Shackleton crater stitched from captures by the LRO and KPLO orbiters. The latter’s view is (distinctly) overlaid on the background LRO image. The crater is otherwise permanently shadowed. [Image: NASA / KARI / ASU](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-moon-camera-mosaic-sheds-light-on-lunar-south-pole) - NASA has [released initial datasets](https://www.shadowcam.asu.edu/news/1361) from its ultra-sensitive ShadowCam imager onboard South Korea’s first lunar orbiter [KPLO](https://jatan.space/kplo/), which [formally started](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-123/) studying the Moon from February 2022\. ShadowCam’s [unique](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-moon-camera-mosaic-sheds-light-on-lunar-south-pole) [observations](http://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/images/1288) of polar [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) are [enabling planning](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-110/) of future resource prospecting missions and even crewed missions who will scout for [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). BTW, there’s a cool [web app](https://data.ser.asu.edu/lunaserv.html) to directly explore the delicate lunar views from ShadowCam. - Jeff Foust [reports](https://spacenews.com/nasa-studying-issues-with-orion-hatch-design) that a NASA safety panel has been studying a design issue with the [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) since last year. It concerns the side hatch, which could fail to open in (unspecified) off-nominal situations and thus be a concern for astronaut safety. - In the meanwhile, SpaceX and NASA said that they [conducted more than 200 terrestrial docking tests](https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/nasa-spacex-test-starship-lunar-lander-docking-system) with full-scale [Lunar Starship](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) and Orion docking simulator hardware. The tests demonstrated that Starship should be able to perform a “soft capture” of crew-hosting Orion in lunar orbit for the [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/) Moon landing mission later this decade. Starship’s docking system is based on Dragon 2, which is flight proven on missions to the International Space Station. - Relatedly, NASA, ESA, and Nikon are [collaborating on a handheld camera](https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/nasa-signs-agreement-with-nikon-to-develop-lunar-artemis-camera/) for Artemis III astronauts to capture good low light images in the dark environment of the Moon’s south pole with ergonomic ease. The space agencies have been [testing prototypes](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2023/10/25/next-generation-moon-camera-tested-in-europe/) of these devices in ESA’s [Pangaea campaign](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/CAVES%5Fand%5FPangaea/What%5Fis%5FPangaea), which trains future lunar astronauts in geology and sample collection, and in NASA’s analog [JETT 3](https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20230000146/downloads/Caswell%5Fet%5Fal%5FLPSC%5F2023%5FRevA.pdf) mission in Arizona. The camera will be flown to the International Space Station for testing before using it on Artemis missions. ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/03/china-crew-lunar-mission-modules-rendering.jpg) Rendering of China’s “Mengzhou Y” crewed spacecraft (left) and the “Lanyue" crewed Moon lander in lunar orbit . [Image: CMS](http://www.collectspace.com/news/news-022424a-china-cmsa-name-mengzhou-spacecraft-lanyue-moon-lander.html) - After the solar-powered [SLIM](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-161) lander [reestablished contact](https://twitter.com/SLIM%5FJAXA/status/1761981979237732355) with Earth on February 25 followed shortly by JAXA [terminating it](https://twitter.com/SLIM%5FJAXA/status/1761982162075890085) because of [heat concerns](https://twitter.com/SLIM%5FJAXA/status/1761975915746340891), the space agency resumed imaging operations for a brief while. It was a short revival though, as on March 1, the Sun set at its [landing site](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=25.2385629%2C-13.3247621%2C25.2633625%2C-13.3112911&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&trailType=0&features=25.25074900%2C-13.31603100%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22SLIM+landing+site%22%7D%7C25.24890200%2C-13.31551000%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22SLIM+target+landing+site%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFOOZLRfImqnioA&proj=10) and SLIM was [set to sleep again](https://twitter.com/SLIM%5FJAXA/status/1763889434154693074). - The China Manned Space Agency (CMSA) [announced](https://www.cmse.gov.cn/xwzx/202402/t20240224%5F55093.html) the names of the two spacecraft modules that will carry Chinese astronauts to the Moon [by 2030](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-137). Chosen from a pool of public proposals by Chinese citizens, the lunar orbital capsule is named “Mengzhou Y”—or “Dream Boat Moon”—and the lander is named “Lanyue”—from Mao’s poem “You can go to the nine heavens to catch the Moon”. China’s plan involves the upcoming [Long March 10](https://spacenews.com/china-claims-progress-on-rockets-for-crewed-lunar-landings-and-moon-base) rocket launching the [\~26,000-kilogram](https://spacenews.com/new-chinese-spacecraft-landing-marks-step-toward-future-crewed-lunar-missions) Mengzhou Y with crew to lunar orbit, where it would dock with the similarly massive Lanyue [lunar lander](https://spacenews.com/china-unveils-lunar-lander-to-put-astronauts-on-the-moon), itself launched by another Long March 10\. Two astronauts will transfer to the lander for a lunar touchdown, and return to orbit after exploring the Moon for a few days. CMSA says all three of these mission elements are progressing well in their initial development stage. - The Lunar and Planetary Institute is [seeking a Director](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/science/positions-available/#director). - **Sponsored listing:** Space author and Moon Monday sponsor [Gurbir Singh](https://gurbir.co.uk) is offering all his [books and audiobooks](https://gurbir.co.uk/shop/) on space exploration at 50% discount for my readers. Use the coupon **JMS50**. Not sponsored: I think [The Atlas of Space Rocket Launches](https://gurbir.co.uk/shop/atlas-of-space-rocket-launch-sites/) might interest Moon Monday readers the most! ### Moon Monday #165: An oblique Odysseus, Moonstruck maple nation, and more updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-165/ Last updated: 2024-04-08T11:20:26.000Z *I’m thrilled to welcome* [*Off Planet Research*](https://offplanetresearch.com) *as the newest sponsor of* [*Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday)*! The Everett-based company specializes in creating* [*lunar soil simulants*](https://www.offplanetresearch.com/simulants-feedstocks-and-additives) *that help test landers, rovers, and science experiments with high fidelity*. *Personally, I’m intrigued by their icy regolith simulant* [*OPRFLCROSS2*](https://www.offplanetresearch.com/oprflcross2) *as it falls under a category that will be increasingly relevant as the world continues to mount missions to the Moon’s south pole.* 🌗 *Aside: This edition of Moon Monday was half-written on my phone with a makeshift keyboard (see picture at the end) while my trusty laptop gets a part fix so kindly bear the rawness.* ## On the opaque victory of Odysseus ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/intuitive-machines-odysseues-lander-sim-in-kerbal-space-program-by-scott-manley-1.jpg) A Kerbal Space Program rendering of an Odysseus-like lander on its side on the Moon. The depiction doesn’t represent Odysseus’ orientation and local terrain. [Image: Scott Manley](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wynBeg7BYr0) On February 22 at [23:23 UTC](https://twitter.com/NASA/status/1760811461943722132), Intuitive Machines’ Odysseus lander became the first non-governmental spacecraft to touchdown on the Moon. Confirmation came 15 minutes later via a weak signal from the lander. At this point, the publicly traded company prematurely [stated](https://twitter.com/Int%5FMachines/status/1760838333851148442) that Odysseus is “upright” whereas the company told in a [media briefing](https://spacenews.com/im-1-lunar-lander-tipped-over-on-its-side) the next day that the 4.3-meter tall lander has tipped on its side because it came down with a high, unplanned horizontal velocity of one meter per second. The vertical velocity was three times higher than expected too at three meters/second. The situation has made mission operators unable to point the non-steerable high gain antenna to Earth for sending over lunar descent and surface images. Power is limited too because of fewer panels being lit than in a nominal mission scenario. As such, lander operations—including the [NASA instruments onboard](https://science.nasa.gov/lunar-science/clps-deliveries/to2-im-clps-payloads) sent via the agency’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions)—are stuck at low data rates as Alan Boyle [reports](https://www.universetoday.com/165864/odysseus-moon-lander-is-tipped-over-but-still-sending-data). Even this partial success would’ve been lost if mission operators hand’t tried using the lander’s laser rangefinders to precisely measure its distance to the Moon prompted by Odysseus being closer than needed after [orbital injection](https://twitter.com/Int%5FMachines/status/1760323743270756500) (which made its methalox fuel boil-off an increasing concern). That’s when the company realized the lasers didn’t work because they forgot to turn off their safety switch before launch. Without altitude and velocity measurements, Odysseus wouldn’t be able to guide itself to land on Luna. Definitely file this one under [past mistakes to avoid in our grand return to the Moon this decade](https://jatan.space/past-lunar-mission-mistakes-to-avoid/). As it so happens, the [NASA LiDAR onboard](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/langley/nasas-laser-navigation-tech-enables-commercial-lunar-exploration) called NDL—intended to test precision navigation for future Moon landers—could provide the needed measurements. And so the company and NASA scrambled to send a software patch to hook NDL to Odysseus’ guidance and navigation system. It [worked](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-tech-contributes-to-soft-moon-landing-agency-science-underway)! Personally, I’m not convinced about this never being tested internally before launch but it’s nevertheless an impressive show of responsiveness. With its landing site being [80.13°S, 1.44°E](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=0.5732598%2C-80.2337656%2C2.2847396%2C-80.0581126&id=lroc&showGraticule=true&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&trailType=0&features=1.43992200%2C-80.13002600%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22IM-1+Odysseus+landing+site%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFOOZLRfImqnioA&proj=27), the company says Odysseus touched down [within 1.5 kilometers](https://twitter.com/Int%5FMachines/status/1762111943161037015) of its target site, whose coordinates were never shared. As such, Odysseus missed its precision landing goal of being within 100 meters of the target spot. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/lro-images-intuitive-machines-odysseus-lander-from-orbit.jpg) Intuitive Machines’ Odysseus lander on the Moon at [80.13°S, 1.44°E](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=0.5732598%2C-80.2337656%2C2.2847396%2C-80.0581126&id=lroc&showGraticule=true&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&trailType=0&features=1.43992200%2C-80.13002600%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22IM-1+Odysseus+landing+site%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFOOZLRfImqnioA&proj=27). It rests within a degraded one-kilometer wide crater with a 12° local slope. [Image: NASA / LRO / GSFC / ASU](http://www.lroc.asu.edu/posts/1321) All challenges considered, this IM-1 mission was a success for Intuitive Machines. The array of lessons and milestones from the company’s first Moon mission will feed positively into its next two lunar rides: [one to the south pole](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-155/) and the other to the [magnetic swirl of Reiner Gamma](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-mission-to-reiner-gamma/). Both these missions have NASA as the anchor customer too. As such, Odysseus’ outcome bodes well for NASA to continue its bet on [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions) for now. However, as I argued in the [crux of Odysseus](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-164), while there’s reason to celebrate the story of IM-1, it’s also important to remember that the success rate of [autonomous lunar landings](https://nature.com/articles/d41586-024-00352-w) in the past five years stands squarely at 50%. And that’s after discounting the oblique state of Odysseus severely limiting its surface mission. It also shouldn’t be forgotten that the previous two non-governmental lunar landing attempts from ispace and Astrobotic [showed greater transparency](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-125) in their communications—[despite failure](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-159)—than the publicly traded Intuitive Machines. --- *Many thanks to* [***Epsilon3***](https://www.epsilon3.io)*,* [***Off Planet Research***](https://offplanetresearch.com) *and* [***Karan Maindan***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/karanmaindan) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday. If you love my work,* [*join them*](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday)*.* --- ## Maple nation still Moonstruck ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/csa-lunar-rover-exploring-south-pole-illustration.jpg) Illustration of Canada’s first lunar rover exploring the poorly lit environment at the Moon’s south pole. [Image: CSA](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronomy/moon-exploration/first-canadian-rover-to-explore-the-moon.asp) CSA continues to invest in advancing planetary roving technologies as part of an ongoing [five-year CAD $150 million investment](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/news/articles/2023/2023-03-29-significant-investments-to-further-propel-canadian-space-exploration.asp) under a program called the Lunar Exploration Accelerator Program ([LEAP](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/funding-programs/programs/leap)). Previously, CSA [chose Canadensys](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronomy/moon-exploration/first-canadian-rover-to-explore-the-moon.asp) to develop [the country’s first lunar rover](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronomy/moon-exploration/first-canadian-rover-to-explore-the-moon.asp) to explore south polar [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon). It will launch on an as-yet unspecified NASA-funded [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions) lander in 2026\. (It’s also through LEAP that [several payloads](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=2587) flew last year on [ispace Japan’s first Moon lander](https://jatan.space/ispace-japan-m1-moon-mission), which though unfortunately [crashed](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-129).) Now CSA is [funding more developments](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/funding-programs/programs/leap/contributions-awarded.asp): Canadensys gets CAD $2.5 million to demonstrate an AI-enabled 360° imaging system on a rover; Mission Control gets CAD $3.5 million to demonstrate classifying terrain features with an onboard AI system, and NGC Aerospace gets CAD $0.7 million to test GPS-like navigation for rovers. Recall that last year Canada [said](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/news/articles/2023/2023-03-29-significant-investments-to-further-propel-canadian-space-exploration.asp) it will invest $1.2 billion over 13 years to develop a “Lunar Utility Vehicle”, which aims to provide critical assistance to [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) astronauts on future surface missions. Canada hopes that [just like how](https://www.canada.ca/en/space-agency/news/2020/12/a-canadian-astronaut-will-fly-to-the-moon.html) contributing their [Canadarm3](https://asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/canadarm3/about.asp) robotics servicing system to the upcoming NASA-led [Gateway lunar orbital habitat](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/gateway) bagged seats for their astronauts on future circumlunar Artemis missions, such a rover will enable a Canadian to walk on the Moon. Likewise, JAXA hopes to get [a Japanese on Luna](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-79) in return for providing an [advanced crewed pressurized rover](https://global.jaxa.jp/press/2019/03/20190312a.html) to NASA. ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/moon-duster-in-action.jpg) Left: Dust charging and release mechanism of ”Moon Duster”. Right: Image of dust lofting as a result of electron beam exposure. [Image: NASA JPL / Colorado University, Boulder](https://science.nasa.gov/technology/technology-highlights/new-moon-duster-will-help-clean-nasa-assets-in-space) - Defying JAXA’s own expectation, the solar-powered [SLIM lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-161) managed to [reestablish contact](https://twitter.com/SLIM%5FJAXA/status/1761981979237732355) with Earth on February 25, roughly an Earth week after local sunrise at its [landing site](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=25.2385629%2C-13.3247621%2C25.2633625%2C-13.3112911&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&trailType=0&features=25.25074900%2C-13.31603100%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22SLIM+landing+site%22%7D%7C25.24890200%2C-13.31551000%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22SLIM+target+landing+site%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFOOZLRfImqnioA&proj=10) within the rocky ejecta of the Shioli crater. But with the near-equatorial-noon being [too hot](https://twitter.com/SLIM%5FJAXA/status/1761975915746340891), JAXA [terminated communications](https://twitter.com/SLIM%5FJAXA/status/1761982162075890085) for the time being and will reestablish the same a few days later to hopefully operate the lander again. It should be noted that unlike SLIM’s case, the chances of Chandrayaan 3 and Odysseus surviving the lunar night have been and are more slim because the near-polar lunar nights are [more frigid](https://www.thespaceresource.com/news/2019/2/surviving-the-temperamental-moon) than near-equatorial ones. - NASA continues to leverage suborbital flights of Blue Origin’s New Shepard vehicle for testing upcoming lunar technologies. In 2021, the agency funded Blue Origin to upgrade New Shepard’s capsule [to simulate lunar gravity](https://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/features/nasa-blue-origin-to-bring-lunar-gravity-conditions-closer-to-earth.html). Now, a December 2023 New Shepard flight [carried an experiment](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/kennedy/nasa-experiment-sheds-light-on-highly-charged-moon-dust) to measure how Moon-like dust particles gain and accumulate charges in microgravity, something crucial to understand in order to have [upcoming techniques](https://bigidea.nianet.org/past-competition-themes/2021-forum-results) more effectively protect astronauts, lunar hardware, and future habitats from the damaging effects of clingy Moondust. On earlier New Shepard flights, NASA tested [autonomous lunar navigation](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/langley/nasa-tests-infuses-software-into-blue-origin-landing-tech) and [precision landing](https://www.blueorigin.com/news/new-shepard-mission-ns-13-launch-updates) technologies. Related: Per the [original solicitation](https://sam.gov/api/prod/opps/v3/opportunities/resources/files/ecc034760ec1485b8a26b21a493de9a1/download), NASA asked Axiom Space to design their [AxEMU suits](https://www.axiomspace.com/axiom-suit) such that [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii) astronauts wearing them release less than 100 grams of lunar dust into the cabin post-moonwalks for safety. - Lucas Laursen [reports](https://spectrum.ieee.org/moon-remote-sensing-toolkit) that NASA is extending its Earth observation data aggregator tool called the Remote Sensing Toolkit to lunar data. Among other things, it will help bring payload data from NASA’s [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions) program [in one repository](https://science.nasa.gov/lunar-science/data), which offers a calibrated usable archive as a baseline. - **Sponsored listing:** Open Lunar Foundation is hosting a [free online event](https://openlunar.zoom.us/meeting/register/tZArf-iprzooGdOSi6VaHkKPa0dx8hD1OOvv#/registration) on March 5 at 17:00 UTC to discuss the latest in their proposal for developing a [Lunar Registry](https://www.openlunar.org/projects/lunar-registry) of objects and activities. Not sponsored: I recommend checking out [the project’s white paper](https://www.openlunar.org/research/bright-moon-whitepaper) to understand how such a registry could improve transparency and understanding of Moon missions globally. --- ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/using-an-iphone-with-a-makeshift-keyboard.jpg) How half of this Moon Monday was served to you. 🙂 ### Moon Monday #164: The crux of Odysseus and reaching out for resources URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-164/ Last updated: 2024-02-24T12:43:17.000Z *As the publicly traded company Intuitive Machines’ Odysseus spacecraft approaches the Moon for a soft landing attempt, it’s a good time to remind you—my dear readers—that as stated in my public* [*Editorial Independence Policy*](https://jatan.space/ethics)*, I do not own shares of any space company, primarily to keep my writings unbiased. It doesn’t matter if the company is public like Intuitive or has private stock like most others in the industry. I own none of it. As such, any enthusiasm expressed—or its lack or neutrality—in the coverage of space missions is intended to be genuine.* [*Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) *is supported purely through* [*organization sponsorships and reader donations*](https://jatan.space/support)*, which I hope you consider and whose mechanisms are also clearly stated in the aforementioned policy.* *Another reason to share this is I wish for more publishers, writers, and creators to reveal beforehand if they have any such vested interests. As a reader and friend aptly reminded me recently, none of us can be unbiased but we can always be transparent about our associations and thought processes. Having stated my position, I can now continue my blunt coverage.* :) ## There’s a lot riding on Odysseus for Intuitive Machines and NASA ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ff16230cc-0192-4ef1-b469-9a50cd90f2fe_1210x1340-jpeg.jpg) Success criteria of Intuitive Machines’ first lunar landing attempt IM-1, as set by the company. [Image: Intuitive Machines](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/%5Ffiles/ugd/7c27f7%5F51f84ee63ea744a9b7312d17fefa9606.pdf) On February 15, a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket successfully [launched](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/im-1-mission-nova-c-lunar-lander-successfully-enroute-to-the-moon-following-its-launch-on-spacex-s-f) and [deployed](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2024/02/15/intuitive-machines-moon-lander-successfully-deploys) Intuitive Machines’ [first lunar lander](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/im-1) called Odysseus. The lander then established communications to Earth via its [commercially availed](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-93/) ground stations, and the company later [successfully fired](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2024/02/17/nasa-science-aboard-intuitive-machines-continues-journey-to-moon) Odysseus’ methalox-powered main engine, including testing its throttling—which needs to work later during landing to dynamically course correct the lander’s trajectory as needed. Next up, the 4-meter tall, six-legged Odysseus will fire its engine on February 21 to attempt getting into a 100-kilometer circular lunar orbit. After operational checkouts, Odysseus will attempt an autonomous landing on February 22 at the near-polar [Malapert A crater](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=-27.6167293,-80.9725683,9.6287046,-78.2434553&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIgL5A&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypOOKbRFdAJgQSfyJqt6XAMYiBCnrIsibsXLVgydAA4AnJNyEZlarIpA&proj=17) at 80°S. The mission, named IM-1, carries [six NASA science & technology payloads](https://science.nasa.gov/lunar-science/clps-deliveries/to2-im-clps-payloads) as part of the agency’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) and several [commercial payloads](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/%5Ffiles/ugd/7c27f7%5F51f84ee63ea744a9b7312d17fefa9606.pdf) too. The Space Investor [noted](https://mailchi.mp/thespaceinvestor/tsi%5Fwe%5F021624) how Intuitive Machines’ stock surged after IM-1’s successful launch and commissioning. While the lander has been performing well so far, until Odysseus begins and completes its one-shot landing attempt, its engineers [won’t know](https://nature.com/articles/d41586-024-00352-w) if their design and testing was appropriate. The lunar descent is the true litmus test of a lander, one where the recent past doesn’t paint a pretty picture: - The previous three non-governmental Moon landings have failed; namely Israel-based SpaceIL’s [Beresheet](https://davidson.weizmann.ac.il/en/online/sciencepanorama/what-happened-beresheet), ispace Japan’s [Hakuto-R](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-129/), and US-based Astrobotic’s [Peregrine](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-159/). - Even when including national successes, failed lunar landing missions in the past five years total a five out of nine. NASA has invested in [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) as a “shots on goal” approach to lunar surface exploration but even then back-to-back failures of Odysseus and Peregrine would greatly reduce the chances of the 10-year, [$2.6 billion](https://www.nasa.gov/reference/commercial-lunar-payload-services) program getting extended or renewed in a good capacity. And if Odysseus makes it to the Moon unscathed, and I really hope it does, there’s reason to celebrate but remember that the success rate of autonomous lunar landings in the past five years would squarely be 50%. NASA has purchased rides for its experiments on two more Moon missions by Intuitive Machines: [one to the south pole](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-155/) and the other to the [magnetic swirl of Reiner Gamma](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-mission-to-reiner-gamma/). A successful touchdown of Odysseus would certainly bode well for both NASA and Intuitive Machines. The company not only also has some [commercial customers](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/im-2-south-pole-mission-adds-secondary-rideshare-spaceflight-inc) aboard these later missions but is looking for more. But a failure would be deteriorating, especially in the absence of more CLPS flights. The point of this perspective isn’t to bring down the exploratory spirits but to state that even a successful Odysseus still means that we’ve barely begun adapting ourselves to the harsh realities of Luna. That even as lunar ambitions skyrocket worldwide, having robotic landers touchdown by themselves remain a coin flip. There is much to do still. [Chandrayaan 3’s touchdown](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) has [induced confidence](https://jatan.space/kalpana-kalahasti-chandrayaan-3-nature/) that a country other than China can autonomously land things on the Moon too. JAXA’s SLIM reinforced that for the most part while opening up a [new, necessary frontier](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-161/) of precision landing. Odysseus has the opportunity to build on them and be the one that tipped us against a world stuck in occasional Moonshots. --- *Many thanks to* [***Epsilon3***](https://www.epsilon3.io)*,* [***Gurbir Singh***](https://gurbir.co.uk)*and* [***Arun Raghavan***](https://arunraghavan.net)*for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday. If you love my work too,* [*join them*](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday)*!* --- ## Reaching out for lunar resources ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fbc256e02-f279-4ba4-b8ac-1b6e5a732a67_2200x1550-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of the VIPER rover exploring the Moon’s south pole. [Image: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/lets-get-building) - The Honeybee-Robotics-provided [TRIDENT drill](https://www.nasa.gov/viper/rover#TRIDENT) is the fourth and final instrument to be [tested and integrated](https://www.nasa.gov/general/into-the-belly-of-the-rover-vipers-final-science-instrument-installed) into NASA’s upcoming [VIPER CLPS rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/). While VIPER was nominally being planned for a November 2024 launch to the Moon’s south pole [onboard Astrobotic’s Griffin lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-87/), Astrobotic’s [failed](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-159/) lunar mission last month might induce delays. VIPER intends to explore areas in and around [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) for over four months to unravel the nature of the Moon’s [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) deposits, assess their resource potential, and help determine how accessible they are. This will help NASA plan crewed [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) missions. - An interesting bit in NASA’s update above on TRIDENT being integrated into VIPER is that the one-meter drill also carries a temperature sensor, which has additional value. Recall that India’s [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) lander [inserted a thermal probe](https://www.isro.gov.in/Ch3%5Ffirst%5Fobservation%5FChaSTE%5FVikram%5FLander.html) to about nine centimeters into the surface to provide the first pristine near-subsurface lunar soil temperature measurements. Combining this data with that of TRIDENT will help scientists understand exactly how the Sun’s heat propagates downwards from the surface, determine the thermal conductivity of the near-polar and polar lunar soil, and from it infer its density and physical properties to help us know stability zones of lunar water. - On February 14, the UK Space Agency [announced](https://www.gov.uk/government/news/new-funding-ensures-uk-role-in-global-exploration-to-the-moon-mars-and-venus) £1.5 million in funding to a team led by the University of Leicester, who will develop a laser-based Raman spectroscope to fly onboard an unspecified future lander and rover by private company ispace Japan with the goal of locating [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other resources on the Moon’s south pole. - UKSA will [also fund](https://www.gov.uk/government/news/new-funding-ensures-uk-role-in-global-exploration-to-the-moon-mars-and-venus) Royal Holloway, University of London (RHUL) with £306,000 to develop software for ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) to help its multi-band radar better [detect underground water ice](https://arxiv.org/abs/2104.14259) on the Moon’s south pole. UKSA, RHUL, and ISRO hope to use the same advancement for mapping Venus in high resolution using the radar on India’s upcoming [Shukrayaan orbiter](https://jatan.space/isro-venus-orbiter-launch-2024/). Shukrayaan is not yet a commissioned mission from the Government of India, and might not launch before end of decade. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fc2a9154f-2a94-4a69-956f-8a4a750a0f57_1676x990-jpeg.jpg) The most plausible locations of water ice within the polar Peary crater, as mapped by the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter’s radar. [Image: ISRO](https://arxiv.org/abs/2104.14259) ## More Moon - On February 15, Uruguay [became the 36th country](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-welcomes-uruguay-foreign-minister-for-artemis-accords-signing) and the sixth Latin American nation to sign the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords) for cooperative lunar exploration. The other Latin American signatories are Brazil, Colombia, Mexico, Argentina, and Ecuador. Interestingly, the latter three are members of the recently formed “[Latin American and Caribbean Space Agency](https://qz.com/2114990/why-latin-america-needs-its-own-space-agency)”, or ALCE. Inspired in part by the model of the European Space Agency, ALCE aims to pool resources of Latin American nations to better their space activities and its impact. Uruguay, however, is not an ALCE member at the moment. This might change once the country establishes [its own national space agency](https://www.riotimesonline.com/uruguays-space-agency-plan-aligns-with-u-s-sparks-debate) soon. - IAA is organizing an [international symposium](https://moonfarsideprotection.org) on March 21 and 22 dedicated to protecting the radio-quiet lunar farside for its [unique importance to cosmology](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-118/), chiefly in that it’s the only place in the inner Solar System that provides a view into our Universe’s ‘Dark Age’—a slice of time right before the first stars were born. The symposium is in-person but key sessions will be streamed on YouTube. - NASA got the iconic worm logo [painted](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/kennedy/teams-add-iconic-nasa-worm-logo-to-artemis-ii-rocket-spacecraft) on hardware elements of [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii), which will push [four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) around the Moon and back no earlier than September 2025\. In the meanwhile, NASA [finished making](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/esdmd/common-exploration-systems-development-division/space-launch-system/rocket-propellant-tanks-for-nasas-artemis-iii-mission-take-shape) the liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen tanks of the core stage of the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/space-launch-system) which will push astronauts to the Moon for the [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-iii) crewed landing mission no earlier than late 2026. --- **→** [**Browse**](https://blog.jatan.space/start) **|** [**Sponsor**](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) **|** [**About**](https://blog.jatan.space/about) ### Moon Monday #163: Another lunar lander ready to loft, betting on Starship, speaking at ESA, and more mission updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-163/ Last updated: 2024-08-23T14:29:04.000Z ## Intuitive Machines set to launch for Luna ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ff6d70ee0-7c22-402f-8ba7-4ad096ae539a_1790x1080-jpeg.jpg) The Intuitive Machines’ IM-1 lunar lander being readied to be housed inside a Falcon 9 fairing. [Image: SpaceX](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/intuitive-machines-lunar-lander-encapsulated-and-scheduled-for-launch) SpaceX and Intuitive Machines are targeting a Falcon 9 rocket launch of the latter’s [first Moon lander](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/im-1) during a three-day window opening on [February 14](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/intuitive-machines-lunar-lander-encapsulated-and-scheduled-for-launch) at 5:57 UTC. The mission, named IM-1, will carry [six NASA science & technology payloads](https://science.nasa.gov/lunar-science/clps-deliveries/to2-im-clps-payloads) as part of the agency’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). These include a [radio beacon](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/marshall/nasa-to-demonstrate-autonomous-navigation-system-on-moon) and a [LiDAR](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/langley/nasas-laser-navigation-tech-enables-commercial-lunar-exploration) to help test advanced navigation technologies for future Moon landers. If all goes to [plan](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/%5Ffiles/ugd/7c27f7%5F51f84ee63ea744a9b7312d17fefa9606.pdf), IM-1 will attempt to land on Luna on February 22 at the near-polar site of the [Malapert A crater](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=-27.6167293,-80.9725683,9.6287046,-78.2434553&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIgL5A&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypOOKbRFdAJgQSfyJqt6XAMYiBCnrIsibsXLVgydAA4AnJNyEZlarIpA&proj=17) at 80°S. To follow IM-1 developments, see [NASA’s dedicated webpage](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-sets-coverage-for-spacex-intuitive-machines-first-moon-mission) and my rundown on [how to follow everything CLPS](https://jatan.space/how-to-follow-nasa-clps-updates/). IM-1 will also carry a separate, commercial telescope called [ILO-X](https://iloa.org/astronomy-from-the-moon-planned-observations-for-ilo-x-lunar-astronomy-imagers-in-2024/?utm%5Fsource=rss&utm%5Fmedium=rss&utm%5Fcampaign=astronomy-from-the-moon-planned-observations-for-ilo-x-lunar-astronomy-imagers-in-2024) from Hawaii-based International Lunar Observatory Association. While CLPS competitor Astrobotic’s first lunar landing mission [failed](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-159/) last month, Intuitive Machines has continued to show confidence in their attempt. The public company [earlier told](https://spacenews.com/first-intuitive-machines-lunar-lander-ready-for-launch) Jeff Foust of SpaceNews that they have studied recent failed Moon landing attempts to subdue similar weaknesses in their lander, such as having dissimilar redundant inertial measurement units—the lack of which [afflicted](https://jatan.space/past-lunar-mission-mistakes-to-avoid/) the lunar descent of Israel-based SpaceIL’s Beresheet lander. But the fact remains that five out of the past nine lunar landing missions have failed. Even as lunar ambitions skyrocket worldwide, having a robotic lander touchdown by itself remains a daunting undertaking. Until IM-1 is aloft, its engineers will not really know if their testing regime was appropriate. In a feature piece for *Nature*, I explain the key tests and challenges engineers face in preparing a lander for Luna: [Read: How we test Moon landers 🌗](https://nature.com/articles/d41586-024-00352-w) *Also related:* [*Past mistakes to avoid in our grand return to the Moon this decade*](https://jatan.space/past-lunar-mission-mistakes-to-avoid/) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f8cf1f0ae-cf23-4e6f-8294-7482bd0242e8_1920x1080-jpeg.jpg) Ground stations to be used by Intuitive Machines for its Moon landing missions. Image: [Intuitive Machines](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/commercial-lunar-network-completed-ahead-of-im-1-moon-mission), [MSU](https://www.moreheadstate.edu/college-of-science/earth-and-space-sciences/space-science-center/laboratories-facilities/21m-space-tracking-antenna), [Goonhilly](https://www.goonhilly.org/ghy-6-32m-x/s-band), [CSIRO](https://web.archive.org/web/20220828225836/https://www.csiro.au/en/news/News-releases/2021/CSIROs-Dish-to-support-one-of-the-first-commercial-Moon-landings) As urged by NASA for CLPS, Intuitive Machines [signed multiple agreements over the years](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-93/) to get commercial Earth communications services for IM-1 to [avoid further straining](https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/08/nasas-artemis-i-mission-nearly-broke-the-deep-space-network) the precious but limited bandwidth of the agency’s Deep Space Network. Relatedly, Intuitive Machines has been progressing well towards its [second Moon landing mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-155/), which is also part of CLPS. ## Betting on Lunar Starship ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f17d7eb78-7ce7-433a-b678-f7799f704418_1300x800-jpeg.jpg) Illustration showing a swarm of rovers working in tandem on the Moon. [Image: OffWorld](https://www.offworld.ai/post/offworld-europe-and-luxembourg-space-agency-collaborate-in-lunar-isru-exploration-program) OffWorld and Astrolab are among the handful of companies creating for the Moon with a bet on SpaceX’s Starship bringing about a paradigm shift in launch mass and volume. With support from ESA and the Luxembourg Space Agency, OffWorld aims to send a large, autonomy-capable rover on a Lunar Starship [no earlier than 2027](https://www.offworld.ai/post/offworld-europe-and-luxembourg-space-agency-collaborate-in-lunar-isru-exploration-program) which will specifically locate and process [water-ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) containing soil at the Moon’s south pole as a demonstration. OffWorld hopes to send swarms of such rovers in the future, all working in tandem to extract and process lunar resources at scale. Astrolab aims to send its first lunar rover called [FLEX](https://astrolab.space/flex) on a [2026](https://astrolab.space/news/blog/145) Starship launch, carrying [at least eight payloads](https://spacenews.com/astrolab-announces-first-customers-for-commercial-lunar-rover-mission) worth $160 million. With a large payload capacity of up to 1,000 kilograms, FLEX sports essentially the same design that Astrolab pitched to NASA last year for the agency’s request for a versatile [Lunar Terrain Vehicle](https://jatan.space/what-we-know-about-artemis-ltv/), which will be used across Artemis missions starting [Artemis V](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/) for more than 10 years. Relatedly, Interlune—a mostly quiet startup founded over three years ago by several former Blue Origin employees—[raised $15.6 million](https://techcrunch.com/2024/02/02/secretive-moon-startup-led-by-ex-blue-origin-leaders-raises-new-tranche-of-funding) to develop lunar resource extraction technologies. Interlune seems to particularly focus on developing an efficient [method to sort lunar material](https://seedfund.nsf.gov/awardees/history/details/?company=interlune-corporation) by particle size, which in turn would allow faster passing over of feedstock into systems [extracting oxygen on the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-153/). --- *Thank you to* [***Epsilon3***](https://www.epsilon3.io) *and* [***The Orbital Index***](https://orbitalindex.com)*for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday. If you love my work too,* [*join them*](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) *to support this project.* --- ## More Moon - Axiom Space and NASA continue to test the core [AxEMU suit](https://www.axiomspace.com/axiom-suit) design astronauts will wear during the crewed [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii) lunar surface mission later this decade. [Chosen competitively](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-80/), the AxEMU suits offer enhanced mobility, upgraded insulation and cooling for the harsh lunar polar environment, and more such niceties compared to the current [EMU suits](https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/extravehicular-mobility-unit-emu) used in Earth orbit. The latest series of tests concerned how well the suit is allowing astronauts to perform [tasks related to handling samples](https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/axiom-space-tests-lunar-spacesuit-at-nasas-johnson-space-center) on the Moon. - Greece [became the](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-welcomes-greece-as-newest-artemis-accords-signatory)[](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-welcomes-greece-as-newest-artemis-accords-signatory)[35th country](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-welcomes-greece-as-newest-artemis-accords-signatory) and 13th ESA member to sign the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords) for cooperative lunar exploration. - To prepare Artemis astronauts to explore the [rocky, impact-cratered terrain](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/SPole%5F80S%5FLOLA-PSR%5Fv20190515.pdf) at the Moon’s south pole, the Lunar and Planetary Institute and NASA have [published a book](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/publications/books/astronaut%5Ftraining%5Fimpactcraters) which captures lessons from investigations of cratered lunar areas by Apollo astronauts. The book can be read and downloaded for free. - [How India’s Chandrayaan 2 orbiter helped Japan’s SLIM craft nail its Moon landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-161/) 📌 ## Speaking at ESA ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/08/jatan-speaking-at-esa-estec-on-chandrayaan-3-web.jpg) It was an honor and a pleasure to deliver a talk on Chandrayaan 3 and India’s lunar ambitions at ESTEC, Netherlands last month at the invitation of the European Space Agency. To be honest, as an [independent space writer](https://jatan.space/about) with barely any resources, I never thought such a day would come. Many thanks to [Francesco Liucci](https://www.linkedin.com/in/francesco-liucci) and team for being kind and helpful hosts. Attached below are my talk slides. Also see [key takeaways](https://bsgn.esa.int/2024/02/07/key-takeaways-from-the-annual-conference-on-commercial-space-exploration) from this [Space for Inspiration](https://bsgn.esa.int/space-for-inspiration-2024) event as posted by ESA. [Jatan Mehta on Chandrayaan 3 and Indian lunar explorationAt “Space For Inspiration” 2024, ESA ESTECjatan-mehta-chandrayaan-3-and-indian-lunar-exploration-esa-space-for-inspiration-2024.pdf14 MBdownload-circle](https://jatan.space/content/files/2024/08/jatan-mehta-chandrayaan-3-and-indian-lunar-exploration-esa-space-for-inspiration-2024.pdf "Download") ### How engineers test Moon landers on Earth URL: https://jatan.space/how-we-test-moon-landers/ Last updated: 2025-12-09T17:03:26.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/chandrayaan-3-stack-in-acoustic-chamber.jpg) The Chandrayaan 3 spacecraft is seen here mounted in an acoustic chamber to test its integrity against the intense sounds & vibrations of a rocket launch. [Image: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan%5F3%5FModule%5FDynamic%5FTests.html) As part of an unprecedented [return to our Moon](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/), space agencies, companies, and enthusiasts around the world hope for this decade to mark a string of successful robotic lunar landings. While our lunar ambitions may have risen, having robotic landers fully autonomously orchestrate the firing of their engines from lunar orbit to touchdown remains a daunting challenge. The roughly three-second delay in two-way communications makes it impossible for earthbound engineers to reliably guide lunar landings. Four out of the eight lunar landing attempts within the past five years have failed; namely Israel’s [Beresheet](https://davidson.weizmann.ac.il/en/online/sciencepanorama/what-happened-beresheet), India’s [Chandrayaan 2](https://jatan.space/finding-the-chandrayaan-2-lander/), Japan’s [Hakuto-R](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-129/), and Russia’s [Luna 25](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-141/). They highlight the fact that while we can adequately test certain things before launching a lander to the Moon, there are aspects we can’t—which is where the uncertainties lie. Let’s take a look at some key tests and challenges in building a lunar lander. > *Aside: Lunar lander tests often aren’t conducted with final mission hardware to avoid damaging delicate parts or intricate functions, subsequently causing mission delays and cost overruns. This risk is often worked around by building representative models of spacecraft or their parts for testing.* ## Enduring the loads Like every spacebound craft, lunar landers are tested in acoustic chambers to ensure [avoiding mechanical damage](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FEngineering%5FTechnology/Test%5Fcentre/Hydraulic%5Fshaker) from the intense, sustained vibrations and sounds of a rocket launch. Additionally, lunar landers test for loads that could be imparted on touchdown. For example, ISRO dropped the [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) lander’s legs on terrestrial test beds made of [simulated lunar soil](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0032063321001938) to ensure that the lander could tolerate a high vertical velocity of three meters per second. Likewise, US-based private company Firefly Aerospace conducted nearly 100 drop tests on lunar soil simulants and sand to [qualify](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-aerospace-completes-blue-ghost-lunar-lander-structure-ahead-of-moon-landing-for-nasa) the legs for their upcoming Blue Ghost lander. Firefly aims to carry 10[ NASA payloads](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-firefly-aerospace-for-artemis-commercial-moon-delivery-in-2023) to the Moon in late 2024 as part of the agency’s [Commercial Lunar Payload Services](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) (CLPS) program. “We even tested leg drops on concrete because it’s harder than anything we’ll land on,” says [William Coogan](https://www.linkedin.com/in/william-coogan-a01334a9), Firefly’s chief lunar lander engineer. ## Preparing to be in space and at Luna To avoid fractures due to swift temperature swings in lunar orbit, every lander spends days or even weeks in [thermovac chambers](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FEngineering%5FTechnology/Test%5Fcentre/Large%5FSpace%5FSimulator%5FLSS) to ensure structural integrity. The chambers achieve a space-and-Moon-like vacuum, simulate its temperature swings, and even replicate unfiltered sunlight using powerful xenon lamps and mirrors. There’s also the concern of radiation damage to electronics, for which landers often host computers and avionic systems made of extensively tested [radiation-hardened components](https://jatan.space/space-grade-electronics/). Protecting lunar landers from the harsh space environment is only part of the story though. We also need to ensure the various hardware and software elements comprising a lunar lander function together as expected. [Kalpana Kalahasti](https://jatan.space/kalpana-kalahasti-chandrayaan-3-nature/), Associate Project Director of Chandrayaan 3, says her team spent the bulk of the mission’s development time coming up with and overseeing comprehensive ground tests. These included testing landing sensors on a helicopter to mimic different descent phases, examining the performance of engines that must dynamically throttle during descent, and assessing the navigation system’s ability to hover and avoid hazards before touchdown using crane-based setups on Moon-like terrain. “Since testing sensors on aircraft doesn’t simulate hover or low-altitude phases of a lunar landing, we switched to using helicopters for Chandrayaan 3 to better mimic varying altitudes and velocities,” says Kalahasti. Additional tests can include [antenna testing](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FEngineering%5FTechnology/Antenna%5FLaboratory) for communications and [optical testing](https://www.csl.uliege.be/cms/c%5F10308408/en/csl-optical-design-metrology) for cameras. For NASA’s upcoming [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) mission, which will traverse through [rocky terrain](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/SPole%5FSRidgemap%5FLOLA-Slope5m%5Fv20190515.pdf) at the Moon’s south pole scouting for [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/), the agency [drove a model of its wheel](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/artemis-moon-rover-s-wheels-are-ready-to-roll) in simulated terrain for over 40 kilometers of varying slopes and rock distributions. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2facea94c1-69c1-44c8-b4bd-0f9157246773_2890x1926-jpeg.jpg) A prototype model of NASA’s VIPER rover, reduced to its mobility elements, being tested in a terrain-adjustable bin containing lunar soil simulant. [Image: NASA Glenn Research Center](https://www.nasa.gov/glenn/image-feature/2020/nasa-s-new-moon-rover-tested-in-lunar-operations-lab) ## Simulate Moon landings What you can’t test with hardware, you do in simulations. “Software replicas of your lunar lander help you simulate the lander’s dynamics and its environments,” says [Laura Crabtree](https://www.linkedin.com/in/lauracrabtree), CEO and co-founder of Epsilon3, a web-based spacecraft testing and operations platform used by several organizations building lunar landers. To get a better handle on how their lander might behave at the Moon, engineers characterize hardware sensors and put them into simulations, says Coogan. Teams also simulate key mission phases to identify what kinds of issues their lander can handle by itself, and what needs to be combated via mission control on Earth. “Some real-time data from an ongoing mission is ingested into simulations to test critical commands before sending it to a lander,” adds Crabtree. These methods are sorely needed to meet time-sensitive objectives like putting a lander into lunar orbit, where you often get but one chance. In fact, simulations are also a great way to make your landing system fail. “We formed a dedicated simulation group to characterize the \[Chandrayaan 3\] lander’s ability to recover from off-nominal trajectories during descent,” says Kalahasti. [The group](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/chandrayaan-3-lunar-conquerors-unsung-heroes-indias-chandamama-dream/articleshow/103488457.cms) also sim-tested redundant paths and extreme cases until the landing system failed so as to know its limits, and therefore modify it as needed. ## Known unknowns Some challenges associated with a lunar lander are only apparent when it’s in space, such as the performance of its propulsion system. “You can’t simulate weightlessness in a way that’s indicative of the lander’s response in space. Until you fire a thruster, you will not definitively know the precise force it imparts,” says Crabtree. “So you make a closed loop system monitoring expected versus actual thrust to get you to the right orbits.” Propellent reserves are used to make up for minor deviations in the lander’s actual performance. Russia’s [Luna 25](https://russianspaceweb.com/luna-glob-flight.html) lander crashed on the Moon during an orbital reduction maneuver on August 19, 2023 due to a 50% longer engine firing than necessary. The Russian space agency’s investigation [found](https://russianspaceweb.com/luna-glob-flight.html#0819) that the issue likely stemmed from the software not being designed to prioritize data from the accelerometer, which would’ve otherwise told it that the desired velocity change was achieved well before the engines shutdown. It’s also hard to pre-determine the safest patch for a lander to touchdown upon. “During the final landing phase, the lander will see new features not present in onboard orbital imagery, including any hazards,” says Coogan. This brings us to a defining feature of modern robotic landers called “vision-based navigation”, wherein a descending lander compares images of the Moon it snaps to preloaded onboard orbital maps to know where it is and accordingly determine where it needs to go. However, tests of such a system on Earth can only represent some Moon-like terrain, and just the final landing phase. This is why Japan’s [SLIM](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-161/) spacecraft, which recently [landed on the Moon](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/en/outreach/announcements/files/SLIM-pressconf-20240125.pdf), verified its vision-based navigation ability in lunar orbit prior to beginning its descent. ## Private Moonshot challenges For private companies such as ispace Japan and those part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), there are additional challenges. They typically cannot invest as much money or time into lander testing as a government space agency. This was partially highlighted on April 25, 2023 with the [crash](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-129/) of ispace Japan’s [first lunar lander](https://jatan.space/ispace-japan-m1-moon-mission/). As the lander passed over the rim of the Atlas Crater to approach its [target landing site](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=40.2145798%2C44.1202909%2C48.4074855%2C48.7594362&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=44.40014864%2C47.49964213&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFaaKBJ-Im64NOZFkRdi5KjwpA&proj=16) within, its laser altimeter correctly reported an increased elevation of about 3 kilometers—corresponding to the crater’s depth. But onboard software designed to keep the lander’s motion stable against certain abrupt values rejected the measurement as erroneous. ispace’s lander, thinking it was closer to the surface than it really was, continued decelerating slowly until it ran out of fuel and fell to a crash. During a [media briefing](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Owt2u9SJIbU) later, ispace CTO Ryo Ujiie said because the company changed the [original landing site](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=2549) shortly before launch, the prior simulations testing the lander’s descent weren’t using terrain representative of what the lander faced. Chandrayaan 3 and SLIM sported redundant altimetry systems to ensure safety fallbacks for their landers in such situations. “Unsuccessful missions can be very expensive to a company. We recognized that and intentionally bid a cost in our CLPS proposal to make sure we had the resources to be successful,” says Coogan. Ultimately, the fact of the matter is unlike sending spacecraft to Earth orbit, the Moon remains a much more unforgiving destination. Here’s hoping the next set of landing attempts fare better and help sustain the worldwide impetus to return to our Moon. *Originally published on* [*Nature*](https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-00352-w)*.* ### Related articles I’ve written previously - [*Past mistakes to avoid in our grand return to the Moon this decade*](https://jatan.space/past-lunar-mission-mistakes-to-avoid/) - [*A brief history of space missions lost to human errors*](https://jatan.space/space-missions-lost-to-human-errors/) - [*Space grade electronics: How NASA Juno survives near Jupiter*](https://jatan.space/space-grade-electronics/) ### Moon Monday #162: Mission updates on SLIM, CAPSTONE, and Queqiao 2, a gist of Gateway science, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-162/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:14:44.000Z ## Mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f2a9282cc-5183-4971-b925-f8a00a5c42e5_1600x1080-jpeg.jpg) SLIM team members. Inset image: SLIM’s final image of the Moon before entering sleep mode pre-dusk. Images: [Ritsumeikan University / University of Aizu](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/en/topics/003675.html) / [JAXA](https://twitter.com/SLIM%5FJAXA/status/1752958572781330741) #### SLIM Japan’s SLIM lunar lander [entered sleep mode](https://twitter.com/SLIM%5FJAXA/status/1752958274767602063) on January 31, two days after it woke up when pre-dusk sunlight struck its solar panels from the west. Like [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/), SLIM wasn’t designed to survive the frigid lunar night, when temperatures can plunge below -100° Celsius. JAXA will nevertheless attempt to wake up SLIM the next lunar day in mid-February just in case serendipity awaits. In its two days of operations, SLIM [analyzed](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/en/topics/003675.html) the composition of rocks and soil at 13 locations using a near-infrared multi-band spectroscopic camera, which will inform scientists about the landing site’s formation, and possibly that of [our Moon’s mantle](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) too. In any case, SLIM has gone down in history as the most precise robotic planetary landing ever, which has [big implications for future lunar exploration](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-161/). 📌 #### CAPSTONE The NASA-funded and Advanced Space-led [CAPSTONE](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/small%5Fspacecraft/capstone) lunar orbiter has been [continuing to cross-communicate](https://advancedspace.com/advanced-spaces-resilient-capstone-mission-for-nasa-is-operating-at-the-moon-for-445-days-continues-to-transform-exploration-with-cutting-edge-technology) with NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html) (LRO) for demonstrating autonomous navigation in lunar orbit, that is, without relying on Earthly ground stations. Being able to autonomously determine position and navigation states means future lunar satellites can operate more efficiently by [not blocking](https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/08/nasas-artemis-i-mission-nearly-broke-the-deep-space-network) as much of the precious but limited bandwidth of NASA’s Deep Space Network or other such ground stations. Relatedly, NASA [funded](https://advancedspace.com/selected-nasa-sbir-2023-awards) Advanced Space last year to develop a mission design and planning tool which will increase the autonomy and safety of lunarbound spacecraft along various trajectories. This tool would also benefit crewed missions such as those under [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis). Another way CAPSTONE is proving useful to NASA is it’s test-flying the same fuel-efficient [Near-Rectilinear Halo Orbit](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/a-lunar-orbit-that-s-just-right-for-the-international-gateway) to be flown by the NASA-led international [Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) lunar orbital habitat later this decade. The CAPSTONE team has been [publishing some papers](https://advancedspace.com/subject/papers-presentations) to that end. #### Queqiao 2 The flight hardware of China’s [Queqiao 2](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-150/) lunar orbiter arrived at the Wenchang spaceport on February 2, CGTN [reports](https://news.cgtn.com/news/2024-02-02/Relay-satellite-for-China-s-future-lunar-missions-reaches-launch-site-1qROSzpSOtO/p.html). Andrew Jones [says](https://spacenews.com/chinas-change-7-moon-mission-to-target-shackleton-crater) CNSA intends to launch the communications orbiter on a Long March 8 rocket as early as this month. Queqiao 2’s 4.2-meter wide parabolic antenna will relay communications between Earth and CNSA’s upcoming lunar missions, including the [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-126/) sample return craft and the [Change’e 7 & 8](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-148/) landers. Zhang Tong [reports](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3250884/testing-testing-china-try-out-new-satellite-tech-change-6-lunar-mission) that Queqiao 2 will also deploy two experimental Tiandu CubeSats to test and verify technologies to be fed into the [Queqiao constellation](https://spacenews.com/china-wants-a-lunar-satellite-constellation-to-support-deep-space-missions)—an upcoming lunar navigation and communications service similar to ESA’s [Moonlight](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-98/) project. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f2ec571dd-2a8f-4c39-8a72-83ed9d809158_1300x970-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of a multi-nodal cislunar communications architecture considered by Chinese researchers for a south polar Moonbase. Navigation and communications orbiters like Queqiao 2 make up the “lunar relay nodes”. [Image: Baobi Xu, et al.](https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4102-9%5F86) Relatedly, Andrew Jones [reported](https://spacenews.com/chinas-change-6-probe-arrives-at-spaceport-for-first-ever-lunar-far-side-sample-mission) last month that the four key modules of the 8200-kilogram [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-126/) Mooncraft arrived at China’s Wenchang spaceport on January 10\. CNSA aims to launch Chang’e 6 on a Long March 5 rocket this May to bring about two kilograms of lunar samples from the [Apollo impact crater](https://jatan.space/peak-ringed-apollo-crater/) on the Moon’s farside. These samples should be scientifically even more valuable than the [Chang’e 5 samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-156/) as it would be our first tactile window into our Moon’s [mysterious farside](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). ## A gist of Gateway science ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f995ca7e0-3501-4358-8a56-bd46f22f7e5e_800x550-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of the NASA-led international Gateway lunar orbital habitat, with the tentative location of HERMES radiation instrument payload indicated by the yellow circle. [Image: NASA](https://science.nasa.gov/missions/hermes) An armada of international instruments by NASA, ESA, and JAXA on the upcoming [Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) lunar orbital habitat will advance the lunar radiation-characterizing research as [initiated](https://jatan.space/science-on-artemis-i/) with NASA’s [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-i). They will also be the first space weather monitoring platforms on a crew-hosting spacecraft that’s outside Earth’s protective magnetic field. NASA will mount the [HERMES instrument suite](https://science.nasa.gov/missions/hermes) outside the Gateway to monitor the continuous stream of charged particles coming from the Sun called [the solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/). HERMES will also take radiation and magnetic field measurements when the Moon passes through the tail of Earth’s magnetic field. This will allow NASA to combine its observations with two nearby [THEMIS](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/themis-artemis) spacecraft sporting similar instruments, and thus reconstruct changes in the solar wind with time. For higher energy radiation measurements, there will be ESA’s instrument suite [ERSA](https://blogs.esa.int/exploration/artemis-introducing-ersa-european-experiment-to-monitor-radiation-in-deep-space/) mounted on the Gateway. ERSA will not only measure higher energy particles in the solar wind but also galactic cosmic rays. ESA, in collaboration with JAXA, will supply [a suite of dosimeters](https://blogs.esa.int/exploration/internal-radiation-payload-approved-for-the-gateway/) inside the Gateway’s habitat module [HALO](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-northrop-grumman-finalize-moon-outpost-living-quarters-contract) to monitor solar and cosmic radiation from within the station, which will help assess requirements for the safety of astronauts on future Moon missions. Together, these instruments will provide us a fuller picture of the space weather conditions and ergo crew protection necessities near Luna. 🧑🏽‍🚀 ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f2fd6b7af-337b-432c-95b7-4170047c906e_1450x1080-jpeg.jpg) An illustration of Canada’s highly autonomous Canadarm3 servicing system located on the exterior of Gateway. [Image: CSA / NASA](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/multimedia/search/image/watch/12642) In addition to the aforementioned instruments, here’s a quick refresher of other upcoming known scientific contributions to the Gateway. - Because Canada is contributing the [Canadarm3](https://asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/canadarm3/about.asp) robotics servicing system to the Gateway, the country has secured not just [astronaut seats](https://www.canada.ca/en/space-agency/news/2020/12/a-canadian-astronaut-will-fly-to-the-moon.html) aboard but also dedicated time to perform science & technology experiments. The Canadian Space Agency (CSA) previously funded [seven biology-related experiments](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/news/articles/2023/2023-08-17-funding-to-support-the-canadian-space-industry-in-its-exploration-of-the-lunar-environment.asp) totaling $1.25 million to be on the Gateway. Then, in March 2023, CSA [announced](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/news/articles/2023/2023-03-29-significant-investments-to-further-propel-canadian-space-exploration.asp) it will invest $76.5 million over eight years in Canada-led Gateway experiments. Canadarm3 will help install and support scientific instruments on the Gateway. - In parallel, ESA has [continued expanding](https://ideas.esa.int/servlet/hype/IMT?documentTableId=45087167213490487&userAction=Browse&templateName=&documentId=bb471cdadced70f093ac9f6d53c5537a) its “[SciSpacE](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Research/Drop%5Ffly%5Firradiate%5FESA%5Fs%5FSciSpace%5Fresearch%5Fprogramme)” program to fund more science on and around the Moon, with a focus on the Gateway. Separately, ESA has asked researchers in June 2022 across its member (and affiliated) states to [submit lunar science payload proposals](https://ideas.esa.int/servlet/hype/IMT?documentTableId=45087127246400699&userAction=Browse&searchTerm=SVNT&templateName=&documentId=a74341805c7f2c3197252cefbf332097) that can be developed for launch within three years of an identified flight opportunity. ESA has now shortlisted [four proposals](https://ideas.esa.int/servlet/hype/IMT?documentTableId=45087127246400699&userAction=Browse&searchTerm=SVNT&templateName=&documentId=a74341805c7f2c3197252cefbf332097) to consider further for launch, likely on a NASA-funded [CLPS lander](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). Related: China’s [Chang’e 4](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/change-4) lander and rover [on the Moon’s farside](https://jatan.space/change-4-landing-site-farside-von-karman-crater/) produced two prominent results on long-term lunar radiation measurements: - [First measurements of low-energy cosmic rays on the surface of the lunar farside from Chang’E-4 mission](https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abk1760) - [Energetic Neutral Atom Distribution on the Lunar Surface and Its Relationship with Solar Wind Conditions](https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/ac34f3) --- *Thank you to *[Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io)* and *[Open Lunar Foundation](https://www.openlunar.org)* for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday. If you love my work too, [join them](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) to support this project.* --- ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f6e123a89-2027-4ac8-b58f-7c69d8be243e_2600x1500-jpeg.jpg) Inaugural launch of the SLS rocket for the Artemis I Moon mission on November 16, 2022\. [Image: NASA / Joel Kowsky](https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/view-the-best-images-from-nasas-artemis-i-mission) - As [Step #2](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2024/01/29/nasa-kennedy-teams-test-high-speed-cameras-for-artemis-ii-mission) in a series of seven tests, NASA is prepping and enhancing dozens of high-speed film & digital cameras to record and document the launch of the second [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/reference/space-launch-system) in late 2025, which will push [four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) towards the Moon on the [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to) mission. On that note, maybe relive [some beautiful views](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/view-the-best-images-from-nasa-s-artemis-i-mission) from the Artemis I launch. - The Planetary Science Journal published a [special edition](https://iopscience.iop.org/collections/psj-230921-368) dedicated to LRO, which is a collection of open access papers showcasing the venerable orbiter’s wide impact on lunar and planetary science. - Relatedly, JPL is hiring a [postdoctoral research associate](https://citjpl.wd5.myworkdayjobs.com/Jobs/job/JPL-Campus/Postdoc--Understanding-lunar-surface-processes-using-LRO-Diviner%5FR4872) to utilize LRO’s radiometer data to better understand the Moon’s thermophysical dynamics, including (past) volcanism. --- **→ [Browse](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [Sponsor](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Indian Space Progress #12: Doubling down on space telescopes, lunar exploration, and Earth observation URL: https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-12/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:14:44.000Z *This month’s Indian Space Progress report is a science special. I hope you enjoy it!* ## XPoSat gazes at cosmic objects from space ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f2713b440-15ff-4e40-b1ca-2eb94d2c2b49_1920x1080-jpeg.jpg) **Left:** The XPoSat space telescope prior to launch; **Right:** XPoSat-measured spectrum of the supernova remnant Cassiopeia A mixed with cosmic ray measurements. Images: [ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/XpoSat%5FGallery.html) / [URSC](https://www.isro.gov.in/XSPECT%5Fpayload%5Fperformance.html) On January 1, ISRO’s PSLV rocket [launched](https://www.isro.gov.in/PSLV%5FC58%5FXPoSat%5Fliftoff%5Fonboardvid.html) India’s second space telescope called the [X-ray Polarimetry Satellite](https://www.isro.gov.in/XPoSat.html), or XPoSat. While the country’s first space telescope, [AstroSat](https://www.isro.gov.in/AstroSat.html), observes high energy cosmic objects in multiple wavelengths, the smaller XPoSat is more specialized and focuses on better analyzing just the X-rays emitted by cosmic objects. XSPECT, one of the two instruments onboard XPoSat, already [began observations](https://www.isro.gov.in/XSPECT%5Fpayload%5Fperformance.html), starting with first light from the supernova remnant Cassiopeia A. Built by the Space Astronomy Group at ISRO’s U R Rao Satellite Centre (URSC), XPSECT will conduct long-term spectral as well as time-varying measurements of cosmic objects that emit lower-energy X-rays called soft X-rays. XSPECT is expected to study X-ray emissions from black hole binaries too. For hard X-rays, there’s XPoSat’s polarimeter called [POLIX](https://web.archive.org/web/20220128195554/https://www.rri.res.in/~bpaul/polix.html) built by the Raman Research Institute. In particular, POLIX will study the polarization of X-rays emitted by cosmic objects, which will uniquely inform scientists about the physical nature of those objects—such as the strength and distribution of their magnetic fields. NASA launched the [IXPE](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/imaging-x-ray-polarimetry-explorer-ixpe) space telescope on a similar mission in December 2021\. IXPE and XPoSat are the world’s only telescopes dedicated for said purpose. When scientists are able to utilize and combine data from both telescopes, we will get first or better polarization measurements for many bright X-ray sources, including pulsars, binary stars, and galactic cores. ISRO has a [good blog post](https://www.isro.gov.in/XPoSat%5FX-Ray%5FPolarimetry%5FMission.html) on some of the physics behind XPoSat as well as on how its instruments evolved. ## Aditya-L1 begins its solar staring ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f641e410d-2650-44d3-8155-50bf7d52ce16_2160x1400-jpeg.jpg) Full disk ultraviolet views of our Sun using different filters, each of which expose certain features such as dark sunspots or bright plages, or even layers like the photosphere aka the Sun’s “surface” or the inner atmosphere. [Image: ISRO / SUIT](https://www.isro.gov.in/Aditya%5FL1%5FSUIT.html) India’s first space-based solar observatory called [Aditya-L1](https://www.isro.gov.in/Aditya%5FL1.html) launched in September 2023 to [uniquely study our Sun](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-08/) with its advanced set of seven indigenously developed instruments. In early January, it had reached the region of the [first Sun-Earth Lagrangian point](https://www.isro.gov.in/Aditya%5FL1-MissionDetails.html) (L1), where the gravitational pull of the two bodies roughly balance. On January 6, ISRO commanded Aditya-L1 to fire its thrusters and successfully [enter a 178-day halo-orbit](https://www.isro.gov.in/halo-orbit-insertion-adtya-l1.html) around the L1 point. This will allow Aditya-L1 to continually study the Sun for five years with minimal station keeping. While formal science observations [will begin from around April](https://indianexpress.com/article/india/aditya-l1-has-unique-different-instruments-compared-to-solar-missions-so-far-9097778) after all operational checkouts are complete, Aditya-L1 has already [returned first observations](https://www.ursc.gov.in/hel1os.jsp) of solar flares in high energy X-rays, captured [unique, full-disk ultraviolet images](https://www.isro.gov.in/Aditya%5FL1%5FSUIT.html) of the Sun’s “surface” and inner atmosphere, measured [charged particles](https://www.isro.gov.in/Aditya-L1%5FASPEX%5Finstrument%5Fbegins%5Fmeasurements.html) from the [solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/), and [deployed](https://www.isro.gov.in/Aditya%5FL1%5FMAG%5FBoom%5FDeployment.html) its [patented](https://archive.org/details/isro-patent-202241055623-deployable-boom-assembly/Complete%20Specifications) magnetometer boom. AstroSat has been a [space science success](https://doi.org/10.1093/astrogeo/atac051) for India, with its [more than 150 cited research results](https://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/heasarc/missions/biblio/astrosat%5Fbiblio%5Frefereed.html) in reputed international journals. If Aditya-L1 and XPoSat are able to follow suit, it would bode well for India’s still growing space science efforts. Related tangent: SatSure (*parent company of KaleidEO, a sponsor of Indian Space Progress*) has a [detailed blog post](https://www.blog.satsure.co/index.php/2023/09/06/when-the-sun-attacks-solar-weather-and-satellite-vulnerabilities) with real life examples on how solar weather monitoring missions like Aditya-L1 uniquely expand the life span of satellites in Earth orbit. ## Chandrayaan updates as India continues exploring the Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f283eec5c-54a1-4249-a2b7-3c991137ed56_1600x1000-jpeg.jpg) **Top left:** A map of sodium on the Moon as measured by the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter; **Bottom left:** The sodium average across latitudes shows increasing abundance towards the lunar north; **Bottom right:** Diagram showing how sodium atoms are either loosely bound to the lunar surface or tightly bound to minerals within. Images: [ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/SodiumISRO.html) / [S. Narendranath, et al.](https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/ac905a) - India’s [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/)’s [CLASS instrument](http://oro.open.ac.uk/29976/1/CLASS%5F2011%5FLunar%5FPlanetary%5FScience%5FConf.pdf) team [released](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2023.115898) the largest and highest-resolution X-ray [mapping](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/pdf/2191.pdf) of the Moon’s surface elements using orbital data collected over three years. Previously, CLASS provided us with the first ever [global-scale sodium maps](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-98/) of Luna, [sensed Chromium](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2021/pdf/2230.pdf) in its volcanic soil, and even [detected energetic events](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-orbiter-is-also-a-sun-watcher/) from the Sun. Studying these datasets is unraveling specifics of [how our Moon evolved](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) and helping scientists constrain the lunar crust’s composition. - On December 12, 2023, NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html) (LRO) [successfully laser-pinged](https://science.nasa.gov/missions/lro/laser-instrument-on-nasas-lro-successfully-pings-indian-moon-lander) the agency-provided small retroreflector sitting on top of ISRO’s Chandrayaan 3 lander. This first-of-a-kind demonstration is a stepping stone towards a future where Mooncraft with purpose-built lasers can locate such targets and land near them as they arrive. For example, this technique will be relevant for repeated cargo deliveries near future habitats. - In another trick up its sleeve, ISRO pulled the Chandrayaan 3 lunar orbiter [back to Earth orbit](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-157/). - In a [symposium](https://www.isgns2023.com/) talk last November, ISRO Chief S. Somanath [highlighted](https://www.youtube.com/live/DNXTouOKNVk?feature=shared&t=9413) some key *tentative* missions and elements from an increasingly complex roadmap that will feed into and enable the [new national goal](https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1968368) of sending an Indian to the Moon by 2040\. These include the Indo-Japanese [LUPEX rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-111/) and the Chandrayaan 4 sample return missions before end of decade, a Chandrayaan 5 mission with the ability to survive the lunar night, a resource extraction and utilization demonstration with Chandrayaan 6, a crewed lunar cruiser docking with the NASA-led [Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) international orbital habitat ([just as I had predicted!](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-10/)), a partially reusable [Next Generation Launch Vehicle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Next%5FGeneration%5FLaunch%5FVehicle) (NGLV), and more. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f686ad2cc-4a26-4b35-af0c-f7dfa61ba6af_1500x1100-jpeg.jpg) Screengrab of an integrated lunar and crewed exploration roadmap for India. [Image: S. Somanath / ISRO](https://www.youtube.com/live/DNXTouOKNVk?feature=shared&t=9413) --- *Many thanks to the *[Takshashila Institution](https://takshashila.org.in)*, *[SkyServe](https://skyserve.ai)*, *[KaleidEO](https://satsure.co/kaleidEO)* and *[Gurbir Singh](https://gurbir.co.uk)* for sponsoring this month’s Indian Space Progress report.* --- ## Some Earth observation updates from ISRO and the private sector - Following the release of India’s much-awaited [new space policy](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-04/) early last year, in December ISRO opened up access to 5-meter resolution remote sensing data from 44 of its satellites, making it among the highest resolution datasets of its kind in the world available to the public. Shyam Upadhyay has [great coverage](https://analyticsindiamag.com/isros-bhoonidhi-matches-nasas-space-standards) on its technicalities, and Vishesh Vatsal of SkyServe (*a sponsor of Indian Space Progress*) [illustrates its potential](https://blog.skyserve.ai/p/exploration-of-the-brand-new-liss4) with an example instrument from ISRO’s [ResourceSat-2](https://www.eoportal.org/satellite-missions/resourcesat-2). Also see [Bhoonidhi’s first newsletter](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/Bhoonidhi%5FNewsLetter%5F2024%5FEdition1.pdf) of 2024 for more details. - Pixxel Space, headquartered in the US but with a major Indian presence, [opened up](https://www.pixxel.space/blogs/pixxel-opens-first-of-its-kind-spacecraft-manufacturing-facility-in-bengaluru-india) a 2800 square-meter manufacturing and testing facility in Bangalore with the hope of eventually building and qualifying up to 40 satellites a year. The announcement comes shortly after Pixxel recently closed a Google-led [$36 million funding round](https://www.pixxel.space/blogs/pixxel-raises-36-million-in-series-b-funding-to-advance-hyperspectral-satellite-constellation-and-data-platform), bringing the total money raised by the company to at least [$71 million](https://www.crunchbase.com/organization/pixxel-81c6/company%5Ffinancials). The company is targeting launching six commercial hyperspectral Earth imaging satellites in late 2024. - Satellogic is [entering the Indian market](https://satellogic.gcs-web.com/news-releases/news-release-details/tata-advanced-systems-and-satellogic-sign-strategic-contract) via a partnership with Tata Advanced Systems Limited to build sub-meter resolution Earth observation satellites locally in the country for commercial as well as national defense applications. - Ahmedabad-based PierSight Space [raised $6 million](https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/tech/funding/ocean-surveillance-startup-piersight-raises-6-million-led-by-alpha-wave-global-elevation-capital/articleshow/106671267.cms) to work towards its goal of building a constellation of SAR satellites aimed at providing a high 30-minute interval monitoring for the maritime industry. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f4bef285f-e28c-4669-be25-7951cc86b746_530x600-jpeg.jpg) The ResourceSat-2 Earth observation satellite during its integration. [Image: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/PSLVC16%5FGallery.html) ## More Indian space - On the same launch as XPoSat, ISRO once again uniquely repurposed the PSLV’s fourth stage as a stabilized, solar-powered platform for onboard payloads. Called the PSLV Orbital Experimental Module or [POEM](https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/everyday-explainers/explained-what-is-isros-poem-platform-8001754), this platform affords organizations low-cost access to space for demonstrating their technologies ahead of use in future missions. On this launch, POEM hosted [nine payloads](https://www.isro.gov.in/POEM-3%5FMission%5Fachieves%5FPayload%5Fobjectives.html) from various organizations, including [green thrusters](https://bellatrix.aero/updates/arka-shines-rudra-roars) from startup Bellatrix and the [LEAP satellite platform demonstration](https://www.dhruvaspace.com/news/mission-success-dhruva-space-is-open-for-business-as-a-hosted-payload-provider-declares-success-of-leap-td-platform-onboard-isros-pslv-c58-poem-3) from the private company Dhruva Space. POEM also successfully demoed ISRO’s own high density [Lithium-ion batteries](https://www.isro.gov.in/FlightDemonstration%5FSi-Gr%5Fanode.html) and a [fuel cell](https://www.isro.gov.in/FuelCellFlightTestedPSLVC58.html) with the hope of using their core technologies in future satellites and space stations. - Hyderabad-based Skyroot [raised $27.5 million](https://aviationweek.com/aerospace/commercial-space/indias-skyroot-raises-275-million-fresh-funding-round), and hopes to launch their first orbital rocket Vikram-I later this year. The company previously launched [suborbital test mission ](https://www.isro.gov.in/mission%5Fprarambh.html)*[Prarambh](https://www.isro.gov.in/mission%5Fprarambh.html)* in November 2022, becoming India’s first such privately developed rocket. In July, the company [completed](https://twitter.com/SkyrootA/status/1676116935933857800) the carbon-fiber winding and curing of the rocket’s Stage-1 motor case. In June, Skyroot [flight qualified](https://twitter.com/SkyrootA/status/1671416833579286529) its Raman-I engine, which will provide roll attitude control for Vikram-I. Also in July, the company [successfully](https://www.isro.gov.in/Support%5FSpaceStartup%5FRocketEngine.html) [tested](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1682745543343079424) at an ISRO facility the first hot firing of its Raman-II engine, which will power Vikram-I’s fourth stage. In December, Skyroot [passed pressure testing](https://twitter.com/SkyrootA/status/1736576104272421090) of Vikram-I’s first stage. ## Reading menu - [Looking back at Chandrayaan 1 and forward to Artemis](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/) - [India’s Chandrayaan 2 lunar orbiter is also a Sun watcher](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-orbiter-is-also-a-sun-watcher/) --- **→ [Browse](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [Sponsor](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-indian-space-progress) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Moon Monday #161: Savoring SLIM’s success in precision landing, India’s role in it, and more mission updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-161/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:14:44.000Z *After ruminating over SLIM’s Moon landing and the news of it achieving its goal of a precision landing, it’s clear that there are many more implications and aspects of the mission to consider so as to savor its selene success. Enjoy the SLIM special Moon Monday!* ## SLIM is alive, and its landing is remarkable in more ways than one ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f6ed0f2dc-d28d-443c-9f44-8a5b1d67f918_640x480-jpeg.jpg) The flipped SLIM spacecraft on the Moon as imaged by the LEV-1 crawler bot. [Image: JAXA / TOMY / SONY](https://jda.jaxa.jp/result.php?lang=e&id=7e06883b03d41b4836ddfed96ea72a52) On January 25, JAXA provided a [detailed rundown](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/en/outreach/announcements/files/SLIM-pressconf-20240125.pdf) of how [the lunar landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-160/) of its [SLIM spacecraft](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/en/missions/spacecraft/current/slim.html) went on January 19\. During its final phase of the descent when SLIM was roughly 50 meters above the lunar surface, it hovered for a second time and successfully identified touchdown hazards below it to start lowering itself accordingly. But at this point, one of the two main engine nozzles on the lander mysteriously broke off and fell ([image](https://notes.jatan.space/uploads/2024/jaxa-slim-lander-engine-nozzle-fall.jpg)). This reduced the lander’s thrust level to 55%, and made it go sideways. Since then, the latter issue had to be continually kept in control by SLIM’s guidance system using the other main engine and smaller thrusters. SLIM touched down on the Moon at [13.316°S, 25.251°E](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=25.2385629%2C-13.3247621%2C25.2633625%2C-13.3112911&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&trailType=0&features=25.25074900%2C-13.31603100%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22SLIM+landing+site%22%7D%7C25.24890200%2C-13.31551000%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22SLIM+target+landing+site%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFOOZLRfImqnioA&proj=10), lying within the rocky ejecta of the 300-meter wide Shioli crater. While its vertical velocity of 1.4 meters/second on touchdown was well within the designed upper bound, the eastward lateral motion and touchdown orientation weren’t nominal, causing SLIM to flip on the surface with its solar panels [facing away](https://twitter.com/SLIM%5FJAXA/status/1749320575103995954) from the Sun. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fd10a1996-64a3-4f9a-b799-8b5d5ce665cf_1100x875-jpeg.jpg) The SLIM spacecraft on the Moon as imaged by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter. [Image: NASA / GSFC / ASU](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/1358) ### SLIM explores Selene SLIM [woke up](https://twitter.com/SLIM%5FJAXA/status/1751766255810556340) today, January 29, after the Sun lit the lander’s solar panels from the west. JAXA wasted no time to begin conducting its surface mission of analyzing the composition of Shioli crater’s ejecta using a near-infrared, multi-band spectroscopic camera, which might give scientists insights about [our Moon’s mantle and its formation](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). When SLIM was briefly operational post-landing, JAXA imaged parts of the surface using the instrument, and mission scientists even identified specific rock targets to spectrally analyze if and when the lander woke up—which it now has. Here’s hoping JAXA can get a lot of the surface science mission done before the Sun sets for it on February 2. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f7626c076-d269-4825-bc3e-f0e14908eef1_1500x1000-jpeg.jpg) I love this slide [from JAXA](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/en/outreach/announcements/files/SLIM-pressconf-20240125.pdf). While I can’t prove it, it seems likely based on past imagery releases that a NASA version of this picture would’ve cropped to only the Moon part. But JAXA’s version exposes you to the mission’s operations in more ways than one: it not only points out the observation range and the targets the spectroscopic camera will study but shows the present limitations as well. The two small “Lunar Excursion Vehicles”, or LEVs, that SLIM deployed during descent at about five meters altitude have also demonstrated their abilities. JAXA [said](https://global.jaxa.jp/press/2024/01/20240125-2%5Fe.html) the two-kilogram [LEV-1](https://www.jaxa.jp/projects/files/youtube/sas/20220315%5Fslim%5Flev%5Fdocument03.pdf) hopper leaped on the Moon as planned, and directly communicated with Earthly ground stations, which made it the world’s smallest and lightest hardware to directly transmit data from Luna to Terra. The 250-gram, tennis-ball-sized crawler called [LEV-2](https://global.jaxa.jp/activity/pr/jaxas/no088/03.html) also worked, and relayed an image of the flipped SLIM lander via LEV-1, providing us all a clear visual confirmation of the landing’s climax. ### A new era of robotic surface science and exploration Remarkably, because SLIM had been acing its lunar descent until the point at which it lost an engine nozzle, the spacecraft achieved its ‘pinpoint landing’ goal anyway by landing 55 meters from the center of its [incredibly tight](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-144/) landing ellipse of 100 by 100 meters. JAXA says without the engine anomaly, SLIM could’ve touched down at least five times closer! In any case, SLIM goes down in history as the most precise robotic planetary landing ever. As covered in the previous Moon Monday, this has [implications for more demanding future missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-160/) by Japan, India, and the US to explore the Moon’s [rocky south pole](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/SPole%5FSRidgemap%5FLOLA-Slope5m%5Fv20190515.pdf) and better access nearby [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) lying inside [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/). Just as importantly though, SLIM’s success will now lead to sophisticated surface science missions too: - For example, [scientists asserted in 2021](https://doi.org/10.3847/PSJ/abee7f) that due to scientific instruments becoming increasingly sophisticated, even low-cost robotic surface missions—and specifically those without sample return or crew—can help answer fundamental lunar & planetary science questions by focusing on precisely measuring trace elements. However, the generally immobile landers post touchdown and limited drive ranges of small rovers have kept such instruments from being right on or near the scientifically apt patches as identified from orbital data. With SLIM-like precision landings, that’s now possible. - Such precision landings will also enhance robotic sample return missions, where retrievals like in the case of China’s [Chang’e 5](https://jatan.space/change-5-landing-site/) mission have otherwise accepted higher tolerances in landing accuracies. Robotic missions can now have better chances of bringing material to Earth that have high fidelity to precise scientific objectives, such as, say, bringing home [the Moon’s mantle material](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). --- *Many thanks to *[Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io)*, *[Nathan Price](https://www.countdowntothemoon.org/went)* and *Ashish Gupta* for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday. If you love my work too, [join them](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday)!* --- ## How India’s Chandrayaan 2 orbiter helped SLIM nail the landing ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f97f68c5f-76f2-4e31-b1bf-45d9f3ae5e94_1350x850-jpeg.jpg) The SLIM lander’s lunar surface images taken from about 50-meter altitudes (blue boxes) superimposed on the background image by ISRO’s Chandrayaan 2 orbiter. The SLIM footprint in the red frame is the safe landing zone that it autonomously set based on hazards it detected. [Image: ISRO / JAXA / SLIM](https://global.jaxa.jp/press/2024/01/20240125-1%5Fe.html) At the heart of SLIM’s precision landing ability is what JAXA calls “vision-based navigation”, wherein it compares images of the Moon it snaps at critical points during its descent to preloaded onboard orbital maps within just a few seconds to know where it is and to determine where it needs to go. These maps come from NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html) (LRO), ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/), and JAXA’s own [SELENE](https://www.kaguya.jaxa.jp/index%5Fe.htm) craft, each uniquely useful at various heights. During the January 25 press conference, JAXA said that the SLIM mission used high-resolution imagery from the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter for selecting the final target landing site pre-launch as well as for the lander’s final descent phase. This is because the orbiter boasts an imaging resolution in the range of [0.25–0.30 meters/pixel](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-51/), which is roughly twice LRO’s finest. Such high resolution is useful in the final descent phase where otherwise standard orbital maps are rendered less useful for a lander now too close to the surface. While most modern robotic landers, including most recently India’s own [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/), can find a good landing spot on their own in this final phase, the lack of a relevant *last-mile* map can affect the landing precision. SLIM’s case highlights how India’s Chandrayaan 2 orbiter can provide advanced orbital data to help NASA and its partners better plan upcoming [robotic](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) & [crewed](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) Artemis missions. This has largely remained an [untapped opportunity](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-116/) despite a [formal report](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag/reports/CLOC-SAT%5FReport.pdf) from US scientists recognizing the orbiter’s unique ability. There have been a handful of exceptions though, such as a NASA-ISRO team [utilizing](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/pdf/2397.pdf) the orbiter’s radar to uniquely characterize the [Artemis III candidate landing regions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-91/). At the last [annual meeting](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/leag2023/technical%5Fprogram) of the NASA-backed Lunar Exploration Analysis Group ([LEAG](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag)) in September 2023, LRO project scientist and [Science Lead](https://jatan.space/nasa-taps-top-scientist-for-crewed-moon-return/) for Artemis III, Noah Petro, said: > The Chandrayaan 2 orbiter is a valuable asset at the Moon. Its data is helping build on the LRO foundation by filling important needs, and we’re very much looking forward to more data from the mission! ## More mission updates - SpaceX and Intuitive Machines are targeting launch of the latter’s [first Moon lander](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/im-1) on February 14\. The mission, named IM-1, will carry [six NASA science & technology payloads](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/first-commercial-moon-delivery-assignments-to-advance-artemis) as part of [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). A separate, commercial telescope called [ILO-X](https://iloa.org/ilo-x-precursor) from Hawaii-based ILOA will also be [aboard](https://iloa.org/iloa%5Fnews%5Frelease%5Foct%5F4%5F2023). While CLPS competitor Astrobotic’s first lunar landing mission [failed](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-159/) earlier this month, Intuitive Machines has continued to show confidence in their attempt. The company [earlier told](https://spacenews.com/first-intuitive-machines-lunar-lander-ready-for-launch) Jeff Foust of SpaceNews that they have studied recent failed Moon landing attempts to subdue any similar weaknesses in their lander, such as having dissimilar redundant inertial measurement units—the lack of which [afflicted](https://jatan.space/past-lunar-mission-mistakes-to-avoid/) the lunar descent of Israel-based SpaceIL’s Beresheet lander. - NASA’s decision to [launch](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-contract-to-launch-initial-elements-for-lunar-outpost) the upcoming US-led [Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) international lunar orbital station’s habitat module mated to its power & propulsion one led to some mass constraints, which combined with evolving Gateway requirements from NASA have resulted in habitat module contractor Northrop Grumman taking a $100 million hit out of a [$935 million](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-northrop-grumman-finalize-moon-outpost-living-quarters-contract) fixed-price contract, Jeff Foust [reports](https://spacenews.com/northrop-charges-on-lunar-gateway-module-program-reach-100-million). ## More Moon - Belgium [became the 34th country](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-welcomes-belgium-as-newest-artemis-accords-signatory) and the 13th European nation to sign the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords) for cooperative lunar exploration. Jeff Foust [notes](https://spacenews.com/belgium-signs-artemis-accords) that Belgium is the fifth largest contributor to ESA, after Germany, France, Italy, and the UK. As such, all these contributors are now signees of the Accords. - To achieve the ambitious Artemis Moon landing missions for NASA, both [SpaceX](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-spacex-second-contract-option-for-artemis-moon-landing-0) and [Blue Origin](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/) must prevent cryogenic fuels in their respective lunar craft from boiling off in the weeks and even months they spend in cislunar space. They must also be able to accurately assess the remaining fuel at any given point in time, a task made challenging due to lack of gravity. To improve fuel estimations, NASA says it will [soon fly](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/glenn/brr-its-cold-in-here-nasas-cryo-efforts-beyond-the-atmosphere) an agency-developed radio-based gauging technique on an unspecified upcoming Moon lander from Intuitive Machines as part of [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). - [New research](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41550-023-02185-5) from Western University discovered the mineral [apatite](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apatite) in a meteorite sample once part of the [old crust of our Moon](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). This reinforces the [recently developed](https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.1006677107) idea that the young Moon may have had [considerably more water](https://phys.org/news/2024-01-discovery-history-moon.html) than what the [Apollo sample findings](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/) suggest. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f76c20f1f-fd40-4f23-82cd-16f82d93a47f_1400x1000-jpeg.jpg) An artist's concept of the Moon shortly after its formation, with a mag­ma ocean and a forging rocky crust. [Image: NASA / GSFC](https://www.dlr.de/content/en/articles/news/2020/03/20200710%5Fa-slightly-younger-moon.html) --- **→ [Browse](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [Sponsor](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Moon Monday #160: On Japan’s breakthrough with SLIM and investing in a lunar future URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-160/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:14:44.000Z *Traveling in another continent presented several challenges for me to work on this week’s Moon Monday, which is why it’s slightly delayed. But I wanted to make sure to get it right because SLIM’s incredible lunar landing is a win in multiple ways. Hope you like this edition, transmitted to you from Luxembourg!* ## SLIM’s Moon landing paves the way for more demanding missions for Japan, India, and Artemis ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fef632dbd-24f2-4587-a44e-a147ba330d92-heic.jpg) Flight model of the SLIM Moon lander at the Spacecraft and Fairing Assembly Building at Japan’s Tanegashima launch complex. [Image: JAXA](https://jda.jaxa.jp/search.php?lang=e&page=1&keyword=SLIM&library=1&category1=&category2=&category3=&category4=&page%5Fpics=20) On January 19 at about 3:20PM UTC, JAXA’s $121 million [SLIM lander](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/en/missions/spacecraft/current/slim.html) successfully [touched down](https://www.youtube.com/live/nvXLt3ET9mE?feature=shared&t=4900) on the Moon [within the rocky ejecta](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/feature/forefront/220928.html) of the 300-meter wide [Shioli crater](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=25.1721202%2C-13.3553755%2C25.2955295%2C-13.2883322&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryFeature=1&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&trailType=0&features=25.24782200%2C-13.31708200%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22SLIM+target+landing+site%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0yioA&proj=10). This made Japan only the fifth country in the world to achieve a soft lunar landing, and JAXA just the second organization after CNSA to successfully do so on their first try. Unfortunately, for an as-yet-unidentified reason, SLIM’s novel thin-film solar sheets weren’t generating power on the surface. The lander was operating and [transmitting telemetry and imagery](https://twitter.com/SLIM%5FJAXA/status/1749320663633195074) on limited battery power. Within three hours, JAXA decided to remotely [disconnect SLIM’s batteries](https://twitter.com/SLIM%5FJAXA/status/1749320472175800668) while it was at the 12% charge level, and thus the lander powered down. This means SLIM couldn’t carry out its surface mission of analyzing the composition of Shioli crater’s ejecta using a near-infrared, multi-band spectroscopic camera that could’ve give scientists insights about [our Moon’s mantle and its formation](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). JAXA says that because SLIM’s solar panels are [facing westward](https://twitter.com/SLIM%5FJAXA/status/1749320575103995954), when sunlight hit the panels towards the end of the local lunar day an Earth week later, SLIM might generate power and hopefully recover for brief operations. When SLIM was about five meters above the surface during its descent, it successfully deployed two small mobile “Lunar Excursion Vehicles” or LEVs. These comprise the [LEV-1](https://www.jaxa.jp/projects/files/youtube/sas/20220315%5Fslim%5Flev%5Fdocument03.pdf) hopper, and the 250-gram tennis-ball-sized crawler called [LEV-2](https://global.jaxa.jp/activity/pr/jaxas/no088/03.html). JAXA received communications from both these bots. LEV-1 was supposed to image the lander and its surroundings but we don’t know yet if it did so or transmitted the same. In any case, what sets SLIM apart from every robotic Moon landing is its goal of achieving a ‘pinpoint landing’ by touching down within an [incredibly tight landing ellipse](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-144/) of 100 by 100 meters near Shioli. JAXA originally said it would take a month to determine from orbital data if SLIM achieved this goal. Nevertheless, the agency will provide us an update on the same in a [livestream plus press conference](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U61i0wN01Uk) on January 25\. Such gripping precision isn’t for the sake of a demonstration. The upcoming NASA Artemis crewed missions, China’s Chang’e robotic craft, and the majority of other government as well as private endeavors plan to explore the Moon’s [rocky south pole](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/SPole%5FSRidgemap%5FLOLA-Slope5m%5Fv20190515.pdf), where such demanding touchdowns are indispensable in most cases to better access nearby [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) lying inside [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f3323c8ed-34ff-4302-b479-88ebb20f6926_1915x1038-jpeg.jpg) Elevation and slope maps at the Moon’s south pole. The terrain is very rocky, requiring missions to use precision landing technologies. [Image: LPI](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas) In fact, for its next Moon mission launching before the end of decade, JAXA is partnering with ISRO to have its [LUPEX rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-111/) directly study the nature, abundance, and accessibility of water ice at 89°S. To safely and precisely land LUPEX amid unforgiving polar terrain, ISRO will build the lander with input from both [Chandrayaan 3’s success](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) and that of SLIM. Since both Japan and India are signatories of the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords), the engineering as well as the science from LUPEX is expected to feed into the Artemis program in some form. JAXA is also considering flying a LUPEX-class lander by end of decade to deliver cargo for Artemis missions. Against the contrast of many recent Moon landing mission failures, Chandrayaan 3 and SLIM have thankfully kept the [global momentum for the Moon](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) going by [feeding](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) into the frenzy of continuing to send robotic missions to Luna. *Tangent: In true Japanese style, [there’s a game](https://edu.jaxa.jp/contents/other/game/SLIM/index.html) for you to get a feel for the SLIM mission and its pinpoint Moon landing.* --- *Many thanks to *[Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io)*, *[Gordon Roesler](https://www.linkedin.com/in/gordon-roesler-687a0426)*, *[Henry Throop](https://www.linkedin.com/in/henry-throop-a47a6a7)* and *[Dany Waller](https://danywaller.github.io/)* for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday. If you love my work too, [join them](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday)!* --- ## More mission updates - With a series of 23 small main engine burns on January 18, Astrobotic directed its [ailing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-159/) Peregrine lander to [safely enter and burn up](https://www.astrobotic.com/update-20-for-peregrine-mission-one) in Earth’s atmosphere over the South Pacific Ocean. While the company could’ve avoided terrestrial reentry with the remaining propellent onboard, the company responsibly concluded that risking having an uncontrollable spacecraft littering cislunar space is a bad idea. Nevertheless, Astrobotic’s failed lunar landing mission has [many implications](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-159/) for the company’s expansive future Moon missions and ambitions, from delivering the water-hunting VIPER rover for NASA to hopes of operating commercial lunar power grids and versatile autonomous rovers. - On December 12, 2023, NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html) (LRO) [successfully laser-pinged](https://science.nasa.gov/missions/lro/laser-instrument-on-nasas-lro-successfully-pings-indian-moon-lander) the agency-provided small retroreflector sitting on top of ISRO’s Chandrayaan 3 lander. This first-of-a-kind demonstration is a stepping stone towards a future where Mooncraft with purpose-built lasers can locate such targets and land near them as they arrive. For example, this technique will be relevant for repeated cargo deliveries near future habitats. While LRO’s laser altimeter wasn’t built for this purpose, it’s nevertheless playing a pathfinding role to said end, which NASA will continue refining with the retroreflector the agency also has aboard SLIM. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f295e9a7a-e38d-4ad7-9feb-4b9848c0fcfa_1200x1199-jpeg.jpg) NASA’s 5-centimeter wide Laser Retroreflector Array has eight quartz-corner-cube prisms set into a dome-shaped aluminum frame. This device reflects light coming in from any direction back to its source. [Image NASA / GSFC](https://science.nasa.gov/missions/lro/laser-instrument-on-nasas-lro-successfully-pings-indian-moon-lander) ## Organizations worldwide continued investing in a lunar future - ESA [has been stockpiling](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2023/12/Anorthosite%5Fstockpiles%5Fat%5FLumina%5Fs%5Fonsite%5Fprocessing%5Fplant) quite a lot of Moon-like anorthosite rock material from Greenland to prepare several kinds of lunar soil simulants [in the lead up to](https://www.esa.int/Space%5Fin%5FMember%5FStates/United%5FKingdom/ESA%5Fuses%5Fterrestrial%5Frocks%5Fto%5Frecreate%5Fthe%5FMoon%5Fs%5Fsurface) opening the versatile VULCAN and [LUNA](https://www.dlr.de/rb/desktopdefault.aspx/tabid-17506) testbeds in the UK and Germany respectively. These facilities will be used to test both robotic and [crewed](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/The%5Fscience%5Fof%5FMoon%5Fhopping) exploration activities. Related tangent: For testing Chandrayaan landers and rovers, ISRO developed a [lunar-highland-like](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0032063321001938) soil simulant called [LSS-ISAC-1](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0032063320303299) by sourcing naturally occurring anorthosite rock fragments from the [Sittampundi Anorthosite Complex](https://www.mindat.org/loc-194805.html) in southern India. - Continuing to plan for future lunar exploration, the Italian Space Agency is [funding construction](https://europeanspaceflight.com/asi-signs-contract-for-lunar-robotic-mission-simulation-and-control-centre) of the Lunar Robotic Mission Simulation and Control Center in Turin. Once operational by 2027, it will be used to complement the European Space Agency Rover Operation Control Center (ROCC), which is also in Turin. Other related things the agency is funding is an [oxygen extractor demonstration mission](https://europeanspaceflight.com/asi-seeks-commercial-operator-for-lunar-oxygen-extraction-mission) by 2028, and a [multipurpose surface habitation module](https://europeanspaceflight.com/asi-awards-contract-to-continue-development-of-moon-base) for [Artemis Basecamp](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept). - ispace Japan and Orbit Fab [entered a partnership](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=5037) with a futuristic focus on refueling landers and other Moonbound hardware with lunar resources such as [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). Relatedly, the [UK Space Agency](https://www.gov.uk/government/news/water-on-the-moon-international-prize-launches-for-purifying-lunar-water) and the [Canadian Space Agency](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/sciences/aqualunar-challenge.asp) are co-hosting the $2.2 million Aqualunar Challenge, encouraging people to develop technologies that remove contaminants from lunar water so as to purify it for consumption by future astronauts. - As expected, NASA has finally formally asked SpaceX and Blue Origin to begin work on developing cargo variants of their crewed lunar landers with [SpaceX Starship](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-spacex-second-contract-option-for-artemis-moon-landing-0) and [Blue Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/) respectively, Jeff Foust [reports](https://spacenews.com/blue-origin-and-spacex-start-work-on-cargo-versions-of-crewed-lunar-landers). NASA wants such cargo flights, which begin from Artemis VII in the 2030s, to support [future astronauts and habitats](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept) by delivering a bare minimum of 12,000 kilograms of cargo per flight. These could include not just crew-critical supplies but also scientific payloads, technical equipments, large rovers, or even habitat modules. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2faa15ff39-d001-4112-9798-c8477a1f50b2_1600x1200-jpeg.jpg) Anorthosite stockpiles at a Lumina processing plant. [Image: ESA / Lumina](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2023/12/Anorthosite%5Fstockpiles%5Fat%5FLumina%5Fs%5Fonsite%5Fprocessing%5Fplant) --- **→ [Browse](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [Sponsor](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Moon Monday #159: On Astrobotic’s failed lunar landing and its wake, mission updates, Artemis delays, and science from KPLO URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-159/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:14:44.000Z *An announcement before we begin this week’s Moon Monday: I’m honored and stoked to have been invited by the European Space Agency to deliver a talk on Chandrayaan 3 and India’s lunar ambitions at the [Space for Inspiration event](https://bsgn.esa.int/space-for-inspiration-2024) this Thursday, January 18\. If you’re attending the event, feel free to connect. If you’re in Amsterdam this week and would like to meet to chat space, science, the Web, or writing, [email me](mailto:hey@jatan.space).* ## Astrobotic’s ailing lunar lander leaves behind a trail of transparency but also trepidation ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fb353b8c7-329e-411e-bae1-40757a456108_2200x1440-jpeg.jpg) An illustration showing NASA’s VIPER rover egressing from Astrobotic’s Griffin lander. [Image: Astrobotic](https://www.astrobotic.com/media-kit/images) After Astrobotic’s [Peregrine](https://www.astrobotic.com/lunar-delivery/landers/peregrine-lander) Moon lander part of NASA’s [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) program [successfully launched](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-158/) to its intended high Earth orbit on January 8 aboard a ULA Vulcan rocket, it began communicating with mission control as expected. Unfortunately for the company, the spacecraft then began to [tumble and thus lost its solar power generation](https://www.astrobotic.com/peregrine-mission-one-update-2) capacity. Based on [initial analysis](https://www.astrobotic.com/update-8-for-peregrine-mission-one), Astrobotic thinks a faulty valve part of Peregrine’s propulsion system caused high pressure helium to rush into and rupture the oxidizer tank. Mission operators have been [using Peregrine’s small thrusters](https://www.astrobotic.com/update-3-for-peregrine-mission-one) to keep the spacecraft’s solar arrays pointed towards the Sun and generate power. However, a skewed fuel to oxidizer ratio due to the propellant leak made any prolonged use of the main engine unfeasible, putting lunar orbital insertion and subsequent landing out of question for Peregrine. With that it mind and the lander losing fuel, Astrobotic decided to [switch on the payloads onboard](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2024/01/11/nasa-science-data-collection-ongoing-aboard-peregrine-mission-one), including [NASA ones](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/clps/nasa-sending-five-payloads-to-moon-on-astrobotics-peregrine-lander), to demonstrate the ability to operate them as well as collect and relay their data. But with the Moon not in Peregrine’s vicinity, achieving any of the intended scientific observations there isn’t possible. The lone exception is NASA’s radiation monitor onboard for which ongoing measurements in cislunar space constitute valid, relevant data too. While Peregrine’s high Earth orbit was supposed to be stable, the propellant leak has caused deviations in a manner that will lead the spacecraft to enter Earth’s atmosphere on January 18 and burn up. Astrobotic says while it can avoid terrestrial reentry with the remaining propellent, the uncertainties introduced by the leak (and the eventual propellant loss anyway) risk having an uncontrollable spacecraft littering cislunar space. The company thus [decided to let Peregrine incinerate](https://www.astrobotic.com/update-17-for-peregrine-mission-one) in the atmosphere in which it was born. Astrobotic and NASA will provide more mission details [in a media teleconference](https://www.astrobotic.com/media-advisory-teleconference-for-peregrine-mission-one) shortly after. ### Ponder on Peregrine’s wake Firstly, I’d like to publicly appreciate [John Thornton](https://www.linkedin.com/in/john-thornton-astro), [Alivia Chapla](https://www.linkedin.com/in/alivia-chapla-9ab04471), [Dan Hendrickson](https://www.linkedin.com/in/danielhendrickson) and the entire Astrobotic team for being promptly transparent to the world about the mission’s state throughout. As a private company, they didn’t have to do so but chose to anyway. Again, even tax-funded government space agencies haven’t been this forthcoming, case in point being the [utterly opaque](https://rootprivileges.net/2019/10/02/the-virtues-and-vices-of-reestablishing-contact-with-vikram) manner in which ISRO handled [Chandrayaan 2](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-2-moon-landing-mission/)’s crash landing in 2019\. Between ispace’s [also-transparent communications](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-125/) about its [failed lunar landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-129/) and Astrobotic’s present efforts, the two companies have set an excellent precedence not just for the coming [armada of robotic CLPS lunar landers](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) but Moon missions at large. Nevertheless, Peregrine’s failed Moonshot is another brutal reminder that *space is hard*, a phrase that simply refuses to become a cliché. It’s important to remember that Peregrine’s desired success was supposed to propel Astrobotic’s expansive lunar ambitions, which include operating a [commercial lunar power grid](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-96/) and [versatile autonomous rovers](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-93/) touting lunar night survival by end of decade. As such, Peregrine’s outcome has many (potential) implications for the company: 1. Since Peregrine’s landing mission ended well before its descent could even begin, Astrobotic unfortunately couldn’t get any data from this critical phase to know how well the lander would’ve performed against engineered expectations. Such information would’ve been particularly useful to Astrobotic for its next CLPS mission, which intends to have a large, 5900-kilogram [Griffin lander](https://www.astrobotic.com/lunar-delivery/landers/griffin-lander) deliver NASA’s [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) to the Moon’s south pole in November 2024 to directly study the nature of [lunar water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). 2. Given VIPER’s more demanding landing constraints and its [vitality](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) in helping NASA plan future human missions to the Moon’s poles, the agency [took a more conservative approach](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-87/) with VIPER compared to other high-risk, faster-reward CLPS deliveries. In 2022, NASA [requested](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-replans-clps-delivery-of-viper-to-2024-to-reduce-risk) Astrobotic to delay VIPER’s delivery by a year, and contracted them $67.8 million to perform additional testing of Griffin to reduce risk. Eric Berger has [previously reported](https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/04/nasas-other-moon-program-is-about-to-take-center-stage) that this includes more testing of Griffin’s propulsion system. It’s too early to say exactly how Peregrine’s failure will affect VIPER’s launch but definitely expect NASA to take actions that further reduce risk to the rover in one way or another. 3. Astrobotic’s [third Moon mission](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-purchases-falcon-heavy-launch-services) aiming for a touchdown on the Moon’s south pole in 2026 will likely get delayed. Peregrine’s outcome might also affect Astrobotic’s [offering](https://spacenews.com/astrobotic-purchases-falcon-heavy-for-third-lunar-lander-mission) of satellite deployments to lunar orbit on said mission. 4. Astrobotic’s aforementioned lunar ambitions intend to leverage everything the company has been building: landers, rovers, [lunar solar panels](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-92/), and [wireless power delivery](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-82/), which also means investing more to make sure every element works reliably. With Astrobotic having [acquired Masten Space and its assets](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-95/) in 2022 and the company [building a simulated lunar field](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-building-a-3d-lunar-surface-for-testing-research) for enhanced testing of Moonbound hardware, we will likely see Astrobotic further lean on better testing hardware for its future Moonshots. The trouble is that with its inherently limited resources compared to typical Moon missions by space agencies, this is going to be an expensive battle. ## Mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fcd703144-4b28-4a37-8309-7e2f73ecf18d_1800x1800-jpeg.jpg) SLIM’s target landing location, marked as orange dots in three views: the Moon as a globe, against the large Cyrillus and Theophilus craters, and beside the 300-meter wide Shioli crater. [Images: LROC Quickmap](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=25.1695106%2C-13.35231%2C25.2952214%2C-13.2840171&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryFeature=1&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=25.24782200%2C-13.31708200%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22SLIM+target+landing+site%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0yioA&proj=10) / Graphic: Jatan Mehta - On January 14, JAXA’s [SLIM lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-144/) performed a [circularization burn](https://global.jaxa.jp/press/2024/01/20240115-1%5Fe.html) to enter the intended lunar orbit of 600 by 600 kilometers. On January 19, SLIM will reduce this orbit to 15 by 600 kilometers, after which it will attempt a 20-minute autonomous lunar descent on January 20 at about [12 AM JST](https://global.jaxa.jp/press/2023/12/20231205-1%5Fe.html) (3 PM UTC on January 19). Will SLIM achieve its goal of a ‘[pinpoint landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-144/)’? Watch the [live stream on YouTube](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nvXLt3ET9mE) to find out. - Andrew Jones [reports](https://spacenews.com/chinas-change-6-probe-arrives-at-spaceport-for-first-ever-lunar-far-side-sample-mission) that the four key modules of the 8200-kilogram [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-126/) Mooncraft arrived at China’s Wenchang spaceport on January 10\. CNSA aims to launch Chang’e 6 on a Long March 5 rocket this May to bring about two kilograms of lunar samples from the [Apollo impact crater](https://jatan.space/peak-ringed-apollo-crater/) on the Moon’s farside. These samples should be scientifically even more valuable than the [Chang’e 5 samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-156/) as it would be our first tactile window into our Moon’s [mysterious farside](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). --- *Many thanks to *[Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io)*, *[Joseph Biernat](https://www.linkedin.com/in/joseph-j-biernat-24858425)*, *[Sonia Tikoo](https://www.linkedin.com/in/sonia-tikoo-86853452)* and *[Arun Raghavan](https://arunraghavan.net)* for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday. If you love my work too, [join them](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday)!* --- ## More Artemis delays ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ff2ec5ae7-e63e-41cb-93fd-986fdad7daf0_1920x1080-jpeg.jpg) The Artemis I Orion capsule [during](https://images.nasa.gov/details-KSC-20221211-PH-KLS01-0010) and [after](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/12/11/artemis-i-update-orion-secured-inside-uss-portland-ahead-of-return-to-shore) splashdown in the Pacific ocean. Images: NASA In a January 9 media teleconference, NASA Administrator Bill Nelson announced (inevitable) delays to upcoming crewed [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) missions: - [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii), which will carry [four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) around the Moon and back, will now launch no earlier than September 2025 instead of end of this year. [One of the key reasons](https://spacenews.com/nasa-delays-artemis-2-and-3-missions) for the delay is that NASA is still trying to understand the root cause of the [unexpected erosion of some heat shield material](https://spacenews.com/nasa-still-studying-orion-heat-shield-erosion-from-artemis-1) on [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-i)’s Orion capsule. Another major reason is having to replace faulty electronics part of Orion’s life support systems responsible for removing carbon dioxide from the cabin. - [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-iii), the first crewed Moon landing under the Artemis program, will now launch no earlier than September 2026, with its pacing items being SpaceX’s [HLS Lunar Starship and its many pending milestones](https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/11/what-nasa-wants-to-see-from-spacexs-second-starship-test-flight) as well as Axiom Space’s [AxEMU suits](https://www.axiomspace.com/axiom-suit) for astronauts. - The [uncrewed, pared down Lunar Starship](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/skeleton-starship-lunar-lander-demo-not-required-to-lift-off-from-moon) that’s supposed to demonstrate a safe Moon landing before NASA lets SpaceX carry crew on Artemis III is also formally pushed out from this year to 2025. Relatedly, a [recent report](https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-24-106256) from NASA’s Government Accountability Office concluded that the “complexity of human spaceflight suggests that it is unrealistic to expect the HLS program to complete development more than a year faster than the average for NASA major projects, the majority of which are not human spaceflight projects.” The report says Artemis III is more likely to launch in 2027. While Lunar Starship’s slow progress will delay not just Artemis III but also [Artemis IV](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-101/), the larger perspective to consider here is [Starship’s criticality to NASA’s long-term lunar plans](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-154/) that should make up for time lost—if done right. ## Science observations by South Korean lunar orbiter going strong ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f96c9e000-b027-45d7-941a-7d4c1c308be5_2300x1400-jpeg.jpg) A view of the Tsiolkovskiy crater on our Moon’s farside, as imaged by South Korea’s KPLO spacecraft. [Image: KARI](https://www.kari.re.kr/kplo/danuri/news/newsView.do?nttId=8650&pageIndex=1&searchCnd=&searchWrd=) Continuing the tradition of leveraging the unique vantage point of the Moon for astronomical observations, like the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter [observing solar flares](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-orbiter-is-also-a-sun-watcher/) and Chandrayaan 3’s propulsion module [studying Earth as an exoplanet](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-147/), now South Korea’s first lunar orbiter [KPLO](https://jatan.space/kplo/) has chimed in too with new mission results, Alexandra Witze [reports](https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-04005-2): > But from its vantage point orbiting the Moon, it \[KPLO\] also detected γ-rays from elsewhere in space, said Kyeong ja Kim, a planetary scientist at the Korea Institute of Geoscience and Mineral Resources in Daejeon. That includes the brightest burst of γ-rays ever detected — an enormous blast from a galaxy 580 million parsecs (1.9 billion light years) away that washed over Earth in [October 2022](https://www.nature.com/articles/d43978-023-00084-x). Danuri \[KPLO\] also measured dozens of other γ-ray bursts coming from distant stars, as well as spikes in radiation created by storms on the Sun. Since KPLO formally started its one-year primary mission to study the Moon’s surface in February 2022, the orbiter has delivered quite a few notable observations: - Initial [optical, polarimetric, and gamma-ray observations](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-123/) from its four indigenously developed instruments - [Unique](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-moon-camera-mosaic-sheds-light-on-lunar-south-pole) [observations](http://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/images/1288) of [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s poles from NASA’s ultra-sensitive [ShadowCam](https://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/about) imager onboard to [enable planning](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-110/) of future resource prospecting missions. - [A new look at the ‘swirl’ of Reiner Gamma](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-139/) --- **→ [Browse](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [Sponsor](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Moon Monday #158: On Astrobotic’s lunar lander launch, following NASA CLPS updates, an international Artemis, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-158/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:14:46.000Z ## Astrobotic launches its first spacecraft built to land on the Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f3620dd22-3f70-42df-9c3d-646869028c28_1500x1100-jpeg.jpg) Inaugural launch of the Vulcan rocket on January 8, 2024, carrying Astrobotic’s first Moon lander to space. [Image: ULA](https://www.flickr.com/photos/ulalaunch/53449573072/in/album-72177720305133471) At 7:18 UTC today, January 8, Astrobotic’s [Peregrine](https://www.astrobotic.com/lunar-delivery/landers/peregrine-lander) lunar lander [blasted off to space](https://www.youtube.com/live/BWwnpVk6Wq4?feature=shared) onboard the inaugural flight of ULA’s [Vulcan](https://www.ulalaunch.com/rockets/vulcan-centaur) rocket, at long last marking the formal start of missions part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) to send agency-funded as well as commercial payloads to the Moon. Vulcan’s upper stage, Centaur V, performed two burns before releasing the 2-meter tall Peregrine into a high Earth orbit 50 minutes into the flight. At 8:18 UTC, Astrobotic began communicating with Earth as expected. The lander will attempt getting into lunar orbit in the last week of January. After orbiting Luna for several weeks, wherein Astrobotic can conduct final operational checkouts to ensure all lander components are performing as desired, Peregrine will attempt an autonomous touchdown on February 23 in a lunar lava plain called [Sinus Viscositatis](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=-43.6314482%2C34.0851306%2C-37.4432437%2C37.5891353&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4XyA&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFOOZLRfImqnioA&proj=16) just outside the [Gruithuisen volcanic domes](https://jatan.space/unique-volcanic-domes-of-gruithuisen/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fe575d3a0-cfee-4598-83c5-04c2a67e755c-heic.jpg) The journey, aka Mission Profile, of Peregrine to the Moon. [Image: Astrobotic](https://www.astrobotic.com/media-kit/images) The lander carries [15 payloads from 6 countries](https://www.astrobotic.com/lunar-delivery/manifest), including the shoebox-sized, 1.8-kilogram [Iris rover](https://irislunarrover.space/index.html) designed by students at Carnegie Mellon University. Notably, Carnegie Mellon is also a subcontractor for Astrobotic’s upcoming [MoonRanger](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-93/) rovers. Peregrine will also deploy five autonomous 12-centimeter, 60-gram rovers collectively called [COLMENA](https://www.dgcs.unam.mx/boletin/bdboletin/2022%5F087.html), representing Mexico’s first Moon mission. The key contributions from these small rovers won’t be imagery they take but rather how their traverses can help us better understand the mechanical properties of the lunar soil and also realize specific challenges in autonomously navigating on the Moon. There’s also a Navigation Doppler Lidar from NASA onboard to precisely determine Peregrine’s velocity and position while landing on the Moon. As part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), Peregrine was also supposed to carry [11 agency-funded instruments](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/first-commercial-moon-delivery-assignments-to-advance-artemis) but will now only fly five of them [partly to have performance margins](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-151/) on the lander. Three of these are spectrometers to study [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) molecules and other such volatiles on the lunar surface and in the exosphere throughout the 10-Earth-day mission. As I [covered during Astrobotic’s landing site swap](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-113/), the previous higher latitude location was actually more [suitable](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2021/07/The%5Fheart%5Fof%5Fa%5Flunar%5Fsensor) to study [how water gets transported](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasa-study-highlights-importance-of-surface-shadows-in-moon-water-puzzle) from the Moon’s equator to [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) on the poles, where it can remain [preserved for billions of years](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). And so for the new site, the focus has had to be shifted to how the lander’s water-containing plume exhausts settle on the surface or exosphere. Of the lander’s passive payloads, it’s the cremated human remains that have [caused controversy](https://edition.cnn.com/2024/01/05/world/peregrine-moon-mission-navajo-nation-objection-human-remains-scn/index.html) to the point of calling in a last-minute White House meeting. There are different sides to the story, but a point Marcia Smith has uniquely [noted](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/biden-administration-to-consult-with-navajo-about-human-remains-on-the-moon) is that the Navajo Nation did not raise their concerns during the public comment period for the launch license review. ## How to follow CLPS mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f46b81610-8791-4baf-91b5-2d269d3c2e98_2300x1440-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of the Peregrine lander on the Moon. [Image: Astrobotic](https://www.astrobotic.com/media-kit/images) Since a fleet of NASA-supported robotic CLPS Moon landers will launch throughout this decade, I’ve compiled an exhaustive rundown on these novel CLPS missions: [All about CLPS Moon landing missions 🌗](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) I update this page every month or so. Other than referencing everything high-level I can on there, whose 102 links should help you get to places, there’s more you can do to keenly follow all things CLPS: 1. Check the new [NASA CLPS sub-site](https://science.nasa.gov/lunar-science/clps-deliveries). The agency updated a few pages lately, including adding Principal Investigators for VIPER payloads. At the same time, some already known high-level information from elsewhere on [nasa.gov](https://nasa.gov) is missing there! Some of that can be found on [nasa.gov’s CLPS page](https://www.nasa.gov/commercial-lunar-payload-services), which is different from the sub-site mentioned above, but hosts other information bits that are outdated. 2. Subscribe to blogs of all [CLPS vendors](https://www.nasa.gov/commercial-lunar-payload-services/clps-providers) in an [RSS reader](https://web.jatan.space/p/why-use-rss) and also manually check their sites. This is especially useful to find and know about the non-NASA-funded payloads aboard CLPS landers. If NASA wants to highlight progress on the “commercial” part of CLPS, listing non-NASA payloads on the official CLPS pages would be great. 3. NASA hasn’t posted on the [official CLPS blog](https://blogs.nasa.gov/clps) for more than half a year but has put out a few CLPS updates on the [Artemis blog](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis). For some reason, Astrobotic’s mission updates are being posted on the Artemis blog instead of the CLPS blog. And yet the CLPS blog is the one currently linked on official CLPS pages. It’s quite confusing. 4. Since information about CLPS wouldn’t necessarily be restricted to these direct sources, use a feature similar to [Keyword Monitoring](https://www.inoreader.com/blog/2015/07/inoreader-how-to-monitor-hot-topics.html) *within your RSS reader* to create a feed of posts that match CLPS-specific search terms across all your added sources. 5. Search the [Moon Monday archive](https://blog.jatan.space/s/moon-monday/archive) 🙃. No, seriously, it’s one of the reasons I write this one-of-a-kind newsletter! --- *Many thanks to *[Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io)*, *[Open Lunar Foundation](https://www.openlunar.org)*, *[The Orbital Index](https://orbitalindex.com)*, *[Henry Throop](https://www.linkedin.com/in/henry-throop-a47a6a7)*, *[Gurbir Singh](https://gurbir.co.uk)* and *[Abhinav Yadav](https://abhinavspace.substack.com/about)* for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday. If you love my work too, [join them](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday)!* --- ## More mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fc8a2d789-eb3f-47fc-abd0-2b1184b33a9c_830x750-jpeg.jpg) Diagram showing how the SLIM spacecraft’s lunar orbit size will be reduced over time in the lead up to its landing attempt. The final orbit prior to descent (shown in red) spans 15 by 600 kilometers. [Image: JAXA](https://global.jaxa.jp/press/2023/12/20231225-1%5Fe.html) - JAXA’s [SLIM lunar lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-144/) successfully entered orbit around the Moon [on December 25](https://global.jaxa.jp/press/2023/12/20231225-1%5Fe.html). Next up, SLIM mission operators will send commands to circularize the spacecraft’s elliptical polar orbit to 600 by 600 kilometers. SLIM will then attempt a 20-minute autonomous descent on January 20, 2024 at about [12 AM JST](https://global.jaxa.jp/press/2023/12/20231205-1%5Fe.html) (3 PM UTC on January 19) to achieve a ‘[pinpoint landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-144/)’. - NASA says the upcoming [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/)’s flight model [has been half built](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/viper/mission-manager-update-viper-flight-rover-half-built). VIPER’s CLPS launch to the Moon’s south pole [onboard Astrobotic’s Griffin lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-87/) remains on schedule for November 2024\. Over four months, VIPER will unravel the nature of [lunar water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) deposits, assess their resource potential, and help determine how accessible they are to help NASA plan crewed [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) missions. Tangent: You can [send your name onboard VIPER](https://www.nasa.gov/send-your-name-with-viper); apply before March 15. - Two NASA astronauts, Nicole Mann and Doug Wheelock, recently [tested a sub-scale elevator mockup](https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/nasa-astronauts-test-spacex-elevator-concept-for-artemis-lunar-lander) for SpaceX Starship to provide feedback on the flight version for future astronauts landing on the Moon aboard Lunar Starships starting with [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-iii). The astronauts put on spacesuits during their testing to simulate the mobility constraints crew will face on the Moon. - Roscosmos is [considering making 2 versions](https://tass.com/science/1727929) of the [Luna 27](https://www.laspace.ru/en/activities/projects/luna-resurs-pa/?ELEMENT%5FCODE=luna-resurs-pa) high-precision lander for its targeted launch in 2028\. One lander would attempt a precise touchdown on the Moon’s south pole, as originally intended, while the other could [either land on the north pole or the farside](https://tass.com/science/1727913). Note though that this plan isn’t sanctioned yet, and Luna 25’s crash last year has [slowed down](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-141/) if not descaled Russia’s lunar ambitions. ## An international Artemis - The US Vice President Kamala Harris [announced](https://payloadspace.com/us-will-send-international-astronaut-to-the-moon) at the National Space Council meeting on December 20 that the country intends to have an international astronaut onboard a crewed Artemis Moon landing by end of decade. More details will presumably come later but based on [JAXA and ESA’s existing and upcoming future contributions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-79/) to Artemis, it seems likely that said foreign astronaut will either be Japanese or European. - On January 7, NASA and the Mohammed bin Rashid Space Centre (MBRSC) [announced](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-united-arab-emirates-announce-artemis-lunar-gateway-airlock) that the UAE will provide the airlock for the NASA-led international [Gateway lunar orbital habitat](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/gateway). Russia was originally supposed to provide the airlock, per a [joint statement](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-roscosmos-sign-joint-statement-on-researching-exploring-deep-space) in 2017, but the country later [pulled out](https://spacenews.com/russia-skeptical-about-participating-in-lunar-gateway). An airlock would allow future Artemis astronauts on Gateway to do spacewalks—while around the Moon! The announcement did not provide a timeline but Jeff Foust [notes](https://spacenews.com/uae-to-build-airlock-for-lunar-gateway) that the airlock is intended for delivery in 2030, a few years after the Gateway starts hosting astronauts. In return for this contribution, the UAE will get to send an astronaut to the Gateway aboard an Artemis flight. Per an [earlier report](https://www.thenationalnews.com/uae/2022/12/13/uae-exploring-possibility-of-contributing-an-airlock-module-on-nasas-lunar-gateway) by Sarwat Nasir, it’s possible that Boeing builds this airlock for UAE. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ff145e959-2371-4be6-94df-fcfd69db4e0e_1250x600-jpeg.jpg) An artist’s concept of the Gateway lunar orbital habitat (left) and a reference airlock (right). [Image: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-united-arab-emirates-announce-artemis-lunar-gateway-airlock) ## More Moon - Following the [2022 funding](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/funding-programs/programs/stdp/funding-potential-moon-infrastructure.asp) of Canadian-company-led concept studies on possible infrastructure contributions to NASA’s future [Artemis Basecamp](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept) surface habitat, CSA is now [funding six of these studies](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/news/articles/2023/2023-12-13-canada-reaches-for-moon-2-million-support-sustainable-lunar-exploration.asp) to build terrestrial prototypes. The total award amount is $2.17 million. The concepts span food production, autonomous mining, power generation, and long-range optical communications. This project is part of Canada’s larger efforts to [ramp up its lunar exploration ambitions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-122/). - NASA [conducted](https://www.nasa.gov/general/nasa-conducts-annual-moon-to-mars-architecture-concept-review) its second annual Architecture Concept Review in November 2023, following its first such [Concept Review](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/m2m-architecture-executive-summary.pdf) and [Definitions Document](https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20230002706/downloads/M2MADD%5FESDMD-001%28TP-20230002706%29.pdf) released earlier. With [this process](https://spacenews.com/nasa-releases-architecture-for-human-exploration-of-the-moon-and-mars), the agency hopes to optimally [refine](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-96/) its [Moon to Mars Objectives](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/moon-to-mars-objectives-.pdf) and [the strategy](https://www.nasa.gov/moontomarsarchitecture) to achieve them. NASA will share the meet’s results and updated documents early this year. Relatedly, NASA’s Exploration Systems Development Mission Directorate ([ESDMD](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/exploration-systems-development)) formed a [new Strategy and Architecture Office](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/new-program-office-leads-nasa-s-path-forward-for-moon-mars) last year to lead the development of an integrated master plan for crewed Artemis missions to meet desired objectives. This office sits in parallel to the *Moon to Mars* one, which is centralizing all elements of Artemis. Here’s the new ESDMD organization chart: ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fa3adc380-e7f5-4b3f-aeac-bb28f293c4e5_936x611-jpeg.jpg) New organization chart for NASA ESDMD, as of April 3, 2023\. [Image: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/exploration-systems-development), annotations by me, Jatan. *And, welcome back to Moon Monday after the year-end break. This was one satiating edition to write.* :) --- **→ [Browse](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [Sponsor](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### I’d like to share with you highlights from my space endeavors in 2023 URL: https://jatan.space/best-of-2023/ Last updated: 2024-02-24T10:35:23.000Z **Dear readers,** In my [lifelong mission](https://blog.jatan.space/about) to write & blog about the exploration of space and our Moon, 2023 turned out to be satiatingly eventful. Here are just some highlights that I’d like to share with you all. - I published [50 editions of Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/s/moon-monday/archive). The newsletter remains the only one dedicated to covering lunar exploration developments from around the world. A big thank you to each one of you [6,000+](https://jatan.space/5000-moon-monday-subscribers/) humans for reading my labor of lunar love. - I started publishing monthly [Indian Space Progress reports](https://blog.jatan.space/s/indian-space-progress/archive), the only such resource collating and contextualizing all major (civil) Indian space developments. - Got invited to speak at various conferences and institutes, including delivering the *“*[*Early Career Featured Presentation*](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/leag2023/technical%5Fprogram/?session%5Fno=104)*”* at the annual meeting of the NASA-backed Lunar Exploration Analysis Group (LEAG). - Published articles on [Nature](https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-03920-8) and [Payload Space](https://payloadspace.com/author/jatanm), and covered Chandrayaan 3 for [Scientific American](https://www.scientificamerican.com/author/jatan-mehta) while witnessing the mission’s [launch](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) and [landing](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) from respective ISRO sites. - The majority of all of this independent work is kindly supported by [organization sponsors](https://blog.jatan.space/about#§sponsors) and [individual supporters](https://jatan.space/support). I’d like to remind you that all of my work is completely free to access with no ads, and is published in line with my transparent [Editorial Independence Policy](https://blog.jatan.space/ethics). If you love what I’ve been doing for space and lunar communities worldwide, [sponsor my work](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday). It would mean the Moon to me. **–** [**Jatan**](https://blog.jatan.space/about) [Support Moon Monday ♡](https://jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday/) ### Indian Space Progress #11: Reviewing an incredible year for ISRO URL: https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-11/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:14:46.000Z 2023 was a year of multiple landmark developments for ISRO, to the point where it visibly improved perceptions people and space agencies worldwide had of India’s space capabilities. ISRO, though, as usual, isn’t keen on highlighting these advances on any of their channels. Such lack of contextualized information about India’s space program is partly why this monthly [Indian Space Progress](https://blog.jatan.space/s/indian-space-progress/archive) newsletter exists in the first place. And so I’ve collated below ISRO’s notable developments across 2023 with links to know more details, each of which has more contextual clicks for your web diving pleasure. \[Note: Clicking on images below will also take you to the respective stories\] ## Key launches In February, ISRO conducted the first successful orbital flight of its new, homegrown SSLV rocket. With a modular design and rapid assembly times, the SSLV is a [unique addition](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-02/) to ISRO’s rocket fleet, and is set to enter the commercial small satellite market to compete with the likes of Electron. [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f2cc8a3ea-54f3-44cf-84ce-525a7ccde8b7_2400x1600-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-02/) **[Meet the agile SSLV](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-02/)** In March, the GSLV Mk III rocket commercially launched and deployed its second batch of 36 OneWeb satellites. While ISRO’s rockets exist first and foremost to give India independence from foreign launchers, they are also offered commercially once operational for the nation’s own needs. The MK III’s orbital loft of OneWeb satellites [aptly illustrates this](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-03/) by giving ISRO a small but definitive place in the medium-lift global space launch market. [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ff4fbb42b-a038-4cea-aaed-0ea90f7f01c0_2400x1600-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-03/) **[ISRO solidifies commercial leg with OneWeb launches](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-03/)** In May, a GSLV Mk II successfully launched and deployed the NVS-01 navigation satellite, marking the rocket’s return to flight after its cryogenic third stage had failed on its last mission in 2021\. And, with NVS-01 sporting GPS interoperability as well as an indigenous atomic clock, it provided a [much needed boost](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-05/) to India’s regional navigation service. [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f3587b112-b18d-43b1-9dc1-175f758e2058_2400x1700-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-05/) **[A reinforced redo for NavIC and GSLV Mk II](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-05/)** ## Technology building In April, ISRO successfully carried out an autonomous runway landing demonstration of an [indigenously developed spaceplane](https://jatan.space/isro-continues-building-rlv-td-spaceplane/), whose larger version will be part of a future Reusable Launch Vehicle. [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fe5954dbf-a3f1-4d99-beea-28d2b476b080_2800x1800-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/isro-continues-building-rlv-td-spaceplane/) **[How ISRO continues to build its own spaceplane](https://jatan.space/isro-continues-building-rlv-td-spaceplane/)** With the goal of flying Indian astronauts on the ambitious [Gaganyaan mission](https://www.isro.gov.in/Gaganyaan.html) mid-decade, ISRO continued finishing work on many of its key enabling technologies this year as well. This notably included conducting a [successful abort test](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-10/) in October, [qualifying](https://www.isro.gov.in/cmps.html) the crew module’s propulsion system in May, and in April [human-rating](https://www.isro.gov.in/Vikas%5Fengine%5Ftest%5Fcampaign.html) the liquid-fueled Vikas engine—two of which power the GSLV Mk III’s core stage. [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f12a29dd4-6baa-478d-87ef-8522c0640c85_2400x1600-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-10/) **[What made ISRO’s abort test towards human spaceflight notable](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-10/)** ## Policy As part of an unprecedented set of broad-sweeping, collaborative science & technology Indo-US agreements in June, India signed the US-led Artemis Accords. Since India is one of the few nations with independent *and* frequent access to space and the Moon, the move has [big implications and opportunities](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-133/) for both NASA and ISRO to better explore our Moon as well as shape lunar governance frameworks. [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f7c312bf6-e87c-40d6-bf34-111bed13e2a1_2000x1200-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-133/) **[India signs the Artemis Accords to shoot for the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-133/)** In April, the Government of India put out the country’s much-awaited [new space policy](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-04/), which formally encourages Indian private businesses to pursue a whole spectrum of space capabilities, calls for repurposing ISRO to double down on advanced space research and cutting-edge technology development, and states for the first time some of India’s novel space ambitions such as utilizing space resources. While the policy’s first draft is crude, the consensus among all stakeholders is that it’s a good start. [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ff6b0f992-449f-4fef-90f6-0bd002a83e85_2400x1500-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-04/) **[India’s new space policy is here, and it’s a whole new world](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-04/)** --- *A big thank you to the *[Takshashila Institution](https://takshashila.org.in)*, *[SkyServe](https://skyserve.ai)*, *[KaleidEO](https://satsure.co/kaleidEO)*, *[Gurbir Singh](https://gurbir.co.uk)* and *[Arun Raghavan](https://arunraghavan.net)* for sponsoring this month’s Indian Space Progress roundup.* --- ## Chandrayaan 3 On August 23, ISRO’s Chandrayaan 3 robotic lander triumphantly touched down on the Moon, making India only the fourth country to achieve the feat of a soft lunar landing. The mission’s [nominal execution](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) and its team’s [meticulous approach](https://jatan.space/kalpana-kalahasti-chandrayaan-3-nature/) is what resulted in Chandrayaan 3 keeping the [global momentum for the Moon](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) going by [feeding](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) into the frenzy of sending robotic missions to Luna. [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f4b958ca0-69d4-429f-ac1e-cf5833eea28c_1100x800-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) **[How Chandrayaan 3 made its historic touchdown on our Moon](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/)** > *Fun fact: Chandrayaan 3’s landing ellipse spanned [4 by 2.5 kilometers](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/pdf/1037.pdf), and it touched down [\~350 meters away](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=32.2580128%2C-69.4371387%2C32.4316875%2C-69.3149039&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryFeature=2&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=32.34810585%2C-69.36768573%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Chandrayaan+3+target+landing+site%22%7D%7C32.31900500%2C-69.37302500%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Chandrayaan+3+actual+landing+site%22%7D%7C32.31901900%2C-69.37303700%2C32.34812400%2C-69.36769200%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Distance%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFOOZLRfImqnioA&proj=17) from the target spot, making it the [second most precise](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-144/) robotic planetary landing to date.* ## Science In September, ISRO launched its first space-based solar observatory called Aditya-L1 to [uniquely observe our star](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-08/) with its advanced set of indigenously developed instruments. To that end, it follows [AstroSat](https://academic.oup.com/astrogeo/article/63/4/4.27/6646766) (India’s first dedicated space telescope) and [Chandrayaan 1](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/) (India’s first planetary mission) in setting a foundation for the country’s growing space science abilities and ambitions. [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f98fc6855-0bef-4694-8045-c175b0061ffa_2500x1600-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-08/) **[What makes Aditya-L1 stand out](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-08/)** \[Not ISRO but relevant for India\] In April, the Indian government approved the construction of a $320 million gravitational wave detection facility called [LIGO-India](https://www.caltech.edu/about/news/india-approves-construction-of-its-own-ligo). When completed end of decade, astrophysicists expect the LIGO network’s ability to locate the sources of detected gravitational wave events to improve tenfold. This is a big moment for Indian science, especially since the country hasn’t yet built a state-of-the-art scientific facility of this scale in its home turf. [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f2bf3f3b4-2cfa-485b-964e-57d12f746092_1400x510-jpeg.jpg)](https://www.caltech.edu/about/news/india-approves-construction-of-its-own-ligo) **[India to join the quest to detect gravitational waves](https://www.caltech.edu/about/news/india-approves-construction-of-its-own-ligo)** ## Perception versus reality Like every year, a lot of the coverage and projections of India in space continued to confound reality—both from within the country and outside. Here are three such things I’d like to note: [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9f2def00-7ed1-46c7-95b8-ca8ace2b942f_1500x1000-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/the-nyt-continues-to-misrepresent-indian-space/) **[The New York Times continues to misrepresent Indian space](https://jatan.space/the-nyt-continues-to-misrepresent-indian-space/)** Even as we celebrate Chandrayaan 3 and ISRO’s newly announced ambition of [sending an Indian to the Moon](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-10/) by 2040, having more than 200 million Indian school students learn about Chandrayaan 3 mixed with mythology is a worrying development: [Don’t mix Chandrayaan 3 with mythology](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-10/#%C2%A7over-million-indian-school-students-to-learn-about-chandrayaan-mixed-with-mythology) Given that Chandrayaan 3 attempted its lunar landing on August 23, and that Russia launched Luna 25 on August 11 seemingly out of the blue for a targeted August 21 landing attempt, many people and media publications worldwide boldly framed it as a race—notably without backing it up with due rationale. So was Russia trying to beat India with Luna 25? No: [Why Luna 25 wasn’t racing Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-140/#%C2%A7is-luna-racing-against-chandrayaan-for-a-moon-landing) --- *If you love my coverage of Indian space, all of which is free to access by everyone in order to serve related communities and Indian space enthusiasts worldwide, kindly consider [sponsoring it](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-indian-space-progress) as an individual or an organization. 🚀🇮🇳* [Email me: hey@jatan.space](mailto:hey@jatan.space) --- **→ [Browse](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Why explore our Moon URL: https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/ Last updated: 2026-08-31T13:36:53.000Z Many people think that the Moon is just a gray ball of rock in our sky. Surprisingly, many scientists seem to share this notion. I once had a physicist tell me the Moon is scientifically boring. None of this couldn’t be farther from the truth. So I’m writing this article to summarize the immense scientific and exploration value of our Moon. Firstly, consider that the bootprints of Apollo astronauts who walked on the Moon are still there, and [can be seen from orbit](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/featured%5Fsites#ApolloLandingSites). Since the Moon lacks an Earth-like atmosphere, its surface stays virtually unchanged for years. This single fact makes our Moon a geological time capsule. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fb67c44f4-27a4-4bc7-bb88-515a67a1eb05_1243x1000-jpeg.jpg) Bootprints of Apollo astronauts who walked on the Moon will stay preserved for decades thanks to the Moon being airless. [Image: NASA](https://moon.nasa.gov/resources/68/apollo-11-bootprint/) During the [early Solar System](https://jatan.space/solar-system-history-101/) roughly 4 billion years ago, asteroids and comets have been bombarding planets and their moons at a vigorous pace. Most craters formed from such impacts on Earth are no longer visible due to erosion by wind and water. But the Moon being void of such processes has preserved most of its craters in roughly the same condition for millions and millions of years. We also know that it’s around the same time as the blistering bombardment that life arose on Earth, and that the incoming asteroids and/or comets [brought water and organics](https://www.nature.com/articles/nature03676) to our planet. Studying the still-intact craters on the Moon from that time is key to understanding what really happened during this period of [our Solar System’s history](https://jatan.space/solar-system-history-101/), making it a critical piece of our origin story. Scientists also use [the Moon as an age reference](https://www.planetary.org/articles/0401-the-lunar-chronology) to determine how old or young features on other worlds are, such as on Mars, Mercury and moons across the Solar System. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f8bd56cb6-aabe-42bc-9f3d-24d49eaad479_1056x1056-jpeg.jpg) The crown-ring-shaped [Schrödinger crater](https://jatan.space/the-crowned-crater-of-schrodinger/) on the Moon is very well preserved since its formation almost 4 billion years ago. [Image: NASA LRO](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Schr%C3%B6dinger%5F%28LRO%29%5F500%5Fkm.png) Unlike Earth and Venus, the Moon lacks any significant tectonic activity, which means the structure of its interior must be well preserved since its formation about 4.4 billion years ago. This gives scientists an opportunity to understand how insides of planets at large form. Studying [lunar mountains](https://jatan.space/exploring-moon-mountains/)—which form near-instantaneously by asteroid or cometary impacts—offer scientists a glimpse into the Moon’s interior, as do its darker regions, which are solidified lava plains from the time of active volcanism on our Moon. Several places on [the Moon’s farside](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) offer unique opportunities to [study the lunar mantle](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2021/lro-deep-secrets-of-moon) in particular, something we’re yet to sample. It’s not just science either; the Moon also has technological and economic value. In the last two decades, NASA and ISRO [co-discovered water ice](https://jatan.space/how-nasa-and-chandrayaan-discovered-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s poles with India’s [Chandrayaan 1](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/) lunar orbiter. Future human habitats on the Moon could tap into this water ice for drinkable water, breathable air, and rocket fuel. Chasing the possibility of extending commercial services to our cosmic neighbor, many [companies](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) and more [organizations worldwide](https://jatan.space/lunar-rovers-launching-in-2020s/) are now building hardware for the Moon. Our Moon’s proximity also makes it a great testbed of technologies required for deep space exploration, including putting humans on Mars. For example, scientists study our Moon to understand how space radiation and [micrometeorite bombardment](https://jatan.space/the-tiniest-of-impact-craters/) can affect astronauts living in deep space for long periods, including on Mars missions. The upcoming NASA-led international [Gateway lunar orbital station](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) will specifically study the long-term impacts of deep space radiation on astronauts [like never before](https://jatan.space/science-on-artemis-i/). In the long run, the Moon’s low gravity barrier could make it an [efficient rocket platform](https://jatan.space/the-moon-as-a-rocket-platform/) to sustainably expand human settlements across the Solar System. These are just some of the ways our Moon is [valuable even beyond itself](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-239/). ## A brief history of lunar exploration and the road ahead For centuries, telescopes were the most cutting-edge means to study the Moon, starting with [Galileo’s observations](http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/observations/moon.html) of its craters, mountains and valleys. The advent of the Space Age in 1957 meant we could [send orbiters](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/orbiter) around the Moon to image and map those features at high resolution, and have robotic [landers](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/surveyor) and [rovers](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1970-095A) take an even closer look from the surface. In the 1960s, NASA sent the Ranger series of spacecraft to intentionally smash into the Moon. They sent back [more than 15,000 photographs](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/resources/ranger) during their fall which taught us that the Moon is [cratered all the way down](https://jatan.space/its-craters-all-the-way-down/). This allowed NASA to select safe landing spots for Apollo astronauts. Around the same time, the Soviet orbiter Luna 10 revealed that the Moon’s gravity field [is lumpy](https://jatan.space/the-moons-lumpy-gravity-field/). These anomalies have caused spacecraft to unintentionally [crash onto the lunar surface](https://jatan.space/the-moons-lumpy-gravity-field/), and had to be avoided for having safe Apollo landings. Later, NASA launched the [Lunar Prospector](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/prospector/overview/index.shtml) and the twin [GRAIL orbiters](https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/grail/in-depth) in 1998 and 2011 respectively to make detailed gravity maps of the Moon. These maps have helped scientists see features beyond the surface and [better understand](https://www.planetary.org/articles/12110923-grail-results) the Moon’s interior. Between 1969 to 1972, 12 astronauts walked on the Moon as part of NASA’s [Apollo program](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/celebrating-apollo-at-50). Apollo science experiments provided revolutionary insights on [how the Moon formed](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/), if it once had a global magnetic field, the nature of its volcanism, and more. Humans have not been back since, and the Moon remains the only world besides Earth we’ve ever visited ourselves. ### Chinese lunar program China has successfully landed three spacecraft on the Moon: [Chang’e 3](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=2013-070A) in 2013, [Chang’e 4](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/change-4) in 2019, and the [Chang’e 5](https://jatan.space/change-5-landing-site/) sample return mission in 2020\. Chang’e 4 is the world’s first mission to land on the Moon’s farside, where there is [potential for transformative radio astronomy](https://jatan.space/radio-astronomy-from-the-moon/) because of lack of interference from Earth. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f1bbbede8-e4d7-4385-ab0e-5198cdb966c7_833x469-jpeg.jpg) Chang’e 4 lander on the farside of the Moon, as imaged by the Yutu 2 rover. [Image: CNSA](http://www.planetary.org/blogs/jason-davis/change-4-update.html) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f52c0309a-ec9d-45dc-bf1c-d14d17bac269_822x617-jpeg.jpg) The Yutu 2 rover on the Moon’s farside, as imaged by the Chang’e 4 lander. [Image: CNSA](http://www.planetary.org/blogs/jason-davis/change-4-update.html) The Chang’e 4 rover, named Yutu 2, is scouting the landed region for clues of the Moon’s past. That’s because the region lies within the largest and deepest lunar crater, the [South Pole-Aitken basin](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2008/pdf/1626.pdf). Since this [ancient crater](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2008/pdf/1626.pdf) holds clues to what was happening in the Solar System about four billion years ago, a sample return mission from here has been assessed as a top priority in the [latest Planetary Decadal Survey](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-74/), a report produced every 10 years by the US scientific community to guide future NASA missions. With Chang’e 5, China successfully brought samples from a [geologically young and unique](https://jatan.space/change-5-landing-site/) region on the Moon, which [revealed](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-135/) many things, and notably that the Moon’s [thermal history is complex](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-50/). The samples [also contain](https://doi.org/10.59717/j.xinn-geo.2023.100014) notable amounts of materials from meteorites, helping scientists unravel the type of asteroids that impacted our Moon in the past 2 billion years. Chang’e 5 samples are thus helping us refine our understanding of the [chain of key events in our Solar System](https://jatan.space/solar-system-history-101/). ### Water on the Moon Data from ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 1](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/) orbiter has shown that the [water ice on the Moon’s poles](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) is inside frigid, [permanently dark craters](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/). Based on remote observations by radars onboard Chandrayaan 1 and LRO, scientists estimate the Moon’s poles to host at least [600 billion kilograms](https://www.nasa.gov/mission%5Fpages/Mini-RF/multimedia/feature%5Fice%5Flike%5Fdeposits.html) of water ice, enough to fill at least 240,000 Olympic-sized swimming pools. As the next logical step, the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter launched in 2019 is [quantifying the amount of water ice](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) on the lunar poles and mapping it. South Korea’s first lunar orbiter [KPLO](https://jatan.space/kplo/) is [also helping](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-110/) detect the nature of such water-hosting terrains using its ultra-sensitive camera. NASA’s upcoming [Lunar Trailblazer](https://jatan.space/nasa-lunar-trailblazer/) orbiter will give us unprecedented, high-resolution global maps of the amount, distribution, and state of water across the Moon. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f54296bfa-8fb7-4f4d-a235-c4ee1e636fe2_1950x1950-jpeg.jpg) Distribution of water and hydroxyl (blue and violet) as detected on our Moon at and around the poles by the Chandrayaan 1 orbiter. [Image: ISRO / NASA](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/images/pia12237-water-detected-at-high-latitudes) The lunar science and exploration communities don’t yet agree among themselves that we can indeed harness water ice on the Moon’s poles for consumption needs of future habitats and more. This is why surface missions like NASA’s upcoming [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) and the Indo-Japanese [LUPEX rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-111/) will take a much closer look by physically examining water ice and other resources inside some [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/). This will start to inform us on how we might extract the water to sustainably live on the Moon in the future. To that end, we’re [building technologies](https://blog.jatan.space/s/moon-monday/archive) that enable us to explore the Moon’s poles, including gaining the ability to land on and navigate the extremely [rocky polar terrain](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/SPole%5FSRidgemap%5FLOLA-Slope5m%5Fv20190515.pdf), and then, crucially, function in the [frigid](https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/news/907/moons-south-pole-in-nasas-landing-sites) water-hosting regions [without access to sunlight](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/271) or Earth communications. As the first of many such needed successes, the [triumphant touchdown](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) of ISRO’s Chandrayaan 3 lander in August 2023 inspired confidence in other nations and companies hoping for their Moonshots. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f78f0330f-2ba2-46e7-a3b3-bdbc3392fc66_2233x1597-jpeg.jpg) A reference traverse path for NASA’s VIPER rover involving going into and out of permanently shadowed regions on the Moon’s south pole. The water ice and other such volatile deposits it would study are depicted in blue. [Image: NASA](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bd7ekqMrHkg) ### NASA returns to the Moon In 2009, NASA launched the [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html) (LRO), the first intentional step towards their sustainable return to our Moon. In over a decade since, LRO has produced the most comprehensive, [highest resolution Moon maps](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/) to date, including global imagery, topography, temperature measurements, and more. Its extensive dataset has helped plan nearly all modern day robotic Moon landing missions, including those launching soon as part of the NASA-funded [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), wherein commercial landers will carry the agency’s science instruments and technology payloads to geologically diverse sites on the Moon. LRO is also [aiding](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-75/) NASA’s [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/) campaign, which envisions repeatedly landing humans on the Moon’s south pole where the water ice is. The campaign’s first leg, [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-i), was [successful](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-107/) in late 2022 in testing key launch & spacecraft infrastructure to be used for sending astronauts safely to lunar orbit and back. ## The Moon’s origin Where did our Moon come from? The origin of our cosmic companion is a fundamental question in planetary science. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f76c20f1f-fd40-4f23-82cd-16f82d93a47f_1400x1000-jpeg-1.jpg) An artist's concept of the Moon shortly after its formation, with a mag­ma ocean and a newly forming rocky crust. [Image: NASA Goddard](https://www.dlr.de/content/en/articles/news/2020/03/20200710%5Fa-slightly-younger-moon.html) NASA Apollo astronauts returned a total of [382 kilograms of lunar soil, rock and core samples](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/samples/atlas) to Earth. The Soviet Union, using three robotic sample missions in the period 1970-1976, returned about [300 grams of material](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/samples/#lunas) to Earth. These samples are analyzed even today in laboratories around the world and continue to provide insights on how our Moon formed. In fact, scientists think Earth and the Moon [have a shared origin](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/). While the Apollo and Luna samples revolutionized our understanding of the Moon’s origin, they were from largely similar geological areas and thus not representative of the entire Moon. To continue piecing together the complex origin and history of the Earth-Moon system, we need [samples from new locations](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/), including access to pristine rocks from below the surface and those on the farside. We also need to assess [the nature](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/lunarWater.html) of lunar polar water to understand how it got there and how is it related to Earth’s water. This is where NASA’s Artemis campaign and [Chinese crewed missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-267/) are most intriguing. They are expected to offer us abundant opportunities to bring pristine samples from the Moon’s south pole, including getting lunar ice as cryogenic samples. China’s [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-174/) mission will bring about two kilograms of lunar samples next year from the [Apollo impact crater](https://jatan.space/peak-ringed-apollo-crater/) on the Moon’s farside, giving us a first tactile window into the Moon’s mysterious farside. **Update:** Chang’e 6 successfully fetched the [first farside lunar samples](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-201/), studying which transformed our understanding of [the Moon’s evolution](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-233/) and its [distinct farside](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ffe7e85d6-b251-4c43-b533-11d62e6f5768_1344x756-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of astronauts doing science on the Moon and collecting samples. [Image: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-companies-to-develop-human-landers-for-artemis-moon-missions) After an excruciatingly long abandonment of over three decades, global entities of all kinds pushing the boundaries of planetary surface exploration on scales big and small is a worthy return to our Moon. Here’s hoping that the frenzy sticks around, as there are plenty of reasons to explore Luna—our cosmic companion in the sky. --- *Every writer has a flagship article—the iPhone to their Apple. This one’s mine, and is updated yearly with all the latest developments in lunar exploration and research. If you liked it, check out my curated Moon page of resources for people to learn more about the Moon’s scientific and technological importance:* [Explore our Moon 🌗](https://jatan.space/our-moon/) *To follow all the latest developments in the exploration of our Moon,* [*subscribe*](https://jatan.space/subscribe) *to my one-of-a-kind newsletter covering global lunar developments every week:* [Moon Monday 🚀](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) *Lastly, all my work is completely free to access and regularly updated. If you like my labor of lunar love, you can* [*sponsor my work*](https://jatan.space/support)*. It would mean the Moon to me.* [Support my work ♡](https://jatan.space/support) ### The engineer who played a key role in Chandrayaan 3’s triumphant touchdown on the Moon URL: https://jatan.space/kalpana-kalahasti-chandrayaan-3-nature/ Last updated: 2025-12-04T11:09:03.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/08/kalpana-kalahasti-by-samyukta-lakshmi-for-natures-10-2023.jpg) Mrs. Kalpana Kalahasti, ISRO. [Image: Samyukta Lakshmi](https://www.samyuktalakshmi.com) Kalpana Kalahasti, the Associate Project Director of ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) mission, has been featured in [*Nature’s 10*](https://www.nature.com/immersive/d41586-023-03919-1/index.html) most notable people of the year, owing to her crucial role in ensuring India’s [triumphant touchdown](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) on the Moon. I spoke to her to highlight her team’s approach to Chandrayaan 3\. It’s also my first article on *Nature*! :D --- > From the day we started rebuilding our spacecraft after the Chandrayaan 2 experience, it has been breathe in, breathe out Chandrayaan 3 for the team. These were the words of the mission’s Associate Project Director Kalpana Kalahasti on August 23, as she aired on the [most viewed](https://tech.hindustantimes.com/tech/news/chandryaan3-live-stream-on-youtube-has-become-the-most-viewed-in-the-world-report-71692852327077.html) YouTube [livestream](https://www.youtube.com/live/DLA%5F64yz8Ss?feature=shared&t=3596) ever a few minutes after the lander built by the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) [autonomously guided itself](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) to a lunar touchdown at [69.37°S, 32.32°E](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=-121.9088908%2C-16.5179485%2C63.003247%2C-19.5079959&id=lroc&showGraticule=true&layerListFilter=lat&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=32.34810585%2C-69.36768573%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Chandrayaan+3+target+landing+site%22%7D%7C32.31900500%2C-69.37302500%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Chandrayaan+3+actual+landing+site%22%7D%7C32.31901900%2C-69.37303700%2C32.34812400%2C-69.36769200%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Distance%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0yioA&proj=27). Success wasn’t a given, especially considering that four out of the previous five lunar landing attempts had failed: namely the Israel-based SpaceIL’s [Beresheet](https://davidson.weizmann.ac.il/en/online/sciencepanorama/what-happened-beresheet) lander, India’s own [Chandrayaan 2](https://jatan.space/finding-the-chandrayaan-2-lander/) craft, private Japanese firm ispace’s [Hakuto-R](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-129/), and Russia’s [Luna 25](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-141/). Another challenge for Kalahasti and the rest of the core Chandrayaan 3 team was that the total spacecraft mass and available resources were roughly the same as Chandrayaan 2, and so building in many redundancies or drastically redesigning the lander wasn’t an option. To that end, Kalahasti worked with Project Director Palanivel Veeramuthuvel to reconfigure Chandrayaan 2 in ways that would [provide greater redundancy](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5FmqKOwK1AM), such as allocating some orbiter mass to the lander for increased fuel margins, strengthened legs, extended solar panels, and more. “Getting the reconfigured lander as a robust system on paper itself was crucial because you can’t really redo hardware in advanced development phases. This is where Chandrayaan 2’s flight was invaluable. Its many in-house developed systems that did work allowed us to arrive at a Chandrayaan 3 configuration that wasn’t overdone,” said Kalahasti. Veeramuthuvel and Kalahasti spent the bulk of Chandrayaan 3’s development time coming up with and overseeing [comprehensive ground tests](https://www.youtube.com/live/fZ2sNRP1opY?feature=shared&t=3992) that would uniquely increase the likelihood of a safe landing. These included testing landing sensors on a helicopter to mimic different mission phases, examining the performance of engines that need to dynamically throttle during descent, assessing the navigation system’s ability to avoid hazards before touchdown with crane-based setups on Moon-like terrain, and conducting leg drop tests on lunar simulant beds to ensure the lander can handle varied slopes and a range of velocities on touchdown. “You can only go so far with hardware tests. You can’t subject hardware to many failure scenarios, and so we formed a dedicated simulation group to characterize our lander’s ability to recover from off-nominal trajectories,” added Kalahasti, highlighting another mission building aspect that exemplifies the failure-based approach her team took for Chandrayaan 3’s success. [The group](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/chandrayaan-3-lunar-conquerors-unsung-heroes-indias-chandamama-dream/articleshow/103488457.cms) also simulated each redundant path the lander could’ve taken during autonomous descent to be confident about the desired outcome. Therein the crux of Chandrayaan 3\. It is this meticulous approach that resulted in Chandrayaan 3 keeping the momentum for the Moon going by [feeding](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/#a-lunar-region-never-explored) into the [global frenzy](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) of sending robotic missions to Luna. “The goal was to have a well documented, well understood system. There was no compromise in demonstrating the system’s performance down to its specifics,” said Kalahasti. The efforts evidently paid off. However, conducting so many tests and integrating their results while also working towards the flight model was a giant iterative task. Swiftly coordinating [the dozen ISRO centers](https://www.isro.gov.in/Making%5FChandrayaan3%5FISRO%5Fculture.html) involved countrywide wasn’t easy. “It was as if we were building five to six different satellites together,” remarked Kalahasti. For her, this responsibility meant leaning onto past experiences in project management and systems engineering, which notably included leading roles in ISRO’s Earth observation satellites such as the Indo-French [SARAL](https://www.eoportal.org/satellite-missions/saral) craft. When asked what gravitated her to ISRO in 2000, Kalahasti reminisced her desire to work at a core engineering organization that would leverage her degree in Electronics and Communications. “ISRO was one of the few places in the country which undertook core technology projects.” Having that north star landed her a job as a radar engineer at the Satish Dhawan Space Center, ISRO’s spaceport. Kalahasti hopes that the spark that Chandrayaan 3 ignited among the Indian youth similarly guides them: “Apart from the mission’s technical aspects, I hope young professionals across India and the world get inspired by how the team meticulously emerged from failure.” Indeed, Chandrayaan 3 has kept the momentum for the Moon going by [feeding](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/#a-lunar-region-never-explored) into the [global frenzy](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) of sending hardware to the Moon. “India giving the hard problem of a lunar landing a second try soon after its first attempt is an appreciated investment the whole world will benefit from,” said [Jessy Kate Schingler](https://www.openlunar.org/directory/jessy-kate-schingler), an outer space policy researcher and a senior advisor at the Open Lunar Foundation. Kalahasti is excited about [what ISRO could take on next](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-183/). “Now that the critical aspect of demonstrating a Moon landing is done, we can move towards other capabilities. As part of a roadmap, we’re looking into sample return as a precursor for crewed Moon landings,” alluding to the Indian government’s [newly announced goal](https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1968368) to send an Indian to the Moon by 2040. *Originally published on* [*Nature*](https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-03920-8)*.* ### Moon Monday #157: On maneuvering the Chandrayaan 3 orbiter back to Earth orbit, the upcoming trio of robotic lunar landers, infrastructure galore, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-157/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:14:48.000Z *This is the last [Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/s/moon-monday/archive) of 2023 as I take my year-end break to wind down an insanely busy year sprawling with conferences and talks over and above my [canonical writing](https://blog.jatan.space/about) work. Alright, alright, I’m not done for the year just yet: expect a special story later this week and an exciting edition of my monthly [Indian Space Progress](https://blog.jatan.space/s/indian-space-progress/archive) report next week in your email or RSS inboxes. I shall then rest, refresh, reflect, and re-energize, and I hope you do too.* ✨🌙 ## In another trick up its sleeve, ISRO pulls the Chandrayaan 3 lunar orbiter back to Earth orbit ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f863dede6-7f70-4ebd-8eb9-ce8efd041f20_2700x1800-jpeg.jpg) The Chandrayaan 3 spacecraft stack is seen here mounted in an acoustic chamber. The stack comprises the lander and the co-flying propulsion module until lunar orbit. [Image: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan%5F3%5FModule%5FDynamic%5FTests.html) In a surprising move, ISRO [announced](https://www.isro.gov.in/Ch3%5FPropulsion%5FModule%5Fmoved%5Ffrom%5FLunar%5Forbit%5Fto%5FEarth%5Forbit.html) on December 4 that following several orbit-raising maneuvers and flybys, Chandrayaan 3’s propulsion module has returned from its \~150-kilometer polar lunar orbit to Earth orbit as of November 10\. It was this propulsion module that carried the [Chandrayaan 3 lander](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) from its initial Earth orbit post-launch to one around the Moon. The two craft [separated](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1692083786895474724) in a near-circular polar lunar orbit of [153 by 163 kilometers](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1691655268449603770) on August 17. Between the Chandrayaan 3 lander’s [unexpected last-minute hop](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-143/), the propulsion module hosting [experimental nuclear radioactive heating units](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/science/nuclear-energy-keeps-chandrayaan-3-propulsion-module-going/articleshow/104834737.cms), and this back-to-Earth maneuver, it’s great to see ISRO enter a mode of targeting extended mission objectives with Chandrayaan 3, something China has long been doing with its Chang’e missions for instance. As the most recent example, CNSA maneuvered the service module of the [Chang’e 5 lunar sample return mission](https://jatan.space/change-5-landing-site/) to the [Sun-Earth L1 point](http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2021-03/19/c%5F139822288.htm) in March 2021, and then brought it back to the Moon and put it [in a Distant Retrograde Lunar Orbit](https://skyriddles.wordpress.com/2022/01/25/change-5-returns-to-the-moon) in December 2021\. ISRO [says](https://www.isro.gov.in/Ch3%5FPropulsion%5FModule%5Fmoved%5Ffrom%5FLunar%5Forbit%5Fto%5FEarth%5Forbit.html) that bringing Chandrayaan 3’s propulsion module back to Earth orbit was informative in forging strategies for a [future sample return mission](https://www.youtube.com/live/DNXTouOKNVk?feature=shared&t=9413) while also avoiding creating unwanted lunar debris at the end of the module’s life. Having said that, ISRO hasn’t provided a break-up of fuel consumed by the propulsion module during maneuvers from Earth orbit to the Moon and back. After the Chandrayaan 3 lander separated from the module on August 17, Chethan Kumar [reported](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/science/chandrayaan-3-mission-150kg-fuel-left-in-propulsion-module-life-span-now-years/articleshow/102866268.cms) that the module had more than 150 kilograms of fuel remaining onboard. ISRO said at the time this will extend the module’s nominal 6-month life to [several years](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1692084156585627923). However, ISRO’s [December 4 release](https://www.isro.gov.in/Ch3%5FPropulsion%5FModule%5Fmoved%5Ffrom%5FLunar%5Forbit%5Fto%5FEarth%5Forbit.html) states that after operating for a month in lunar orbit, the module had over 100 kilograms of fuel left. This could imply that unlike the [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/), the Chandrayaan 3 propulsion module has been consuming or losing fuel faster than expected, and might better justify why ISRO placed the module in a very high Earth orbit of \~180,000 x \~380,000 kilometers—which wouldn’t have required much fuel. It would also help explain why the propulsion module had oddly dropped the Chandrayaan 3 lander in a \~150-kilometer lunar orbit instead of the [originally planned and repeatedly publicly stated](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan3%5FDetails.html) \~100-kilometer one! Spinning the back-to-Earth-orbit maneuver as an aid towards sample return is perhaps a clever way for ISRO to secure funding for Chandrayaan 4, which aims to bring lunar material to Earth before end of decade. Recall that even the Chandrayaan 3 lander’s hop was [spinned off](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1698570774385205621) as a sample return aid despite the fact that no such mission to date across Apollo, Luna, and Chang’e has *had to* demonstrate a hop before ascent. The hop would’ve been insightful nonetheless—just may be not uniquely so. I wonder if instead of bringing the propulsion module back to Earth orbit if ISRO could’ve made it perform a controlled [LCROSS-style](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lcross) crash into the Moon that the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter did follow-up observations on? That would’ve been cool too, and also helped towards ISRO’s [stated goals](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-126/) of directly studying and extracting the Moon’s polar [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). ## A trio of robotic landers to aim for the Moon soon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9824a0eb-9c9e-42f3-bf77-83e104bebc3a_1920x1080-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of the SLIM lander’s trajectory to the Moon. [Image: JAXA](https://jda.jaxa.jp/search.php?lang=e&page=1&keyword=SLIM&library=1&category1=&category2=&category3=&category4=&page%5Fpics=20) - After JAXA’s [SLIM lunar lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-144/) flew 5,000 kilometers past the Moon on [October 4](https://twitter.com/SLIM%5FJAXA/status/1709773876933407128), its fuel-efficient trajectory is looping it back to Luna for an orbital insertion attempt [on December 25](https://global.jaxa.jp/press/2023/12/20231205-1%5Fe.html). SLIM will then spend almost a month in lunar orbit—reducing its orbit size and performing operational checkouts—before attempting a 20-minute descent for a ‘[pinpoint landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-144/)’ on January 20, 2024 at about [12 AM JST](https://global.jaxa.jp/press/2023/12/20231205-1%5Fe.html) (3 PM UTC on January 19). - ULA Chief Tory Bruno [said](https://twitter.com/torybruno/status/1733907494030688486) on December 10 that the [Vulcan](https://www.ulalaunch.com/rockets/vulcan-centaur) rocket’s wet dress rehearsal will take longer to complete due to some persistent issues with the ground systems. As such, ULA will now likely target a four-day launch window starting January 8, 2024 to loft Astrobotic’s [first Moon lander](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-awarded-79-5-million-contract-to-deliver-14-nasa-payloads-to-the-moon) to Earth orbit instead of [December 24](https://www.cnbc.com/2023/10/24/ula-ceo-inaugural-vulcan-rocket-launch-slated-for-christmas-eve.html). The lander will carry [more than 12 payloads from 6 countries](https://www.astrobotic.com/lunar-delivery/manifest), including [some micro-rovers](https://jatan.space/lunar-rovers-launching-in-2020s/). As part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), it was also supposed to carry [11 agency-funded instruments](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/first-commercial-moon-delivery-assignments-to-advance-artemis) but will now [only fly five](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-151/). - With the [successful delivery](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/intuitive-machines-nova-c-lunar-lander-arrives-in-cape-canaveral-florida) of Intuitive Machines’ [first Moon lander](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/im-1) to SpaceX’s facility in Florida, the companies are targeting the lander’s launch on [January 12, 2024](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/intuitive-machines-sets-january-2024-for-historic-u-s-lunar-mission). The mission, named IM-1, will carry [six NASA science & technology payloads](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/first-commercial-moon-delivery-assignments-to-advance-artemis) as part of [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). A separate, commercial telescope called [ILO-X](https://iloa.org/ilo-x-precursor) from Hawaii-based ILOA will also be [aboard](https://iloa.org/iloa%5Fnews%5Frelease%5Foct%5F4%5F2023). ## More mission updates - Technicians are [processing segments](https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/artemis-ii-booster-surges-ahead-at-nasas-kennedy-space-center) of the twin boosters that will power the second [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/reference/space-launch-system), which will push [four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) towards the Moon on NASA’s [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to) mission circa early 2025\. All five segments of each booster are being inspected one-by-one before lifting them to a vertical position to stack and complete the boosters. The boosters provide about 75% of SLS’ thrust on launch. - Australia’s [first lunar rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-97/) will be fittingly called [Roo-ver](https://www.space.gov.au/meet-roo-ver), as it was the most voted name in a [public competition](https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-11-20/live-updates-australia-moon-rover-names-shortlist-public-vote/103044826) organized by the Australian Space Agency. Heading to the Moon’s south pole aboard a NASA-funded [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) lander with an aspirational [2026 launch](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-australia-sign-agreement-to-add-rover-to-future-moon-mission), the semi autonomous Roo-ver will fetch lunar soil for the lander, where a NASA-operated system will practice [extracting oxygen](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-153/) from it as a technology precursor to eventually [sustaining human presence](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept) on the Moon. The Australian Space Agency [announced](https://www.crn.com.au/news/two-consortia-to-build-aussie-designed-lunar-rover-592334) on March 20 competitively selecting two national industry consortia—[AROSE](https://www.uwa.edu.au/news/Article/2023/March/Australia-a-step-closer-to-a-moon-landing), and the [EPE & Lunar Outpost Oceania](https://lunaroutpost.com/lunar-outpost-oceania-epe-consortium-selected-to-participate-in-the-australian-space-agencys-moon-to-mars-trailblazer-initiative)—to build a rover prototype by June 2024 for [$4 million](https://www.minister.industry.gov.au/ministers/husic/media-releases/head-nasa-visit-australia-highlights-space-partnership) each. The agency will select a winning consortium to build the actual Roo-ver. --- *Many thanks to *[Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io)*, *[Gurbir Singh](https://gurbir.co.uk)*, *[Nathan Price](https://www.countdowntothemoon.org/went)* and *[Arun Raghavan](https://arunraghavan.net)* for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday. [Join them](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday)!* --- ## Prepping for lunar infrastructure galore ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ffc961476-a814-46ab-b85d-41426a333e91_1545x1000-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of ICON’s lunar construction technology in action on the Moon. [Image: ICON / BIG-Bjarke Ingels Group](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-icon-advance-lunar-construction-technology-for-moon-missions) DARPA [announced](https://www.darpa.mil/news-events/2023-12-05) on December 5 that 14 companies will participate and collaborate on its 10-year Lunar Architecture study (LunA-10) on how best to build key *commercial* infrastructure pieces for [sustaining human presence](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept) on the Moon. DARPA did not specify which project each company will work on, or how much money it awarded each company, but some companies made independent announcements of their respective involvements: - ICON will [advance its work](https://www.iconbuild.com/newsroom/darpa-selects-icon-for-luna-10-lunar-architecture-study) on building structures using lunar soil. Recall that last year NASA awarded a [$57 million contract](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-icon-advance-lunar-construction-technology-for-moon-missions) to ICON for [continuing to develop](https://www.nasa.gov/centers/marshall/news/releases/2020/nasa-looks-to-advance-3d-printing-construction-systems-for-the-moon.html) construction technologies to [build lunar surface infrastructure](https://www.iconbuild.com/projects/project-olympus), with a test structure build targeted as early as 2026\. Rachael Zisk [has more details](https://payloadspace.com/icon-wins-nasa-contract-for-lunar-3d-printing). - Sierra Space [will advance](https://www.sierraspace.com/newsroom/press-releases/sierra-space-secures-darpa-contract-for-lunar-oxygen-extraction-framework-for-luna-10-capability-study) its NASA-funded [carbothermal reactor](https://www.sierraspace.com/newsroom/press-releases/sierra-space-completes-successful-nasa-test-readiness-review-for-lunar-oxygen-extraction-system) using which researchers [extracted oxygen](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/johnson/nasa-successfully-extracts-oxygen-from-lunar-soil-simulant) from simulated lunar soil in a vacuum environment for the first time past April. Being built at an accelerated pace as part of NASA’s [Game Changing Development program](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/game%5Fchanging%5Fdevelopment/index.html), the agency ultimately intends to demonstrate the system on the Moon via a future [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) mission. - GITAI, which recently [moved its headquarters to the US](https://gitai.tech/2023/11/17/gitai-shifts-headquarters-and-parent-company-from-japan-to-the-united-states-as-leadership-secures-permanent-lawful-residency) from Japan, [will explore](https://gitai.tech/2023/12/06/gitai-usa-inc-triumphs-in-securing-darpa-luna-10-project-with-innovative-lunar-robotics-solution) how its under-development lunar rover with a two-meter inchworm robotic arm can help construct and maintain lunar infrastructure. The company has previously raised [$61 million](https://payloadspace.com/gitai-raises-an-additional-15m-of-funding) for said rover’s development for a hopeful 2026 launch. GITAI has been operating rover prototypes in the Mojave desert to test various activities related to assembling parts of lunar habitats. - Firefly will explore how its “[Elytra](https://spacenews.com/firefly-wins-second-nasa-clps-mission)” vehicle can [provide more lunar services](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-aerospace-selected-to-support-darpa-luna-10-with-framework-for-on-orbit-spacecraft-hubs) such as docking, refueling, and repositioning spacecraft in cislunar space. Recall that on its first lunar mission, an Elytra craft will deliver and deploy the 280-kilogram [Lunar Pathfinder](https://jatan.space/nasa-esa-collaborate-on-lunar-pathfinder/) spacecraft for ESA to lunar orbit in 2026 as part of a [$112 million NASA CLPS contract](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-picks-firefly-aerospace-for-robotic-delivery-to-far-side-of-moon). - Honeybee Robotics will develop [LUNARSABER](https://www.honeybeerobotics.com/news-events/honeybee-robotics-to-develop-lunarsaber-for-darpas-luna-10-program), a proposed 100-meter tall deployable structure that will do *a lot*: from providing solar power to payloads and hardware at the Moon’s south pole—for which Honeybee won a [NASA developmental award](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/three-companies-to-help-nasa-advance-solar-array-technology-for-moon) in 2022—to transferring power and providing [navigation & communications](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-98/) to lunarbound machines. As if all of this wasn’t illuminating enough for a sustained lunar presence, the structure will also host gimbaled lights to literally illuminate local terrain and nearby [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) so as to enable more efficient operations for both robotic and human explorers. Color me impressed and electrified by this multi-purpose tower of lunar hope. ## More Moon - On December 6, Egypt became [the eight country](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/n6758823/n6758838/c10427728/content.html), 14th organization, and the first Arab nation [to join](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3244433/chinas-lunar-base-major-african-nation-joins-beijings-international-moon-project) the upcoming China-led long-term [scientific base](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-120/) on the Moon’s south pole called the [International Lunar Research Station](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-32/) (ILRS). Croatia-based non-profit Adriatic Aerospace Association was the 13th organization to join the ILRS when it signed up [on November 28](https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/j5kqDvO10S%5Fx7MWWsCPhxQ). - A community of lunar scientists released the *[New Views of the Moon 2](https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/rimg/issue/89/1)* as an add-on the original *[New Views of the Moon](http://www.minsocam.org/msa/rim/rim60.html)* from 2006 to chiefly summarize the majority of lunar mapping and science results from the many worldwide orbital missions launched since 2006\. Relatedly, India’s [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/)’s [CLASS instrument](http://oro.open.ac.uk/29976/1/CLASS%5F2011%5FLunar%5FPlanetary%5FScience%5FConf.pdf) team has [released](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2023.115898) the largest and highest-resolution X-ray [mapping](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/pdf/2191.pdf) of the Moon’s surface elements using orbital data collected over three years. Previously, CLASS provided us with the first ever [global-scale sodium maps](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-98/) of Luna, [sensed Chromium](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2021/pdf/2230.pdf) in its volcanic soil, and even [detected energetic events](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-orbiter-is-also-a-sun-watcher/) from the Sun. Studying these datasets is unraveling specifics of [how our Moon evolved](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) and helping scientists constrain the lunar crust’s composition. - In Phase 2, Level 2 of the $3 million [Break the Ice Lunar Challenge](https://breaktheicechallenge.com), NASA has [selected 6 teams](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/stmd/stmd-prizes-challenges-crowdsourcing-program/centennial-challenges/six-finalists-named-in-nasas-3-5-million-break-the-ice-challenge) out of 15 after each of their rover prototypes demonstrated how efficiently they could extract and transport icy regolith from terrestrial polar-Moon-like testbeds. The 6 winners will compete next year on a common, NASA-provided testbed to further demonstrate their systems in even more Moon-like conditions such as reduced gravity driving using offloading mechanisms. - As part of TIFR Hyderabad’s outreach efforts under [Sawaal Jawaab](https://www.tifrh.res.in/index.php/sawaal-jawaab) (Hindi for Questions & Answers), I will deliver a public talk titled “**From Chandrayaan 3 to an Indian on the Moon**” on December 16 at the [Aaromalé Café](https://maps.app.goo.gl/W8p4BzYwUPbsdQt17). I will discuss the kinds of increasingly complex future Moon missions ISRO will undertake in the lead up to sending an Indian to dear Luna. Entry is free and open to all. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f562017a3-66f1-497a-8c05-402192f65270_1170x1600-jpeg.jpg) --- **→ [Browse](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [Sponsor](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Moon Monday #156: On NASA getting access to China’s lunar samples, Artemis updates, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-156/ Last updated: 2024-05-06T11:44:18.000Z ## NASA researchers can now directly ask for access to China’s Chang’e 5 lunar samples ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f0f0d8614-dd6c-44ec-860d-3bae9ce68a4c_1816x1804-jpeg.jpg) A close look at some of the Chang’e 5 lunar samples. Images: CNSA: [1](https://moon.bao.ac.cn/moonSampleMode/infoDetail.html?sampleId=CE5C0000YJYX03501GP), [2](https://moon.bao.ac.cn/moonSampleMode/infoDetail.html?sampleId=CE5C0000YJYX041GP), [3](https://moon.bao.ac.cn/moonSampleMode/infoDetail.html?sampleId=CE5C0000YJYX042GP) In welcome news, NASA has [secured an exception](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3243460/nasa-urges-researchers-reach-out-chinas-change-5-moon-samples-sidestepping-us-ban) from the US Congress for its researchers to be able to apply for accessing [lunar samples](https://moon.bao.ac.cn/moonSampleMode/index.html) brought to Earth by China’s [Chang’e 5](https://jatan.space/change-5-landing-site/) mission in 2020\. This exception was necessary due to the [2011 Wolf Amendment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolf%5FAmendment), which bans bilateral scientific cooperation and collaboration between US and China. The development comes shortly after China’s recent [invitation](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465652/n6465653/c10086003/content.html) to international scientific communities to apply for studying the [geologically young](https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abl7957) and [uniquely important](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-135/) samples, which are distinct from ones fetched by Apollo and Luna. Chinese scientists have used precise ages of studied Chang’e 5 samples to update the [crater counting model](https://english.cas.cn/newsroom/research%5Fnews/phys/202202/t20220214%5F300776.shtml), which is [the basis for determining ages](https://www.planetary.org/articles/0401-the-lunar-chronology) of most features on the Moon. For example, it’s from Chang’e 5 that we realized that some lunar features may be [up to 240 million years older](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41550-022-01604-3) than previously thought. The scientific value of the Chang’e 5 samples isn’t limited to the Moon. Scientists are using these more accurate ages of lunar places and regions to calibrate the ages of features on other worlds such as Mars and Mercury. The samples [also contain](https://doi.org/10.59717/j.xinn-geo.2023.100014) notable amounts of materials from meteorites, helping scientists unravel the type of asteroids that impacted our Moon in the past 2 billion years. Chang’e 5 samples are thus helping us refine our understanding of the [chain of key events in our Solar System](https://jatan.space/solar-system-history-101/). NASA-funded researchers will apply for the [seventh round](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465652/n6465653/c10413163/content.html) of Chang’e 5 sample solicitation proposals, which closes on December 22\. Applicants can [check some sample properties](https://moon.bao.ac.cn/moonSampleMode/index.html) such as weight, particle sizes, and composition before applying. Andrew Jones [notes](https://spacenews.com/nasa-researchers-get-permission-to-apply-for-chinas-moon-samples) that this move comes despite NASA Administrator [Bill Nelson’s rhetoric](https://spacenews.com/nelson-supports-continuing-restrictions-on-nasa-cooperation-with-china) against collaboration with China. Well, if intended and pushed for, space and science have an ability to transcend boundaries. And so I hope this case only serves as an example by which more non-aligned entities seek to engage in lunar cooperation. Ling Xin [reported](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3218138/chinas-lunar-sample-gifts-france-russia-have-scientists-over-moon) in May that after exchanging 1.5 grams of Chang’e 5 samples with Russia last year for Soviet [Luna 16](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1970-072A) ones, China gifted France 1.5 grams of samples owing to their decades-long cooperation in space. Xin also pointed out that many of the over 100 research groups across China have had international collaborators from several European countries, Japan, Australia, and even the US (as is possible multilaterally). China has stored the bulk of the total 1.7 kilograms of Chang’e 5 samples for future studies with more advanced instruments. A small amount has been on public display at China's National Museum, and now Zhao Lei [reports](https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202311/29/WS6566bc6ea31090682a5f0931.html) that some samples are being showcased at the Macao Science Center as well. China is launching the [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-126/) mission next year to bring about two kilograms of lunar samples from the [Apollo impact crater](https://jatan.space/peak-ringed-apollo-crater/) on the Moon’s farside, which should be scientifically even more valuable than the Chang’e 5 samples—seeing that it would be our first tactile window into [the Moon’s mysterious farside](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). It would be amazing if the international access to lunar samples extended to Chang’e 6, including for the US. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f99d3fe95-4efd-4ea7-8763-be93018ac44b_1080x583-jpeg.jpg) A panorama shot by the Chang’e 5 lander, showing the robotic sampling arm and scoop marks in lunar regolith. Image: CNSA / CLEP ## Artemis mission updates - NASA and Astrobotic have [released the press kit](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/clps/astrobotic-peregrine-mission-one) for the latter’s [first lunar lander](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-awarded-79-5-million-contract-to-deliver-14-nasa-payloads-to-the-moon) launch. The company aims for a [December 24](https://www.cnbc.com/2023/10/24/ula-ceo-inaugural-vulcan-rocket-launch-slated-for-christmas-eve.html) loft to Earth orbit on a ULA Vulcan rocket. The lander will attempt to touchdown in a lunar lava plain called [Sinus Viscositatis](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=-43.6314482%2C34.0851306%2C-37.4432437%2C37.5891353&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4XyA&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFOOZLRfImqnioA&proj=16) just outside the [Gruithuisen volcanic domes](https://jatan.space/unique-volcanic-domes-of-gruithuisen/), carrying [more than 12 payloads from 8 countries](https://www.astrobotic.com/lunar-delivery/manifest) including [a bevy of micro-rovers](https://jatan.space/lunar-rovers-launching-in-2020s/) from 3 countries. As part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), it was also supposed to carry [11 agency-funded instruments](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/first-commercial-moon-delivery-assignments-to-advance-artemis) but will now [only fly five](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-151/). - Following the [September 7 report](https://www.gao.gov/assets/gao-23-105609.pdf) by NASA’s Government Accountability Office (GAO) criticizing the agency for [not being transparent enough](https://spacenews.com/gao-report-calls-for-more-transparency-on-sls-costs) about the true cost of the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) central to the nearly $100 billion [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) Moon program, the office’s [latest report](https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-24-106256) turns its gaze towards another key Artemis element: the SpaceX Starship [Human Landing System](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) that NASA chose for landing [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-iii) astronauts on the Moon. The GAO report affirms what we instinctively knew; that the Artemis III landing will not happen in 2025: “The complexity of human spaceflight suggests that it is unrealistic to expect the HLS program to complete development more than a year faster than the average for NASA major projects, the majority of which are not human spaceflight projects.” The GAO says 2027 is more likely. Marcia Smith [highlights more delay factors](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/gao-2025-unlikely-for-first-artemis-lunar-landing-maybe-2027) from the GAO report, such as Axiom Space’s [AxEMU spacesuits](https://www.axiomspace.com/axiom-suit) that the astronauts will wear. While Lunar Starship’s slow progress will delay not just Artemis III but also [Artemis IV](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-101/), the larger perspective to consider here is [Starship’s criticality to NASA’s long-term lunar plans](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-154/) that should make up for time lost—if done right. - On November 29, NASA [performed](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/stennis/nasa-tests-in-flight-capability-of-artemis-moon-rocket-engine) a 650-second hot fire test of the fully redesigned [RS-25](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/sls%5Frs25%5Fengine%5Ffs%5F508.pdf) engine to be used on future SLS flights starting with [Artemis V](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/). This third test in an ongoing series was longer than the typical flight-time-matching 500-second burn to ensure margins. It also tested [flight-like gimbaling](https://www.nasa.gov/centers/stennis/news/releases/2023/NASA-Tests-Critical-In-Flight-Capability-During-RS-25-Engine-Hot-Fire) of the engine, which during a mission helps stabilize the rocket as well as keep it on its intended trajectory. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f873756e7-eeeb-4f9f-82cd-76c8e9fd406c_2400x1600-jpeg.jpg) Test fire of an RS-25 engine on the Fred Haise Test Stand at NASA’s Stennis Space Center. [Image: Danny Nowlin / NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/stennis/nasa-tests-in-flight-capability-of-artemis-moon-rocket-engine) --- *Many thanks to* [***Epsilon3***](https://www.epsilon3.io)*,* [***Open Lunar Foundation***](https://www.openlunar.org)*,* [***The Orbital Index***](https://orbitalindex.com) *and* [***Joseph Biernat***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/joseph-j-biernat-24858425) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## The Artemis Accords and the Outer Space Treaty On November 30, Angola [became the 33rd country](https://www.nasa.gov/general/nasa-welcomes-angola-as-newest-artemis-accords-signatory) and the third African nation to sign the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords) for cooperative lunar exploration. Nigeria and Rwanda [became signees](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/nasa-welcomes-nigeria-rwanda-as-newest-artemis-accords-signatories) last year in December. Cris van Eijk [points out](https://twitter.com/crisveijk/status/1730665268941087012) that Angola is the first Accords signatory to have neither signed nor ratified any UN space treaty, [including the Outer Space Treaty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outer%5FSpace%5FTreaty#States%5Fthat%5Fhave%5Fsigned%5Fbut%5Fnot%5Fratified) that the Accords posits to build on. Relatedly, even in the passing of a year since [Colombia signed the Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/nasa-welcomes-vice-president-of-colombia-for-artemis-accords-signing), the country hasn’t ratified the Outer Space Treaty. In any case, the onboarding of countries like Angola to the Accords is in line with what [Marcia Smith reported](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/two-african-countries-join-artemis-accords-bringing-total-to-23) last year—that the US has been pushing for a broad, veto-less international participation in the Accords independent of a country’s intentions to collaborate with NASA on Artemis missions. Relatedly, a nation to look out for with respect to the Accords is South Africa. The country is [aiding NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/NASA-SANSA-Renew-Lunar-Exploration-Partnership) with a crucial ground station which will provide high bandwidth communications to the agency during Artemis crewed missions. At the same time, South Africa recently [formally joined](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/n6758823/n6758840/c10370666/content.html) the upcoming China-led long-term [scientific base](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-120/) on the Moon’s south pole called the [International Lunar Research Station](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-32/) (ILRS). It will be interesting to see if South Africa signs the Accords. ## More Moon - In a [symposium](https://www.isgns2023.com) talk on November 28, ISRO Chief S. Somanath [highlighted](https://www.youtube.com/live/DNXTouOKNVk?feature=shared&t=9413) some key *tentative* missions and elements from an increasingly complex roadmap that will feed into and enable the [newly announced national goal](https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1968368) of sending an Indian to the Moon by 2040\. These include the Indo-Japanese [LUPEX rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-111/) and the Chandrayaan 4 sample return missions before end of decade, a Chandrayaan 5 mission with the ability to survive the lunar night, a resource extraction and utilization demonstration with Chandrayaan 6, a crewed lunar cruiser docking with the NASA-led [Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) international orbital habitat ([as I predicted!](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-10/)), a partially reusable [Next Generation Launch Vehicle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Next%5FGeneration%5FLaunch%5FVehicle) (NGLV), and more. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fbac6e831-1fec-46ac-abeb-6392b8a7f552_1500x1100-jpeg.jpg) Screengrab of an integrated lunar and crewed exploration roadmap for India. [Image: S. Somanath / ISRO](https://www.youtube.com/live/DNXTouOKNVk?feature=shared&t=9413) - In July, the Italian Space Agency (ASI) [announced an agreement](https://www.asi.it/2023/07/un-grande-passo-italiano-verso-la-permanenza-delluomo-sulla-luna) with Politecnico di Milano to do initial work on the ORACLE project aimed at [extracting oxygen from lunar soil](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-153/). Now ASI is [looking for an industrial partner](https://europeanspaceflight.com/asi-seeks-commercial-operator-for-lunar-oxygen-extraction-mission) to advance this work to a lunar flight version by 2028, with an allocated budget of €11 million. ## Events and Jobs - The Lunar and Planetary Institute and the Universities Space Research Association are organizing the free [Artemis Orbital Observation Science](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lunarsurface21/technical%5Fprogram) workshop on December 5\. The meet is for the US lunar community to discuss and provide input to NASA on what Artemis astronauts across missions could do in lunar orbit with respect to observations. - The Moon Village Association is organizing its [7th international workshop and symposium](https://mva2023.jp) from December 7–10 in Japan. [Free online registration](https://moonvillageassociation.org/online-registration-for-the-mv-ws-2023) is available, which covers some sessions. - Firefly is hiring a [US-based propulsion engineer](https://www.linkedin.com/jobs/view/3756029543) to develop hypergolic engines for its Blue Ghost Moon landers, two of which will fly to the Moon as part of NASA’s [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) program in [2024](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2023/nasa-delivers-hardware-for-commercial-lunar-payload-mission) and [2026](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-picks-firefly-aerospace-for-robotic-delivery-to-far-side-of-moon) respectively. --- **→** [**Browse**](https://blog.jatan.space/start) **|** [**Sponsor**](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) **|** [**About**](https://blog.jatan.space/about) ### Moon Monday #155: Prepping for PRIME-1 time, a Canadian capcom, a FLEXible rover, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-155/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:14:48.000Z *This is a half-yearly appreciation note, and an introduction for readers subscribed after April, that my [Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/s/moon-monday/archive) newsletter is being supported by sponsor [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io/)—for the third year in a row! Led by [Laura](https://www.linkedin.com/in/lauracrabtree) and [Max](https://www.linkedin.com/in/maxmednik), Epsilon3 is a web-based platform to manage, streamline, and reduce risk in complex spacecraft building, testing, and operational procedures. It’s used by Astrobotic, Firefly, Astrolab, and more organizations creating for the Moon and beyond.* 🌙 *If you too enjoy and appreciate my work to serve space communities worldwide, kindly consider sponsoring Moon Monday—my flagship writing—via your organization:* [Email me: hey@jatan.space](mailto:hey@jatan.space) ## First mission to drill on the Moon’s south pole is prepping for prime time While Intuitive Machines prepares to launch [its first Moon lander](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/im-1) on [January 12, 2024](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/intuitive-machines-sets-january-2024-for-historic-u-s-lunar-mission), carrying [six science & technology payloads](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/first-commercial-moon-delivery-assignments-to-advance-artemis) for NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), progress on the company’s [second CLPS lander](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-to-land-water-measuring-payload-on-the-moon) is continuing too. Launching sometime in 2024 on a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket, said lander aims to deliver the NASA-funded, Honeybee-Robotics-provided [TRIDENT drill](https://www.nasa.gov/polar-resources-ice-mining-experiment-1) at an [optimum location](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/clps/nasa-intuitive-machines-announce-landing-site-location-for-lunar-drill) on the Moon’s south pole where underground [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) is expected based on orbital data. The lander will drill up to 1 meter below the surface, and analyze the excavated material for water ice and other such volatiles using the [MSolo](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/viper/rover-and-instruments#MSolo) mass spectrometer—a first such study. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f1a2ff563-d787-4898-b945-4944a331c7c8_2550x1600-jpeg.jpg) Components of the Honeybee Robotics provided TRIDENT drill. [Image: NASA Langley](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cKHrRvhAQgY) To that end, teams of engineers from across these mission elements have [started testing hardware operations](https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/prime-1-simulation) on Earth to simulate aspects of the mission. The aim is to ensure that the project’s key goals are achieved within the limited mission time period of \~10 Earth days. After all, it’s not just the science output from this mission but also the operational knowhow which will feed forward into NASA’s upcoming long-duration [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) mission, which is launching mid-decade to study lunar polar water ice with a variant of the TRIDENT drill and the MSolo mass spectrometer. Let’s circle back to Intuitive Machines’ second CLPS lander, which also has a rover and a hopper in store for us. The lander will deploy Lunar Outpost’s [MAPP rover](https://lunaroutpost.com/nokia-and-intuitive-machines-select-lunar-outpost-for-first-rover-mission-at-lunar-south-pole) on the Moon’s surface. It will sport a [near-field depth camera](https://www.media.mit.edu/projects/microsoft-azure-kinect-for-a-lunar-environment/overview) to reconstruct the surface for future astronaut training in virtual reality, deploy a [miniature swarm robot](https://www.tothemoon.mit.edu/astroant) to take surface temperature measurements and also inspect the rover’s physical health, and host a [silicon chip](https://www.tothemoon.mit.edu/humans) hosting reflections of people in native languages. Notably, MAPP will collect some lunar soil and [transfer its ownership](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-companies-to-collect-lunar-resources-for-artemis-demonstrations) to NASA as part of the latter’s move to set precedence for future resource use under the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html). In another first, the MAPP rover will also host antennae from Nokia to test a [4G/LTE network](https://www.nokia.com/networks/insights/network-on-the-moon) on the Moon for NASA, for which Nokia [got an experimental spectrum certification](https://www.bell-labs.com/institute/blog/who-controls-the-airwaves-on-the-moon) last year. The aim is to see how we might get high-throughput, long-range, and low-latency communications necessary for having a sustainable lunar presence in the future. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f3eb9053d-605c-4e1b-936e-d02b07759999_750x500-jpeg.jpg) Illustration showing Lunar Outpost’s rover on the Moon with deployed antennae for 4G/LTE network testing. [Image: Nokia / Lunar Outpost](https://www.bell-labs.com/institute/blog/a-network-like-no-other-how-nokias-moon-network-differs-from-any-on-earth) The Intuitive lander will also deploy the company’s own [NASA-supported, $41 million](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/solicitations/tipping%5Fpoints/2020%5Fselections) hopper called [Micro-Nova](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/intuitive-machines-and-nasa-finalize-contract-for-extreme-lunar-mobility-spacecraft), which aims to [hop five times](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-134/) to capture high-resolution imagery and other measurements of the surface under its flight path. One of the hops would be over a [permanently shadowed region](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) to detect and study potential water ice in there. Trent Martin from the company said at the [European Lunar Symposium](https://sservi.nasa.gov/els2023) in June that the hopper—which sports two Canadensys high-resolution imagers—is now enhanced with a neutron spectrometer for subsurface hydrogen detection (as indirect signs of [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/)), a radiometer for surface temperature measurements, and a Nokia 4G antenna. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ff0ab71bf-0957-46e5-8d45-ff50d6c72646_2500x1418-jpeg.jpg) Mission plan for the 5 lunar hops to be performed by Intuitive Machine’s Micro-Nova craft (shown in the inset image) during its inaugural mission. The hops start from where Nova-C, the lander, is marked in the image, and end with going in and out of a permanently shadowed region. Image: Trent Martin / Intuitive Machines --- *Many thanks to *[Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io)*, *[Louis-Jérôme Burtz](https://www.linkedin.com/in/ljburtz)* and *[Arun Raghavan](https://arunraghavan.net)* for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday!* --- ## More mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f2f8db90b-01a4-4375-a9b6-b257e111f096_1200x800-jpeg.jpg) Jenni Gibbons at the launch of fellow Canadian astronaut David Saint-Jacques. [Image: CSA / ASC](https://www.cbc.ca/radio/quirks/how-fire-scientist-jenni-sidey-gibbons-became-canada-s-youngest-astronaut-1.5446314) - CSA [announced](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/news/articles/2023/2023-11-22-astronaut-jenni-gibbons-designated-canadian-backup-artemis-ii.asp) on November 22 that astronaut [Jenni Gibbons](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronauts/canadian/active/bio-jenni-gibbons.asp) will be Canada’s backup of Mission Specialist [Jeremy Hansen](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronauts/canadian/active/bio-jeremy-hansen.asp) for NASA’s [Artemis II mission](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/missions/artemis-ii/mission.asp), wherein a total of [four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) will fly around the Moon and back circa early 2025\. Hansen is flying in return for CSA contributing the [Canadarm3](https://asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/canadarm3/about.asp) robotic servicing system to the [Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway), which is an upcoming NASA-led international crewed lunar orbital station. Gibbons will also help with astronaut training for upcoming Artemis missions, including the crewed [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-iii) landing. In fact, Gibbons will also be a [lunar capcom](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronauts/about-the-job/capcom.asp), whose job is to be an efficient communications bridge between mission control and in-flight astronauts. - Astrolab will have at least eight payloads worth $160 million aboard its first lunar rover targeting a 2026 launch, Jeff Foust [reports](https://spacenews.com/astrolab-announces-first-customers-for-commercial-lunar-rover-mission). The large rover, called [Flexible Logistics and Exploration](https://astrolab.space/flex) (FLEX), will be deployed on the Moon’s south pole [by a SpaceX Starship](https://astrolab.space/news/blog/145) launch & landing system. A notable payload comes from Interstellar Lab, which will attempt to grow plants in pods on the surface—similar to China’s [Chang’e 4 biological experiment](https://www.universetoday.com/163831/china-set-up-a-tiny-farm-on-the-moon-in-2019-how-did-it-do/#more-163831). (Also see: [Plants grow in lunar soil, but barely like it](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-77/)). The mission is intriguing because it has essentially the same rover design that Astrolab pitched to NASA earlier this year for the agency’s request to fund a versatile [Lunar Terrain Vehicle](https://jatan.space/what-we-know-about-artemis-ltv/), which will be used across Artemis missions starting [Artemis V](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/) for at least 10 years. Astrolab has [been testing](https://astrolab.space/news/blog/1) FLEX’s [fully-functional terrestrial prototype](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SfT6HIc9OPw) for mobility, crewed, and remote operations, including a variety of large payload deployments. Tangent: NASA is [working with](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-12-companies-to-collaborate-on-key-technology-development) Astrolab to build and demonstrate a durable tire for future lunar rovers that can better tolerate the extremely cold temperatures of [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s poles. This should allow much better mobility as well as flexibility in mission planning and operations. ## More Moon - On November 14, UAE’s University of Sharjah [joined](https://web.archive.org/web/20231121233230/https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/nyNxhVwz6uHdVjNaapq06g) the upcoming China-led long-term [scientific base](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-120/) on the Moon’s south pole called the [International Lunar Research Station](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-32/). This agreement comes shortly after many countries joined the project recently, including [Pakistan](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-150/), [Thailand](https://www.narit.or.th/index.php/en-news/3552-en20231005-01), and [South Africa](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/n6758823/n6758840/c10370666/content.html). Andrew Jones [lists](https://spacenews.com/emirati-university-signs-up-to-chinas-moon-base-project) all ILRS partners. - Andrew Parsonson [reports](https://europeanspaceflight.com/asi-awards-contract-to-continue-development-of-moon-base) that following a [June 2022 agreement](https://www.asi.it/en/2022/06/artemis-mission-signed-agreement-between-asi-and-nasa) between the Italian Space Agency (ASI) and NASA to conduct a preliminary design study of a multipurpose surface habitation module for [Artemis Basecamp](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept), ASI has contracted Thales Alenia Space to continue its development. - The Russian Academy of Sciences started a [year-long analog astronaut mission](https://www.space.com/russia-sirius-23-astronaut-isolation-study) on Earth to study isolation effects on humans who will live for extended periods on the Moon in the future. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fc3a382e2-9ee5-4c3e-b4dc-9f1f7f2a54bb_1920x1080-jpeg.jpg) It was great co-leading a diverse working group with [Shoaib Sheriff](https://www.linkedin.com/in/shoaib-sheriff) at the [Asia-Pacific Space Generation Workshop](https://spacegeneration.org/9th-ap-sgw-2023/working-groups), with members from India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, and Thailand. We came up with plausible new ways in which Asia-Pacific countries can collaborate to explore our Moon and improve outreach. 🌏🚀🌗 ## Job listings - The Extraterrestrial Materials Analysis Group ([ExMAG](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/exmag)) is [seeking two members](https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSdYPi8BQ4Gsig-F6S3KKQPjzdoKE1nwOM9aPvGDMCoSNSw91g/viewform) for its [Lunar Subcommittee](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/exmag/subcommittees/#lunar) who have a keen interest in aiding NASA’s Artemis missions with work on sampling tools, handling of cold samples, resource characterization and extraction, and more. Tangent: NASA is working to store pristine samples astronauts will collect from some of the Moon’s [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) in cryogenic freezers starting with Artemis VI. Earlier Artemis surface missions will still collect such samples—they just won’t come to Earth as frigid as they’ve existed. - The venerable Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter team is [looking for a Research Analyst Assistant](https://sjobs.brassring.com/TGnewUI/Search/home/HomeWithPreLoad?partnerid=25620&siteid=5494&PageType=JobDetails&jobid=4850598) to support the imager’s science operations with generating of data products, mapping, data analysis, and more. --- **→ [Browse](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [Sponsor](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Moon Monday #154: ispace Japan progresses toward another lunar landing with RESILIENCE, as must Starship in NASA’s road to Luna URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-154/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:14:48.000Z ## Meet RESILIENCE, ispace Japan’s second Moon mission ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f2885f43d-0894-4c24-af19-8e9a5c1a9ff3_1640x1050-jpeg.jpg) An illustration of the Hakuto-R lunar lander and micro-rover. [Image: ispace](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4954) Following ispace Japan’s [failed touchdown attempt](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-129/) on the Moon with the [M1 mission](https://jatan.space/ispace-japan-m1-moon-mission/) in April, the company has improved the hardware and software design of the Hakuto-R lander for the M2 mission in late 2024, called “RESILIENCE” to reflect the spirited reattempt. ispace engineers have been assembling the M2 flight model at JAXA’s facility in Tsukuba, Japan instead of at Ariane Group’s facility in Germany [as with M1](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=2535). ispace will also conduct additional field testing of landing sensors to further improve the chances of a successful touchdown. The M2 lander will carry [three payloads](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4954): a water-splitting experiment by Takasago, an algae-based food production module by Euglena, and a deep space radiation monitoring probe by Taiwan’s National Central University. While Israel-based Helios intended to have its [(claimed) scalable technology](https://www.timesofisrael.com/making-oxygen-from-moon-sand-startup-eyes-long-term-life-in-space/) of extracting oxygen from lunar soil [to be onboard](https://www.calcalistech.com/ctech/articles/0,7340,L-3912810,00.html) M2, the payload doesn’t seem to be ready for flight yet. M2 will deploy ispace’s indigenously built [5-kilogram micro-rover](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4954) to explore the Moon’s surface with an HD camera. It will also [collect lunar soil](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=3696) and [transfer its ownership](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-companies-to-collect-lunar-resources-for-artemis-demonstrations) to NASA as part of the latter’s move to set precedence for future resource use under the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html). The micro-rover is being developed by [ispace Europe](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-76/), with funding aid from the Luxembourg Space Agency under an ESA contract. ispace Europe has partnered with Sweden-based mining infrastructure company [Epiroc AB](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epiroc) to develop the shovel for the soil collection. ## NASA’s road to Luna still goes through Starship ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fb78a3370-ce7a-4898-a761-9a5d229cf5f9_2160x1500-jpeg.jpg) A spectacular tracking camera view of the Starship Super Heavy rocket performing hot-staging separation. [Image: SpaceX](https://twitter.com/SpaceX/status/1725905127113183535) SpaceX’s [second launch](https://www.spacex.com/launches/mission/?missionId=starship-flight-2) of its fully reusable [Starship Super Heavy](https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/starship) rocket on November 18 cleared the launchpad [without damaging it](https://twitter.com/elonmusk/status/1726328010499051579), survived maximum aerodynamic pressure, successfully performed [hot staging](https://spacenews.com/spacex-changing-starship-stage-separation-ahead-of-next-launch) to separate the booster from the Starship upper stage, and had the upper stage reach space. But the booster blew itself up shortly after stage separation, and the upper stage exploded too later on before it could complete firing its engines for the intended duration. As such, Starship couldn’t meet the mission objective of flying most of the way around the world before re-entering and splashing down in the Pacific Ocean. Since NASA has [selected](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) Starship’s lunar variant to land humans on our Moon again for the historic [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-iii) mission, this not-wholly-successful Starship flight will likely delay Lunar Starship’s targeted mid-decade launch. After all, Starship is a pacing item for Artemis III, and also the mission element where the number of launches needed is something [SpaceX and NASA are still figuring out](https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/11/what-nasa-wants-to-see-from-spacexs-second-starship-test-flight). Starship’s November 18 trajectory was [nevertheless fruitful](https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/11/spacex-can-celebrate-three-big-wins-after-second-starship-test-flight) in advancing the vehicle towards spaceflight. The larger perspective to consider here is [the huge deal](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-101/) that is Artemis IV. As a critical element of the mission, NASA has chosen an [upgraded Lunar Starship](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-spacex-second-contract-option-for-artemis-moon-landing-0) to land astronauts on the Moon. If successful, in just one mission after Artemis III’s crewed landing demonstration, NASA will have upgraded its entire lunar transportation stack—from improving payload capacity to lunar orbit by 10,000 kilograms with the [SLS](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) rocket’s [Block 1B](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/sls%5Flift%5Fcapabilities%5Fand%5Fconfigurations%5F508%5F08202018%5F0.pdf) variant to sending the first astronauts to the orbital [Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) station to having an upgraded crewed (Starship) lander enabling an extended surface mission of up to 33 days instead of Artemis III’s 6.5-day stay. Artemis IV’s architecture is the template NASA will keep using for future missions leading to an [Artemis Moonbase](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept). It’s thus far more important to get all Artemis IV elements right, including Starship, than to worry about it not launching in 2028\. We have waited decades for a [return to our Moon](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/), and just as long for a fully reusable space launch system. We can wait a few years more. Related: [A worrisome report on safety issues at SpaceX](https://jatan.space/a-worrisome-report-on-safety-issues-at-spacex/) --- *Many thanks to *[Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io)*, *[Kris Zacny](https://www.linkedin.com/in/kris-zacny-8a71ba1)* and *[Louis-Jérôme Burtz](https://www.linkedin.com/in/ljburtz)* for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday!* --- ## More mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f45cc23ed-7a8b-43b3-86bb-677159d588e2_1890x1200-jpeg.jpg) Hot fire test of the inaugural Vulcan rocket’s first stage in June 2023\. [Image: ULA](https://twitter.com/ulalaunch/status/1666848213163290638) - ULA Chief Tory Bruno said on November 15 that all elements of the company’s new [Vulcan](https://www.ulalaunch.com/rockets/vulcan-centaur) rocket have arrived on site, Eric Berger [reports](https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/11/ula-chief-on-the-vulcan-rocket-the-path-to-flight-one-is-clear). This includes the [Centaur V](https://www.flickr.com/photos/ulalaunch/49720321573/in/album-72157690220351103) upper stage, which was [sent back](https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/06/ula-shipping-vulcan-upper-stage-back-to-factory-for-more-work) to its factory in July to get its paper-thin liquid hydrogen steel tank reinforced following the March 29 [blowing up](https://twitter.com/torybruno/status/1646572389193625600) of a test Centaur V. After completing the launch vehicle integration later this month and a wet dress rehearsal by mid-December, ULA will target launch on December 24 at 6:49 AM UTC, carrying Astrobotic’s [first lunar lander](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-awarded-79-5-million-contract-to-deliver-14-nasa-payloads-to-the-moon) to Earth orbit. There are backup launch windows on December 25 and 26, and in the first half of January. Astrobotic’s lander will attempt to touchdown in a lunar lava plain called [Sinus Viscositatis](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=-43.6314482%2C34.0851306%2C-37.4432437%2C37.5891353&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4XyA&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFOOZLRfImqnioA&proj=16) just outside the [Gruithuisen volcanic domes](https://jatan.space/unique-volcanic-domes-of-gruithuisen/), carrying [more than 12 payloads from 8 countries](https://www.astrobotic.com/lunar-delivery/manifest) including [a bevy of micro-rovers](https://jatan.space/lunar-rovers-launching-in-2020s/) from 3 countries. As part of the [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), it was also supposed to carry [11 NASA-funded instruments](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/first-commercial-moon-delivery-assignments-to-advance-artemis) but will now [only fly five](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-151/). - In a [talk](https://www.youtube.com/live/nivAGxeDaSc?feature=shared&t=6051) at the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology on November 17, Director of ISRO’s Space Applications Center [Nilesh Desai](https://www.sac.gov.in/Vyom/director) said that the upcoming [LUPEX](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-111/) rover mission in collaboration with Japan will be executed in no less than five years—[as was to be realistically expected](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-152/). The nominal six-month mission comprises an ISRO-developed \~6000-kilogram lander which will deliver a JAXA-built \~350-kilogram rover to directly study the nature, abundance, and accessibility of [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) at the Moon’s south pole (between 89–90°S). Desai also mentioned Chandrayaan 4 as being ISRO’s first sample return mission, which per its current ideation stage will involve two rocket launches from Earth. - The NASA-funded and Advanced Space-led [CAPSTONE](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/small%5Fspacecraft/capstone) CubeSat has [completed a year](https://advancedspace.com/capstone-operates-one-year-at-moon) in its intended unique, fuel-efficient [Near-Rectilinear Halo Orbit](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/a-lunar-orbit-that-s-just-right-for-the-international-gateway). As a literal pathfinding mission for the NASA-led international [Gateway orbital habitat](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) launching mid-decade, CAPSTONE has been helping the agency refine mathematical models of said orbit based on the exact propellant and power it needed to maintain desired operations. The mission team has been [publishing papers](https://advancedspace.com/subject/papers-presentations) to that end. The [CAPSTONE team](https://advancedspace.com/capstone-mission-team) deserves the fruits of this success, for they practically [fully recovered](https://advancedspace.com/capstone-mission-recovery-success-update) a failing spacecraft and also managed to have it enter the intended lunar orbit despite a faulty valve in one of its eight thrusters. ## More Moon - Jeff Foust [reports](https://spacenews.com/intuitive-machines-planning-up-to-three-lunar-lander-missions-in-2024) that Intuitive Machines recently signed a $16.8 million contract with an “international space agency” to provide lunar rover services on a future mission. The company did not provide any other details. - NASA [proactively helped enthusiasts worldwide](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-1/volunteers-worldwide-successfully-tracked-nasas-artemis-i-mission) track the [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-i) Moon mission, and the agency learnt from it too! Other space agencies trying to discourage amateur tracking efforts should take note. - [Over 200 million Indian school students to learn about Chandrayaan 3, mixed with mythology](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-10/) - *Sponsored job listing: The Takshashila Institution is [hiring a Research Analyst](https://www.linkedin.com/jobs/view/3761446709) to work alongside various stakeholders and policymakers on both domestic and international aspects of India’s ongoing efforts to enhance its cooperation with other countries on lunar exploration and human spaceflight.* --- **→ [Browse](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [Sponsor](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Indian Space Progress #10: ISRO aces safety test for human spaceflight while school students to learn about Chandrayaan 3 mixed with mythology URL: https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-10/ Last updated: 2024-12-18T07:48:36.000Z *I’m stoked to welcome [KaleidEO](https://satsure.co/kaleidEO) as the third organization sponsor of my monthly [Indian Space Progress](https://blog.jatan.space/s/indian-space-progress/archive) reports!* 🚀 *Bengaluru-based KaleidEO is a [SatSure](https://satsure.co) company on a mission to elevate the value of information from Earth observation satellites by offering analytics-ready data coupled with its upcoming optical and multispectral satellites touting on-demand, near-meter resolution imaging with a large swath of 65 kilometers—all enhanced with onboard edge processing.* 🛰️ *Personally, I like that SatSure has been using public Earth observation data to provide analytics that [uniquely solve](https://theprint.in/features/bengaluru-firm-has-eyes-in-sky-to-fix-problems-on-ground-crops-insurance-claims-floods/1364852) agricultural, banking, and infrastructure problems in India. Lastly, a sincere thanks to [Prateep Basu](https://www.linkedin.com/in/prateepbasu) and [Krishna Reddy](https://www.linkedin.com/in/krishna-reddy-b19055a8) for actively supporting my independent space writing.* 🌏 --- *I was sad to work on this edition of Indian Space Progress. Even as we celebrate a successful safety test key to human spaceflight and ISRO’s newly announced ambition of sending an Indian to the Moon by 2040, having more than 200 million Indian school students learn about Chandrayaan 3 mixed with mythology is a worrying development.* ## What made ISRO’s October abort test towards human spaceflight notable ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f12a29dd4-6baa-478d-87ef-8522c0640c85_2400x1600-jpeg-1.jpg) Launch of a representative Gaganyaan crew module and its attached escape system on October 21 for an abort test. [Image: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/tvd1%5Fgallery.html) On October 21, ISRO launched a single-stage rocket for the [Test Vehicle Demonstration mission-1](https://www.isro.gov.in/Gaganyaan%5FTV-D1%5FMission.html) (TV-D1), the first of 20 tests the agency will conduct before it deems safe to fly astronauts for the ambitious [Gaganyaan mission](https://www.isro.gov.in/Gaganyaan.html) mid-decade. The TV-D1 rocket—which is a modified [GSLV Mk II](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geosynchronous%5FSatellite%5FLaunch%5FVehicle) liquid booster—lofted a full-scale, unpressurized 4520-kilogram Gaganyaan crew module mated to its escape system to an altitude of 11.2 kilometers in 61 seconds. At this point, when the combined vehicle was past the speed of sound, the escape system automatically lit up and separated the crew-less module from the rocket. The module then coasted upwards, detached from the escape system at an altitude of 16.9 kilometers, and then deployed its drogue parachutes. At 2.5 kilometers, the module deployed the main parachutes, leading to a splashdown in the Bay of Bengal about 10 kilometers away from the launch site. This successful test means that ISRO’s crew escape system can safely carry astronauts away from the launch vehicle in the case of an emergency. Here are some interesting things to note about the test: - The crew module was upside down after splashing, which is [not an issue](https://indianexpress.com/article/technology/science/gaganyaan-mission-after-success-of-crew-module-abort-test-isro-eyes-uprighting-system-in-2024-9010271) since this flight didn’t carry floatation devices which will be there on future tests and during actual missions. - Stephen Clark [noted](https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/10/india-celebrates-first-major-milestone-on-path-to-launching-astronauts) that ISRO timed the crew escape systems’s trigger for when the rocket was experiencing the flight’s maximum aerodynamic forces, making it the most demanding time for an abort. - Johnson T. A. [reports](https://indianexpress.com/article/technology/science/gaganyaan-mission-after-success-of-crew-module-abort-test-isro-eyes-uprighting-system-in-2024-9010271) that the TV-D1 crew module lacked an onboard control system. That’s because ISRO wanted to use the flight data to better understand the requirements and conditions for putting the crew module in safe positions and orientations during actual Gaganyaan flights. It also meant that the drogue parachutes on this flight had to deploy only when the module achieved a specific angle, which it did. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f3994e9cb-088e-444b-882c-7ac77d8d9e20_2400x1600-jpeg.jpg) The TV-D1 Gaganyaan crew module near an Indian navy ship, waiting to be lifted. [Image: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/tvd1%5Fgallery.html) S. V. Krishna Chaitanya [reports](https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2023/oct/07/gaganyaan-mission-crew-safety-test-to-be-undertaken-shortly-says-isro-2621748.html) that next up ISRO will better test aspects of the crew module’s parachute system by dropping a representative 3,000-kilogram module from a 4-kilometer altitude using a heavy-lift helicopter. Chethan Kumar [reports](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/gaganyaan-isro-will-attempt-air-drop-test-using-chopper-pad-abort-planned-too/articleshow/104684621.cms) that it would be followed by another abort test early next year. Here, the escape system will lift the module away while the rocket is at the launchpad itself to simulate pad emergencies. ISRO did conduct one such test [in 2018](https://web.archive.org/web/20181122034003/https://www.isro.gov.in/update/05-jul-2018/successful-flight-testing-of-crew-escape-system-technology-demonstrator) but this redo is necessary because there have been substantial design changes to Gaganyaan since. Adding to the [growing scope of Gaganyaan](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-06/) beyond the inaugural and initial set of missions, the country’s Prime Minister Narendra Modi [directed ISRO](https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1968368) on October 17 to create an Indian Space Station in Earth orbit by 2035\. This would be followed by sending the first Indian to the Moon by 2040. ## Over 200 million Indian school students to learn about Chandrayaan 3, mixed with mythology > On October 17, the National Council for Education Research and Training (NCERT) introduced a reading module for middle-school students called “Chandrayaan Utsav”. It was released by Union Education Minister Dharmendra Pradhan in the presence of S. Somanath, Chairman of the Indian Space Research Organisation, and claims that the Chandrayaan-3 achievement was great but not the first, that “literature tells us that it can be traced back \[to the\] Vymaanika Shaastra: Science of Aeronautics, which reveals that our country had the knowledge of flying vehicles” in ancient times. (Note for non-Hindi readers: *Utsav* means *festival*) This piece of disturbing news landed in my feed [via Mukunth’s blog](https://rootprivileges.net/2023/10/22/indias-science-leadership). Like him, I too am surprised that the ISRO Chief did not correct the Union Education Minister, at the very least because the statement effectively sidelines the entire Chandrayaan 3 team’s achievement of an [autonomous Moon landing](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/)—a technological feat that genuinely deserves to be celebrated for itself, and has been globally recognized. But things only get worse. The [reading module (PDF)](https://ncert.nic.in/pdf/chandrayan/english/Module3.pdf) also goes on to readily mix mythology with science throughout, as if the author indulged in a work of fiction. That these are deliberate inclusions of propaganda is acutely clear in the section highlighting mission contributions by women scientists wherein a totally irrelevant para appears out of the blue: > The ancient Bharatiya \[Indian\] texts and discourses contain treasures of scientific knowledge on various disciplines including aeronautics (that can make the younger generation feel proud of the legacy inherited by them and take this knowledge system further for new uses). See the highlighted text in the screenshot below to realize the abruptness of its placement: ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fe42b0184-d13d-45eb-a4bd-96b7a7743eeb_1490x1300-jpeg.jpg) It gets worse still. The “All India People’s Science Network” has collated and listed [numerous errors](https://aipsn.net/2023/10/30/aipsn-demands-recall-of-ncert-special-modules-on-chandrayaan-3-modules-filled-with-errors-and-pseudoscientific-claims) in the reading material, even in what are supposed to be scientific and technical factual aspects of Chandrayaan 3 and the Moon. The material was criticized by several Indian media outlets and pro-science organizations, including a [sharp response by The New Indian Express](https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/2023/oct/22/ncerts-mythology-link-to-chandrayaan-3-draws-scientific-flak-2626184.html) which cites former ISRO Chief G Madhavan Nair calling the ancient texts “scientific fiction” and also points out known flaws in these recycled claims: > Research by the Aeronautical Engineering Department of the Indian Institute of Science (IISc) revealed that the book, Vymaanika Shaastra, was written by Sanskrit scholar Subbaraya Shastri in 1923\. “The (IISc) research proved that it was not possible for those planes to fly according to the laws of aerodynamics and Newton’s laws of motion. Any plane manufactured based on these ideas would surely have met with a horrible accident. And these are just the fanciful ideas of the author,” Dipti B, State Secretary, Breakthrough Science Society (BSS), Bengaluru, said. Instead of responding to the criticism by withdrawing the material for a rewrite that would exclude pseudoscientific claims, the Union Ministry of Education [instead defended it](https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1970996) with a press release from the Government of India: > Mythology and philosophy put forward ideas and ideas lead to innovation and research. Numerous research studies emphasize that mythology plays an indispensable role in the cultural fabric of any country, including Bharat. Furthermore, the integration of culture into education not only fosters a profound understanding of a nation’s historical legacy but also bolsters creativity and problem-solving skills among students. It’s the whole gestalt of India’s association with sky and space. What makes the situation more stressful is that this isn’t even the first instance of still-malleable Indian students getting dosed with pseudoscience. Earlier this year, the Central Board of Secondary Education revised their curriculum and [excluded natural selection and the periodic table](https://www.nitinpai.in/2023/06/5/put-the-important-science-back-into-ncert-high-school-textbooks) from Class X textbooks. --- *Many thanks to the *[Takshashila Institution](https://takshashila.org.in)*, *[SkyServe](https://skyserve.ai)*, *[KaleidEO](https://satsure.co/kaleidEO)* and *[Gurbir Singh](https://gurbir.co.uk)* for sponsoring this month’s Indian Space Progress report.* --- ## How NASA’s Gateway project is a promising path for India to send a human to the Moon by 2040 ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f4b958ca0-69d4-429f-ac1e-cf5833eea28c_1100x800-jpeg-1.jpg) The Chandrayaan 3 lander Vikram imaged by the mission’s rover Pragyan. [Image: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/chandrayaan3%5Fgallery.html) To realize the ambition of sending an Indian to the Moon, the Indian Department of Space (DOS) will develop a roadmap for lunar exploration, which will comprise a series of [Chandrayaan](https://jatan.space/indian-space/) missions, the development of a partially reusable [Next Generation Launch Vehicle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Next%5FGeneration%5FLaunch%5FVehicle) (NGLV), a new launch pad, and more. The first of this “series of Chandrayaan missions” will be the joint ISRO-JAXA mission [LUPEX](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-111/). Unlike what most media reports and ISRO-JAXA claim though, LUPEX [won’t launch in 2025 or even 2026](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-152/). Launching before end of decade, LUPEX comprises an ISRO-developed \~6000-kilogram lander which will deliver a JAXA-built \~350-kilogram rover to directly study the nature, abundance, and accessibility of [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) at the Moon’s south pole. LUPEX and its successors will provide ISRO with crucial data to plan crewed lunar surface missions. Of course, India is a long way away from realizing the trove of technologies needed to plan the feat of an indigenous human Moon landing. ISRO recognizes the sheer scope of its Moonbound undertaking, and that’s why the date to send an Indian to Luna reads “by 2040”—realistic yet aspirational. Note though that the associated [press release](https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1968368) only specifies sending the first Indian “to the Moon” by 2040\. It doesn’t tell if Indians will land on the Moon or be sent to lunar orbit. The latter is definitely achievable by 2040, and is also where India’s recent [signing of the US-led Artemis Accords](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-133/) offers a gateway—literally. ISRO Chief S. Somanath [said](https://youtu.be/BPOQFxpfts0?t=932) in a March 2023 interview—before India signed the Accords—that the agency is considering contributing to the [Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway), an upcoming NASA-led international lunar orbital station for Artemis astronauts. And so similar to how NASA is [providing crew seats](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-79/) to Japan, Europe, and Canada in return for their respective contributions to the Gateway, India can grab one as well. This isn’t to say India won’t eventually send humans to the Moon by itself anyway but that the Gateway presents the path of least resistance. Being an Accords signee will only be of aid to India here, especially when considering that the [associated factsheet](https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2023/06/22/fact-sheet-republic-of-india-official-state-visit-to-the-united-states) from the recent India-US agreements signals a wide scope for human spaceflight cooperation between the two countries: > NASA will provide advanced training to ISRO astronauts with the goal of launching a joint effort to the International Space Station in 2024\. Additionally, NASA and the ISRO are developing a strategic framework for human spaceflight cooperation by the end of 2023. Hopefully ISRO gets the much needed substantial budget increases starting next year to back up and reinforce these newfound ambitions. ## More Moonbound bits - [Chandrayaan 3 blew off two tons of Moon material while landing (probably)](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-151/) - [Pakistan joins China’s long-term lunar exploration project, and how not to interpret it](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-150/) - The Times of India [confirmed](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/science/nuclear-energy-keeps-chandrayaan-3-propulsion-module-going/articleshow/104834737.cms) that there are two 1-watt radioisotope heater units (RHUs) on the Chandrayaan 3 [propulsion module](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/science/chandrayaan-3-mission-150kg-fuel-left-in-propulsion-module-life-span-now-years/articleshow/102866268.cms), which is in lunar orbit right now. ISRO didn’t previously announce the RHU’s presence. The mission’s Project Director P. Veeramuthuvel said the RHUs couldn’t be installed on the lander and rover for their lunar night survival due to mass constraints. The RHUs, made in collaboration with the [Bhabha Atomic Research Center](https://barc.gov.in/about/index.html), are based on the radioactive source of [Americium-241](https://barc.gov.in/ebooks/9788195473328/paper16.pdf). The Indian space agency’s foray into operational RHUs is a great sign as it’s precisely the technology that enables hardware like China’s [Chang’e 4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chang%27e%5F4) lander and rover to wake up after frigid lunar nights. ISRO’s future Moon mission designs might now find an RHU option at their disposal. ## More Indian space - The [Aditya-L1](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-08/) space-based solar telescope [returns first observations](https://www.ursc.gov.in/hel1os.jsp) of the Sun’s flares in high energy X-rays. - As ISRO and NASA [space-qualify](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/nisar/trailblazing-new-earth-satellite-put-to-test-in-preparation-for-launch) the joint [NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar](https://nisar.jpl.nasa.gov) (NISAR) Earth observation satellite for its 2024 launch, here’s an overview of how its advanced radar system will help scientists [better monitor deforestation and wetland flooding](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/nisar/nasa-isro-radar-mission-to-provide-dynamic-view-of-forests-wetlands). - ISRO’s U R Rao Satellite Centre (URSC) [announced a planetary robotics challenge](https://www.ursc.gov.in/IRoC-U2024/index.jsp) for student teams across India to build rovers and compete on Moon-and-Mars-like landscapes. ISRO hopes for this challenge to morph into a platform where students and the space agency actively collaborate on space robotics. ## Sponsored job listings - The Takshashila Institution is [hiring a Research Analyst](https://www.linkedin.com/jobs/view/3761446709) to work alongside various stakeholders and policymakers on both domestic and international aspects of India’s ongoing efforts to build its space power, including how to enhance international cooperation. - SkyServe is [hiring a Systems Engineer](https://skyservehq.notion.site/Job-Openings-SkyServe-bd3685f3bf6540e2b11b57b13a80b839?p=43937833e9834b6ba9f8c15c538a099b&pm=s) into their team in Bengaluru developing edge computing systems to equip the next generation of Earth observation satellites with autonomous capabilities. --- **→ [Browse](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [Sponsor](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-indian-space-progress) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Moon Monday #153: On NASA’s plan to extract lunar oxygen, an Aussie seismometer on Firefly’s lunar lander, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-153/ Last updated: 2024-09-09T11:53:39.000Z ## NASA gets serious about extracting oxygen on the Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f8cbc2a59-7c69-4c44-a065-119021b290e1_2120x1200-jpeg.jpg) [Image: NASA](https://nspires.nasaprs.com/external/viewrepositorydocument/cmdocumentid=967421/solicitationId=%7B23D0FE0E-099D-77A8-3E06-2C516D900762%7D/viewSolicitationDocument=1/LIFT-1%20RFI%20STMD%20Rvw%20v7.0.pdf) On November 6, NASA [formally requested input](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/stmd/nasa-lift-1-request-for-information) from the US industry on how to go about (competitively) funding a Moon mission payload that will demonstrate extracting oxygen from lunar soil and rocks. Called Lunar Infrastructure Foundational Technologies (LIFT-1), NASA aims for the demonstration to feed forward into a pilot plant with LIFT-2 and then onto scalable, mature systems that will ultimately provide ample lunar oxygen for future astronauts and [lunar bases](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept) part of the [Artemis program](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis). While the number varies depending on the exact type of lunar soil, oxygen typically constitutes 40–45% of it by weight. Scalable off-world oxygen extraction is deemed desirable by the space industry at large because otherwise having to drag every gram of mission-critical material out of Earth’s [gruesome gravitational well](https://jatan.space/the-moon-as-a-rocket-platform/) is the bane of interplanetary spaceflight. The extraction process should also provide us valuable metallic alloys as byproducts for manufacturing and construction use on the Moon. The [associated document](https://nspires.nasaprs.com/external/viewrepositorydocument/cmdocumentid=967421/solicitationId=%7B23D0FE0E-099D-77A8-3E06-2C516D900762%7D/viewSolicitationDocument=1/LIFT-1%20RFI%20STMD%20Rvw%20v7.0.pdf) that NASA put up tells us three more things about LIFT-1: 1. NASA will fund somewhere between $200–250 million for the demonstration mission, which includes launch, landing, and surface operations. 2. NASA expects the industry to supplement this funding with their own. 3. The current launch year being considered is 2027\. NASA is encouraging players to propose the oxygen extraction payload to be onboard a [CLPS lander](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), and to leverage capabilities provided by its vendors, but a separate lander is fine too. NASA has been investing in and partnering with various stakeholders for a while now to work towards not only such demonstrations on the Moon’s surface but on associated technologies as well. This is a good time to list all relevant ones I can find: - In April, scientists from NASA’s Johnson Space Center [extracted oxygen](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/johnson/nasa-successfully-extracts-oxygen-from-lunar-soil-simulant) from simulated lunar soil in a vacuum environment for the first time, increasing the technology’s [readiness level](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/heo/scan/engineering/technology/technology%5Freadiness%5Flevel) before eventual use on future [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) missions. The setup involved a NASA-funded [carbothermal reactor](https://www.sierraspace.com/newsroom/press-releases/sierra-space-completes-successful-nasa-test-readiness-review-for-lunar-oxygen-extraction-system) made by Sierra Space and a large 4.5-meter wide vacuum chamber. Being built at an accelerated pace as part of NASA’s [Game Changing Development program](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/game%5Fchanging%5Fdevelopment/index.html), the agency ultimately intends to demonstrate the system on the Moon via a future [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) mission. - Australia’s [first lunar rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-97/) is heading to the Moon’s south pole aboard a NASA-funded [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) lander, for which the hope is for a [2026 launch](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-australia-sign-agreement-to-add-rover-to-future-moon-mission). The semi autonomous rover will retrieve lunar soil for the lander, where a NASA-operated system will practice extracting oxygen from it. The lander itself is expected to have a sampling arm to feed soil into the extractor, should the rover fail to work for some reason. Note that this extractor is slated to fly to the Moon before LIFT-1\. The extractor will [likely](https://www.esa.int/Newsroom/Press%5FReleases/Redirecting%5FESA%5Fprogrammes%5Fin%5Fresponse%5Fto%5Fgeopolitical%5Fcrisis) be ESA’s compact and power-efficient [PROSPECT](https://exploration.esa.int/web/moon/-/59102-about-prospect), which includes a drill, an oven, and spectrometers to detect and study [water](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other resources. If not, it might be the aforementioned Sierra system. - The Japan Times [reported](https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2023/07/22/business/corporate-business/toyota-moon-rover) that the upcoming Toyota-JAXA [autonomous crewed pressurized rover](https://global.jaxa.jp/press/2019/03/20190312a.html) will use solar energy and water to produce hydrogen and oxygen through electrolysis during the day, and fuel cells for electricity at night. The rover is being designed to work on the Moon for at least 10 years. JAXA hopes to eventually use natively sourced lunar water and oxygen as supplies for the rover if feasible. NASA is [expected to](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/president-biden-nasa-to-welcome-japanese-astronaut-aboard-gateway) but hasn’t yet formally confirmed the rover’s inclusion in the [Artemis Basecamp](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept) plan. - As part of the [NASA Innovative Advanced Concepts](https://www.nasa.gov/content/niac-overview) program, the agency [funded](https://web.archive.org/web/20230324103816/https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-experimental-space-technology-concepts-for-initial-study) a promising early stage lunar technology in January to create a detailed design of a [robotically constructed and repairable oxygen pipeline](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/niac/2023/Lunar%5FSouth%5FPole%5FOxygen%5FPipeline) for future lunar habitats. Such a pipeline could be cost less and be more energy efficient than transporting oxygen using rovers. Many other countries and companies are also interested in lunar oxygen extraction. Below are some recent developments to that end: - Israeli company Helios intends to have its [(claimed) scalable technology](https://www.timesofisrael.com/making-oxygen-from-moon-sand-startup-eyes-long-term-life-in-space/) of extracting oxygen from lunar soil [to be onboard](https://www.calcalistech.com/ctech/articles/0,7340,L-3912810,00.html) ispace’s [second Moon mission](https://jatan.space/ispace-japan-m1-moon-mission/) launching next year. - In July, the Italian Space Agency (ASI) [announced an agreement](https://www.asi.it/2023/07/un-grande-passo-italiano-verso-la-permanenza-delluomo-sulla-luna) with Politecnico di Milano to advance work on the ORACLE project aimed at extracting oxygen from lunar soil on a Moon mission by 2028. - Startup Starpath Robotics [raised $2.5 million](https://techcrunch.com/2023/09/26/starpath-robotics-wants-to-unlock-off-world-colonies-by-mining-moon-water-for-rocket-fuel) to get started on big plans to mine [lunar water](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/), extract oxygen from it, and then sell processed liquid oxygen to companies planning to regularly operate hardware on the Moon. The latter could include, after end of decade, Blue Origin with its [Blue Moon lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/) as well as SpaceX with its [upgraded Lunar Starship](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-spacex-second-contract-option-for-artemis-moon-landing-0). - The European Space Agency (ESA) has asked its member state companies to develop a [compact, fast, and low-power](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FEngineering%5FTechnology/Competing%5Fcompanies%5Fdeveloping%5Fpayload%5Fto%5Fmake%5Fair%5Ffrom%5Fmoondust) lunar oxygen extractor that provides an oxygen yield of at least 70%. Such a system will help with quick evaluation of samples before they can be processed in bulk at larger plants. ESA intends to fly a winning proposal [from Thales Alenia Space UK](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FEngineering%5FTechnology/Team%5Fchosen%5Fto%5Fmake%5Ffirst%5Foxygen%5Fon%5Fthe%5FMoon) on the [European Large Logistic Lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-94/) launching post-2030. - In March 2022, the UK announced [£218,000 in funding](https://www.gov.uk/government/news/new-space-funding-paves-the-way-for-pioneering-approaches-to-energy-communication-and-resources) to the British metallurgy company Metalysis and their partners for an end-to-end terrestrial demonstration of the company’s reactor, which aims to [efficiently extract](https://www.thechemicalengineer.com/features/fly-me-o2-the-moon) nearly all oxygen from collected lunar soil in a future mission. Specifically, the funding was to help understand the nature of uncertainties in several parts of the whole process. It follows previous funding part of ESA’s Space Resources Strategy initiative, which allowed Metalysis to [optimize their extraction process](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Turning%5FMoon%5Fdust%5Finto%5Foxygen). A version of Metalysis’ oxygen extractor was selected via Thales Alenia to [fly on a ESA mission](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FEngineering%5FTechnology/Team%5Fchosen%5Fto%5Fmake%5Ffirst%5Foxygen%5Fon%5Fthe%5FMoon) no earlier than 2030\. Based on Metalysis’ process, 1.5 litres of lunar soil volume would provide enough oxygen for one astronaut to breathe [for 24 hours](https://www.thechemicalengineer.com/features/fly-me-o2-the-moon). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fb49acb7f-2057-47cb-8e1e-a81bc239529d_2500x1600-jpeg.jpg) ****Left:** A pile of simulated lunar soil. ****Right:** The same pile after nearly all the oxygen has been extracted from it, leaving behind a mixture of metal alloys. [Image: ESA / Beth Lomax / University of Glasgow](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2019/10/Oxygen%5Fand%5Fmetal%5Ffrom%5Flunar%5Fregolith) --- *Many thanks to* [***Epsilon3***](https://www.epsilon3.io)*,* [***Open Lunar Foundation***](https://www.openlunar.org) *and* [***Kris Zacny***](https://www.linkedin.com/in/kris-zacny-8a71ba1) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday!* --- ## Another seismometer enters the Moon chat Firefly [announced](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-announces-agreement-with-fleet-space-to-deliver-payload-to-the-moon) on November 8 that its [second Moon lander](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-picks-firefly-aerospace-for-robotic-delivery-to-far-side-of-moon), aiming to touchdown on the lunar farside in 2026 as part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), will also carry a commercial payload from Australia-based Fleet Space Technologies. The payload is a seismometer called SPIDER, which once deployed by the lander will operate by tapping into lander-provided power and communications services—much the same as how the [seismometer](https://www.isro.gov.in/Ch3%5FILSA%5FListens%5FLanding%5FSite.html) deployed by ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) lander operated. SPIDER will offer scientists insights into the physical structure and nature of the local crust and subsurface, including hints of resources such as [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). In July, the Australian Space Agency funded Fleet Space with $2.4 million as part of its [Moon to Mars Demonstrator Grants](https://business.gov.au/grants-and-programs/moon-to-mars-initiative-demonstrator-mission-grants/grant-recipients) program to develop a “miniature seismic station” for deployment on the Moon. It was originally planned to be on [Draper’s CLPS lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-87/) going to the Moon’s farside in 2025, which itself is already slated to host [two distinct lunar-night-surviving seismometers](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2022/pdf/1576.pdf) from NASA and CNES respectively. These will operate for more than four months to help us better understand [the Moon’s internal structure and how it evolved](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/), and know the amount and rate of [micrometeorite impacts](https://jatan.space/the-tiniest-of-impact-craters/) on the farside to help plan future crewed [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) missions. SPIDER is now aboard the Firefly lander instead of the earlier-flying Draper one. It will work for one lunar day, or 14 Earth days. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f7253caed-c821-4f8e-a2a5-fe840abd9a70_1875x1400-jpeg.jpg) An illustration showing Fleet Space’s SPIDER seismometer deployed on the Moon’s surface by the Firefly Blue Ghost lander. [Image: Firefly](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-announces-agreement-with-fleet-space-to-deliver-payload-to-the-moon) A growing number of seismometers deployed on the Moon to detect moonquakes is great to have. It lets scientists build on work that began with the deployment of similar instruments by NASA’s Apollo missions, which [opened a window](https://web.archive.org/web/20100720015823/http://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/apollo/apollo%5F16/experiments/ps) into the Moon’s interior. While many of these new seismometers aren’t operating on the Moon for long periods, they act as enablers of low-cost pathways in building the [Lunar Geophysical Network](https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/PSJ/ac0f82), which US scientists [highly recommended in the latest Decadal survey](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-74/) presenting the US community’s lunar science priorities. *Aside*: Firefly notes in its announcement that the company has completed the mission’s preliminary design review, about six months after its [CLPS award](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-awarded-second-nasa-clps-contract/) in March. ## More mission updates - NASA’s CubeSat-sized [lunar beacon payload](https://science.nasa.gov/science-research/science-enabling-technology/deploying-and-demonstrating-navigation-aids-on-the-lunar-surface) has been integrated onto Intuitive Machines’ [first Moon lander](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/im-1) part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). It aims to be a first-of-its-kind demonstration to see if a network of such hardware on the lunar surface can [enable future spacecraft](https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20120016477/downloads/20120016477.pdf) to accurately determine their position and velocity, and the time without depending on communications with Earth. Intuitive Machines is targeting the lander’s launch on [January 12, 2024](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/intuitive-machines-sets-january-2024-for-historic-u-s-lunar-mission). The mission, named IM-1, will carry [six NASA science & technology payloads](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/first-commercial-moon-delivery-assignments-to-advance-artemis) as part of CLPS—including the beacon. A separate, commercial telescope called [ILO-X](https://iloa.org/ilo-x-precursor) from Hawaii-based ILOA will also be [aboard](https://iloa.org/iloa%5Fnews%5Frelease%5Foct%5F4%5F2023). - In addition to an [assistant tablet](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2021/11/11/to-all-moonwalkers-update-your-space-tablet) to help future astronauts better explore the Moon’s surface and its geology, ESA and NASA are also [collaborating on a camera](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2023/10/25/next-generation-moon-camera-tested-in-europe) that can deliver good low light images in the [dark environment](https://www.nasa.gov/ames/feature/the-dark-side-of-the-crater-how-light-looks-different-on-the-moon-and-what-nasa-is-doing) of the lunar south pole. The space agencies are testing prototypes of these devices in ESA’s [Pangaea campaign](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/CAVES%5Fand%5FPangaea/What%5Fis%5FPangaea) to train future lunar astronauts in geology and sample collection, a highly valuable skill during excursions on the Moon. ESA and NASA intend to use the camera on [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-iii), the first crewed landing in the program. ## More Moon - Bulgaria became [the 32nd country](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/bulgaria-signs-artemis-accords-at-nasa-headquarters-joins-31-nations) and the 12th European nation to sign the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords) for cooperative lunar exploration. - Bailey Light of NASA provides a neat overview of some innovative [lunar technology concepts and demonstrations](https://www.nasa.gov/general/propelling-nasa-closer-to-the-moon-and-mars-with-open-innovation) that the agency has seeked from the public at large through various incentivized challenges. - In big successive losses for the lunar community, Apollo astronauts [Thomas Mattingly](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-administrator-remembers-apollo-astronaut-thomas-k-mattingly-ii) and [Frank Borman](https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/11/frank-borman-commander-of-the-first-mission-to-orbit-the-moon-has-died) passed away on October 31 and November 7 respectively. --- **→** [**Browse**](https://blog.jatan.space/start) **|** [**Sponsor**](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) **|** [**About**](https://blog.jatan.space/about) ### A worrisome report on safety issues at SpaceX URL: https://jatan.space/a-worrisome-report-on-safety-issues-at-spacex/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:14:49.000Z I’d like to bring your attention to a [worrying report on SpaceX’s safety issues](https://www.reuters.com/investigates/special-report/spacex-musk-safety) as published yesterday by Reuters based on what looks like a comprehensive investigation. The whole article is worth a read but I’m excerpting below some notable parts that either need to be taken seriously or disproved with new information. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f3ba80299-332d-455c-a09e-3e80d1cbabf6_950x710-jpeg.jpg) The six SpaceX sites examined by Reuters for safety issues, chosen because they are the company’s biggest industrial facilities. [Image: Reuters](https://www.reuters.com/investigates/special-report/spacex-musk-safety) Firstly, here’s an overview of what the investigation unfolded to be “at least 600 previously unreported workplace injuries”: > Since LeBlanc’s death in June 2014, which hasn’t been previously reported, Musk’s rocket company has disregarded worker-safety regulations and standard practices at its inherently dangerous rocket and satellite facilities nationwide, with workers paying a heavy price, a Reuters investigation found. Through interviews and government records, the news organization documented at least 600 injuries of SpaceX workers since 2014. > > Many were serious or disabling. The records included reports of more than 100 workers suffering cuts or lacerations, 29 with broken bones or dislocations, 17 whose hands or fingers were “crushed,” and nine with head injuries, including one skull fracture, four concussions and one traumatic brain injury. The cases also included five burns, five electrocutions, eight accidents that led to amputations, 12 injuries involving multiple unspecified body parts, and seven workers with eye injuries. Others were relatively minor, including more than 170 reports of strains or sprains. Now here’s an example of what looks like an avoidable injury incurred by a rushed test of a Starship Raptor engine: > One severe injury in January 2022 resulted from a series of safety failures that illustrate systemic problems at SpaceX, according to eight former SpaceX employees familiar with the accident. In that case, a part flew off during pressure testing of a Raptor V2 rocket engine—fracturing the skull of employee Francisco Cabada and putting him in a coma. > > The sources told Reuters that senior managers at the Hawthorne, California site were repeatedly warned about the dangers of rushing the engine’s development, along with inadequate training of staff and testing of components. The part that failed and struck the worker had a flaw that was discovered, but not fixed, before the testing, two of the employees said. There’s more follow-up about the event in the article, which I recommend reading for more context. Even generally, it looks like some precautionary measures for safety haven’t been a priority based on this example: > To speed work and cut costs, SpaceX started manufacturing rockets in tents next to an undeveloped Gulf of Mexico beach. Workers welded rocket parts up to 12 hours a day, six days a week, often in temperatures over 100 degrees Fahrenheit, the SpaceX workers said. When overcome by heat, they were given IV fluids and sent back to work. > > When high winds disrupted the work, supervisors shut the tents, closing off ventilation that is essential for safe welding, according to the six current and former workers. [OSHA warns](https://www.osha.gov/sites/default/files/publications/OSHA%5FFS-3647%5FWelding.pdf) that welding stainless steel can generate a highly toxic, cancer-causing dust. The agency told Reuters it requires companies to assess the danger of such environments through air sampling and to implement a “respiratory protection program” when needed. One former welder, Phillip Fruge, said he asked managers for respirators commonly used to protect welders’ lungs, but they weren’t provided. > > “We could see the clouds of the dust filling the tent,” Fruge recalled. “Everyone was just breathing it in, day after day.” More than the anecdotes though, it’s the numbers quoted below of SpaceX facilities having a higher than expected injury rate in the industry which warrant serious consideration of systemic issues and willful negligence: > The 2022 injury rate at the company’s manufacturing-and-launch facility near Brownsville, Texas, was 4.8 injuries or illnesses per 100 workers—six times higher than the space-industry average of 0.8\. Its rocket-testing facility in McGregor, Texas, where LeBlanc died, had a rate of 2.7, more than three times the average. The rate at its Hawthorne, California, manufacturing facility was more than double the average at 1.8 injuries per 100 workers. The company’s facility in Redmond, Washington, had a rate of 0.8, the same as the industry average. This data [comes from](https://www.bls.gov/iif/nonfatal-injuries-and-illnesses-tables/table-1-injury-and-illness-rates-by-industry-2022-national.htm) the US Bureau of Labor Statistics. The data source informs us that the rates for space vehicle manufacturing in 2022 when including propulsion unit parts and auxiliary equipments—both of which allow for a more fair comparison—are 1.2 and 1.4 respectively, up from 0.8\. The article’s point thus stands nevertheless. Moreover, the article asserts that SpaceX hasn’t been adequately reporting injuries in the first place, and that it downplays their seriousness: > The more than 600 SpaceX injuries Reuters documented represent only a portion of the total case count, a figure that is not publicly available. OSHA has required companies to report their total number of injuries annually since 2016, but SpaceX facilities failed to submit reports for most of those years. About two-thirds of the injuries Reuters uncovered came in years when SpaceX did not report that annual data, which OSHA collects to help prioritize on-site inspections of potentially dangerous workplaces. > > \[…\] > > CalOSHA levied a fine of $18,475 for the violation that resulted in Cabada’s skull fracture. SpaceX unsuccessfully disputed the agency’s classification of the violation as “serious” and appealed the penalty as excessive, asking for a reduction to $475. > > In another case, CalOSHA never inspected the company following a serious accident resulting in a leg amputation. But the agency may not have known the accident happened at all: A Reuters review of agency documents indicated it had no record of the 2016 incident. > > Federal and state law require companies to immediately report all employee deaths, amputations and injuries resulting in hospital admissions. It isn’t clear whether SpaceX ever reported the injury. Neither the company nor CalOSHA commented on why the agency had no report on it. Lastly, not that it’s surprising or would be expected, but still: > SpaceX did not respond to questions from Reuters and a detailed description of this article’s findings. --- There’s no doubt there must be much more to the story, which only few at SpaceX would actually know. But this investigative report led by [Marisa Taylor](https://www.linkedin.com/in/marisa-taylor-92187b5) seems like a wide enough window into the company that we never had before. I’ve been browsing comments to this story across the Web, trying to find people refuting the specific work conditions or injury incidences mentioned, and haven’t found any good counters yet. Since my search is inherently narrow, please share any good follow-ups you find that help get a better understanding of what’s really going on. Regardless of the specifics and true extent of this problem though, I’d like to point to the aforementioned higher than expected injury rates with a question: When we do not accept loss of a single life in human spaceflight without far-reaching programmatic consequences or outright cancellations, and strive a good deal above that to avoid any severe injuries to astronauts, why should the rate of such harm be any higher for the people making human spaceflight happen? --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### Moon Monday #152: Covering India and Japan’s next Moonshot, South Korea’s lunar lander, Artemis updates, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-152/ Last updated: 2025-02-14T11:18:55.000Z ** *I’m delighted to welcome space writer and author* [*Gurbir Singh*](https://gurbir.co.uk) *as an individual sponsor of both* [*Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) *and* [*Indian Space Progress*](https://jatan.space/tag/indian-space-progress) *for a year! If you too would like to support any of these one-of-a-kind resources for space communities worldwide, get in touch:* [Email me: hey@jatan.space](mailto:hey@jatan.space) ## The LUPEX rover won’t launch in 2025 or even 2026, which ISRO-JAXA aren’t clearly conveying ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fd824027c-b2fc-4c73-9217-ce3f33a9fc6d_1477x1000-jpeg.jpg) ****Top left:** Illustration of the ISRO lander having delivered the stowed JAXA-built LUPEX rover on the Moon; ****Top right and bottom left:** The LUPEX rover traversing the lunar south pole; ****Bottom right:** A LUPEX prototype testing drive system performance in a simulated lunar soil pit. Images: [JAXA](https://www.exploration.jaxa.jp/e/program/lunarpolar) / [Mitsubishi](https://www.yomiuri.co.jp/stream/2/20729) With the [Chandrayaan 3 Moon landing](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) now accomplished, India is looking ahead to its next lunar mission called [LUPEX](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-111/) in collaboration with Japan. The nominal six-month mission comprises an ISRO-developed \~6000-kilogram lander which will deliver a JAXA-built \~350-kilogram rover to directly study the nature, abundance, and accessibility of [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) at the Moon’s south pole (between 89–90°S). While work on LUPEX has been gradually ongoing from both sides for years, the mission got considerable media attention only after Chandrayaan 3\. While that’s good, media publications globally have gotten LUPEX’s launch year wrong in the process by stating it to be either 2025 or 2026\. These outlets include [Space.com](https://www.space.com/japan-india-2025-moon-mission-lunar-south-pole), [The Economic Times](https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/science/isros-next-moon-mission-in-collaboration-with-japanese-space-agency-gathers-steam/articleshow/102943227.cms) and [NDTV](https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/isro-congratulates-japan-aerospace-exploration-agency-on-successful-launch-of-lander-mission-to-moon-4367696) (both via [PTI](https://www.ptinews.com/news/national/isros-next-moon-mission-in-collaboration-with-japanese-space-agency-gathers-steam/2/634923.html)), [The Japan Times](https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2023/09/07/japan/science-health/japan-space-launch-moon), [The Times of India](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/videos/toi-original/isros-lunar-love-india-and-japan-to-launch-another-moon-mission-lunar-polar-exploration-mission-lupex/videoshow/102954251.cms), and many more. While the Japanese government has approved the LUPEX mission, India is yet to. This formal green light can be expected soon now, considering Chandrayaan 3’s success and the recent announcement of an [upcoming series of missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-150/). But we aren’t there yet, and so the lander isn’t actually being built at the moment. Even the preliminary design review seems to be pending. The rover’s development is [farther along](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-111/) but its instruments aren’t finalized yet despite it being originally expected to have been done a year ago. So where is this unrealistic launch year coming from? JAXA hasn’t updated its [official LUPEX page](https://www.exploration.jaxa.jp/e/program/lunarpolar) in over a year now, and their [latest presentation](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fw3s4GSzBpw) too continues carrying the 2025 launch year statement. As for ISRO—as is typical—the space agency itself hasn’t formally said anything about LUPEX’s launch date recently: not on their website, not on social media, or anywhere else. And so the Indian media publishes dates based on whichever ISRO personnel they could speak to, or tuned into at a conference. Such sources are close to official information but often not close enough. And, foreign and international media tend to cite these Indian media reports for ISRO mission timelines, thinking (wrongly) that it’s official. This is why it’s better to simply say for now that LUPEX will launch before end of decade so as to accommodate known unknowns and avoid presenting an ISRO or JAXA version of the [Elon timeline](https://elontime.io/?time=1&unit=years). In fact, LUPEX’s case can be considered similar to covering NASA’s [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-iii) crewed Moon landing mission. Keen industry observers have tended to mention its launch being in or around “mid-decade” since they know the original year of 2024 and now of 2025 isn’t realistic. ## South Korea prepares to mould a Moon lander ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f571d2287-c40e-45e3-b014-577f88625421_2300x1400-jpeg.jpg) A spectacular view of the Tsiolkovskiy crater on our Moon’s farside, as imaged by South Korea’s KPLO spacecraft. [Image: KARI](https://www.kari.re.kr/kplo/danuri/news/newsView.do?nttId=8650&pageIndex=1&searchCnd=&searchWrd=) South Korea’s fully indigenous Moon lander project has passed through a preliminary feasibility study, and will officially begin next year with a budget of $393 million and a target launch in 2032, Kim Na-young [reports](https://en.yna.co.kr/view/AEN20231030010400320). The tentative plan is to make an \~1800-kilogram robotic lander. A rover will be onboard the lander alongside other instruments. South Korea will also indigenously develop the rocket launching the lander for the Moon. While the [KPLO orbiter](https://jatan.space/kplo/) comprises the first phase of the country’s lunar exploration program, the robotic Moon landing represents the second. An interesting bit from South Korea’s [original 2022 proposal](https://spacenews.com/south-korea-seeks-459-million-for-lunar-lander-project) is the mission duration of one year. Considering that most lunar surface missions last no more than one lunar day, or 14 Earth days, this can only imply three things. Either South Korea intends to demonstrate the rare technology of lunar night survival on the mission or that the lander will touchdown in a polar location where there is near-constant sunlight. The last possibility is to do both. The polar lunar night at favorably selected sites doesn’t last for 14 Earth days but just a few. To that end, NASA’s upcoming polar-water-studying [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) will periodically survive complete darkness for about [four Earth days](https://www.nasa.gov/viper/overview#MissionTimeline) by parking at pre-identified high-altitude spots offering such brief lunar nights. Related: The Lunar and Planetary Institute’s [computational tools](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/tools/) include a [student-developed tool](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/tools/lunarseasoncalc/) to determine which specific areas and patches on the Moon’s poles are illuminated at any given time across seasons. --- *Many thanks to* [***Epsilon3***](https://www.epsilon3.io)*,* [***The Orbital Index***](https://orbitalindex.com) *and* [***Gurbir Singh***](https://gurbir.co.uk)*for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday!* --- ## Artemis updates - An [October 19](https://oig.nasa.gov/docs/IG-24-003.pdf) report from NASA’s Office of Inspector General (OIG) concludes that the agency “lacks visibility into its critical suppliers with many Artemis programs and projects not tracking their prime contractors’ supply chain impacts.” The OIG looked at more than $40 billion across 860 suppliers, 59 of which are “critical” suppliers of key components like engines, fuel, valves, and more. The report recommends [seven corrective actions](https://www.oversight.gov/report/NASA/NASA’s-Management-Artemis-Supply-Chain), five of which NASA fully concurred with and is working to resolve. Curiously though, there seems to be something off about the (lack of) media coverage about this report. SpaceNews, Ars Technica, SpacePolicyOnline, and several other such (well known) media publications haven’t covered the news at all on their websites. (SpacePolicyOnline did [tweet it](https://twitter.com/SpcPlcyOnline/status/1715125119738073124).) Is the lack of coverage because the report is a standard affair part of the OIG’s work? But then every Artemis-related OIG report off late has been written about by the aforementioned publications and more! If you’re familiar with the nuances of this matter, I’d appreciate it if you could [reach out](https://jatan.space/connect) to me with an explanation for my readers. - On November 1, Netherlands [became the 31st country](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-welcomes-netherlands-as-newest-artemis-accords-signatory) to sign the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords) for cooperative lunar exploration. Iceland was the 30th country to sign the Accords in October but as Jeff Foust [notes](https://spacenews.com/netherlands-and-iceland-sign-artemis-accords), the signing wasn’t previously announced by NASA, the US State Department, or even Iceland’s Ministry for Foreign Affairs. Foust further notes that Iceland’s flag was omitted from [an updated NASA graphic](https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/artemis-accords-graphic-n-110223.jpg) that did include the Netherlands. 11 European nations have now signed the Accords. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f934195b4-7a11-4ec6-bfc2-773d68ef436c_2400x1000-jpeg.jpg) Signee nations of the Artemis Accords as of November 1, 2023\. [Image: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords) - NASA is testing Leidos’ new [smaller, power-efficient, and smarter water system](https://www.space.com/international-space-station-water-system-astronaut-moon-test) at the International Space Station based on the experience of which NASA will have water systems for crewed Artemis lunar surface missions made, Elizabeth Howell reports. - NASA has selected [Ceres Robotics](https://www.ceresrobotics.com) to develop [50-plus-kilowatt vertical solar arrays](https://world.einnews.com/pr%5Fnews/664686691/ceres-robotics-inc-awarded-sbir-contract-from-nasa-for-lunar-surface-solar-power) for potential deployment on [maximally sunlit sites](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/271) on the Moon’s south pole in support of future crewed Artemis missions. That’s a minimum five fold increase in power from NASA’s [2022 award](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/three-companies-to-help-nasa-advance-solar-array-technology-for-moon) to Astrobotic, Honeybee Robotics, and Lockheed Martin for developing 10-kilowatt vertical arrays. Ceres’ 27-meter tall arrays can auto-deploy, retract for relocation, track the Sun, be stable on steep terrain, and be resistant to abrasive lunar dust, all while minimizing mass and stowed volume for easing their delivery to the Moon. ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f7b489c97-97bf-4580-a9be-bc108e27ed4f_1022x246-jpeg.jpg) Remains of Theia may be in Earth’s mantle. [Credit: Q. Yuan, et al.](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2021/pdf/1980.pdf) - In [new research](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06589-1), more [comprehensive](https://english.cas.cn/head/202310/t20231026%5F394367.shtml) computer simulations reinforce [the idea](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2021/pdf/1980.pdf) the two higher density blobs in Earth’s mantle—one beneath Africa and one beneath the Pacific Ocean—[could be remnants of Theia](https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-03385-9), the Mars-sized planet that collided with Earth shortly after the [birth of our Solar System](https://jatan.space/solar-system-history-101/). It’s the same titanic collision from the orbital remnants of which scientists think [our Moon coalesced](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/). If comparing [lunar mantle samples](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) from future missions to those from Earth validate this hypothesis, it would imply that the two compositionally distinct, iron-rich Theia blobs—both of which are larger than the Moon’s size—would’ve [substantially affected](https://www.caltech.edu/about/news/the-remains-of-an-ancient-planet-lie-deep-within-earth) how our Earth and its continents evolved. - The Times of India [confirmed](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/science/nuclear-energy-keeps-chandrayaan-3-propulsion-module-going/articleshow/104834737.cms) that there are two 1-watt radioisotope heater units (RHUs) on the Chandrayaan 3 [propulsion module](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/science/chandrayaan-3-mission-150kg-fuel-left-in-propulsion-module-life-span-now-years/articleshow/102866268.cms), which is in lunar orbit right now. ISRO didn’t previously announce the RHU’s presence. The mission’s Project Director P. Veeramuthuvel said the RHUs couldn’t be installed on the lander and rover for their lunar night survival due to mass constraints. The RHUs, made in collaboration with the [Bhabha Atomic Research Center](https://barc.gov.in/about/index.html), are based on the radioactive source of [Americium-241](https://barc.gov.in/ebooks/9788195473328/paper16.pdf). The Indian space agency’s foray into operational RHUs is a great sign as it’s precisely the technology that enables hardware like China’s [Chang’e 4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chang%27e%5F4) lander and rover to wake up after frigid lunar nights. ISRO’s future Moon mission designs might now find an RHU option at their disposal. - The Michigan Technological University is [hiring tenure track professors](https://www.employment.mtu.edu/en-us/job/493380/assistant-professor-mechanical-engineeringengineering-mechanics) for work related to upcoming lunar surface activities such as resource extraction, processing, and utilization for construction and more. ### Moon Monday #151: On Astrobotic‘s first lunar landing, Chandrayaan 3 blasting away lunar material, an older & cooler Luna, and much more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-151/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:14:49.000Z *If you’re reading this blog+newsletter, you’re likely in a position of privilege. Please [consider donating](https://time.com/6322238/how-to-help-israel-gaza-war-victims) for the [affected innocent kids](https://www.instapaper.com/text?u=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thehindu.com%2Fphotos%2Fin-frames-children-of-the-disputed-land%2Farticle67472529.ece) in the Hamas-Israel war. The [Palestine Children’s Relief Fund](https://pcrf1.app.neoncrm.com/forms/gaza-relief) is the option I’ve supported via since the non-political non-profit is providing basic necessities to children regardless of their religion. There’s also [Save the Children](https://www.savethechildren.org/us/where-we-work/west-bank-gaza).* ## Astrobotic’s first CLPS Moon lander gets a launch date; will carry 5 NASA payloads instead of 11 ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f8f9e36c4-a320-4b0f-928a-beed9811da80_1950x1300-jpeg-1.jpg) Astrobotic’s first Moon lander, Peregrine. [Image: John Thornton](https://www.linkedin.com/feed/update/urn:li:activity:6998697480980676609) ULA [announced](https://www.cnbc.com/2023/10/24/ula-ceo-inaugural-vulcan-rocket-launch-slated-for-christmas-eve.html) that the company is [targeting](https://www.ulalaunch.com/rockets/vulcan-centaur/countdown-to-vulcan) the inaugural launch of its [Vulcan rocket](https://www.ulalaunch.com/rockets/vulcan-centaur) on December 24\. It will carry Astrobotic’s [first lunar lander](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-awarded-79-5-million-contract-to-deliver-14-nasa-payloads-to-the-moon), part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), to Earth orbit. The launch window extends up to December 26, with a similar backup window available in January. Shortly after on October 27, as Stephen Clark [reports](https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/10/for-the-first-launch-of-ulas-vulcan-rocket-its-christmas-or-next-year), Astrobotic’s 2-meter tall Peregrine lander left the company’s headquarters in Pittsburgh for Cape Canaveral, Florida to undergo pre-launch checks and processing. Peregrine will attempt to touchdown in a lunar lava plain just outside the [Gruithuisen volcanic domes](https://jatan.space/unique-volcanic-domes-of-gruithuisen/), carrying [more than 12 payloads from 8 countries](https://www.astrobotic.com/lunar-delivery/manifest), including [a bevy of micro-rovers](https://jatan.space/lunar-rovers-launching-in-2020s/) from 3 countries. Peregrine was also supposed to carry [11 NASA-funded instruments](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/first-commercial-moon-delivery-assignments-to-advance-artemis) but [according to NASA’s webpage](https://science.nasa.gov/lunar-science/clps-deliveries/to2-astrobotic) on the agency’s payloads aboard Peregrine, only five instruments are now listed. NASA says on said page that the other six instruments have been “reallocated to future missions to maintain performance margins in Peregrine’s descent to the lunar surface.” NASA doesn’t specify to which missions the payloads were moved to but says they will be “delivered by CLPS \[missions\], international missions, or Artemis human landing system missions.” Note that NASA didn’t publish a press release or even a post on the [official CLPS Blog](https://blogs.nasa.gov/clps) for this change. Neither did Astrobotic on their equivalent channels. Recall that NASA [changed Peregrine’s target landing site](https://blogs.nasa.gov/clps/2023/02/02/new-landing-site-will-upgrade-science-returns-for-astrobotic-flight) from the northeastern lava plain of [Lacus Mortis](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=18.913265,41.4506243,38.1404583,49.0745437&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&selectedFeature=3113,1077&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIgL5A&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFOOZLRfImqnioA&proj=10) to an unspecified lava plain near the [Gruithuisen domes](https://jatan.space/unique-volcanic-domes-of-gruithuisen/) in the northwest. The announcement was titled “New Landing Site Will Upgrade Science Returns for Astrobotic Flight”, referring to but not specifying how the science there would complement a [future CLPS mission](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-new-instruments-for-priority-artemis-science-on-moon) landing in one of the two Gruithuisen Domes in 2026. As I [covered during the landing site swap](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-113/), the previous higher latitude location was more [suitable](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2021/07/The%5Fheart%5Fof%5Fa%5Flunar%5Fsensor) to study [how water gets transported](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasa-study-highlights-importance-of-surface-shadows-in-moon-water-puzzle) from the Moon’s equator to [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) on the poles where it can remain [preserved for billions of years](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). Combined with the dropping of six payloads from Peregrine’s mission, two of which were to study local [lunar water](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/), the nature of the move is even more perplexing based on publicly available information, especially when considering that CLPS is managed by NASA’s [Science Mission Directorate](https://science.nasa.gov/about-us/science-strategy). I hope we can get some details from the agency clarifying the rationale behind these decisions. ## More mission updates - Intuitive Machines and SpaceX are targeting the launch of [the former’s first CLPS Moon lander](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/im-1) on [January 12, 2024](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/intuitive-machines-sets-january-2024-for-historic-u-s-lunar-mission). Eric Berger has [previously reported](https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/10/ars-takes-a-close-up-look-at-the-first-us-lunar-lander-in-half-a-century) that the lander will take five to seven days to reach the Moon, after which it will spend a day lining up with its near-polar landing site of [Malapert A crater](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=-27.6167293,-80.9725683,9.6287046,-78.2434553&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIgL5A&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypOOKbRFdAJgQSfyJqt6XAMYiBCnrIsibsXLVgydAA4AnJNyEZlarIpA&proj=17) at 80°S before attempting a landing. The mission, named IM-1, will carry [six NASA science & technology payloads](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/first-commercial-moon-delivery-assignments-to-advance-artemis) as part of CLPS. A separate, commercial telescope called [ILO-X](https://iloa.org/ilo-x-precursor) from Hawaii-based ILOA will also be [aboard](https://iloa.org/iloa%5Fnews%5Frelease%5Foct%5F4%5F2023). I blogged more about recent CLPS Moon mission updates on [Moon Monday #146](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-146/). - Hardware progress continues for NASA’s [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to) mission to fly [four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) around our Moon and back circa early 2025\. On October 19, technicians [mated](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2023/10/23/artemis-ii-orion-crew-and-service-modules-joined-together) the 9,000-kilogram [Orion capsule](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) with the 15,000-kilogram [European Service Module](https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/space/esm). The former will host the astronauts while the latter will provide propulsion, power, water, oxygen, and thermal control to Orion. In the meanwhile, NASA is also [conducting water flow tests](https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/artemis-ii-water-deluge-test) with the mobile launcher of the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) atop which Orion will sit during launch. During liftoff, mechanisms push 1.5 million litres of water to the launchpad to protect the rocket, Orion, and its crew from overpressurization and extreme sounds. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f0dfb0a39-d671-472f-a0ff-9f0bcd73409f_1600x1000-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of the Blue Moon Mark 1 lander. [Image: Blue Origin](https://www.blueorigin.com/blue-moon/mark-1) - Last week Blue Origin showed NASA officials a low-fidelity mockup of its [Blue Moon ‘Mark 1’ lander](https://www.blueorigin.com/blue-moon/mark-1), Stephen Clark [reports](https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/10/jeff-bezos-shows-off-new-moon-lander-design-for-nasa). Blue Origin is targeting a lunar landing demonstration with Mark 1 no earlier than 2026, aiming to test and refine critical landing systems before graduating them to the Mark II lander, which will land astronauts on the Moon for NASA with [Artemis V](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/) end of decade. Since Blue Origin is [also a NASA-approved commercial lander provider](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/new-companies-join-growing-ranks-of-nasa-partners-for-artemis-program) for the [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), the company intends to pitch and fly more Mark 1 landers as well, carrying the agency’s science & technology payloads to the Moon. Mark 1’s payload capacity of 3,000 kilograms surpasses all current CLPS landers but SpaceX’s [Lunar Starship](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-spacex-second-contract-option-for-artemis-moon-landing-0), whose crew variant is currently targeting landing astronauts for NASA with [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-iii) and [Artemis IV](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-101/) in late 2025 and 2028 respectively. Note that NASA requires both Blue Origin’s and SpaceX’s crewed landers to touchdown within 100 meters of the targeted spot on the Moon’s [rocky south pole](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/SPole%5FSRidgemap%5FLOLA-Slope5m%5Fv20190515.pdf), which is something the robotic Mark 1 will attempt. It’s also precisely what JAXA’s robotic SLIM lander [will try to achieve](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-144/) as soon as January 2024. - Following the Russian [Luna 25](https://spec.tass.ru/luna-25) lander’s [August 19 crash](https://russianspaceweb.com/luna-glob-flight.html#0819) on the Moon, Roscosmos Director General Yury Borisov [says](https://tass.com/science/1697627) that the agency now plans to launch the [Luna 26 polar orbiter](https://www.laspace.ru/en/activities/projects/luna-resurs-oa/?ELEMENT%5FCODE=luna-resurs-oa) in 2026 instead of 2027\. The primary goal of Luna 26 is to map the distribution of [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and minerals on the Moon. ## Chandrayaan 3 blew off two tons of Moon material while landing ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fff261af7-220e-4b22-afc1-0b2c4755a3a4_1500x750-jpeg.jpg) **a)** Chandrayaan 3’s landing site; **b)** Pre-landing picture of the site from the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter; **c)** Post-landing site picture with the Chandrayaan 3 lander; **d)** Inset: Composite, color-coded image to show the lander, its shadow, and its surrounding ejecta halo. [Images: ISRO / Swati Singh, et al.](https://link.springer.com/epdf/10.1007/s12524-023-01774-1?sharing%5Ftoken=GAFmCHo9UGzdbua72RUpove4RwlQNchNByi7wbcMAY4iq-nCOT5iWSzzFzFx19qm4g%5FbPEFqLIexSPA5PFzajusLQCdw2kP-hrVgpPshEXB6gBNuNKSZZ2wdhJhDiyT9zmXiWUVjpHCk0oAph3pQyGoax-PdU1HRS8NrcqT3WU8%3D) ISRO-affiliated scientists at the National Remote Sensing Center have estimated that India’s Chandrayaan 3 lander [ejected 2060 kilograms of surface material](https://link.springer.com/epdf/10.1007/s12524-023-01774-1?sharing%5Ftoken=GAFmCHo9UGzdbua72RUpove4RwlQNchNByi7wbcMAY4iq-nCOT5iWSzzFzFx19qm4g%5FbPEFqLIexSPA5PFzajusLQCdw2kP-hrVgpPshEXB6gBNuNKSZZ2wdhJhDiyT9zmXiWUVjpHCk0oAph3pQyGoax-PdU1HRS8NrcqT3WU8%3D) in the process of [its touchdown](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) on the Moon. This left behind a bright halo surrounding the lander, spanning an area of about 100 square meters. The scientists calculated these numbers by comparing and analyzing pre-and-post-landing pictures of the site from the [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/), which hosts the world’s sharpest lunar orbital imager. Looking at other missions, the latest estimate by US scientists says that NASA’s [Apollo 12](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/apollo-12) lander blasted away about [2600 kilograms](https://arxiv.org/abs/1503.00154) of lunar material during its touchdown whereas Chinese researchers calculated the [Chang’e 5](https://jatan.space/change-5-landing-site/) lander to have displaced only about [336 kilograms](https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace9070358) of material. That’s a non-obvious, non-linear discrepancy between the amount of Moon material dislodged by the three landers; why is that? Well, that’s exactly what such studies want to understand! Originally, the Chinese researchers attributed the bulk of this dissimilarity to the thrust difference between the 13,300-newton, high thrust Apollo 12 engine and the 2900-newton, low thrust Chang’e 5 one. But with only two lit 800-newton engines during its final landing phase, Chandrayaan 3 generated a total thrust of only 1600 Newtons, which makes it difficult to harmonize the amount of ejected material across the landers. Of course, there are other factors at play too, such as varying thicknesses of the loosely bound material at the different landing sites of each of these landers. The initial estimate based on image comparisons is also likely to get revised with more advanced studies. Ultimately, understanding [rocket plume effects](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/game%5Fchanging%5Fdevelopment/projects/PSI) on lunar soil from both low thrust as well as high thrust engines is important. It will help us quantify and characterize [risks posed](https://arxiv.org/abs/2102.12312) by lander plumes to various kinds of nearby lunar hardware and future habitats as we mount an increasing number of missions to the Moon. Analyzing ejecta data from Chandrayaan 3’s [last minute lunar hop](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-143/) will also contribute to that end. --- *A big thank you to *[Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io)*, *[Dany Waller](https://danywaller.github.io/)* and *[Gordon Roesler](https://www.linkedin.com/in/gordon-roesler-687a0426)* for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday!* --- ## Apollo sample studies reinforce that our Moon formed earlier and cooled faster than we thought Modern studies of lunar samples brought to Earth by NASA’s Apollo missions continue to bend our understanding of [the origin of our Moon](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/). An international group of researchers [better dated](https://doi.org/10.7185/geochemlet.2334) elements like Uranium within zircon crystals embedded in Apollo 17 sample 72215 to find the crystal’s age to be [4.46 billion years old](https://www.universetoday.com/163859/the-moon-is-40-million-years-older-than-we-thought). Since our Moon coalesced from the orbital remnants of the titanic collision of a Mars-sized object with the newborn Earth, it had a thick [global magma ocean](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/). Since these crystals could’ve only formed and survived after the global magma ocean began cooling, their age anchors a minimum number for the formation of our Moon. The finding thus implies our Moon is about 35 million years older than previously thought. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f76c20f1f-fd40-4f23-82cd-16f82d93a47f_1400x1000-jpeg-2.jpg) An artist’s concept of the Moon shortly after its formation, with a mag­ma ocean and a newly forming rocky crust. [Image: NASA Goddard](https://www.dlr.de/content/en/articles/news/2020/03/20200710%5Fa-slightly-younger-moon.html) The result also implies that the magma ocean must have solidified much faster than we thought to forge [the mantle and crust](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). Recent [re-research](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-021-26841-4#Sec7) on the Apollo 17 rock sample 76535 [supports this conclusion](https://web.archive.org/web/20211220031528/https://www.soest.hawaii.edu/soestwp/announce/news/advanced-analysis-of-apollo-sample-illuminates-moons-evolution). Abundant lunar samples from future missions like NASA [Artemis](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-link-list/) and CNSA [crewed ones](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-137/) will help us meticulously analyze [pristine mantle and crust samples](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) from geologically diverse locations on the Moon. These will bring us closer to knowing the exact origin scenario of our cosmic companion. ## More Moon - Singapore-based Qosmosys [raised $100 million](https://qosmosys.com/qosmosys-secures-historic-us100-million-in-seed-funding-sets-new-industry-record) in seed funding to build and launch—with help from Airbus—its [ZeusX](https://qosmosys.com/zeusx) lunar lander, hopefully by 2027. - On October 23, Belarus [joined](https://spacenews.com/china-adds-belarus-as-partner-for-ilrs-moon-base) the upcoming China-led long-term [scientific base](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-120/) on the Moon’s south pole called the [International Lunar Research Station](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-32/). This agreement comes shortly after many countries joined the project recently, including [Pakistan](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-150/), [Thailand](https://www.narit.or.th/index.php/en-news/3552-en20231005-01), [South Africa](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/n6758823/n6758840/c10370666/content.html), and [Venezuela](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/n6759533/c10077000/content.html). --- **→ [Browse](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [Sponsor](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Moon Monday #150: On China’s Queqiao 2 lunar mission, India’s Moonbound human spaceflight ambition, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-150/ Last updated: 2024-03-18T13:48:21.000Z *Today marks 150 weekly editions of* [*archiving and contextualizing*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday/) *global developments in the exploration of our Moon. It’s satiating to work on and write the world’s only such resource. If you enjoy and appreciate my work to serve space communities worldwide, kindly consider* [*sponsoring Moon Monday*](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) *as an organization or individual to help sustain and flourish my flagship writing.* 🌙 [Email me: hey@jatan.space](mailto:hey@jatan.space) *For this 150th Moon Monday, I happen to have quite a lot to unpack so let’s get started!* ## China to launch the ambitious Queqiao 2 lunar orbiter in early 2024 ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fbe9b8373-fbc5-4c31-baee-78da5486bff6_1600x1100-jpeg.jpg) China’s Long March 2F rocket lifting off, with a lunar backdrop. Image: Xinhua CNSA is on track to launch the 1200-kilogram Queqiao 2 lunar orbiter in March next year on a Long March 8 rocket, Andrew Jones [reports](https://spacenews.com/china-to-launch-queqiao-2-moon-relay-satellite-in-early-2024/). Its 4.2-meter wide parabolic antenna will relay communications between Earth and at least three of China’s upcoming Moon landers: [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-126/) launching in 2024, [Chang’e 7](https://doi.org/10.34133/space.0026) launching in 2026, and [Chang’e 8](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-148/) launching in 2028. Unlike the first [Queqiao](https://www.planetary.org/articles/0519-change-4-relay-satellite) relay satellite, which is halo-orbiting the second Earth-Moon Lagrangian point to serve the farside [Chang’e 4](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/change-4) mission, Queqiao 2 will be in an inclined elliptical orbit that spends most of its time looking over the Moon’s south pole. CNSA expects that because this kind of a stable orbit requires less fuel to stay on course, Queqiao 2 will serve missions for more than eight years. To that end, China will offer the satellite’s communications relay services to other countries and organizations sending Moon missions. In fact, Queqiao 2 will be part of China’s [larger satellite constellation](https://spacenews.com/china-wants-a-lunar-satellite-constellation-to-support-deep-space-missions) providing navigation and communications (NavCom) for hardware and crew on and around the Moon as part of China’s [upcoming](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-32/) long-term [scientific Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-120/) called the International Lunar Research Station (ILRS). Relatedly, Queqiao 2 will deploy two experimental [Tiandu CubeSats](https://web.archive.org/web/20230426095551/https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465652/n6465653/c6842471/content.html) to test lunar communications and navigation payloads. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f2ec571dd-2a8f-4c39-8a72-83ed9d809158_1300x970-jpeg-1.jpg) Illustration of a multi-nodal cislunar communications architecture considered by Chinese researchers for a south polar Moonbase. NavCom orbiters like Queqiao 2 comprise the “lunar relay nodes”. [Image: Baobi Xu, et al.](https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4102-9%5F86) Also related is ESA’s [Moonlight](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-98/) initiative, which too aims to provide a NavCom lunar service starting with the [launch](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-picks-firefly-aerospace-for-robotic-delivery-to-far-side-of-moon) of UK’s [Lunar Pathfinder](https://jatan.space/nasa-esa-collaborate-on-lunar-pathfinder/) orbiter in 2026\. ESA [will be the anchor customer](https://www.esa.int/Applications/Telecommunications%5FIntegrated%5FApplications/Wanted%5Ffirms%5Fto%5Fconnect%5Fand%5Fguide%5FMoon%5Fmissions) of Moonlight but expects companies to actively commercially provide NavCom services to customers globally. To that end, ESA is [providing up to €200,000 per study](https://business.esa.int/funding/intended-tender/lunar-economy-applications) to entities proposing [viable lunar business concepts and applications](https://www.esa.int/Applications/Connectivity%5Fand%5FSecure%5FCommunications/Wanted%5Fbright%5Fideas%5Fto%5Fdevelop%5Fthe%5Flunar%5Feconomy) that would benefit from or be enabled by Moonlight. In the meanwhile, Lockheed Martin’s new subsidiary [Crescent Space](https://www.crescentspace.com) is targeting a 2025 launch of its [first two NavCom satellites](https://news.lockheedmartin.com/2023-03-28-Crescent-Space-to-Deliver-Critical-Services-to-a-Growing-Lunar-Economy). More potential competitors in this space include [ArkEdge Space](https://spacenews.com/japans-arkedge-space-closes-18-7-million-series-a-for-nanosatellite-projects), [Aquarian Space](https://spacenews.com/another-startup-joins-race-to-provide-high-speed-lunar-communications), and [Plus Ultra](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=2515). ## India wants to send a human to the Moon by 2040, and how the Gateway presents a promising path ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f4b958ca0-69d4-429f-ac1e-cf5833eea28c_1100x800-jpeg-2.jpg) The Chandrayaan 3 lander Vikram imaged by the mission’s rover Pragyan. [Image: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/chandrayaan3%5Fgallery.html) On October 17, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi [directed ISRO](https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1968368) to send the first Indian to the Moon by 2040\. To realize this ambition, the Indian Department of Space (DOS) will develop a roadmap for lunar exploration, which will comprise a series of [Chandrayaan](https://jatan.space/indian-space/) missions, the development of a partially reusable [Next Generation Launch Vehicle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Next%5FGeneration%5FLaunch%5FVehicle) (NGLV), a new launch pad, and more. The first of this “series of Chandrayaan missions” will be the joint ISRO-JAXA mission [LUPEX](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-111/). Launching before end of decade, LUPEX comprises an ISRO-developed \~6000-kilogram lander which will deliver a JAXA-built \~350-kilogram rover to directly study the nature, abundance, and accessibility of [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) at the Moon’s south pole. The Japanese government has approved the LUPEX mission but India is yet to, and so that’s the green light to look out for soon. LUPEX and its successors will provide ISRO with crucial data to plan crewed lunar surface missions. Of course, India is a long way away from realizing the trove of technologies needed to plan the feat of an indigenous human Moon landing. The country’s biggest near-term goal is to send humans to Earth orbit first with the [Gaganyaan mission](https://www.isro.gov.in/Gaganyaan.html) mid-decade. ISRO recognizes the sheer scope of its Moonbound undertaking, and that’s why the date to send an Indian to Luna reads “by 2040”—realistic yet aspirational. Note though that the associated [press release](https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1968368) only specifies sending the first Indian “to the Moon” by 2040\. It doesn’t tell if Indians will land on the Moon or be sent to lunar orbit. The latter is definitely achievable by 2040, and is also where India’s recent [signing of the US-led Artemis Accords](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-133/) offers a gateway—literally. ISRO Chief S. Somanath [said](https://youtu.be/BPOQFxpfts0?t=932) in a March 2023 interview—before India signed the Accords—that the agency is considering contributing to the [Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway), an upcoming NASA-led international lunar orbital station for Artemis astronauts. And so similar to how NASA is [providing crew seats](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-79/) to Japan, Europe, and Canada in return for their respective contributions to the Gateway, India can grab one as well. This isn’t to say India won’t eventually send humans to the Moon by itself anyway but that the Gateway presents the path of least resistance. Being an Accords signee will only be of aid to India here, especially when considering that the [associated factsheet](https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2023/06/22/fact-sheet-republic-of-india-official-state-visit-to-the-united-states) from the recent India-US agreements signals a wide scope for human spaceflight cooperation between the two countries: > NASA will provide advanced training to ISRO astronauts with the goal of launching a joint effort to the International Space Station in 2024\. Additionally, NASA and the ISRO are developing a strategic framework for human spaceflight cooperation by the end of 2023. Hopefully ISRO gets the much needed substantial budget increases starting next year to back up and reinforce these newfound ambitions. --- *Many thanks to* [***Epsilon3***](https://www.epsilon3.io)*,* [***Parvathy Prem***](https://www.parvathyprem.space) *and *Planetary Scientist David Blewett* for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## Pakistan joins China’s long-term lunar exploration project, and how not to interpret it As Pakistan prepares to have its first lunar orbiter called ICUBE-Q launch aboard China’s [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-126/) mission in 2024, the country has [officially joined](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/n6758823/n6758838/c10407028/content.html) the aforementioned ILRS project. Andrew Jones [notes](https://spacenews.com/pakistan-becomes-latest-country-to-join-chinas-ilrs-moon-project) that ICUBE-Q is a CubeSat being developed with help from China’s Shanghai Jiaotong University. Considering the political ties between China and Pakistan, and the latter’s history of [leaning into China](https://www.eastasiaforum.org/2011/09/09/china-pakistan-space-technology-cooperation) for space development, it’s not surprising that Pakistan joined the ILRS. But what is surprising is the [article by Eric Berger](https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/10/why-nasas-return-to-the-moon-will-likely-succeed-this-time)—on the popular western publication Ars Technica—equating the development to somehow increased chances for NASA’s return to the Moon with humans under [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis). The article’s title is “Why NASA’s return to the Moon will likely succeed this time”, and it asserts the following as a key argument: > But more broadly, the 29 signatories to the Artemis Accords have indicated they want to partner with the United States as it goes back into deep space, to the Moon, and possibly beyond. Among the most notable participants, from a geopolitical standpoint, is India, which signed on this summer. > > The strategic overtones of the return to the Moon were emphasized on Friday when China announced the newest partner for its project to build a lunar research station on the south sole of the Moon: Pakistan. > > \[…\] > > Pakistan is a notable addition because of its historic rivalry with India—this may push India to align itself even further with NASA and the Artemis program. That would be a good thing for both countries, as India has a growing and ambitious space program. As an Indian with at least a basic understanding of the relations between India, Pakistan, and China, I find Eric’s assertion baffling. I don’t intend to dunk on my fellow space friends in Pakistan but ISRO and related Indian authorities in the associated geopolitical decision making chain are not concerned about Pakistan’s civil space activities. India didn’t take [its decision](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-132/) to [sign the Accords](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-133/) based on what Pakistan’s stance might be. Just one look at the wide gap in space capabilities between the two countries should be enough to dismiss such assertions. Moreover, India and China don’t have good relations to begin with. Yes, space is political, and its undertones do permeate terrestrial matters, but it does not mean that every single decision and activity is driven by politics alone. And every event certainly doesn’t fall, or need to, on the US-China plane of thought. I felt compelled to highlight this on Moon Monday because such pieces, which seem to never end, cause unnecessary friction and divides. ## Mission updates - In a talk at TIFR Mumbai, [Santosh Vadawale](https://scholar.google.co.in/citations?user=-X7GaNkAAAAJ&hl=en) from the [Chandrayaan 3 rover](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) team [said](https://www.youtube.com/live/6ZRJ54SKUX8?feature=shared&t=5165) that a test, low-wattage radioisotope heater unit (RHU) is aboard the Chandrayaan 3 [propulsion module](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/science/chandrayaan-3-mission-150kg-fuel-left-in-propulsion-module-life-span-now-years/articleshow/102866268.cms), which is in lunar orbit right now! ISRO hasn’t formally announced the RHU’s presence. The Indian space agency’s foray into operational RHUs is a great sign as it’s precisely the technology that enables hardware like the [Chang’e 4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chang%27e%5F4) lander and rover to wake up after frigid lunar nights. The lack of a heating mechanism on the Chandrayaan 3 lander and rover is what restricted their mission to one lunar day or 14 Earth days. ISRO’s future Moon mission designs might now find an RHU option at their disposal. - On October 17, NASA [conducted](https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/stennis/nasa-conducts-1st-hot-fire-of-new-rs-25-certification-test-series) the first of 12 hot fire tests of the fully redesigned [RS-25](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/sls%5Frs25%5Fengine%5Ffs%5F508.pdf) engine to be used on future [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) Moon flights. After this final test series, which follows from the [first one in June](https://www.nasa.gov/centers/stennis/news/releases/2023/NASA-Achieves-Key-Milestone-for-Production-of-Future-Artemis-Engines), new RS-25 engines can be produced for [Artemis V](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/) and beyond. Both series of tests include eight 500-second firings—the same amount of time as required during an SLS mission—and four longer burns for ensuring margins. Engineers and operators also [test flight-like gimbaling](https://www.nasa.gov/centers/stennis/news/releases/2023/NASA-Tests-Critical-In-Flight-Capability-During-RS-25-Engine-Hot-Fire) of the engine, which during a mission helps stabilize the rocket as well as keep it on its intended trajectory. Like the engine on the first test series, the second series one also features new components like a nozzle, hydraulic actuators, flex ducts, and turbo pumps. The aim here is to [test production reliability](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/start-your-engines-nasa-to-begin-critical-testing-for-future-artemis-missions) by validating the performance of a second hardware set. - On October 20, ispace Japan announced being awarded a [$80 million government grant](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4943) to develop and launch a large lunar lander by 2027\. It will carry more than 100 kilograms of payload to the Moon’s surface as opposed to the 30-kilogram capacity of the Series 1 lander, which flew on the company’s [Mission 1](https://jatan.space/ispace-japan-m1-moon-mission/). More details are unclear at the moment but ispace calls the new lander design *Series 3*, which based on its mass class and provided descriptions seems similar to or borrowing from the [*Series 2 / APEX*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-147/) lander being developed by ispace US for an upcoming NASA [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) mission [via partner Draper](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-87/). ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f23e0c14c-92b5-4580-aed6-ec925f03cf13_1600x1200-jpeg.jpg) Interlocking blocks of solid lunar soil simulant surfaces that could be used to make roads on the Moon. [Image: ESA / PAVER Consortium](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2023/10/Interlocking%5Fshapes%5Fto%5Fmake%5Fpaved%5Fsurfaces) - With the aptly named [PAVER project](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FEngineering%5FTechnology/How%5Fto%5Fmake%5Froads%5Fon%5Fthe%5FMoon), ESA is testing a process which uses powerful lasers to melt lunar soil simulant into glassy solid surfaces to create blocks of roads and landing pads on the Moon. Relatedly, Kevin Cannon recently [elaborated in a paper](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pss.2023.105780) that just like on Earth, not all lunar soil is suitable for construction. - *Space Crew* has listed [more than two dozen job openings](https://spacecrew.com/space-lunar-jobs) related to lunar exploration, from companies like Blue Origin and Lunar Outpost. - What were some challenges and best practices in covering ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 3 Moon landing](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/)? I’ll be [part of an hour-long panel](https://sciencejf.com/slots/reporting-on-space-in-the-time-of-chandrayaan-3-and-twitter-reddit-and-ufos) tomorrow discussing that at a global multilingual conference on science journalism. The event is paid (I don’t get anything) but I’ll share the video later if possible. [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f68ec51b9-e262-40c8-b803-bec26427ca9d_1400x1400-jpeg.jpg)](https://sciencejf.com/slots/reporting-on-space-in-the-time-of-chandrayaan-3-and-twitter-reddit-and-ufos) --- **→** [**Browse**](https://blog.jatan.space/start) **|** [**Sponsor**](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) **|** [**About**](https://blog.jatan.space/about) ### Indian Space Progress #9: Several standout launches on the horizon for ISRO, Chandrayaan 3 updates, ascending startups and ambitions, and more URL: https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-09/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:14:50.000Z *There have been so many notable developments in Indian space the past month that this edition of Indian Space Progress was hard to succinctly summarize. What a nice problem to have! Also, I’m happy and grateful to share that these [Indian Space Progress monthly reports](https://blog.jatan.space/s/indian-space-progress/archive) are now read by [5,000+ subscribers](https://jatan.space/5000-indian-space-progress-subscribers/) worldwide, shortly following my [Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/s/moon-monday/archive) newsletter. Thank you to each one of you space buffs for reading. It’s still early days for the newsletter as I’m only nine editions in so far so please do [provide feedback](https://jatan.space/connect).* 🚀🇮🇳 ## India to launch first key human spaceflight test amid new ambitions for a space station and a human at the Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f309a0f65-45af-4bdd-83f9-a1f316398883_1800x1430-jpeg.jpg) Hardware elements of the Gaganyaan TV-D1 abort test flight, from the unpressurized crew module to the emergency escape system to the launcher stage. [Graphic and images: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/TVD1/TVD1-Brochure.pdf) ISRO is approaching two milestone tests in the lead up to India’s ambitious [Gaganyaan mission](https://www.isro.gov.in/Gaganyaan.html) mid-decade, which will indigenously send humans to space. First, ISRO is in the [final stages of preparing](https://www.isro.gov.in/First%5FCrew%5FModule%5FGaganyaan%5Ftest%5Fflight%5FTV%5FD1.html) to launch the [Test Vehicle Abort mission-1](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/TVD1/TVD1-Brochure.pdf), or TV-D1\. On [October 21](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1713842101597966797), a full-scale, near complete 4520-kilogram Gaganyaan crew module with its escape system will launch on a single-stage liquid rocket to an altitude of 17 kilometers to test autonomous abort, parachute descent, and a sea splashdown about 10 kilometers away from the launchpad. Second, The New Indian Express [reports](https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2023/oct/07/gaganyaan-mission-crew-safety-test-to-be-undertaken-shortly-says-isro-2621748.html) that ISRO is also prepping to better test aspects of the crew module’s parachute system by dropping a representative 3,000-kilogram crew module from a 4-kilometer altitude using a heavy-lift helicopter. Adding to the [growing scope of Gaganyaan](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-06/) beyond the inaugural and initial set of missions, the country’s Prime Minister Narendra Modi [directed ISRO](https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1968368) today, October 17, to create an Indian Space Station in Earth orbit by 2035\. This would be followed by sending the first Indian to the Moon by 2040\. To realize these ambitions, the Indian Department of Space (DOS) will develop a roadmap for lunar exploration, which will comprise a series of [Chandrayaan](https://jatan.space/indian-space/) missions, the development of a partially reusable [Next Generation Launch Vehicle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Next%5FGeneration%5FLaunch%5FVehicle) (NGLV), a new launch pad, and more. This is such an exciting time for Indian space, one that I hope will be backed by much-needed substantial budget increases next year. ## ISRO about to launch its second space telescope ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f22034907-ed06-4b6a-83d7-565f81512964_1100x550-jpeg.jpg) A render of XPoSat. [Image: ISRO](https://sites.astro.caltech.edu/~srk/XC/Notes/POLIX-SRK-2020.pdf) In an interview with Asianet on September 21, ISRO Chief S. Somanath said that India’s second space telescope called the [X-ray Polarimetry Satellite](https://www.isro.gov.in/XPoSat.html), or XPoSat, is done with integration and testing. It’s now waiting inside a [cleanroom](https://imgur.com/eFLXhxp) for its launch to Earth orbit on a PSLV rocket before end of year. While India’s first space telescope, [AstroSat](https://www.isro.gov.in/AstroSat.html), observes high energy cosmic objects in multiple wavelengths, XPoSat is smaller and specialized. XPoSat will study the polarization of X-rays emitted by cosmic objects using a [polarimeter](http://rri.res.in/~bpaul/polix.html) built by the Raman Research Institute. How radiation is polarized gives away the nature of its source object, including the strength and distribution of its magnetic field. In December 2021, NASA launched [IXPE](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/imaging-x-ray-polarimetry-explorer-ixpe) on a similar mission. With data from both missions combined, we will get polarization measurements of some of the brightest known X-ray sources in the universe, including pulsars, X-ray binary stars, and galactic cores. XPoSat will also carry a complementary soft X-ray spectrometer to observe these aforementioned objects as well as emissions from blackhole binaries. ## Chandrayaan 3 updates - Soon after the lunar day dawned on Chandrayaan 3’s [landing site](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) on September 22, ISRO began efforts to reestablish communication with the lander and rover in hopes of getting an extended mission. However, the Indian space agency later [said](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1705209835783078092) they haven’t received any signals back, thereby sunsetting the [nominal mission](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/). - In the meantime, the SHAPE experiment on the Chandrayaan 3 orbiter has [observed Earth as an exoplanet](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-147/) from the unique vantage point of the Moon, as planned. - Fun fact: Chandrayaan 3’s landing ellipse spanned [4 by 2.5 kilometers](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/pdf/1037.pdf), and it touched down [\~350 meters away](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=32.2580128%2C-69.4371387%2C32.4316875%2C-69.3149039&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryFeature=2&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=32.34810585%2C-69.36768573%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Chandrayaan+3+target+landing+site%22%7D%7C32.31900500%2C-69.37302500%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Chandrayaan+3+actual+landing+site%22%7D%7C32.31901900%2C-69.37303700%2C32.34812400%2C-69.36769200%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Distance%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFOOZLRfImqnioA&proj=17) from the target spot, making it the [second most accurate](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-144/) robotic planetary landing to date. - [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) Project Director P. Veeramuthuvel [confirmed](https://www.youtube.com/live/-arcE8jFa6E?feature=shared&t=4995) in a recent talk at NIT Tiruchirappalli that ISRO did delay the mission’s launch to cater to the commitment of launching satellites for OneWeb. I had [argued in October 2022](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-100/) how ISRO prioritized the two available GSLV Mk III rockets to (opportunistically) commercially launch OneWeb satellites instead of Chandrayaan 3\. Veeramuthuvel said Chandrayaan 3 was ready to fly in January 2023, which means while the first launched set of 36 OneWeb satellites [in October](https://indianexpress.com/article/india/isro-launches-36-oneweb-satellites-precisely-completes-mission-of-many-firsts-8225696) wasn’t a direct snatch [the February loft](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-03/) was. Oh, well. I too am excited about India’s growing commercial space capabilities but in my view they need not come at the expense of our [space science missions and ambitions](https://jatan.space/indian-space/), especially when the nation formally prides itself on its [purported space science achievements](https://jatan.space/how-to-honor-mangalyaan/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f0acab21f-0fdf-4b6d-aeaf-fcb88edfa03f-heic.jpg) The Moonbound Chandrayaan 3’s launch aboard a GSLV Mk III rocket had a shadow trail. Metaphorically too. Image: Jatan Mehta --- *Many thanks to the *[Takshashila Institution](https://takshashila.org.in)*, *[SkyServe](https://skyserve.ai)* and *[Arun Raghavan](https://arunraghavan.net)* for sponsoring this month’s Indian Space Progress report.* --- ## PSLV to play crucial role in testing a European capsule Europe-based “The Exploration Company” will launch their 40-kilogram, 60-centimeter “Bikini” capsule [on ISRO’s PSLV rocket](https://techcrunch.com/2023/09/13/the-european-company-signs-agreements-with-axiom-indian-space-research-organization) in January 2024 as a commercial loft. The company moved its launch vehicle from Europe’s own Ariane 6 to the PSLV because the former has been [repeatedly delayed](https://europeanspaceflight.substack.com/p/who-should-take-responsibility-for-ariane-6-delay-1412780). Bikini’s flight, with a peak altitude of about [500 kilometers](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/science/in-a-first-nsil-to-help-euro-firm-test-reentry-capsule-on-pslv-last-stage/articleshow/103721341.cms), will test the capsule’s performance during thermal reentry into Earth’s atmosphere. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f832ee7e6-4003-4bee-8706-13e3c9b3fe98_1800x1100-jpeg.jpg) Illustration showing reentry of a Nyx capsule into Earth’s atmosphere. [Image: The Exploration Company](https://www.exploration.space/nyx) This initial demonstrator will allow the company to tweak and test the reentry of a larger, 1,600-kilogram capsule later on via a SpaceX Falcon 9 launch, which itself will lead to the late mid-decade launch of a full-scale 8,000-kilogram [Nyx capsule](https://www.exploration.space/nyx). Coming back to Bikini, Chethan Kumar [reports](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/science/in-a-first-nsil-to-help-euro-firm-test-reentry-capsule-on-pslv-last-stage/articleshow/103721341.cms) that both to reach the desired peak altitude of about 500 kilometers and to subsequently dip to about 120–140 kilometers before reentry, the Bikini capsule will rely on the PSLV rocket’s PS4 upper stage for propulsion. This makes the PSLV even more integral to the mission than being a space drop-off vehicle. ## A small boost for India’s most powerful rocket As part of ongoing gradual upgrades to the GSLV Mk III, now known as [LVM-3](https://www.isro.gov.in/GSLVmk3%5FCON.html), ISRO [finished qualifying](https://www.isro.gov.in/CE20%5FE13%5FEngine%5FHot%5FTest%5Ffor%5F22t%5FThrust%5FQualification.html) the rocket’s cryogenic upper stage engine on October 9 for an increased thrust level of 22,000 kilograms—up from the previous 19,000\. Here’s a [video of one of the tests](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/video/CE20%5FE13%5FENGINE%5FHOT%5FTEST.webm). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fd0a0a607-bc70-4bb6-b9bd-6e237bef679c_2300x1600-jpeg.jpg) A CE-20 engine firing at 22,000 kilograms of thrust as part of a qualification test. [Image: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/video/CE20%5FE13%5FENGINE%5FHOT%5FTEST.webm) The LVM-3 is India’s most powerful rocket, which recently launched [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) and two batches of [commercial OneWeb satellites](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-03/). While the boost to its upper stage increases the rocket’s payload capacity by a bit, it’s the upcoming core stage upgrade to an indigenously built 2000 KiloNewton semi-cryogenic kerolox engine instead of the existing two [Vikas ones](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikas%5F%28rocket%5Fengine%29) that will increase the rocket’s capacity to GTO from \~4,000 kilograms to \~6,000\. Variants of this semi-cryogenic engine will also power parts of India’s upcoming [heavy-lift](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Next%5FGeneration%5FLaunch%5FVehicle) and [reusable launch vehicle](https://jatan.space/isro-continues-building-rlv-td-spaceplane/) respectively. The LVM-3 is also ISRO’s rocket of choice for the ambitious [Gaganyaan mission](https://www.isro.gov.in/Gaganyaan.html) to indigenously send humans to space mid-decade. ## More private and commercial space updates - IN-SPACe, an Indian Department of Space (DOS) entity created to “promote, hand-hold, guide and authorize space activities” of private players in the country announced on October 10 that ISRO’s new [SSLV rocket](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-02/) will get a [dedicated 8 square-kilometer spaceport](https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/2023/oct/11/india-to-get-spaceport-for-private-players-2622838.html) by 2025 at Kulasekarapattinam in Tamil Nadu for private, commercial launches. Relatedly, IN-SPACe transferred five technologies developed by ISRO-SAC over to the private sector for commercializing them, Shyam Upadhyay [reports](https://analyticsindiamag.com/in-space-advances-private-space-industry-with-5-tech-transfers). These notably include a mini X-band synthetic aperture radar and a ground penetrating radar, and a mobile satellite service terminal. - As private company Agnikul prepares for its first suborbital launch with *Agnibaan* [within two months](https://www.reuters.com/technology/space/indias-agnikul-raises-27-mln-more-ahead-first-rocket-launch-2023-10-17), the company has [raised $26.7 million](https://techcrunch.com/2023/10/16/agnikul-funding-india-space-tech-startup) to start working towards multiple orbital launch attempts post that. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f980a0775-6cc1-47ce-8d24-c2425943496d_1550x1180-jpeg.jpg) The Agnibaan suborbital rocket on its launchpad at Sriharikota. It arrived at the site in August for integration checks. [Image: Agnikul](https://twitter.com/AgnikulCosmos/status/1692094623307743611) - [KaleidEO](https://satsure.co/kaleidEO), a subsidiary of Bengaluru-based [SatSure](https://theprint.in/features/bengaluru-firm-has-eyes-in-sky-to-fix-problems-on-ground-crops-insurance-claims-floods/1364852) making Earth observation satellites, announced on September 12 that it has successfully [employed deep learning](https://satsure.co/satsure-kaleideo.html) in orbit to analyze in near real-time images taken by partner Satellogic’s satellite. This makes KaleidEO the first Indian company to demonstrate [edge computing](https://newsletter.terrawatchspace.com/p/edge-computing-for-earth-observation) in space. Relatedly, SatSure [raised $15 million](https://www.satsure.co/india-and-promus-ventures.html) in August with an aim to build KaleidEO’s four optical and multispectral 100-kilogram satellites for launch by end of 2025. - Dhruva Space [announced](https://www.dhruvaspace.com/news/first-look-at-dhruva-space-280-000-square-foot-assembly-integration-testing-facility-for-spacecraft-manufacturing-in-hyderabad) it will set up a 26,000 square-meter spacecraft manufacturing facility in Hyderabad, where the company is based, over the next five years. - Amazon Web Services [signed an MoU](https://www.aboutamazon.in/news/aws/isro-and-aws-tie-up-for-space-tech) with ISRO and IN-SPACe to offer some free cloud computing services to startups and research institutes under the [AWS Activate](https://aws.amazon.com/activate) program. ## More Indian space - In a September 8 [joint statement](https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2023/09/08/joint-statement-from-india-and-the-united-states) during US President Biden’s visit to India, the two countries announced that they intend to increase coordination on planetary defense. This includes US support for India’s participation in asteroid detection and tracking via the [Minor Planet Center](https://www.minorplanetcenter.net), the official worldwide organization for observing and reporting astrometric observations of minor objects. - The Indian Space Association (ISpA) and the French Aerospace Industries Association (GIFAS) [signed an MoU](https://www.financialexpress.com/business/defence-india-and-france-strengthen-space-collaboration-with-ispa-and-gifas-mou-3267711) during the [2nd annual Indian Space Conclave](https://www.ispaevents.space/indian-space-conclave-2023) on October 9 to catalyze business ties between the swarm of Indian and French space companies part of these two associations. The partnership will also aim for frequent academic exchanges. - [The New York Times continues to misrepresent Indian space (extended version)](https://jatan.space/the-nyt-continues-to-misrepresent-indian-space/) --- **→ [Browse](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [Sponsor](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-indian-space-progress) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [RSS](https://blog.jatan.space/feeds) | [Mastodon](https://jatan.space/fediverse)** ### Moon Monday #149: The latest updates on lunarbound hardware and missions URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-149/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:14:50.000Z **Two clarifications from [Moon Monday #148](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-148/):* Most of the enhanced mobility I referred to provided by Axiom’s upcoming [AxEMU spacesuits](https://www.axiomspace.com/axiom-suit) for crewed Artemis astronauts isn’t in contrast to NASA’s [xEMU units](https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/exploration-extravehicular-mobility-unit-xemu) but rather the current [EMU suits](https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/extravehicular-mobility-unit-emu) in operation at the International Space Station. In fact, being based on xEMU, AxEMU inherits most of its enhanced mobility. Second, NASA hasn’t “shelved” the xEMU suits; the agency actively uses them for training and development, wherein they better represent the [upcoming suits](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-80/) as compared to EMUs. NASA’s Technical Reports Server has [more development updates](https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search?keyword=xEMU&q=%22xEMU%22) on the matter. I apologize for any confusion caused in the above.* ## Prepping for long-term activity at our Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f25f8bfb2-568c-4094-9362-05ff34a36637_2250x1500-jpeg.jpg) A Xodiac rocket mid-tethered-flight. [Image: Astrobotic](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5e8j52oO7fo) - Earlier this month, Astrobotic [completed a test campaign](https://www.astrobotic.com/xodiac-flies-first-astrobotic-customer-campaign) of [Masten-Space-inherited](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-acquires-masten-space-systems) Xodiac rocket ‘[tethered liftoff and landing](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5e8j52oO7fo)’ flights for the NASA-funded prototype laser sensor called [Ejecta STORM](https://twitter.com/DrPhiltill/status/1711721990019580397). Combined with previous such high fidelity tests—short of a Moon mission—Ejecta STORM is helping scientists better understand how [lunar lander rocket plumes affect lunar soil](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/game%5Fchanging%5Fdevelopment/projects/PSI), and thus help quantify and characterize [risks posed](https://arxiv.org/abs/2102.12312) by lander plumes to various kinds of nearby lunar hardware and future habitats. A [White Paper](https://arxiv.org/abs/2102.12312) submitted to the [2023-2032 US Decadal Survey](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-74/) strongly recommended future NASA Moon missions to carry instruments for specific plume effect measurements, and that such data be public. Ejecta STORM hopes to aboard one such mission. - SpaceX is testing the [extended fairing](https://spaceexplored.com/2021/08/22/spacexs-new-falcon-heavy-extended-payload-fairing-will-not-be-recovered) made for its Falcon Heavy rocket to accommodate more/larger payloads, Stephen Clark [reports](https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/10/nasas-falcon-heavy-era-begins-this-week-with-launch-of-asteroid-mission). This fairing design will house the two pre-docked [propulsion](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-artemis-contract-for-lunar-gateway-power-propulsion) and [habitat](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-northrop-grumman-finalize-moon-outpost-living-quarters-contract) modules of the NASA-led crewed international [Gateway lunar orbital station](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) for their Falcon Heavy launch to Earth orbit in late 2025\. With a combined mass of about 18,000 kilograms, it will be SpaceX’s heaviest spacebound payload haul yet. NASA’s [$331.8 million contract](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-awards-contract-to-launch-initial-elements-for-lunar-outpost) for this launch includes some of the development cost for said extended fairing. Relatedly, Jeff Foust [reported](https://spacenews.com/northrop-grumman-takes-36-million-charge-on-nasa-gateway-module) in July that NASA’s decision to pre-mate the said two Gateway modules one led to some mass constraints, which combined with evolving Gateway requirements from the agency, resulted in contractor Northrop Grumman taking a $36 million hit in building the habitable module. - China’s [Chang’e 7](https://doi.org/10.34133/space.0026) orbiter—targeting a 2026 launch alongside the namesake [lander](https://www.leonarddavid.com/china-outlines-permanently-shadowed-crater-exploration-lunar-resource-utilization-plans)—will carry a 3-kilogram instrument duo from the National Astronomical Research Institute of Thailand (NARIT) to study [solar storms](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) and cosmic rays respectively, Ling Xin [reports](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3237651/thai-lunar-weather-instrument-set-join-chinas-change-7-mission-moon). Thailand, with involvement from a NARIT delegation, [joined](https://www.narit.or.th/index.php/en-news/3552-en20231005-01) the upcoming China-led long-term [scientific Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-120/) on the lunar south pole called the [International Lunar Research Station](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-32/) (ILRS) on September 25\. NARIT is Thailand’s largest space research organization, and operates the Thai National Radio Telescope. The latter could be used to monitor spacecraft trajectories of ILRS missions. Relatedly, there are (as yet unspecified) six more international payloads on the Chang’e 7 mission, including a detector for lunar dust and electric fields as well as a telescope on the lander. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9b5174a1-a172-48aa-a01f-fa94373926ca_1920x1280-jpeg.jpg) An illustration of the Chang’e 7 lander and orbiter in Earth orbit. [Image: China News Service](https://www.narit.or.th/index.php/en-news/3552-en20231005-01) --- *Many thanks to *[Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io)* for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## NASA concurs concern for the SLS rocket’s sustained existence The [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) just cannot catch a break. In yet another [scathing analysis](https://oig.nasa.gov/docs/IG-24-001.pdf), following the [September 7 report](https://www.gao.gov/assets/gao-23-105609.pdf) by NASA’s Government Accountability Office (GAO), the agency’s Office of Inspector General (OIG) has concluded that NASA will likely fail to achieve the aspirational 50% cost reduction in building SLS by end of decade. This is in reference to NASA [preparing to award a single launch service contract](https://spacenews.com/nasa-prepares-to-award-sls-launch-services-contract-to-boeing-northrop-joint-venture) for future SLS launches to Deep Space Transport LLC, a joint venture between two major SLS contractors Boeing and Northrop Grumman. Eric Berger [notes](https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/10/inspector-general-on-nasas-plans-to-reduce-sls-costs-highly-unrealistic) how under the contract terms Deep Space Transport has no incentive to lower prices. The GAO’s September 7 report criticized the agency for continuing to be [not transparent enough](https://spacenews.com/gao-report-calls-for-more-transparency-on-sls-costs) about the true cost of SLS, something central to the nearly $100 billion [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) Moon program. The OIG estimated in 2021 that, separately from development costs, the first three SLS flights will cost [$2.2 billion per launch](https://oig.nasa.gov/docs/IG-22-003.pdf). The OIG now says the flights following those will cost $2.5 billion per launch. This assessment is in line with the GAO noting growing costs despite the SLS moving into production. Notably, not only had NASA officials acknowledged to the GAO that the SLS is “unsustainable” at its current level but the agency [concurred](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-ig-skeptical-of-major-sls-cost-savings-from-services-contract) with the OIG’s confrontation as well, clarifying that the 50% cost reduction goal was “aspirational and not based on actual analysis.” The OIG has recommended that NASA look into using upcoming commercial heavy-lift vehicles instead of SLS to sustain the [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) program and its ambitions: > In our judgment, the Agency should continue to monitor the commercial development of heavy-lift space flight systems and begin discussions of whether it makes financial and strategic sense to consider these options as part of the Agency’s longer-term plans to support its ambitious space exploration goals. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fec50f659-10e1-4fd0-8fe8-ee53d8c82cd3_1280x853-jpeg.jpg) Will the Moon set for the SLS rocket? Not in this decade, it would seem. This view of SLS on the launchpad may be a sight we might want to get used to, at least for a while. [Image: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/moon-shines-on-the-space-launch-system-rocket-on-the-launch-pad.html) ## More Moon - [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) Project Director P. Veeramuthuvel [confirmed](https://www.youtube.com/live/-arcE8jFa6E?feature=shared&t=4995) in a recent talk at NIT Tiruchirappalli that ISRO did delay the mission’s launch to cater to the commitment of launching satellites for OneWeb. I had [argued in October 2022](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-100/)how ISRO prioritized the two available GSLV Mk III rockets to (opportunistically) commercially launch OneWeb satellites instead of Chandrayaan 3\. Veeramuthuvel said Chandrayaan 3 was ready to fly in January 2023, which means while the first launched set of 36 OneWeb satellites [in October](https://indianexpress.com/article/india/isro-launches-36-oneweb-satellites-precisely-completes-mission-of-many-firsts-8225696) wasn’t a direct snatch [the February loft](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-03/) was. Oh, well. I too am excited about India’s growing commercial space capabilities but in my view they need not come at the expense of our [space science missions and ambitions](https://jatan.space/indian-space/), especially when the nation formally prides itself on its [purported space science achievements](https://jatan.space/how-to-honor-mangalyaan/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f0acab21f-0fdf-4b6d-aeaf-fcb88edfa03f-heic-1.jpg) The Moonbound Chandrayaan 3’s launch aboard a GSLV Mk III rocket had a shadow trail. Metaphorically too. Image: Jatan Mehta - In an interesting development to keep an eye on, DARPA and APL [announced](https://www.jhuapl.edu/news/news-releases/231011b-lunar-technology-development) the [Lunar Operating Guidelines for Infrastructure Consortium](https://logic.jhuapl.edu/index.php), or LOGIC, to hope to bring together varied international stakeholders so as to standardize upcoming lunar infrastructure. This would accelerate hardware development while maintaining interoperability. - John Hopkins APL is [looking for a post-doctoral researcher](https://careers.jhuapl.edu/phd/jobs/54083?lang=en-us) who, with their expertise in working with lunar remote sensing data, will assist the [12-person](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-selects-geology-team-for-the-first-crewed-artemis-lunar-landing)*[ Geology Team](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-selects-geology-team-for-the-first-crewed-artemis-lunar-landing)* leading surface science investigations for NASA’s upcoming [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-iii) crewed Moon landing mission mid-decade. - October 21 is *International Observe the Moon Night*! Other than checking out and sharing NASA’s [excellent guide](https://moon.nasa.gov/observe-the-moon-night/about/overview), may I also suggest browsing my humble complementary contribution to the worldwide effort to get people to look up to the Moon? Check out [my Moon projects](https://blog.jatan.space/moon-projects) for curious people from all backgrounds to learn more about our cosmic companion’s immense scientific, technological, and exploratory importance. If you like my labor of lunar love, share it with a friend, relative, or colleague you think might benefit from it: [My Moon popularization projects 🌗](https://jatan.space/moon-projects/) --- **→ [Browse](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [Sponsor](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [RSS](https://blog.jatan.space/feeds) | [Mastodon](https://jatan.space/fediverse)** ### Moon Monday #148: US lunar landers coming to life, China’s outlining of Chang’e 8, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-148/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:14:50.000Z *I’m in Delhi this week to attend the [Indian Space Conclave](https://www.ispaevents.space/indian-space-conclave-2023). If you’re around, [get in touch](https://jatan.space/connect) to chat space, science, writing, and the Web!* --- ## Mission updates - JAXA’s [SLIM lunar lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-144/) flew 5,000 kilometers past the Moon on [October 4](https://twitter.com/SLIM%5FJAXA/status/1709773876933407128). Andrew Jones [reports](https://spacenews.com/japans-slim-moon-lander-makes-lunar-flyby) that SLIM’s fuel-efficient trajectory will loop it back to the Moon end of year for orbital insertion. SLIM will then spend a month in lunar orbit before attempting its 20-minute descent and ‘[pinpoint landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-144/)’. - Intuitive Machines unveiled its completed first Moon lander called Nova-C on October 3\. The company and SpaceX are targeting a five-day launch window starting November 16 on a Falcon 9 rocket. Eric Berger [reports](https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/10/ars-takes-a-close-up-look-at-the-first-us-lunar-lander-in-half-a-century) that the lander will take five to seven days to reach the Moon, after which it will spend a day lining up with its near-polar landing site of [Malapert A crater](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=-27.6167293,-80.9725683,9.6287046,-78.2434553&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIgL5A&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypOOKbRFdAJgQSfyJqt6XAMYiBCnrIsibsXLVgydAA4AnJNyEZlarIpA&proj=17) at 80°S before attempting a landing. The mission, named IM-1, will carry [six NASA science & technology payloads](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/first-commercial-moon-delivery-assignments-to-advance-artemis) as part of the agency’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). A separate, commercial telescope called [ILO-X](https://iloa.org/ilo-x-precursor) from Hawaii-based ILOA has been [integrated](https://iloa.org/iloa%5Fnews%5Frelease%5Foct%5F4%5F2023) into the lander. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f4f0437d3-d333-4980-9908-005730949d53_1920x1350-jpeg.jpg) Intuitive Machines’ Nova-C lunar lander—assembled, tested, and standing ready for launch. [Credits: SpaceNews / Jeff Foust](https://spacenews.com/first-intuitive-machines-lunar-lander-ready-for-launch) - Roscosmos [announced](https://t.me/roscosmos%5Fgk/11053) on its Telegram channel that the [Luna 25](https://spec.tass.ru/luna-25) lander’s [August 19 crash](https://russianspaceweb.com/luna-glob-flight.html#0819) on the Moon from a 50% longer duration engine firing than necessary likely stemmed from the software not being designed to prioritize data from its accelerometer, which would’ve otherwise told it that the desired velocity change was achieved well before the engines actually shutdown. - As Firefly gears up for its [first CLPS mission](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-firefly-aerospace-for-artemis-commercial-moon-delivery-in-2023) in 2024 carrying 155 kilograms of NASA payloads to the Moon, the company announced on October 4 that it has [completed assembling](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-aerospace-completes-blue-ghost-lunar-lander-structure-ahead-of-moon-landing-for-nasa) the Blue Ghost lander’s in-house-developed structure and fluid systems. Blue Ghost’s [target landing site](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-70/) is at 18.56°N, 61.81°E in Mare Crisium. The company told me over email that Firefly has “conducted more than 100 drop tests on multiple surfaces, including lunar simulants, sand, and concrete” to qualify the lander’s structure. Firefly added that the company has created a 4,000-square-meter moonscape in Briggs, Texas to test the lander’s hazard avoidance and terrain navigation system. It’s a landing technology that proved valuable most recently for India’s [Chandrayaan 3 Moon lander](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) which performed a last-minute divert maneuver. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9b6734cb-cc7c-4a91-ad00-f3ea94063967_1500x1150-jpeg.jpg) The Blue Ghost lunar lander structure. [Credit: Firefly](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-aerospace-completes-blue-ghost-lunar-lander-structure-ahead-of-moon-landing-for-nasa) ## China offers more room for international experiments on Chang’e 8 CNSA officials revealed new details on China’s Chang’e 8 Moon landing mission at the 74th International Astronautical Congress on October 2, Andrew Jones [reports](https://spacenews.com/china-outlines-change-8-resource-utilization-mission-to-the-lunar-south-pole). Targeting launch on a Long March 5 heavy-lift rocket in 2028, the mission will comprise [a lander, a rover, and an “operation” bot](https://twitter.com/AJ%5FFI/status/1708834439583662567) to collectively explore the geology and environment at the Moon’s south pole. Crucially, Chang’e 8 will test technologies to extract and use local resources such as [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) for future mission needs, including for when Chinese [crew begin landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-137/) starting end of decade. There will also be a soft X-ray telescope onboard the Chang’e 8 lander. Notably with Chang’e 8, China is increasing the scope of international contributions by an order of magnitude in terms of mass. While [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-126/) launching next year will carry a good 20 kilograms of international instruments, China is [accepting proposals](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465645/n6465648/c10393163/part/10393179.pdf) amassing 200 kilograms for Chang’e 8 as Ling Xin [reports](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3236807/china-planning-offer-more-space-foreign-equipment-future-change-8-moon-mission). CNSA says these can be scientific instruments, technology payloads or even system-level contributions. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f8527c977-0027-4b01-8c2c-fb398ba88ebd_1084x850-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of the Chang’e 8 lander on the Moon’s south pole. [Credit: CNSA](https://spacenews.com/china-outlines-change-8-resource-utilization-mission-to-the-lunar-south-pole) As for China’s [Chang’e 7](https://doi.org/10.34133/space.0026) mission, CNSA is targeting a 2026 launch. It will consist of an orbiter and a lander, the latter of which [will deploy](https://weibo.com/6618567819/KcpftkBxA?type=comment#%5Frnd1619422059900) a rover and a small flying probe to explore one of some [key identified landing regions](https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/EGGNRR4jfK5J8978aH8ing) on the Moon’s south pole. In much the same vein as the NASA [VIPER](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) and JAXA-ISRO [LUPEX](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-111/) missions, the Chang’e 7 flying probe will host a drill to sample materials in [permanently shadowed areas](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) from varying depths. A mechanical arm on the probe will feed the samples into a heating furnace for the onboard Lunar Water Molecular Analyzer (LWMA) to scan it for [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other volatile resources such as ammonia. As such, Chang’e 7 and Chang’e 8 will contribute heavily towards the China-led long-term [scientific Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-120/) on the Moon’s south pole called the [International Lunar Research Station](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-32/) (ILRS). --- *Many thanks to *[Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io)*, *[Open Lunar Foundation](https://www.openlunar.org)*, *[Parvathy Prem](https://www.parvathyprem.space)* and *Planetary Scientist David Blewett* for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## The US further invests in nuclear power for Moon missions The three companies that [bagged $5 million NASA contracts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-announces-artemis-concept-awards-for-nuclear-power-on-moon) each to develop autonomous, compact [nuclear fission surface power system](https://www.nasa.gov/mission%5Fpages/tdm/fission-surface-power/index.html) prototypes for future Artemis Moon missions have now gotten [bigger, two-year contracts](https://www.defense.gov/News/Contracts/Contract/Article/3543791) from the US Air Force Research Laboratory to advance the systems. Fission systems can enable hardware to operate during long and frigid lunar nights as well as inside [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/). They can also power and enable [sustained](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept) robotic and human presence on the Moon as the technology evolves. The aforementioned three companies and the contract amounts are: 1. Lockheed Martin: $33.7 million 2. Westinghouse: $16.9 million 3. Intuitive Machines: $9.4 million Relatedly, as part of recent public-private [Tipping Point contracts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-partners-with-american-companies-on-key-moon-exploration-tech), NASA is awarding $15 million to a team led by Zeno Power to [demonstrate nuclear electrical power](https://spacenews.com/nasa-selects-companies-to-advance-lunar-power-and-other-technologies) on the Moon in 2027\. The team includes [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) vendors Blue Origin and Intuitive Machines. Also relatedly, the UK Space Agency is funding a team led by Rolls-Royce with £2.9 million to develop a lightweight and modular [autonomous nuclear micro-reactor](https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-space-agency-backs-rolls-royce-nuclear-power-for-moon-exploration), hoping for its initial demonstration on the Moon before 2030. ## More Moon - Axiom Space is [partnering with Italia luxury brand Prada](https://spacenews.com/axiom-space-partners-with-prada-on-artemis-spacesuits) to work on the outermost layer of the former’s [AxEMU](https://www.axiomspace.com/axiom-suit) spacesuit. NASA [competitively chose](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-80/) Axiom’s suits to be worn by astronauts for the crewed [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-iii) Moon landing mission mid-decade. Axiom’s suits build over NASA’s own (recently shelved) [xEMU suits](https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/exploration-extravehicular-mobility-unit-xemu) by featuring enhanced mobility, upgraded insulation and cooling for the harsh lunar polar environment, a back hatch to climb into and close the spacesuit by oneself, a HD helmet cam, and even a light band. - A new study, as [covered by Nancy Atkinson](https://www.universetoday.com/163469/we-dont-know-enough-about-the-biomedical-challenges-of-deep-space-exploration), says that executing long-term human exploration of the Moon, like with Artemis and ILRS, will prove more challenging than expected primarily because we don’t know enough about the biomedical challenges of deep space exploration. - New startup Starpath Robotics [raised $2.5 million](https://techcrunch.com/2023/09/26/starpath-robotics-wants-to-unlock-off-world-colonies-by-mining-moon-water-for-rocket-fuel) to get started on big plans to mine [lunar water](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/), extract liquid oxygen from it, and then sell it to companies planning to regularly operate hardware on the Moon. The latter could include, after end of decade, Blue Origin with its [Blue Moon lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/) as well as SpaceX with its [upgraded Lunar Starship](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-spacex-second-contract-option-for-artemis-moon-landing-0). - *Sponsored listing: With [Build](https://www.epsilon3.io/build-parts-inventory-manufacturing) from Epsilon3, companies like Redwire and ispace simplify their hardware manufacturing for the Moon thanks to end-to-end management of builds, parts, and inventories.* --- **→ [Browse](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [Sponsor](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [RSS](https://blog.jatan.space/feeds)** ### My monthly Indian space reports are now read by 5,000+ subscribers URL: https://jatan.space/5000-indian-space-progress-subscribers/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:14:50.000Z **Dear readers,** I’m happy and grateful to share that my [Indian Space Progress](https://blog.jatan.space/s/indian-space-progress/archive) monthly reports are now read by more than 5,000 of you space enthusiasts! 🚀🇮🇳 Indian Space Progress is the world’s only newsletter dedicated to covering the Indian space landscape—from space technology, launch & exploration to astrophysics & planetary science to commercial & policy developments and more. Since February 2023, it has been contextualizing the progress of key elements driving India’s increasingly relevant space capabilities in the global arena. And it’s one fun endeavor to write every month as it helps me see the bigger picture while serving convenience to others. My deep gratitude goes to the [Takshashila Institution](https://takshashila.org.in) and [SkyServe](https://skyserve.ai) for being the two key sponsors of the newsletter*.* The newsletter wouldn’t exist without them. And I’m also grateful to the many [individual supporters](https://jatan.space/support) of my [independent space writing](https://blog.jatan.space/about). :) The readership of Indian Space Progress includes planetary scientists and engineers, personnel at ISRO and other space agencies, space company executives, and fellow writers & journalists. I’m happy and proud to report below the relative distribution of the readers by country/region as well as a sampling of their employment organizations. ![US 924, IN 1147, EU 592, BR 119, AU 81, SEA 75, RU 57, JP 49, CN 43, MEA 21, KR 23, NAU 15, NZ 15](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f17a08e24-2167-4734-840a-03796440203f_1825x1000-jpeg.jpg) ![Space agencies: NASA, ISRO, ESA, KARI, CNES, ASA, JAXA, DLR | Indian space: NewSpace India, Takshashila, Pixxel, Dhruva Space, SatSure, SkyServe, Manastu Space | Media publications: Nature, Payload, SpaceNews, The Planetary Society, The Hindu, The Print, Science.org, Universe Today | Global Space Industry: Honeybee Robotics, SpaceX, Firefly, Lockheed Martin, Airbus, Epsilon3, Thales Group, Blue Origin | ISRO orgs: ISRO HQ, SAC, PRL, URSC, CBPO, SDSC, IIST, ISTRAC | Institutes: APL, Caltech, ISU France, TU Berlin, TIFR, IIT Mumbai, IIA Bengaluru, UCL London](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f3b35b9b6-fffb-488b-aa24-47b59b12e08d_1211x500-jpeg.jpg) Indian Space Progress is featured as a resource on the website of Indian space think tank [Spaceport SARABHAI](https://www.spaceportsarabhai.org/#perspectives). If you enjoy reading Indian Space Progress, please share it with at least one fellow space enthusiast: And if you value Indian Space Progress as a community resource, kindly consider [sponsoring](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-indian-space-progress) it either as an organization or an individual. To reach this unique newsletter’s deeply enthusiastic audience who support and endorse India’s unique place in space, get in touch: [Email me: hey@jatan.space](mailto:hey@jatan.space) *Here’s to more progress in space, in India, and on Earth.* – [Jatan](https://blog.jatan.space/about). ### Moon Monday #147: The world keeps Luna in sight as Chandrayaan 3 observes Earth from lunar orbit URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-147/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:14:50.000Z ## Mission updates - CNSA [announced](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/n6758823/n6758838/c10391505/content.html) on September 29 that China will indeed launch the [Chang’e 6 farside sample return spacecraft](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-126/) and its supporting orbiter next year. [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fb5cde1d8-5362-4f6a-a477-0055d90428c8_1023x768-png.jpg)](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?camera=-1990963.786%2C-1008004.587%2C-1633145.293%2C6.283%2C-1.571%2C0.000%2C2765352.345%2C60.000&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4XyA&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEoAsjYIHYFcA2vIBvAXwF1Siylw4oNEQBmOOR9RHfS870oA&proj=22) The \~500-kilometer wide [Apollo crater](https://jatan.space/peak-ringed-apollo-crater/) on the Moon’s farside. China currently aims to land [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-126/) in the crater’s southern part for collecting samples to bring back to Earth. [Image credits: LROC / ASU](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=166.0817047,-43.0031527,-106.5981042,-15.675952&camera=-2095116.4542062357,-1197059.9579817657,-1703433.4648448634,6.283185307179586,-1.5707963267948966,0&proj=22&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEoAsjZwLrc0A); Graphic: Jatan Mehta - Following two maneuvers last month to raise the [SLIM lunar lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-144/)’s Earthbound orbit, JAXA fired the spacecraft’s engines on [October 1](https://global.jaxa.jp/press/2023/10/20231002-1%5Fe.html) to make it fly past the Moon—though not to insert SLIM into lunar orbit just yet. Much like the Advanced Space-led [CAPSTONE](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/small%5Fspacecraft/capstone) and South Korea’s [KPLO](https://jatan.space/kplo/) craft, SLIM will take a longer but highly fuel-efficient route to the Moon, only targeting lunar orbital insertion about three months from now. SLIM will then spend a month in lunar orbit before attempting its 20-minute descent and ‘[pinpoint landing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-144/)’. - Over two weeks starting September 11, technicians [installed](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2023/09/25/all-engines-added-to-nasas-artemis-ii-moon-rocket-core-stage) all four [RS-25](https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/sls%5Frs25%5Fengine%5Ffs%5F508.pdf) engines onto the core stage for the second [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/reference/space-launch-system), which will push [four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) towards the Moon on NASA’s [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to) mission circa early 2025\. The propulsion and electrical systems of the core stage will be integrated by end of year, Stephen Clark [reports](https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/09/rocket-report-iran-launches-satellite-artemis-ii-boosters-get-train-ride). In the meanwhile, the 10 motor segments that will power the rocket’s twin five-segment boosters [arrived at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-ii-sls-rocket-booster-segments-arrive-to-kennedy-space-center) on September 25 by rail. Technicians will inspect and process them before stacking them early next year followed by integration with the core stage. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ff5c478b2-0ce3-4663-8fb0-270c0e968a0d_2200x1500-jpeg.jpg) The orange-yellow SLS rocket core stage with its four RS-25 engines is seen here in a horizontal position in the final assembly area at NASA’s Michoud facility. [Photo: NASA / Eric Bordelon](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2023/09/25/all-engines-added-to-nasas-artemis-ii-moon-rocket-core-stage) ## SHAPE observes Earth as an exoplanet ISRO Chief S. Somanath [says](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/chandrayaan-3-not-just-moon-study-of-earth-shapeing-up-well-too/articleshow/104005580.cms) that the agency has completed all baseline observations from the Earth-observing [SHAPE](https://arxiv.org/abs/2302.10712) experiment aboard the Chandrayaan 3 orbiter module. SHAPE is designed to observe the full Earth disk from lunar orbit to improve our understanding of what the [spectro-polarimetric signatures](https://arxiv.org/abs/0707.3905) of distant [Earth-like habitable exoplanets](https://jatan.space/nasa-tess-space-telescope/) might look like. With such data scientists can infer (known) physical properties of Earth, and from it those of Earth-like exoplanets we discover like the strength and direction of their magnetic fields, atmospheric composition including presence of water and methane, and so on. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fed306624-8569-4c8c-ac6f-509ceaa8ffb8_1700x600-jpeg.jpg) The proposed observation geometry (left) of the SHAPE instrument and its configuration (right). [Images: Bhavesh Jaiswal, et al.](https://arxiv.org/abs/2302.10712) While more distant spacecraft than Chandrayaan 3 such as NASA’s [Galileo](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/galileo) Jovian orbiter have certainly [conducted full disk Earth studies](https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/A-search-for-life-on-Earth-from-the-Galileo-Sagan-Thompson/da5bf312601c2533b0133fb4873177bca60c157d), its observations had limited phase angles. On the other hand, Earth-based observations [suffer from depolarization](https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Depolarization-of-electromagnetic-waves-from-the-Beckmann/2a8465da9c6f8faad5c1ffe614797cbdd71ded5f) whereas Earthbound satellites cover [limited spectral range](https://amt.copernicus.org/articles/6/991/2013/amt-6-991-2013.pdf). The Moon thus offers a unique vantage point from which to study [Earth as an exoplanet](https://arxiv.org/abs/1804.04138). SHAPE’s observations will allow scientists to study Earth-reflected sunlight over a broad spectral range at all phase angles and so in two polarization directions, thus feeding uniquely into the worldwide [hunt for another Earth](https://jatan.space/search-for-life/). Unlike [other initial scientific measurements](https://www.isro.gov.in/Ch3%5FScienceResults.html) from the [Chandrayaan 3 mission](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) though, ISRO hasn’t yet publicly shared any data samples from SHAPE. This isn’t the first instance of an Indian mission leveraging the lunar vantage point for non-lunar science; the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter is [also a Sun watcher](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-orbiter-is-also-a-sun-watcher/). --- *Many thanks to *[Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io)*, *[The Orbital Index](https://orbitalindex.com)* and *[Arun Raghavan](https://arunraghavan.net)* for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## New design and launch date for NASA’s first farside Moon lander On September 28, ispace Japan [announced a new HQ](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4781) for its US subsidiary at Denver, Colorado where the company will manufacture the APEX 1.0 lander—previously called [Series 2](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-42/)—for an upcoming NASA [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) mission [via partner Draper](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-87/). APEX is larger and more capable than the compact Series 1 design from ispace Japan which flew on the company’s [Mission 1](https://jatan.space/ispace-japan-m1-moon-mission/) earlier this year, and will do so again [next year](https://www.youtube.com/live/CpR1UUnix3g?feature=share&t=3522) with Mission 2. The redesign features 300 kilograms of payload capacity instead of the original target of 500 kilograms. That’s still ten times the Series 1 lander’s capacity though, and ispace says 500 kilogram remains as a stretch goal. Jeff Foust [reports](https://spacenews.com/ispace-revises-design-of-lunar-lander-for-nasa-clps-mission) that APEX was redesigned from its original Series 2 structure primarily to meet the vibrational requirements of the [NASA payloads onboard](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-draper-to-fly-research-to-far-side-of-moon). Coupled with the pending upcoming critical design review, the launch of [Draper’s first Moon mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-87/) had to be delayed by a year to 2026\. The lander will attempt a touchdown on the Moon’s farside, a feat achieved only by China’s [Chang’e 4](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/change-4) spacecraft thus far. The mission’s landing region chosen by NASA is no less impressive—the 312 kilometers wide [Schrödinger crater](https://jatan.space/the-crowned-crater-of-schrodinger/), a pristine destination [long asked for](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-52/) by the global scientific community. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f5d69e710-1a7e-4840-baca-fbc06c91d034_1100x750-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of the APEX 1.0 lunar lander design by ispace US. [Image: ispace](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4781) As an aside, the Mission 1 lander’s [failed April 25 touchdown](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-129/) did prompt ispace to iteratively improve the hardware and software design of Series 1\. Foust also [reports](https://spacenews.com/ispace-revises-design-of-lunar-lander-for-nasa-clps-mission) that ispace mentioned a $22 million payout as [insurance](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=3952) from Mitsui Sumitomo. ## ESA wants to fund more Moon missions On September 28, ESA formally [asked the industry](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Preparing%5Ffor%5Fthe%5FFuture/Discovery%5Fand%5FPreparation/To%5Fthe%5FMoon%5FESA%5Fseeks%5Fideas%5Ffor%5Fsmall%5Flunar%5Fmissions) to propose small and medium Moon mission concepts that can fly starting 2026–2028\. As long as each mission stays under €50 million, and focuses on ESA’s [exploration and science goals](https://www.esa.int/terraenovae), any physical form goes: an orbiter, a (presumably small) lander, flyby craft, a rover, what have you. As one way to stay within budget, ESA is [encouraging](https://ideas.esa.int/servlet/hype/IMT?documentId=9904aa3d71cbae0c8d3d86503095f607&userAction=Browse&templateName=) missions that leverage a rideshare launch on Europe’s upcoming [Ariane 6](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FTransportation/Launch%5Fvehicles/Ariane%5F6) rocket. In fact, the agency says it has specifically studied [several lunar-ward trajectories](https://ideas.esa.int/apps/IMT/UploadedFiles/00/f%5Fbb2d0c3aa47b841f2638cc7b5fab597a/Small%5FMissions%5FAR6%5FAccess%5Fto%5Fthe%5FMoon%5F%5FRideshare.pdf) from Ariane 6 for such rideshare spacecraft, including getting possible aids with a kick-stage. ESA also suggests spacecraft use its upcoming [Moonlight](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-98/) navigation and communications service to reduce the mass and cost of the hosted communications system. Industry proposals are due by December 14, and selected mission concepts will start feasibility studies in mid-2024\. Relatedly, it’s worth noting that ESA seems to have abruptly [removed the page](https://bsgn.esa.int/2023/02/10/potential-european-lunar-payload-deliverers) about its potential NASA-[CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/)\-like program of lunar landers, which I [reported on in February](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-114/). Hopefully, this new call for proposals has a different fate. ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f461bb462-8349-4b1e-babc-ca3b4865b0c3_1600x900-jpeg.jpg) Moon-Mars test site at the DLR Robotics and Mechatronics Center in Oberpfaffenhofen. [Image: DLR](https://www.dlr.de/en/latest/news/2023/03/moon-and-mars-test-site-for-robotic-missions) - On September 26, DLR inaugurated a new 1500-square-meter [Moon-Mars facility](https://www.dlr.de/en/latest/news/2023/03/moon-and-mars-test-site-for-robotic-missions) to test mobile robotic explorers on basaltic surfaces and landforms similar to those at Luna and the Red Planet. Relatedly, ESA and DLR are working together to open up the [LUNA facility](https://www.dlr.de/rb/desktopdefault.aspx/tabid-17506) to test both robotic and crewed exploration activities starting next year. - [How Artemis II astronauts will live inside the Orion capsule during their Moon trip](https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/life-encapsulated-inside-nasas-orion-for-artemis-ii-moon-mission) - China is [considering](https://www.universetoday.com/163371/chinese-astronauts-may-build-a-base-inside-a-lunar-lava-tube) exploring [lava tubes](https://jatan.space/underground-lava-tubes-on-the-moon-marius-hills/) with robots and then humans, owing to the [relatively stable temperatures](https://www.nasa.gov/solar-system/nasas-lro-finds-lunar-pits-harbor-comfortable-temperatures), sheltering from [micrometeorites](https://jatan.space/the-tiniest-of-impact-craters/), and radiation protection the geological feature offers. ESA is also [considering a 2033 mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-69/) to explore a lunar pit that has an opening to a lava tube. --- **→ [Browse](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [RSS](https://blog.jatan.space/feeds) | [Sponsor](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday)** ### The New York Times continues to misrepresent Indian space URL: https://jatan.space/the-nyt-continues-to-misrepresent-indian-space/ Last updated: 2024-09-16T15:57:11.000Z The New York Times recently highlighted some emerging Indian space startups with an [online & print article](https://www.nytimes.com/2023/07/04/business/india-space-startups.html). It was not only widely read—seeing that it’s published by one of the world’s most-consumed publications—but also widely shared by the startups mentioned in the piece and related folks from the Indian space communities. Maybe they were just happy that a mainstream western publication decided to spotlight their largely globally overlooked work, as am I, but it’s surprising no one showed disapproval at the article’s opening para: > When it launched its first rocket in 1963, India was a poor country pursuing the world’s most cutting-edge technology. That projectile, its nose cone wheeled to the launchpad by a bicycle, put a small payload 124 miles above the Earth. India was barely pretending to keep up with the United States and the Soviet Union. What do you mean by India *barely pretending to keep up*? Even a simple check on [ISRO’s Wikipedia page](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISRO#Goals%5Fand%5Fobjectives) or the [About page](https://www.isro.gov.in/profile.html) on ISRO’s website itself will tell you that India’s space program was founded first and foremost to advance the developing country’s civil life. In fact, Alex Travelli’s said statement for the New York Times (NYT) is diametrically opposite to [how Vikram Sarabhai summarized](https://www.isro.gov.in/sarabhaiformer.html) in 1969 his efforts earlier that decade to convince the Indian government to start a national space program in earnest: > There are some who question the relevance of space activities in a developing nation. To us, there is no ambiguity of purpose. We do not have the fantasy of competing with the economically advanced nations in the exploration of the moon or the planets or manned space-flight. But we are convinced that if we are to play a meaningful role nationally, and in the community of nations, we must be second to none in the application of advanced technologies to the real problems of man and society. So while the US and the Soviet Union may be taking literal moonshots in the 1960s, it was clearly not a race India wanted to partake in, or even could. In his own take on [some (other) problems with the NYT article](https://rootprivileges.net/2023/07/09/nyts-profile-of-indias-space-startup-scene), Mukunth alludes to NYT’s [distasteful cartoon](https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-29502062) published in 2014 on India’s [Mangalyaan](https://jatan.space/reviewing-mission-mangalyaan/) Mars orbiter, which the publication later ended up apologizing for because a “large number of readers” complained about it. The trouble is NYT’s tone hasn’t changed substantially even as it covers successes of Indian space. When ISRO’s PSLV rocket launched 104 satellites in 2017, marking a world record at the time, [NYT’s coverage](https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/15/world/asia/india-satellites-rocket.html) of it read: > The Indian Space Research Organization has gained attention in recent years for staging successful missions at very low cost, in part because its scientists are paid less. Sure, that ISRO scientists are paid less compared to NASA ones is a fact, and a sad one. But it’s not a fact unique to the space sector, much less to this particular launch or to ISRO’s planetary missions. Purchasing power parity should make major discrepancies in earnings between the two countries obvious. Instead, NYT could’ve also mentioned other reasons why ISRO’s [workhorse](https://web.archive.org/web/20221024134415/https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/ForeignSatellites/381%5Fforeign%5Fsatellites.pdf) PSLV was cost efficient for such commercial missions, at a time when the SpaceX Falcon 9 hadn’t yet gained its unmatched incredible momentum of today. Circling back to NYT’s profile of some Indian space startups, there’s another such odd framing of words to be found: > For its first three decades, the Indian Space Research Organization, or ISRO, the local version of NASA, made the country proud: An image of India’s first satellite graced the two-rupee note until 1995. It’s hard to imagine that readers of NYT at large wouldn’t understand the term “national space agency”. Calling ISRO “the local version” of NASA again fails to highlight or even identify the contrasting reasons for which the two space agencies were not only created but how they evolved over their early years and decades. ## The tone matters It might seem to some that I’m nitpicking but consider that a renowned publication with their (outsized) influence forms, shapes, and bends people’s opinions at scale. It’s an ability the NYT must certainly be aware of. With the responsibility it brings, not only should they know better but be mindful of the impact of the reporting tone alone. Lest you think I’m a nationalist, I implore you to think again: as an illustrative example, I’ve written the most critical piece on the [lack of science from India’s Mars orbiter](https://jatan.space/missing-science-from-mangalyaan/). In fact, therein lies another point the New York Times fails to understand. The globally popular narrative of India achieving all of its successes in space with “frugal” engineering is one the NYT also falsely accepts *and* amplifies, something recently illustrated by [their coverage](https://www.nytimes.com/2023/08/24/world/asia/india-chandrayaan-3-moon-landing-space.html) of Chandrayaan 3’s Moon landing success: > The country’s groundbreaking landing on Wednesday of a rover on the southern polar region of the moon was done with a space budget that was smaller than many other countries’ and a tiny fraction of NASA’s. \[…\] ISRO still operates on an annual budget of only about $1.5 billion. NASA’s budget, for a much larger space program, is nearly $25 billion. India is so cost-effective that its spending of about $75 million on a Mars orbiter was less than [the $100 million budget](https://www.vox.com/2014/9/24/6838079/india-mars-mangalyaan) of the Hollywood space film “Gravity,” as Mr. Modi proudly has said. While the NYT correctly highlighted ISRO’s tight budget—relative to NASA—generalizing Chandrayaan 3’s success to ISRO’s activities at large and contrasting them to the scale of NASA’s endeavors and operations is myopic. Yes, [Chandrayaan 3’s landing](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) was indeed spectacular, and something every Indian aware of it is undoubtedly proud of, but the forced “frugality” of ISRO’s or any such organization’s operations comes at a cost. ISRO’s aspiring [space science missions](https://jatan.space/isro-space-science-missions-2020-2025/) have been facing nothing but delays year after year due to budget shortages and overshadowing priorities. Chandrayaan 3 itself was a victim of the latter. Originally slated for launch in the first half of 2023, Chandrayaan 3 was [robbed of its ride to space](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-100/) as ISRO prioritized two GSLV Mk III rockets for [commercial OneWeb launches](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-03/) instead. India’s upcoming Venus orbiter [Shukrayaan](https://jatan.space/isro-venus-orbiter-launch-2024/) has been unable to secure a Mk III for launch because the vehicle will be busy serving [Gaganyaan](https://www.isro.gov.in/Gaganyaan.html) human spaceflight missions mid-decade. (Never mind that Gaganyaan itself is facing delays.) Shukrayaan’s mission designers thus had to look into choosing the Mk II, which other than inducing a launch delay is bound to reduce the orbiter’s capabilities as the Mk III is India’s most powerful rocket. Accepting isolated frugal successes as ideal states of a country’s scientific being is not just wrong but dangerous. It instills, in a huge population, a false sense of wide-scale scientific achievement as well as conditions us to have subpar expectations from future missions. Mukunth [breaks down more such problems](https://rootprivileges.net/2023/08/29/nyts-isro-coverage-continues-assault-on-sense) with said NYT piece and its tone. It baffles me that the New York Times, a publication capable of hiring reporters, writers, and freelancers dedicated to covering niche beats—and that too locally as needed—either cannot find anyone suitable enough to get the most basic facts about Indian space right or simply doesn’t care to. --- *P.S. I suppose my ability to get published on the New York Times someday might now be hampered by this blog post. So be it.* ### Moon Monday #146: Lunar lander updates from NASA & LEAG, a rover from Lunar Outpost, geology training for astronauts, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-146/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:14:51.000Z ## NASA CLPS lunar mission updates from LEAG ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f8f9e36c4-a320-4b0f-928a-beed9811da80_1950x1300-jpeg-2.jpg) Astrobotic’s first Moon lander, Peregrine. [Credit: John Thornton](https://www.linkedin.com/feed/update/urn:li:activity:6998697480980676609) Below are some notable updates from the sessions I could attend (virtually) at the [annual meeting](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/leag2023/technical%5Fprogram) of the NASA-backed Lunar Exploration Analysis Group ([LEAG](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag)) this September 20–22. [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) manager Chris Culbert gave a forthright presentation on how the agency’s program to send payloads to the Moon aboard commercial landers has been facing more challenges than expected. He highlighted that “the supply chain necessary to build \[commercial\] lunar landers is still immature.” Another issue is that the commercial model intended to keep costs and complexity low is clashing with the agency’s traditional approach to let scientists maximize science returns from payloads. “Payloads would like to trade payload capability for lander capability in ways that frequently don’t align with true commercial missions. Keeping payloads on budget is a challenge.” Culbert then mentions how CLPS has been adapting to such challenges by adjusting schedules, better assessing financial risks, and improving use of the limited resources CLPS companies have compared to NASA’s traditional “depth staffing” which affords more parallel work. One of those financial challenges concern the [Chapter 11 bankruptcy](https://spacenews.com/masten-space-systems-files-for-bankruptcy) filed by Masten Space last year, which stemmed from the company underbidding for its awarded [$75.9 million CLPS contract](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-contract-to-deliver-science-tech-to-moon-ahead-of-human-missions) by $30 million. Masten was later [acquired](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-acquires-masten-space-systems) by Astrobotic. Debra Needham, Program Scientist at NASA’s Exploration Science Strategy and Integration Office, said at LEAG 2023 that the agency plans to “strategically manifest \[NASA\] payloads” from Masten’s mission onto other landers as feasible. *Also see: [How do CLPS selections work?](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-87/)* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f5ac2ffcc-2419-4016-95fc-b470f07ec027_1840x1000-jpeg.jpg) Instruments on the VIPER lunar rover. Credits: NASA / Anthony Colaprete Anthony Colaprete, Project Scientist for NASA’s upcoming [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) said that Honeybee Robotics has delivered the vehicle’s [key drill](https://www.nasa.gov/viper/rover#TRIDENT), and that the [rover integration](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/lets-get-building) should be complete before end of year. VIPER’s CLPS launch to the Moon’s south pole [onboard Astrobotic’s Griffin lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-87/) remains on schedule for November 2024\. VIPER will explore areas in and around [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) for over four months, and use its drill and three instruments to unravel the nature of the Moon’s [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) deposits, assess their resource potential, and help determine how accessible they are. This will help NASA plan crewed [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) missions. Debra Needham announced that NASA will soon put out a call for scientists to propose sub-20-kilogram stand-alone payloads to be sent to the Moon on CLPS landers no earlier than 2027\. This once again expands and enhances the scope of NASA’s [PRISM](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasa-selects-new-science-investigations-for-future-moon-deliveries) program under which all recent CLPS scientific [instrument](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-new-science-investigations-for-future-moon-deliveries) and [suite](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-new-instruments-for-priority-artemis-science-on-moon) selections have been made. --- *Many thanks to *[Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io)* for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## Lunar Outpost preps rover for first Moon mission ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f3eb9053d-605c-4e1b-936e-d02b07759999_750x500-jpeg-1.jpg) Illustration showing Lunar Outpost’s rover on the Moon with deployed antennae for 4G/LTE network testing. Intuitive Machines’ lander is seen in the background. [Credits: Nokia / Lunar Outpost](https://www.bell-labs.com/institute/blog/a-network-like-no-other-how-nokias-moon-network-differs-from-any-on-earth) Lunar Outpost has [integrated three payloads](https://lunaroutpost.com/lunar-outpost-successfully-integrates-mit-payloads-into-mission-1-mapp-rover) into its first [MAPP Moon rover](https://lunaroutpost.com/nokia-and-intuitive-machines-select-lunar-outpost-for-first-rover-mission-at-lunar-south-pole), which will be aboard Intuitive Machines’ [second Moon lander](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-to-land-water-measuring-payload-on-the-moon) aiming for a H1 2024 launch as part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). The three payloads comprise: - a [near-field depth camera](https://www.media.mit.edu/projects/microsoft-azure-kinect-for-a-lunar-environment/overview) aimed at reconstructing the lunar surface for future astronaut training in virtual reality - a [miniature swarm robot](https://www.tothemoon.mit.edu/astroant) to take surface temperature measurements and also inspect the MAPP rover’s physical health - and a silicon chip [hosting](https://www.tothemoon.mit.edu/humans) reflections of people in native languages. In 2021, NASA [chose Lunar Outpost](https://lunaroutpost.com/lunar-outpost-becomes-first-company-to-receive-payment-for-space-resources/) and this mission’s MAPP rover as one of the [four selections](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-companies-to-collect-lunar-resources-for-artemis-demonstrations) to *collect*—but not return—lunar material and transfer its ownership to NASA. This move by the agency is to set precedence for legal frameworks to extract and utilize lunar and space resources in the future. The MAPP rover will also host antennae from Nokia to test a [4G/LTE network](https://www.nokia.com/networks/insights/network-on-the-moon) on the Moon for NASA. It will be the [first such test](https://www.bell-labs.com/institute/blog/who-controls-the-airwaves-on-the-moon) to see how we might get high-throughput, long-range, and low-latency communications necessary for having a sustainable lunar presence in the future. Apart from deploying the rover, the Intuitive Machines lander will carry NASA’s [PRIME-1 drill](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/game%5Fchanging%5Fdevelopment/projects/PRIME-1) and a mass spectrometer to study [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) at the Moon’s [south pole](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-intuitive-machines-announce-landing-site-location-for-lunar-drill). The lander will also deploy the company’s own [NASA-supported, $41 million](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/solicitations/tipping%5Fpoints/2020%5Fselections) hopper called [Micro-Nova](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/intuitive-machines-and-nasa-finalize-contract-for-extreme-lunar-mobility-spacecraft), which aims to [hop five times](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-134/) to capture high-resolution imagery and other measurements of the surface under its flight path. One of the hops would be over a [permanently shadowed region](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) to detect and study potential water ice in there. ## Astronauts train for Luna The [four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) who will fly around our Moon and back circa early 2025 on NASA’s [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to) mission [completed](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2023/09/20/artemis-ii-astronauts-successfully-conduct-launch-day-demonstration) the first [integrated ground system test](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-kennedy-ready-for-artemis-ii-moon-mission-ground-systems-testing) on September 20\. Like during the mission, they suited up, departed to the launchpad in [next-generation, all-electric vans](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/new-fleet-of-vehicles-for-nasa-s-artemis-crews-arrives-at-kennedy), and then went up the launch tower to a room inside the crew access arm. During the mission, that’s from where crew will enter the [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) for launch of their circumlunar journey. Relatedly, two Artemis II astronauts—[Jeremy Hansen](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronauts/canadian/active/bio-jeremy-hansen.asp) and [Christina Koch](https://www.nasa.gov/astronauts/biographies/christina-hammock-koch/biography)—[spent almost a week](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/blog/2023/09/19/15-photos-of-lunar-geology-training-in-canada.asp) earlier this month exploring the [Kamestastin meteorite impact crater](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mistastin%5Fcrater) in Canada for lunar geology training. Leading the expedition was Dr. Gordon Osinski, who was recently selected as part of the [12-person](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-selects-geology-team-for-the-first-crewed-artemis-lunar-landing)*[ Geology Team](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-selects-geology-team-for-the-first-crewed-artemis-lunar-landing)* for NASA’s [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-iii) crewed landing mission mid-decade. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f469f4e9d-aa38-44f3-8e7e-e052314dfc57_1800x1200-jpeg.jpg) Pangaea explorers taking a geology lesson at the Bletterbach canyon in Italy. [Credits: ESA / V. Crobu](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2023/09/21/a-japanese-explorer-embarks-on-a-geological-journey) In the meanwhile, ESA’s [Pangaea campaign](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/CAVES%5Fand%5FPangaea/What%5Fis%5FPangaea) to [train future lunar astronauts in geology](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2023/02/01/turning-astronauts-into-moon-explorers) recently began its new batch. The participants include ESA astronaut [Thomas Pesquet](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Astronauts/Thomas%5FPesquet), NASA’s [Jessica Wittner](https://www.nasa.gov/astronauts/biographies/jessica-wittner/biography), and JAXA’s [Takuya Onishi](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2023/09/21/a-japanese-explorer-embarks-on-a-geological-journey). Pangaea training expeditions includes various strikingly Moon-like geological sites across Europe: the [Italian Dolomite](https://www.bletterbach.info/en) mountains, the [Ries](https://www.geopark-ries.de/en/entstehung-rieskrater) impact crater in Germany, the Spanish volcanic island of [Lanzarote](https://geoparquelanzarote.org/en), and the Norwegian fjords of [Lofoten](https://norskbergverksmuseum.no/silvermines). The previous two Pangaea batches included ESA’s [Alexander Gerst](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Astronauts/Alexander%5FGerst), [Andreas Mogensen](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2021/11/17/back-to-the-future), and [Robin Eccleston](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2021/09/09/robin-the-gadget-master) as well as NASA’s [Kathleen Rubins](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2021/09/16/kate-and-the-moon) and [Stephanie Wilson](https://www.nasa.gov/astronauts/biographies/stephanie-d-wilson/biography). ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f8eb65149-5d99-4ceb-833f-59077bc91f10_2300x1800-jpeg.jpg) A mosaic of the 21-kilometer wide Shackleton crater created from images by the LRO Camera and KPLO’s ShadowCam. The latter’s view is distinctly visible as overlaid on the background LRO image. [Credits: NASA / KARI / ASU](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-moon-camera-mosaic-sheds-light-on-lunar-south-pole) - NASA’s ultra-sensitive [ShadowCam](https://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/about) imager onboard South Korea’s first lunar orbiter [KPLO](https://jatan.space/kplo/) has snapped a [new, highest-resolution view](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-moon-camera-mosaic-sheds-light-on-lunar-south-pole) of the Shackleton Crater on the Moon’s south pole, most of which is in [permanent shadow](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/). ShadowCam’s high resolution mapping of eternally shaded lunar polar terrain [enables planning](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-110/) future resource prospecting missions within such regions. - Soon after the lunar day dawned on Chandrayaan 3’s [landing site](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) on September 22, ISRO began efforts to reestablish communication with the lander and rover with hopes of getting an extended mission. The Indian space agency [says](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1705209835783078092) no signals have been received from them so far but efforts continue. - NASA [convened a three-day workshop](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/otps%5Fartemis%5Fethics%5Fand%5Fsociety%5Freport%5Ffinal%5F9-21-02023%5Ftagged.pdf) in April with a diverse group of 55 experts to consider the long-term ethical, legal, and societal impact, implications, and challenges of the crewed Artemis exploration program. - The Planetary Surfaces and Spacecraft Lab at the University of Maryland is [hiring postdoctoral researchers](https://ejobs.umd.edu/postings/112040) to specifically develop technology that can repeatedly remove notorious lunar regolith from spacesuits and solar panels with ease on future crewed missions. --- **→ [Sponsor Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) | [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Moon Monday #145: From Starship to Firefly and Earth’s magnetotail to Germany, lunar exploration progress deepened last week URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-145/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:14:51.000Z ## Lunar Starship engines ignite ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f3f2d9f4d-7699-4574-a461-b784a261aab0_1800x1800-jpeg.jpg) Test firing of a Raptor engine to simulate phases of future Lunar Starship flights. Credits: SpaceX ([1](https://twitter.com/SpaceX/status/1702382139331977713), [2](https://twitter.com/SpaceX/status/1702382407004070183)) As SpaceX preps for the second test flight of its fully reusable [Starship Super Heavy](https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/starship) rocket, following April’s [dramatic first flight](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-124/), the company has meanwhile revealed that it [performed](https://twitter.com/SpaceX/status/1702382139331977713) a vacuum-optimized Raptor engine test fire last month. This firing demonstrates that its Lunar Starship engines should be able to ignite after long and cold coasting phases around the Moon. We know from NASA’s [solicitation of deployed instruments](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-130/) for the upcoming crewed [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-iii) landing that Starship will loiter in lunar orbit for one to three months before astronauts arrive in the [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) to transfer to Starship for lunar landing. SpaceX [also demonstrated](https://twitter.com/SpaceX/status/1702382407004070183) a 281-second variable thrust Raptor firing to simulate the powered descent phase of landing on the Moon. Interestingly, [NASA’s official post](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2023/09/14/spacex-completes-engine-tests-for-nasas-artemis-iii-moon-lander) on the same doesn’t link to, embed, or include the Raptor demonstration videos but one picture. ## Firefly wins add-on NASA CLPS contract for unique Moon-based astronomy mission ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f90238aa2-7b44-4c32-a9aa-baac19ccdd97_1650x1070-jpeg.jpg) An illustration of the Elytra lunar orbiter with a deployed antenna. [Credit: Firefly](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-awarded-18-million-nasa-contract-to-provide-radio-frequency-calibration-services-from-lunar-orbit) Following a [$112 million contract](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-picks-firefly-aerospace-for-robotic-delivery-to-far-side-of-moon) to deliver an orbiter and two surface payloads to the Moon in 2026, Firefly has won an extended [$18 million contract](https://fireflyspace.com/news/firefly-awarded-18-million-nasa-contract-to-provide-radio-frequency-calibration-services-from-lunar-orbit) as part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) to provide frequency calibration services for the mission’s radio astronomy payload called [LuSEE-Night](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-department-of-energy-join-forces-on-innovative-lunar-experiment). For this second CLPS mission from the company, Firefly will use a similar “[Blue Ghost](https://fireflyspace.com/blue-ghost)” lander design as for [its first CLPS flight](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-firefly-aerospace-for-artemis-commercial-moon-delivery-in-2023) in 2024 but also add an “[Elytra](https://spacenews.com/firefly-wins-second-nasa-clps-mission)” transfer stage to deliver the 280-kilogram [Lunar Pathfinder](https://jatan.space/nasa-esa-collaborate-on-lunar-pathfinder/) spacecraft for ESA to lunar orbit. Pathfinder is a stepping stone towards [Moonlight](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-98/), ESA’s upcoming commercial navigation and communications constellation around Luna. The Firefly lander itself will attempt a touchdown on the Moon’s farside carrying LuSEE-Night, which will push the boundaries of cosmology and lunarbound science by [measuring faint but unique radio signals](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-118/) from our Universe’s ‘Dark Age’—a slice of time right before the first stars were born. The lander will also host the “User Terminal” payload to enable LuSEE-Night to communicate to and fro Earth via the Elytra stage in lunar orbit. Elytra will also provide radio frequency calibrations for LuSEE-Night. --- *Many thanks to *[Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io)*, *[The Orbital Index](https://orbitalindex.com)* and *[Arun Raghavan](https://arunraghavan.net)* for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## The lunar water mystery deepens ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fd94a14c7-7233-4929-a46b-92f7cb4ea857_676x381-jpeg.jpg) Lunar surface water content levels. [Credit: Shuai Li, et al.](https://www.hawaii.edu/news/2023/09/14/earths-electrons-moon-water) Especially for the last decade, scientists have been debating the varied cosmic phenomena contributing to making and/or depositing of [water on our Moon](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and their relative contributions. Other than cometary and asteroid bombardments (also [recently contested](https://www.universetoday.com/163160/the-moons-southern-ice-is-relatively-young) on its purported volume of deposited water) as well as [volcanic water sources](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-64/), the [Sun’s proton wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) and separately [micrometeorites](https://jatan.space/the-tiniest-of-impact-craters/) contribute to lunar water buildup. [New research](https://www.hawaii.edu/news/2023/09/14/earths-electrons-moon-water/) based on India’s [Chandrayaan 1](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/) orbiter data suggests that even electrons from Earth hitting the Moon via our planet’s magnetic tail help form surface water. Relatedly, scientists [published](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-08305-x) last year that some hydrogen and oxygen ions escape from Earth’s upper atmosphere and combine at the Moon to form lunar water too. To help scientists unravel the exact contributions of each lunar water source, it will take comprehensive measurements from upcoming missions that fly in the vein of NASA’s [Lunar Trailblazer](https://jatan.space/nasa-lunar-trailblazer/) orbiter. ## More lunar science - China is [constructing](https://english.www.gov.cn/news/202309/17/content%5FWS650654f9c6d0868f4e8df856.html) a 40-meter-aperture, movable radio telescope in Shigatse to provide technical support for the country’s upcoming [robotic](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-126/) and [crewed](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-137/) lunar missions. The telescope will also observe energetic astrophysical phenomena such as those taking place in regions around black holes. The radio dish will enhance China’s existing very-long-baseline interferometry network. - Scientists [reanalyzing](https://doi.org/10.1029/2022JE007704) Apollo 17 seismic data found that the three seismometers astronauts deployed on the Moon’s surface had been [picking up minute vibrations](https://www.caltech.edu/about/news/the-lunar-alarm-clock-new-study-characterizes-regular-moonquakes) from the lander structure heating and expanding on lunar mornings. - The Arizona State University—which leads NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter—is looking for a [Professor of Planetary Science](http://apply.interfolio.com/131340), including in lunar science. ## More Moon - On September 14, Germany [became the 29th country](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-welcomes-germany-as-newest-artemis-accords-signatory) and ninth ESA member to sign the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords). Germany already being a [major collaborator](https://www.dlr.de/en/latest/news/2022/03/20220824%5Fgreen-light-for-the-return-to-the-moon) on NASA’s Artemis crewed lunar exploration program, and among the [top three contributors](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/esa-gets-big-increase-commits-to-iss-through-2030-and-exomars-rover-in-2028) to ESA, had made its hitherto non-signing of the Accords [stand out](https://spacenews.com/european-parliamentarian-seeks-to-build-up-ties-between-u-s-and-e-u-in-space) like a sore thumb. - JAXA has [completed](https://global.jaxa.jp/press/2023/09/20230914-1%5Fe.html) all health checks of its currently Earthbound [SLIM lunar lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-144/). With the compact spacecraft working alright, mission operators are now prepping for its pre-lunar-flyby *Earth orbit* insertion two weeks from now. This close-pass trajectory won’t be to insert SLIM into lunar orbit though. Much like the Advanced Space-led [CAPSTONE](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/small%5Fspacecraft/capstone) and South Korea’s [KPLO](https://jatan.space/kplo/) spacecraft, SLIM will take a longer but highly fuel-efficient route to the Moon, only targeting lunar orbital insertion about four months from now. SLIM will then spend a month in lunar orbit before attempting its 20-minute descent and ‘[pinpoint](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-144/)’ lunar landing. - The launch of Advance Space’s $72 million [Oracle](https://spacenews.com/advanced-space-wins-72-million-air-force-contract-for-lunar-experiment) spacecraft, being built for the US Air Force to gain space situational awareness of cislunar space, is delayed to 2027 instead of 2025 as Sandra Erwin [reports](https://spacenews.com/air-force-research-laboratory-delays-lunar-experiment). - *Sponsored job listing*: Epsilon3 is hiring a [Software Engineer](https://jobs.lever.co/epsilon3/a03bb64e-920f-4235-b33e-c6f7faa912ea) to work on its versatile web-based platform used by NASA, Blue Origin, Astrobotic, Firefly, Astrolab, and more to efficiently and safely manage complex spacecraft testing and operational procedures. ## I’ll be presenting at LEAG! I’m honored and stoked to share that I’ve been selected to deliver the “[Early Career Featured Presentation](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/leag2023/technical%5Fprogram/?session%5Fno=104)” at the annual meeting of the NASA-backed Lunar Exploration Analysis Group ([LEAG](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag)) this September 20! 🚀 ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fbe0f88d5-2dd8-47df-9e60-d35ebd7861d1_1640x696-jpeg.jpg) Screenshot from the [LEAG 2023 program](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/leag2023/technical%5Fprogram) LEAG [helps](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag/reports/LEAG2022AnnualMeetingFindings%5FFINAL.pdf) the agency forge and meet its Moon exploration objectives with scientific, technical, commercial, and operational analysis. You can virtually attend LEAG and my talk by [registering for free](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/leag2023/registration). I will share major updates from this September 20–22 meet as well as my talk video and slides right here on my Moon Monday newsletter. 🌗 --- **→ [Sponsor Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) | [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### How Chandrayaan 3 made its historic touchdown on our Moon URL: https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/ Last updated: 2025-06-09T14:34:27.000Z On August 23 at 12:33 UTC, India’s [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) robotic lander touched down on the Moon near its south pole at [69.37°S, 32.32°E](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=-121.9088908%2C-16.5179485%2C63.003247%2C-19.5079959&id=lroc&showGraticule=true&layerListFilter=lat&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=32.34810585%2C-69.36768573%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Chandrayaan+3+target+landing+site%22%7D%7C32.31900500%2C-69.37302500%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Chandrayaan+3+actual+landing+site%22%7D%7C32.31901900%2C-69.37303700%2C32.34812400%2C-69.36769200%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Distance%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0yioA&proj=27). The triumphant touchdown made India only the fourth country to achieve the feat of a soft lunar landing, following the former Soviet Union, the US, and China.. I spoke to several lunar lander engineers to lay out how Chandrayaan 3 autonomously orchestrated the firing of its engines based on sensor inputs throughout the nerve wracking \~19-minute descent. [Launched](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan3%5Fonboard%5Fvideo.html) on July 14 by the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO), Chandrayaan 3 was the result of the space agency doubling down on its bet on lunar landing after the unfortunate [crash](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/india-loses-contact-with-lunar-lander) of [Chandrayaan 2](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-2-moon-landing-mission/) in 2019\. With the Chandrayaan 3 lander, named Vikram, now safely on the Moon, ISRO’s efforts paid off. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f5ce6c4bb-12ed-4080-a8e5-0f4e81cdd332_3000x2000-jpeg.jpg) Liftoff of the Moonbound Chandrayaan 3 by a GSLV Mk III rocket. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/chandrayaan3%5Fgallery.html) Chandrayaan 3’s entire lunar descent had to be fully autonomous. During this crucial stage of the mission, signals take about three seconds to go from the lander to Earth and back again—a delay too long for earthbound ISRO engineers to reliably guide the landing. So Vikram’s task was to reduce its high orbital velocity to zero such that it would stay as close to its intended trajectory as possible, all the way until a safe touchdown. To do so, it needed to orchestrate the firing of its engines based on continuous measurements of distance, velocity, and orientation. To stick the landing this time around, ISRO built far more redundancies and safeguards into Chandrayaan 3 than it had for Chandrayaan 2\. In an [August 5 talk](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fZ2sNRP1opY&t=3000s) detailing these changes, ISRO’s Chief S. Somanath emphasized how Chandrayaan 3 carried more fuel and a better guidance, navigation & control system to correct even major deviations from the intended paths. “There were improvements to 21 subsystems for Chandrayaan 3\. These changes have been reinforced by numerous helicopter- and crane-based ground tests,” says [Nilesh Desai](https://www.sac.gov.in/Vyom/director), director of ISRO’s Space Applications Center (SAC) in Ahmedabad, India. Evidently, these improvements culminated in Chandrayaan 3 standing tall on the Moon. This success wasn’t a given, especially when considering that four out of the previous six lunar landing attempts within the past five years have failed. The latest failure occurred on August 19, when Russia’s Luna 25 spacecraft misfired its engines and [crashed into the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-141/)—a brutal reminder that getting to the lunar surface in one piece remains risky. Luna 25 thus joins the ruins of the Israel-based company SpaceIL’s [Beresheet](https://davidson.weizmann.ac.il/en/online/sciencepanorama/what-happened-beresheet), India’s [Chandrayaan 2](https://jatan.space/finding-the-chandrayaan-2-lander/), and the private Japanese firm ispace’s [Hakuto-R](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-129/) spacecraft. Thankfully, at least Chandrayaan 3’s outcome has instead followed those of China’s [Chang’e 4](https://www.eoportal.org/satellite-missions/chang-e-4) and [Chang’e 5](https://jatan.space/change-5-landing-site/) landers, the only other recent successes. “We now have a tremendous responsibility to inspire India and the world at levels no less than this landing,” said Mr. Sankaran Muthusamy, director of the U R Rao Satellite Center (URSC), the ISRO center that led the building and integration of the Chandrayaan 3 spacecraft and mission. ## How Chandrayaan 3 aimed for the Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f27a0c1ac-95f4-45ce-9490-d22baa11fcfb_2500x1650-jpeg.jpg) The descent and landing profile of Chandrayaan 3\. [Credits: Ohsin / ISRO](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chandrayaan-3%5FLander%5FPowered%5FDescent%5FProfile.svg) Chandrayaan 3’s about 19-minute-long lunar descent comprised four major phases. The first, the “rough braking” phase, [began](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DLA%5F64yz8Ss) when the spacecraft was 30 kilometers above the Moon in its orbit and about 750 kilometers downrange from its landing site. By firing all of its four 800-newton main engines for about 12 minutes until it was at a 7-kilometer altitude, Chandrayaan 3 reduced its high horizontal velocity of about 1.7 kilometers/second by some 80 percent. Next came a brief but crucial 10-second “attitude hold” phase, wherein the lander stabilized itself using its eight smaller thrusters to gain a steady view of the looming lunar surface for its various [landing sensors](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan3%5FDetails.html). For height measurements, Chandrayaan 3 relied on two altimeters, one using lasers and the other using microwaves. While laser altimeters are commonly employed by several lunar landers, they can report anomalous heights at times if, say, a lander passes over mountainous terrain or large craters. “Instead the microwave altimeter’s wider footprint allowed Chandrayaan 3 to better tolerate abrupt changes in altitude,” explains [Priyanka Mehrotra](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Priyanka-Mehrotra-2108114534) of SAC, who is lead system designer of Chandrayaan 3’s Ka-Band microwave altimeter. #### Where past landings faltered Chandrayaan 3’s redundant altimetry is especially pertinent because of the role laser altimetry played during the [failed April 25 touchdown](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-129/) of ispace’s [first lunar lander](https://jatan.space/ispace-japan-m1-moon-mission/). As that lander passed over the rim of the Atlas Crater to approach the [target landing site](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=40.2145798%2C44.1202909%2C48.4074855%2C48.7594362&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=44.40014864%2C47.49964213&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFaaKBJ-Im64NOZFkRdi5KjwpA&proj=16) that lay within, its laser altimeter correctly reported an increased elevation of roughly 3 kilometers, corresponding to the crater’s depth. But onboard software designed to filter out certain abrupt values to keep the ispace lander’s motion stable rejected the measurement as erroneous. The Japanese lander, thinking it was closer to the surface than it really was, continued decelerating slowly until it ran out of fuel and fell to a ruinous crash landing. It was during the attitude hold phase that Chandrayaan 2 faltered. Its engines provided a [slightly greater thrust](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fZ2sNRP1opY&t=2337s) than expected because of an inadequately functioning thrust control valve, which accumulated navigation errors over time. ISRO had designed the onboard computer to correct such “off-nominal” paths only after the attitude hold phase ended. But the deviation quickly grew to be so large that the lander couldn’t correct it in time despite its ability to throttle its thrust. In response, ISRO ensured that Chandrayaan 3 could determine and correct such deviations from its intended trajectory far faster than its failed predecessor. Chandrayaan 3’s lander also used a new instrument called a laser doppler velocimeter (LDV) to navigate more precisely in the first place. “While there are other ways for a lunar lander to measure its velocity, an LDV provides a direct measurement of velocity with respect to the ground, which allows a lander to greatly reduce accumulation of navigation errors,” says [William Coogan](https://www.linkedin.com/in/william-coogan-a01334a9), lunar lander chief engineer at Firefly Aerospace, a private company that has partnered with NASA via the space agency’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) to deliver science and technology payloads to the Moon in [2024](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2023/nasa-delivers-hardware-for-commercial-lunar-payload-mission) and [2026](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-picks-firefly-aerospace-for-robotic-delivery-to-far-side-of-moon). However, in a post-landing interview with Republic World, ISRO Chief S. Somanath [said](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g19ADD%5FuE50&t=132s) that Chandrayaan 3’s descent and landing went so nominally that the laser doppler velocimeter ISRO had added for redundant velocity measurements didn’t end up being required. After its fraught attitude hold phase, Chandrayaan 3 entered a three-minute “fine braking” phase in which it used only two of its four main engines to descend up to roughly 850 meters above the Moon’s surface and briefly hover there. This pause gave the lander a chance to capture pictures of the surface and compare them to preloaded onboard satellite images to determine whether it was above its desired landing region. “Chandrayaan 3’s target landing zone spans 4 by 2.5 kilometers. ISRO scientists and engineers divided it into 3,900 equal-sized subsections, meticulously assessed the safety level of each for a landing, and loaded it into the lander as reference information,” Desai says. At this point, Chandrayaan 3 found itself above this predetermined landing zone, and so its onboard computer identified the safest feasible subsection area and accordingly proceed toward touchdown. Had Chandrayaan 3 found itself elsewhere, it would have proceeded with an autonomous landing based on self-identified hazards from its imagery instead of the preprogrammed subsection-based landing. ### The moment of touchdown In the final “terminal descent”phase, Chandrayaan 3 lowered itself to about 150 meters above the surface and then hovered again for about half a minute to assess the area below for landing hazards. At this point, since the surface right below the lander didn’t look safe, the lander sought a safer adjacent area and deviated to touchdown there. “The processing system for hazard avoidance was sped up for Chandrayaan 3 to make the lander’s decision-making during the critical final phases significantly faster than Chandrayaan 2,” says [Rinku Agrawal](https://www.linkedin.com/in/rinku-agrawal-455526172) of SAC, who led the team that developed the processing unit of the hazard detection and avoidance system. “Hazard detection and avoidance allows for a critical divert maneuver if needed during the final moments to ensure a safe touchdown,” says [Ander Solorzano](https://www.linkedin.com/in/ander-a-solorzano-a5915969), flight director of aerospace company Astrobotic Technology’s first Moon landing mission, which will carry NASA [CLPS](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/first-commercial-moon-delivery-assignments-to-advance-artemis) and [international](https://www.astrobotic.com/lunar-delivery/manifest) payloads. Finally, on touchdown, sensors on the lander’s legs triggered the shutdown of its main engines. ISRO designed the lander’s legs to absorb most of the mechanical shock from the touchdown. The agency tested the legs on lunar simulant test beds on Earth to ensure that the lander could tolerate a high vertical velocity of three meters per second—and even a horizontal velocity of one meter per second if it were to touch down askew. Chandrayaan 3’s touchdown on the surface was smooth, with a vertical velocity of 0.983 meters/second—notably less than the nominally expected upper bound of 2 meters/second. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2feeae9cef-0b51-4d70-ad88-30eda2d71470_1131x885-jpeg.jpg) Mission control graph showing specifics of Chandrayaan 3’s descent and landing. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.reddit.com/r/ISRO/comments/160894e/landing%5Fgraph) The final location of [69.37°S, 32.32°E](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=-119.5202449%2C-32.9249309%2C60.4797551%2C-32.9249309&id=lroc&showGraticule=true&layerListFilter=lat&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=32.34810585%2C-69.36768573%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Chandrayaan+3+target+landing+site%22%7D%7C32.31900500%2C-69.37302500%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Chandrayaan+3+actual+landing+site%22%7D%7C32.31901900%2C-69.37303700%2C32.34812400%2C-69.36769200%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Distance%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0yioA&proj=27) places Chandrayaan 3 [just \~350 meters away](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=32.2580128%2C-69.4371387%2C32.4316875%2C-69.3149039&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryFeature=2&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=32.34810585%2C-69.36768573%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Chandrayaan+3+target+landing+site%22%7D%7C32.31900500%2C-69.37302500%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Chandrayaan+3+actual+landing+site%22%7D%7C32.31901900%2C-69.37303700%2C32.34812400%2C-69.36769200%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Distance%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFOOZLRfImqnioA&proj=17) from the targeted spot. It’s even more impressive when we consider that in the final descent phase the lander swiftly identified the area beneath it to be unsafe for touchdown and the live data graph at Mission Control read “[RE-TARGET](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DLA%5F64yz8Ss&t=2591s)”, which it then did! ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fb821309e-5125-43b9-9096-b42e5bc031fd_2800x1800-jpeg.jpg) ISRO’s Chandrayaan 3 lander on the Moon as imaged by the [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/), which is the world’s sharpest lunar orbital imager. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/chandrayaan3%5Fgallery.html) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f595b0a7f-de2d-48b1-a056-a6c94fe04e93_2500x1600-jpeg.jpg) [Click to explore](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=-121.9088908%2C-16.5179485%2C63.003247%2C-19.5079959&id=lroc&showGraticule=true&layerListFilter=lat&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=32.34810585%2C-69.36768573%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Chandrayaan+3+target+landing+site%22%7D%7C32.31900500%2C-69.37302500%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Chandrayaan+3+actual+landing+site%22%7D%7C32.31901900%2C-69.37303700%2C32.34812400%2C-69.36769200%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Distance%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0yioA&proj=27) Chandrayaan 3’s landing region on a map. Credit: LROC Quickmap ## The surface mission ISRO, most media publications worldwide, and many social media influencers have been touting Chandrayaan 3 as the first mission to land on the Moon’s south pole. But [this is incorrect](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-142/). Anyway, Chandrayaan 3 landed a day after local dawn to maximize the solar-powered lander and rover’s surface operations lifetime to most of the lunar daylight period of 14 Earth days. ISRO [powered on](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1694699791505322117) the lander’s three active instruments on August 24, each of which returned data for 11 days since. From August 25, the rover [began exploring](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/chandrayaan-3-rover-surmounts-its-first-lunar-obstacle-a-100mm-deep-crater/articleshow/103111021.cms) the [geologically rich landing region](https://doi.org/10.1093/mnrasl/slad106) and traversed 100 meters on the lunar surface over 10 Earth days. This is shorter than the originally expected drive of 300–400 meters. ISRO has shared [summaries of initial data](https://www.isro.gov.in/Ch3%5FScienceResults.html) from each of Chandrayaan 3’s experiments, with actual science results to only come later, of course. Based on the initial data, the [expected science output](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) from Chandrayaan 3 seems to be mostly deliverable. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f82bb3520-3eb2-4a63-b755-34ee65d85853_2500x1607-jpeg.jpg) The Chandrayaan 3 Pragyan rover’s traverse path over 10 Earth days. The background image is from the [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/), with each individual traverse in the path color-coded. The inset image on the lower left shows the rover and the lander’s long shadow. The top-right inset image shows the rover’s tracks. The rover lies [\~40 meters away](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=32.3012102%2C-69.3854921%2C32.3357115%2C-69.362789&id=lroc&showGraticule=true&layerListFilter=lat&showTerrain=true&queryFeature=2&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=32.31900500%2C-69.37302500%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Chandrayaan+3+actual+landing+site%22%7D%7C32.31590700%2C-69.37381900%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Approximate+location+of+Pragyan+rover+on+September+2%22%7D%7C32.31590700%2C-69.37381900%2C32.31904100%2C-69.37302600%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Distance+between+Vikram+and+Pragyan%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0yioA&proj=27) from the lander. [Credits: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/chandrayaan3%5Fgallery.html) ## India’s Next Moonshot Chandrayaan 3 [feeds](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) into the [global frenzy](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) of sending hardware to the Moon, particularly to its south pole. The US’ upcoming Artemis crewed missions, China’s Chang’e robotic craft and the majority of other governmental as well as private endeavors such as those under NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) plan to explore this valuable lunar region. They [eventually aim](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/can-nasas-artemis-moon-missions-count-on-using-lunar-water-ice) to extract its [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other resources to sustain long-duration missions and perhaps even to commercialize aspects of such operations. It was thus quite the timing when, on June 21, India [signed](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-welcomes-india-as-27th-artemis-accords-signatory) the [Artemis Accords](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/nasa-proposes-new-rules-for-moon-focused-space-race), a US-led framework for cooperative lunar exploration. As a signatory, India can now accelerate its lunar endeavors by better collaborating with the US and other signatory nations. Astrobotic CEO [John Thornton](https://www.linkedin.com/in/john-thornton-astro) says, “I’m encouraged by India’s signing of the Accords. It’s certainly a signal for extended partnerships and co-developments between the two countries. The more we can do that as a species, the better chance we have of succeeding together.” For its next Moon mission launching before the end of decade, India is partnering with Japan to have the [LUPEX rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-111/) directly study the nature, abundance, and accessibility of [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s south pole. “LUPEX requires a more precise touchdown with a much bigger lander. Chandrayaan 3’s success will act as a stepping stone towards India building LUPEX’s lander and thus playing a key role in the future exploration of our Moon,” says S. Megala, the Deputy Director of ISRO’s Lunar Science & Exploration program. Seeing that both Japan and India are signatories of the Accords, LUPEX will likely also feed into the critical data on which future crewed [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) missions will bank. The Japanese government has already approved the LUPEX mission but India is yet to, and so that will be the green light to look out for next now that Chandrayaan 3 is successful. *Originally published on* [*Scientific American*](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown-on-the-moon)*, and tweaked for my blog.* ### Moon Monday #144: On the most precise planetary landing attempt by SLIM, sprawling SLS rocket costs, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-144/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:14:53.000Z ## Japan launches the SLIM lunar lander with an unprecedented aim ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f77b4264f-8cfb-471d-bea7-421e37de9626_2500x1600-jpeg.jpg) **Left:** Launch of JAXA’s XRISM X-ray observatory and SLIM Moon lander on the MHI-built H-IIA rocket; **Top right:** SLIM’s flight model at the Spacecraft and Fairing Assembly Building at Japan’s Tanegashima launch complex; **Bottom right:** Illustration of SLIM’s trajectory to the Moon. Credits: [Kyodo News / AP](https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/technology/live-video-watch-japan-s-slim-moon-lander-and-xrism-telescope-launch/ar-AA1glgLo) / [JAXA](https://jda.jaxa.jp/search.php?lang=e&page=1&keyword=SLIM&library=1&category1=&category2=&category3=&category4=&page%5Fpics=20) On September 7, Japan launched the 2012-proposed [SLIM lander](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/en/missions/spacecraft/current/slim.html) to the Moon. Shortly after separating from the upper stage of its H-IIA launch vehicle in Earth orbit, SLIM [completed](https://global.jaxa.jp/press/2023/09/20230907-3%5Fe.html) sun acquisition control and JAXA reported its health to be normal. Much like the Advanced Space-led [CAPSTONE](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/small%5Fspacecraft/capstone) and South Korea’s [KPLO](https://jatan.space/kplo/) spacecraft, SLIM will take a longer but highly fuel-efficient route to the Moon, only targeting entering into lunar orbit about four months later. SLIM will then spend a month in lunar orbit before attempting its 20-minute descent and lunar landing. The compact SLIM lander aims to demonstrate *pinpoint touchdown*, which for lunar landings means achieving a touchdown within 100 meters of the targeted spot. For SLIM, that spot lies on a slope [within the rocky ejecta](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/feature/forefront/220928.html) of the 300-meter wide Shioli crater at [25.2°E, 13.3°S](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=25.1695106%2C-13.35231%2C25.2952214%2C-13.2840171&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryFeature=1&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=25.24782200%2C-13.31708200%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22SLIM+target+landing+site%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0yioA&proj=10). SLIM aims to directly land in this otherwise mobility-inaccessible region and analyze its composition using SLIM’s near-infrared, multi-band spectroscopic camera to glean insights about [our Moon’s mantle and its formation](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fcd703144-4b28-4a37-8309-7e2f73ecf18d_1800x1800-jpeg-1.jpg) SLIM’s target landing location, marked as orange dots, in the Moon’s globe view, against the large Cyrillus and Theophilus craters, and besides the 300-meter wide Shioli crater. [Image credits: LROC Quickmap](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=25.1695106%2C-13.35231%2C25.2952214%2C-13.2840171&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryFeature=1&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=25.24782200%2C-13.31708200%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22SLIM+target+landing+site%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0yioA&proj=10) / Graphic: Jatan Mehta As a cherry on top, SLIM aims to achieve the daring first of a pinpoint planetary landing with a low spacecraft mass of only 730 kilograms. To that end, SLIM touts a number of [novel mass reduction technologies and approaches](https://global.jaxa.jp/countdown/slim/SLIM-mediakit-EN%5F2308.pdf) such as an integrated fuel and oxidizer tank, which doubles as the lander’s structure base, foldable thin-film solar cell sheets, an integrated digital power control unit, and 3D printed parts like those in its five legs. ### Lunar landing accuracies compared To truly appreciate the tight landing ellipse of 100 by 100 meters that SLIM will target a touchdown within, let’s compare it to some other Moon landings: - **Chang’e 3:** Landing ellipse size was [6 by 6 kilometers](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284345092%5FGuidance%5FSummary%5Fand%5FAssessment%5Fof%5Fthe%5FChang'e-3%5FPowered%5FDescent%5Fand%5FLanding); and it landed [89 meters away](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284345092%5FGuidance%5FSummary%5Fand%5FAssessment%5Fof%5Fthe%5FChang'e-3%5FPowered%5FDescent%5Fand%5FLanding) from its target point. This makes Chang’e 3’s touchdown the most precise to date, robotic or human. - **Chandrayaan 3:** Landing ellipse spanned [4 by 2.5 kilometers](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/pdf/1037.pdf), and it touched down [\~350 meters away](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=32.2580128%2C-69.4371387%2C32.4316875%2C-69.3149039&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryFeature=2&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=32.34810585%2C-69.36768573%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Chandrayaan+3+target+landing+site%22%7D%7C32.31900500%2C-69.37302500%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Chandrayaan+3+actual+landing+site%22%7D%7C32.31901900%2C-69.37303700%2C32.34812400%2C-69.36769200%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Distance%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFOOZLRfImqnioA&proj=17) from the target spot. - **Apollo 17**: Landing zone was [15 by 5 kilometers](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/files/DOCS/LROC%5FPSR%5Factivity%5Flunar%5Fwater%5Fpart%5F2%5Finstructor.pdf), and astronauts landed it [\~400 meters away](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284345092%5FGuidance%5FSummary%5Fand%5FAssessment%5Fof%5Fthe%5FChang'e-3%5FPowered%5FDescent%5Fand%5FLanding) from its center point. - **Mars landers** have [much larger ellipse sizes](https://jatan.space/how-nasa-choses-mars-landing-sites/). Perseverance, the most precise Mars lander, had an ellipse size of [7.7 by 6.6 kilometers](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/images/mars-probe-landing-ellipses) and it landed [1.7 kilometers away](https://spacenews.com/perseverance-lands-on-mars) from its center. Curiosity’s landing ellipse spanned [20 by 7 kilometers](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/landing%5Fellipse%5Fcuriosity%5Fgale%5Fpia15687), and missions before it had increasingly larger dispersions. In other words, SLIM’s mission doesn’t afford it to have any considerable errors beyond the most precise planetary landing to date. Such gripping precision isn’t for the sake of a demonstration. The upcoming US Artemis crewed missions, China’s Chang’e robotic craft, and the majority of other government as well as private endeavors plan to explore the Moon’s [rocky south pole](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/SPole%5FSRidgemap%5FLOLA-Slope5m%5Fv20190515.pdf), where such demanding touchdowns would be indispensable in order to access the [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) lying inside [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f3323c8ed-34ff-4302-b479-88ebb20f6926_1915x1038-jpeg-1.jpg) Elevation and slope maps at the Moon’s south pole. The terrain is very rocky, requiring missions to use precision landing technologies. [Credit: LPI](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas) For its next Moon mission launching before the end of decade, Japan is partnering with India to have its [LUPEX rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-111/) directly study the nature, abundance, and accessibility of water ice at the lunar south pole at 89°S. The lander delivering LUPEX will be built by ISRO, and [Chandrayaan 3’s success](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-142/) as well as hopefully that of SLIM will feed into the lander’s ability to safely touchdown amid unforgiving polar terrain. The Japanese government has already approved the LUPEX mission but India is yet to, and so that will be the green light to look out for next now that Chandrayaan 3 is successful. --- *Many thanks to *[Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io)*, *[Open Lunar Foundation](https://www.openlunar.org)* and *[Arun Raghavan](https://arunraghavan.net)* for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## The SLS rocket remains a critical cost concern for Artemis Moon missions In a [scathing report](https://www.gao.gov/assets/gao-23-105609.pdf) published on September 7 and delivered to the US House and Senate appropriators, NASA’s Government Accountability Office (GAO) has criticized the agency for continuing to be [not transparent enough](https://spacenews.com/gao-report-calls-for-more-transparency-on-sls-costs) about the true cost of the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) central to the nearly $100 billion [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) Moon program. NASA’s Office of Inspector General (OIG) had estimated in 2021 that separately from development costs, the first three SLS flights will cost [$2.2 billion per launch](https://oig.nasa.gov/docs/IG-22-003.pdf). And now the GAO notes seeing cost growth even as the SLS moves into production: > Based on our analysis of the contract, the cost to produce successive core stages is increasing over time. This report follows the OIG’s [May 25 report](https://oig.nasa.gov/docs/IG-23-015.pdf), which criticized the agency’s handling of the SLS rocket engine contracts to Aerojet Rocketdyne and Northrop Grumman who provide the vehicle’s [$146 million](https://arstechnica.com/science/2020/05/nasa-will-pay-a-staggering-146-million-for-each-sls-rocket-engine/)\-per-piece [RS-25](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/sls%5Frs25%5Fengine%5Ffs%5F508.pdf) core engines and the [twin boosters](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/fs/solid-rocket-booster.html) respectively. The OIG had noted a $6 billion cost increase and a delay of more than six years in receiving said hardware for the designated initial Artemis missions. The report added: > NASA and its contracts will continue to exceed planned cost and schedule, resulting in a reduced availability of funds, delayed launches, and the erosion of the public’s trust in the agency’s ability to responsibly spend taxpayer money and meet mission goals and objectives—including returning humans safely to the Moon. The latest GAO report says related NASA officials acknowledge that the SLS is “unsustainable” at its current level, and that they’re trying to find short-term as well as long-term cost reduction strategies. To that end, NASA is [preparing to award a contract](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-prepares-for-space-launch-system-rocket-services-contract) for future SLS rocket launches to Deep Space Transport LLC, a joint venture between two major SLS contractors Boeing and Northrop Grumman. In hopes to reduce SLS’s cost by up to 50%, NASA will [transfer the ownership of its production and associated facilities](https://spacenews.com/nasa-prepares-to-award-sls-launch-services-contract-to-boeing-northrop-joint-venture) into a single launch service contract. The baseline contract would be for Artemis V–IX missions, and likely extend to Artemis X–XIV later. ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fc5a5c8c8-8c0c-4eca-a680-9ec47366ffec_1680x1200-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of Australia’s first lunar rover, shown here with its robotic arm in action trying to sample lunar soil. [Credit: ASA](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sRzZHLuCSiM) - The Australian Space Agency is [running a competition](https://www.industry.gov.au/news/competition-to-name-australias-lunar-rover) for Australians to name [the country’s first lunar rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-97/) heading to the Moon’s south pole in 2026\. Earlier this year, the agency [announced](https://www.crn.com.au/news/two-consortia-to-build-aussie-designed-lunar-rover-592334) competitively selecting two national industry consortia—[AROSE](https://www.uwa.edu.au/news/Article/2023/March/Australia-a-step-closer-to-a-moon-landing) and [EPE & Lunar Outpost Oceania](https://lunaroutpost.com/lunar-outpost-oceania-epe-consortium-selected-to-participate-in-the-australian-space-agencys-moon-to-mars-trailblazer-initiative)—to build rover prototypes by June 2024 for [$4 million](https://www.minister.industry.gov.au/ministers/husic/media-releases/head-nasa-visit-australia-highlights-space-partnership) each. The winning consortium will build the actual semi-autonomous rover for lunar delivery on a NASA-funded [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) lander. The rover will retrieve lunar soil for the lander, where a NASA-operated system will practice extracting oxygen from it as a technology precursor to eventually sustaining longer human presence on the Moon. - Following a [recent agreement](https://payloadspace.com/south-africa-partners-with-china-on-lunar-base), South Africa has now [formally joined](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/n6758823/n6758840/c10370666/content.html) the upcoming China-led long-term [scientific base](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-120/) on the Moon’s south pole called the [International Lunar Research Station](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-32/) (ILRS). It isn’t clear what South Africa’s role would be but a ground station is a good guess, something the country’s space agency is [providing to NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/NASA-SANSA-Renew-Lunar-Exploration-Partnership) as well for high bandwidth communications during Artemis crewed missions. Relatedly, Venezuela [formally joined ILRS](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/n6759533/c10077000/content.html) on July 17 with [ground station infrastructure](http://www.abae.gob.ve/venezuela-proyecto-lunar-internacional) being its key contribution. - It happens to be great timing that following [Chandrayaan 3’s hop](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-143/) on the Moon, Astrobotic has started work on [two NASA-funded studies](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-commences-two-nasa-contracts-to-investigate-rocket-plumes-and-their-interaction-with-the-lunar-surface) to better understand how [lunar lander rocket plumes affect lunar soil](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/game%5Fchanging%5Fdevelopment/projects/PSI). The aim is to quantify [risks posed](https://arxiv.org/abs/2102.12312) by lander plumes to various kinds of nearby lunar hardware and future habitats with high fidelity terrestrial testing. A [White Paper](https://arxiv.org/abs/2102.12312) submitted to [the 2023-2032 US Decadal Survey](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-74/) strongly recommended future NASA Moon missions to carry instruments for specific measurements of plume effects, and that such data be public. - The team behind [the radar](https://doi.org/10.3847/PSJ/abfdbf) onboard the [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) decided they didn’t want out on the action and [have also imaged](https://www.isro.gov.in/Ch3Lander%5Fimagedby%5FCh2SAR.html) the Chandrayaan 3 lander on the Moon, following snaps by the orbiter’s [optical high-resolution camera](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-142/) and NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/1314). --- **→ [Sponsor Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) | [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Indian Space Progress #8: Aditya-L1 soars for the Sun as Chandrayaan 3 stands tall on the Moon URL: https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-08/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:14:53.000Z ## Aditya-L1 launch infuses hope of being one more foundational Indian space science mission ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f98fc6855-0bef-4694-8045-c175b0061ffa_2500x1600-jpeg-1.jpg) **Left:** A PSLV-XL rocket launches the Aditya-L1 spacecraft on September 2\. **Top right:** The Aditya-L1 spacecraft before being encapsulated in the PSLV’s fairing. **Bottom right:** Illustration of Aditya-L1’s trajectory to the Earth-Sun L1 region. [Credits: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/AdityaL1%5Fgallery.html) On September 2, ISRO [launched](https://www.isro.gov.in/PSLV%5FC57%5FLift%5Foff%5Fvideo.html) the [Aditya-L1](https://www.isro.gov.in/Aditya%5FL1.html) solar observatory on a PSLV-XL rocket, which put the 1481-kilogram spacecraft in an elliptical Earth orbit of [235 by 19,500 kilometers](https://www.isro.gov.in/PSLVC57%5FAdityaL1%5FPressRelease.html). Since then, Aditya-L1 has raised its apogee to 40,225 kilometers with two engine burns on [September 3](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1698224462821544411) and [September 5](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1698810887614992515) respectively. It’s around mid-December that Aditya-L1 is slated to halo-orbit the [first Sun-Earth Lagrangian point](https://www.isro.gov.in/Aditya%5FL1-MissionDetails.html) (L1), where the gravitational pull of the two bodies roughly balance. The Earth-Sun L1 region has hosted [multiple solar science missions](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) by other space agencies, such as [SOHO](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Space%5FScience/SOHO%5Fs%5Fpioneering%5F25%5Fyears%5Fin%5Forbit), [ACE](https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/ace/in-depth), [WIND](https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/wind/in-depth/), and [DSCOVR](https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/DSCOVR/in-depth). It’s from this unique vantage point which affords constant Sun visibility and Earth communications that Aditya-L1 will also study [the Sun’s surface, atmosphere, and its wind of radiation](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/). The observatory sports an [advanced set of seven instruments](https://www.isro.gov.in/Aditya%5FL1%5FPayload.html), developed indigenously by research institutes across the country. Together, these allow Aditya-L1 to uniquely observe our Sun in multiple wavelengths while also measuring the solar magnetic field and radiation in-situ. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f0a7eb81e-5a69-4f1e-9d70-0f092af32e09_1250x1250-jpeg.jpg) Aditya-L1 instruments. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/AdityaL1%5FMission%5FBrochure.pdf) Aditya-L1 carries [one of the most advanced coronagraphs](http://velc.iiap.res.in/science) to block sunlight and create solar eclipses on demand so as to better see the Sun’s inner atmosphere than previous missions while also studying its spectrum and tracking solar eruptions. The ESA-NASA SOHO telescope has been using coronagraphs for [nearly 30 years](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Space%5FScience/SOHO%5Fs%5Fpioneering%5F25%5Fyears%5Fin%5Forbit) now, which proved so valuable that most future missions along the Sun-Earth line are now carrying one, including Aditya-L1 and ESA’s upcoming [Proba-3](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FEngineering%5FTechnology/Proba%5FMissions/Proba-3%5FScience%5Fpayloads) spacecraft pair launching in 2024\. Complementing Aditya-L1’s coronagraph will be an [ultraviolet imager](https://instru.iucaa.in/index.php/projects/16-ongoing-projects/24-suit) providing continuous full disc observations of the Sun’s “surface”—aka the photosphere—as well as its inner atmosphere. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f95e0294c-e93f-4f14-81ea-263cbf31988a_1800x2550-jpeg.jpg) Credit: IIA NASA’s 2018-launched [Parker Solar Probe](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2019/nasas-parker-solar-probe-sheds-new-light-on-the-sun) is studying our Sun by dipping right into its atmosphere. ESA launched the [Solar Orbiter](https://sci.esa.int/web/solar-orbiter/-/44167-objectives) in 2019 to complement the Parker Solar Probe with [exquisite imaging](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Space%5FScience/Solar%5FOrbiter/Solar%5FOrbiter%5Fdiscovers%5Ftiny%5Fjets%5Fthat%5Fcould%5Fpower%5Fthe%5Fsolar%5Fwind). Aditya-L1 will study the Sun from much further away but its global views will allow for its observations to complement data from the NASA and ESA probes and place them in context. A key hope for scientists globally with these solar missions is to explain why the Sun’s corona is hotter than its surface by several million degrees, a [major unsolved problem](https://science.nasa.gov/news-articles/the-mystery-of-coronal-heating) in solar physics. Fun fact: Aditya-L1 isn’t India’s first space-based Sun watcher. ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) doesn’t just [study the Moon’s surface](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-44/) but [solar flares](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-orbiter-is-also-a-sun-watcher/) too! Of course, Aditya-L1 is a dedicated Sun-watcher and as such follows [AstroSat](https://academic.oup.com/astrogeo/article/63/4/4.27/6646766), India’s first dedicated space telescope, and [Chandrayaan 1](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/), India’s first planetary mission in setting a foundation for the country’s growing space-based space science abilities and ambitions. Relatedly, Chethan Kumar [writes](https://chethank.substack.com/p/another-first-isro-enters-x-band) about another notable first for Aditya-L1, that ISRO is now using the higher-throughput X-band for health monitoring and commanding of its deep space missions instead of the S-band. ## Chandrayaan 3 makes it to the Moon, carries out surface science mission ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f4c4e90da-c4c9-46bf-b10d-39456d0c91ff_1100x800-jpeg.jpg) The Chandrayaan 3 lander Vikram imaged by the mission’s rover Pragyan on August 30\. The rover was about 15 meters away from the lander at the time. The deployed thermal probe can be seen towards the lander’s lower left, and the seismometer on the lower right. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/chandrayaan3%5Fgallery.html) On August 23, ISRO’s Chandrayaan 3 robotic lander [triumphantly touched down](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) on the Moon, making India only the fourth country to achieve the feat of a soft lunar landing. The final location of [69.37°S, 32.32°E](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=-119.5202449%2C-32.9249309%2C60.4797551%2C-32.9249309&id=lroc&showGraticule=true&layerListFilter=lat&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=32.34810585%2C-69.36768573%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Chandrayaan+3+target+landing+site%22%7D%7C32.31900500%2C-69.37302500%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Chandrayaan+3+actual+landing+site%22%7D%7C32.31901900%2C-69.37303700%2C32.34812400%2C-69.36769200%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Distance%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0yioA&proj=27) places Chandrayaan 3 [just \~350 meters away](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=32.2580128%2C-69.4371387%2C32.4316875%2C-69.3149039&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryFeature=2&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=32.34810585%2C-69.36768573%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Chandrayaan+3+target+landing+site%22%7D%7C32.31900500%2C-69.37302500%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Chandrayaan+3+actual+landing+site%22%7D%7C32.31901900%2C-69.37303700%2C32.34812400%2C-69.36769200%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Distance%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFOOZLRfImqnioA&proj=17) from the targeted spot, which is well within the target landing zone of 4 by 2.5 kilometers. It’s even more impressive when we consider that in the final descent phase the lander swiftly identified the area beneath it to be unsafe for touchdown and the live data graph at Mission Control read “[RE-TARGET](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DLA%5F64yz8Ss&t=2591s)”, which it then did! To thank for this graceful maneuver is [Rinku Agrawal](https://www.linkedin.com/in/rinku-agrawal-455526172) of ISRO-SAC who led the team that developed the processing unit of the hazard detection and avoidance system. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f48000ef1-cc93-4577-b348-2594c1a58eb7_2800x1800-jpeg.jpg) ISRO’s Chandrayaan 3 lander on the Moon, imaged by the [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/), which is the world’s sharpest lunar orbital imager. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/chandrayaan3%5Fgallery.html) ISRO, most media publications worldwide, and many social media influencers have been touting Chandrayaan 3 as the first mission to land on the Moon’s south pole. But [this is incorrect](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-142/). Anyway, Chandrayaan 3 landed a day after local dawn to maximize the solar-powered lander and rover’s surface operations lifetime to most of the lunar daylight period of 14 Earth days. ISRO [powered on](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1694699791505322117) the lander’s three active instruments on August 24, each of which returned data for 11 days since. From August 25, the rover [began exploring](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/chandrayaan-3-rover-surmounts-its-first-lunar-obstacle-a-100mm-deep-crater/articleshow/103111021.cms) the [geologically rich landing region](https://doi.org/10.1093/mnrasl/slad106) and [traversed 100 meters](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-143/) on the lunar surface over 10 Earth days. This is shorter than the originally expected drive of 300–400 meters. On September 4, ISRO set the lander in [sleep mode](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1698618694795219401) while the rover was put to sleep mode fully charged [on September 2](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1698010732128764164). Its deployed solar panel is facing the direction of the next local sunrise on September 22. ISRO has shared [summaries of initial data](https://www.isro.gov.in/Ch3%5FScienceResults.html) from each of Chandrayaan 3’s experiments, with actual science results to only come later, of course. This marks a successful end to Chandrayaan 3’s nominal mission. If at all the lander and/or rover survive the frigid lunar night, which is expected to have peak cold temperatures around -200° Celsius, ISRO [hopes to reestablish communications](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/active-healthy-lander-rover-spur-hopes-of-rebirth/articleshow/103150618.cms) with them for an extended mission. ISRO pulled a trick up its sleeve when it [made the Vikram lander hop](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1698570774385205621) on September 2 around 21:21 UTC. The lander lifted about 40 centimeters up and safely landed 30–40 centimeters away, in the opposite direction to where the rover was previously deployed. However, Chandrayaan 3’s hop [wasn’t without its risks](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-143/), and would’ve involved some intriguing considerations and their tradeoffs. ISRO Chief S. Somanath [elaborated to Chethan Kumar](https://twitter.com/Chethan%5FDash/status/1698927449814528102) about the hop: > …we did multiple firings. First to check engine health, then firing without lifting (the lander) followed by a small lift, and finally the firing for the hop… #### Chandrayaan 3 reading menu - [Some notable specifics of Chandrayaan 3’s historic touchdown on our Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-142/) - A thorough [rundown of post-landing events](https://www.reddit.com/r/ISRO/comments/1611gua/chandrayaan3%5Fpostlanding%5Fupdates%5Fand%5Fdiscussion) by r/ISRO subreddit admin u/Ohsin - A neat webpage by ISRO on the [organizational anatomy of Chandrayaan 3](https://www.isro.gov.in/Making%5FChandrayaan3%5FISRO%5Fculture.html) - [Expected science output](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) from Chandrayaan 3, which based on [initial data](https://www.isro.gov.in/Ch3%5FScienceResults.html) seems to be mostly deliverable - [India’s role in the global return to our Moon](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) - [Chandrayaan 3 mission trivia and tidbits](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-135/) --- *Many thanks to the *[Takshashila Institution](https://takshashila.org.in)* and *[SkyServe](https://skyserve.ai)* for sponsoring this month’s Indian Space Progress report.* --- ## Space technology advances ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fc4e403fc-7254-4768-be04-f9e3392678bc_2200x1350-jpeg.jpg) Screengrab from a [video](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1690307790886027264) of a rogue parachute deployment test on a rail track rocket sled. [Credit: ISRO](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1690307790886027264) - ISRO continues working towards the ambitious inaugural [Gaganyaan mission](https://www.isro.gov.in/Gaganyaan.html) to indigenously send humans to space, with the latest milestone ahead of an October [crew module abort test](https://www.deccanherald.com/science-and-environment/isro-human-space-foray-set-for-next-step-1177994.html) being [deployment tests of drogue parachutes](https://www.isro.gov.in/Drogue%5FParachute%5FTest.html) from August 8–10\. When astronauts return to Earth after their mission, two drogue parachutes will stabilize their crew module before the three main chutes deploy so as to reduce velocity to a safe level and ensure a smooth and controlled descent. - The [July monthly summary](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/Monthly%5Fsummary/MonthlySummary-UnClassifiedJuly2023-English.pdf) of Indian space activities provided by the country’s Department of Space mentions that the NVS-01 navigation satellite, which launched in May, has been fully in-orbit tested and is now operational for providing navigation services. This includes achieving the required stability for the onboard indigenous atomic clock. This update means that ISRO has [passed a critical milestone](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-05/) needed to maintain and advance India’s homegrown GNSS navigation service. ISRO aims to launch four more such satellites by 2025, each designed to last at least 12 years. ## More Indian space - Bengaluru-based SatSure [raised $15 million](https://www.satsure.co/india-and-promus-ventures.html), primarily to build its four optical and multispectral 100-kilogram satellites via its subsidiary [KaleidEO](https://satsure.co/kaleidEO) for a launch by 2025 end. SatSure already has a business based on (primarily) ESA and NASA public Earth observation data to provide data analytics to [uniquely solve](https://theprint.in/features/bengaluru-firm-has-eyes-in-sky-to-fix-problems-on-ground-crops-insurance-claims-floods/1364852) agricultural, banking, and infrastructure problems in the country. As Aravind Ravichandran [notes on his TerraWatch podcast](https://podcast.terrawatchspace.com/episodes/59-launching-proprietary-satellites-and-becoming-a-vertically-integrated-earth-observation-company-satsure), SatSure is “one of the few Earth observation companies that follows a backward vertical integration strategy, transitioning from an EO analytics firm to an EO satellite firm.” - Pixxel Space is attempting to make hyperspectral data from its satellites to be easier to derive insights from by [partnering with SkyFi](https://www.pixxel.space/blogs/pixxel-and-skyfi-join-forces-for-easy-access-to-earth-observation-data). Pixxel recently [announced](https://www.pixxel.space/blogs/pixxel-raises-36-million-in-series-b-funding-to-advance-hyperspectral-satellite-constellation-and-data-platform) a Google-led $36 million funding round, bringing the total amount of money raised by the company to at least [$70 million](https://www.crunchbase.com/organization/pixxel-81c6/company%5Ffinancials). The company is targeting launching six commercial hyperspectral Earth imaging satellites to a sun-synchronous 550-kilometer orbit in 2024. - Manastu Space [raised $3 million](https://yourstory.com/2023/09/manastu-space-tech-startup-funding-debris-avoidance-satellites) for the development and test deployment of a suite of “green” collision avoidance technologies for satellites in Earth orbit. ## Events - The non-profit Indian Space Association is organizing the *[Indian Space Conclave 2023](https://www.ispaevents.space/indian-space-conclave-2023)* national space industry meet from October 9–11. - The Indian Planetary Science Association is organizing a conference on “*[Meteoroids, Meteors, and Meteorites](https://www.prl.res.in/~plas/metmess2023.html)*” from November 1–3 to explore all connected themes from Astrobiology to space weathering and sample return: ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fd66738b5-2164-4742-9d49-156143de0569_2030x1400-jpeg.jpg) --- **→ [Sponsor Indian Space Progress](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-indian-space-progress) | [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Moon Monday #143: The Chandrayaan 3 hop, the crash site of Luna 25, a SLIM eager for blastoff, and more mission updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-143/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:14:54.000Z Today, September 4, ISRO set the [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) Moon lander *Vikram* in [sleep mode](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1698618694795219401) around 3:30 UTC. This was shortly after sending commands to turn off its three active instruments: the thermal probe, the seismometer, and the plasma experiment. Likewise, a fully charged *Pragyan* rover, which has [traversed 100 meters](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1697881823391711684) on the lunar surface over 10 Earth days, was put to sleep mode [on September 2](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1698010732128764164). Its deployed solar panel is facing the direction of the next local sunrise on September 22. ISRO has shared [summaries of initial data](https://www.isro.gov.in/Ch3%5FScienceResults.html) from each of Chandrayaan 3’s experiments, with actual science results to only come later, of course. This marks a successful end to Chandrayaan 3’s nominal mission. If at all the lander and/or rover survive the frigid lunar night, which is expected to have peak cold temperatures around -200° Celsius, ISRO [hopes to reestablish communications](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/active-healthy-lander-rover-spur-hopes-of-rebirth/articleshow/103150618.cms) with them for an extended mission. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f45684e8d-829a-4c77-94a0-ed35e4406b03_2500x1607-jpeg.jpg) The Chandrayaan 3 Pragyan rover’s traverse path over 10 Earth days. The background image is from the [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/), with each individual traverse in the path color-coded. The inset image on the lower left shows the rover and the lander’s long shadow. The top-right inset image shows the rover’s tracks. The rover lies [\~40 meters away](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=32.3012102%2C-69.3854921%2C32.3357115%2C-69.362789&id=lroc&showGraticule=true&layerListFilter=lat&showTerrain=true&queryFeature=2&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=32.31900500%2C-69.37302500%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Chandrayaan+3+actual+landing+site%22%7D%7C32.31590700%2C-69.37381900%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Approximate+location+of+Pragyan+rover+on+September+2%22%7D%7C32.31590700%2C-69.37381900%2C32.31904100%2C-69.37302600%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Distance+between+Vikram+and+Pragyan%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0yioA&proj=27) from the lander. [Credits: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/chandrayaan3%5Fgallery.html) ### And then there was a hop ISRO pulled a trick up its sleeve when it [made the Vikram lander hop](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1698570774385205621) on September 2 around 21:21 UTC. The lander lifted about 40 centimeters up and safely landed 30–40 centimeters away, in the opposite direction to where the rover was previously deployed. In my blog post last month on “[Will Chandrayaan 3 hop after landing?](https://jatan.space/will-chandrayaan-3-hop-after-landing/)” I wrote: > Three of the four lander instruments need to be deployed: the seismometer, the thermal probe, and the plasma experiment. Based on publicly available information, the lander has no mechanisms to safely reel back all these instruments and redeploy them. Well, I couldn’t have been more glad to find out this isn’t true! Chandrayaan 3 has reeling and redeployment mechanisms for each of those instruments after all, something ISRO mentioned the first time only in the announcement of the hop. Of course, they folded back the rover ramp too before the hop. ISRO redeployed the instruments and the ramp post-hop, with the instruments confirmed to be collecting data again. However, Chandrayaan 3’s hop isn’t without its risks, and would’ve involved some intriguing considerations and their tradeoffs: - The rover, which lies only [\~40 meters away](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=32.3012102%2C-69.3854921%2C32.3357115%2C-69.362789&id=lroc&showGraticule=true&layerListFilter=lat&showTerrain=true&queryFeature=2&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=32.31900500%2C-69.37302500%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Chandrayaan+3+actual+landing+site%22%7D%7C32.31590700%2C-69.37381900%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Approximate+location+of+Pragyan+rover+on+September+2%22%7D%7C32.31590700%2C-69.37381900%2C32.31904100%2C-69.37302600%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Distance+between+Vikram+and+Pragyan%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0yioA&proj=27) from the lander, likely would’ve received some of the harsh lunar dust blasted away by the lander’s 800-newton engines. This might have affected the rover’s solar panels, wheels and mechanisms, and the optics, increasing the risk of reviving nominal operations the next lunar day. Hopefully not though; we’ll find out if the rover wakes up on or after September 22. - The functioning of the lander instruments and other lander hardware could’ve been affected by dust blowback during the hop. The former is relevant if ISRO really hopes to operate the lander science suite for another lunar day. - ISRO’s [stated rationale](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1698570774385205621) for the hop is that it “enthuses future sample return and human missions”. While the demonstration might certainly contribute data towards planning sample return and eventual human missions, it doesn’t seem to be a necessary step since previous robotic sample return missions of [Luna 20](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1972-007A), [Luna 24](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1976-081A), and [Chang’e 5](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1976-081A) as well as the [Apollo landers](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1969-059C) didn’t need need previously demonstrated hops to have worked fine. - The hop means the thermal probe’s later measurements of the lunar soil are now affected by being far less pristine than even from the [original August 23 landing](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/), wherein at least Vikram had touched down vertically at a fast [\~1 meters/second](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/). The hop could’ve also jeopardized some experiments which give better results with time, such as the seismometer. - Scientists studying [rocket plume effects](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/game%5Fchanging%5Fdevelopment/projects/PSI) on lunar soil are going to love this hop though. I doubt ISRO will make the process public but it would be fascinating to know which tradeoffs were made to take the decision to hop. It would seem that low confidence in the lander and rover surviving the frigid lunar night was the driving factor, as that would explain pros of a hop outweighing the risks to the potentially extensible mission science and operations. --- *Many thanks to *[Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io)* for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## More mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f3cd2fa15-0af8-43cc-ae89-6341c243b979_1000x850-jpeg.jpg) A fresh lunar crater, likely from the crash of Russia’s Luna 25 spacecraft, spotted by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter. [Credits: NASA / GSFC / ASU / LROC](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2023/lro-luna-25-impact) - NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html) (LRO) imaged a [new 10-meter wide lunar crater](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2023/lro-luna-25-impact) at 57.87°S, 61.36°E on August 22 which is likely the impact site of Russia’s [Luna 25](https://spec.tass.ru/luna-25) spacecraft. This places it close to the coordinates of 57.9°S, 61.5°E [predicted](https://russianspaceweb.com/luna-glob-flight.html#0819) by Russian researchers simulating the spacecraft’s trajectory. Roscosmos is [considering](https://tass.com/science/1665417) repeating Luna 25’s objective to land on the Moon with another try by 2026. - After several recent delays due to bad weather, JAXA is targeting launch of its [SLIM](https://global.jaxa.jp/countdown/slim%5Fspecial%5Fsite.html) Moon lander on the Japanese H-2A rocket on [September 6](https://global.jaxa.jp/press/2023/09/20230904-1%5Fe.html) at 23:42 UTC. The launch window runs through to September 15\. The compact lander aims to demonstrate *pinpoint lunar touchdown* (\~100-meter accuracy) with a low total mass of only 730 kilograms. To that end, SLIM [will attempt to land](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/feature/forefront/220928.html) within the rocky ejecta of the 300-meter wide [Shioli crater](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=25.1369017%2C-13.3775317%2C25.3103066%2C-13.279343&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=25.23250488%2C-13.32525147&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFaaKBJ-Im64NOZFkRdi5KjwpA&proj=16). - Intuitive Machines made available [$20 million](https://www.sec.gov/ix?doc=/Archives/edgar/data/1844452/000121390023072604/ea184512-8k%5Fintuitive.htm) through its stock sales for “working capital needs”, Jeff Foust [reports](https://spacenews.com/intuitive-machines-raises-20-million). The company recently [announced](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/intuitive-machines-reports-q2-financial-results-and-expected-first-lunar-mission-launch-date) that its first Moon lander [IM-1](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/im-1) is complete, and that after completing several [space-simulating tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/) the company will deliver the lander to SpaceX by September 15 for launch preparations. The companies are targeting a six-day launch window starting November 15\. IM-1 will carry [six NASA science & technology payloads](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/first-commercial-moon-delivery-assignments-to-advance-artemis) to the polar [Malapert A crater](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=-27.6167293,-80.9725683,9.6287046,-78.2434553&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIgL5A&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypOOKbRFdAJgQSfyJqt6XAMYiBCnrIsibsXLVgydAA4AnJNyEZlarIpA&proj=17) at 80°S as part of the agency’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). - Japan-based GITAI has raised $15 million—adding to their previous $46 million—to develop its lunar rover with a two-meter inchworm robotic arm, Jack Kuhr [reports](https://payloadspace.com/gitai-raises-an-additional-15m-of-funding). GITAI recently expanded its US presence, and has been operating prototypes in the Mojave desert to test various activities related to assembling parts of lunar habitats ahead of a hopeful 2026 launch. ## Even more Moon - ESA [continues expanding](https://ideas.esa.int/servlet/hype/IMT?documentTableId=45087167213490487&userAction=Browse&templateName=&documentId=bb471cdadced70f093ac9f6d53c5537a) its “[SciSpacE](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Research/Drop%5Ffly%5Firradiate%5FESA%5Fs%5FSciSpace%5Fresearch%5Fprogramme)” program to fund more science on and around the Moon, with the latest focus being on experiments aboard the upcoming NASA-led [Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) international lunar orbital habitat launching mid-decade. Previously in June 2022 as part of SciSpacE, ESA asked researchers across its member (and affiliated) states to [submit lunar science payload proposals](https://ideas.esa.int/servlet/hype/IMT?documentTableId=45087127246400699&userAction=Browse&searchTerm=SVNT&templateName=&documentId=a74341805c7f2c3197252cefbf332097) that can be developed for launch within 3 years of an identified flight opportunity. Winning proposals from a down-selected pool this year could launch as soon as mid-decade, likely on a NASA-funded [CLPS lander](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). - During NASA’s [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-i) mission last year, the agency’s [Deep Space Network](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/heo/scan/services/networks/deep%5Fspace%5Fnetwork/about) antennas spent 871 hours tracking [eight small satellites](https://jatan.space/science-on-artemis-i/)—almost the same as that on [Orion](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft)—which took away time and resources from the agency’s key science missions like JWST and Mars orbiters, Stephen Clark [reports](https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/08/nasas-artemis-i-mission-nearly-broke-the-deep-space-network). While NASA is [building three new ground stations](https://esc.gsfc.nasa.gov/news/Expanding%5FDirect-To-Earth%5FCommunications%5FCapabilities%5Ffor%5FArtemis) dedicated for future [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/) crewed lunar missions to reduce load on the Deep Space Network, these “Lunar Exploration Ground Sites” or LEGS won’t be operational until at least 2027 and even then won’t take away the Deep Space Network’s complete Artemis load. - China is [soliciting names](https://www.cmse.gov.cn/gfgg/202308/t20230828%5F54220.html) from the public for its crewed lunar orbital and landing spacecraft for the country’s [first human Moon landing mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-137/) by 2030. - ESA is funding Austrian company Incus to refine a new 3D printing method that could one day [reuse scrap metal](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2023/08/Recycling%5Fparts%5Ffor%5Flife%5Fon%5Fthe%5FMoon) from old lunar surface hardware to produce parts for aiding astronaut habitats. So far, some (simulated) lunar dust contamination isn’t proving to be an issue to the device’s working, which is good since lunar dust can be readily expected to be ingrained on hardware sitting on the Moon for years. - The Planetary Society’s latest Planetary Report is [a Moon special](https://www.planetary.org/planetary-report/the-moon-issue). 🌝 --- **→ [Sponsor Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) | [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Moon Monday #142: Chandrayaan 3 specifics, Artemis III science update, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-142/ Last updated: 2024-04-01T11:14:03.000Z *So Nature [quoted and linked](https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-02685-4) to my Moon Monday newsletter in an Editorial on the success of ISRO’s Chandrayaan 3 Moon landing!* :') ## An overview and specifics of Chandrayaan 3’s historic touchdown on our Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f23a8c7e7-0d9f-41e4-bae7-74cb722cafe5_2500x1600-jpeg.jpg) ISRO’s Chandrayaan 3 lander on the Moon, imaged by the [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/), which is the world’s sharpest lunar orbital imager. The bottom right inset image shows the lunar surface near one of Chandrayaan 3’s legs (and its shadow) as imaged by an onboard camera right after touchdown. [Credits: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/chandrayaan3%5Fgallery.html) On August 23 at 12:33 UTC, ISRO’s Chandrayaan 3 robotic lander [triumphantly touched down](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) on the Moon near its south pole at [69.37°S, 32.32°E](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=-121.9088908%2C-16.5179485%2C63.003247%2C-19.5079959&id=lroc&showGraticule=true&layerListFilter=lat&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=32.34810585%2C-69.36768573%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Chandrayaan+3+target+landing+site%22%7D%7C32.31900500%2C-69.37302500%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Chandrayaan+3+actual+landing+site%22%7D%7C32.31901900%2C-69.37303700%2C32.34812400%2C-69.36769200%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Distance%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0yioA&proj=27), making India only the fourth country to achieve the feat of a soft lunar landing. I spoke to several lunar lander engineers to lay out how Chandrayaan 3 autonomously orchestrated the firing of its engines based on sensor inputs throughout the nerve wracking \~19-minute descent: [How Chandrayaan 3 made it to the Moon 🌗](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) In a post-landing interview with Republic World, ISRO Chief S. Somanath [said](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g19ADD%5FuE50&t=132s) that Chandrayaan 3’s descent and landing went so nominally that the laser doppler velocimeter ISRO had added for redundant velocity measurements didn’t end up being required. Here’s a [time-lapse of the lander’s descent](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1694713817916473530) as viewed from one of its side cameras; lookout for the cool hover phase. Chandrayaan 3’s touchdown on the surface was smooth, with a vertical velocity of [0.983 meters/second](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/)—notably less than the nominally expected upper bound of 2 meters/second. The final location of [69.37°S, 32.32°E](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=-119.5202449%2C-32.9249309%2C60.4797551%2C-32.9249309&id=lroc&showGraticule=true&layerListFilter=lat&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=32.34810585%2C-69.36768573%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Chandrayaan+3+target+landing+site%22%7D%7C32.31900500%2C-69.37302500%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Chandrayaan+3+actual+landing+site%22%7D%7C32.31901900%2C-69.37303700%2C32.34812400%2C-69.36769200%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Distance%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0yioA&proj=27) places Chandrayaan 3 [just \~350 meters away](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=32.2580128%2C-69.4371387%2C32.4316875%2C-69.3149039&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryFeature=2&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=32.34810585%2C-69.36768573%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Chandrayaan+3+target+landing+site%22%7D%7C32.31900500%2C-69.37302500%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Chandrayaan+3+actual+landing+site%22%7D%7C32.31901900%2C-69.37303700%2C32.34812400%2C-69.36769200%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Distance%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFOOZLRfImqnioA&proj=17) from the targeted spot, which is well within the target landing zone of 4 by 2.5 kilometers. It’s even more impressive when we consider that in the final descent phase the lander swiftly identified the area beneath it to be unsafe for touchdown and the live data graph at Mission Control read “[RE-TARGET](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DLA%5F64yz8Ss&t=2591s)”, which it then did! To thank for this graceful maneuver is [Rinku Agrawal](https://www.linkedin.com/in/rinku-agrawal-455526172) of ISRO-SAC who led the team that developed the processing unit of the hazard detection and avoidance system. ### Not a polar landing ISRO, most media publications worldwide, and many social media influencers have been touting Chandrayaan 3 as the first mission to land on the Moon’s south pole. This is incorrect. Conditions unique to polar areas, especially when talking about the relatively large [water ice deposits](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/), such as [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) and adjacent [maximally sunlit topographic highs](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/271) are only prominent from 80° latitude onward, not around 70° where Chandrayaan 3 landed. Some of the very ISRO scientists involved in [selecting and characterizing the landing site](https://doi.org/10.1093/mnrasl/slad106) call it a “high latitude” region. The polar map view below makes the fact more clear. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ff72d591b-c9cf-4699-82fb-364dae92ff78_2500x1600-jpeg.jpg) [Click to explore](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=-121.9088908%2C-16.5179485%2C63.003247%2C-19.5079959&id=lroc&showGraticule=true&layerListFilter=lat&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=32.34810585%2C-69.36768573%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Chandrayaan+3+target+landing+site%22%7D%7C32.31900500%2C-69.37302500%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Chandrayaan+3+actual+landing+site%22%7D%7C32.31901900%2C-69.37303700%2C32.34812400%2C-69.36769200%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Distance%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0yioA&proj=27) Chandrayaan 3’s landing region on a map. Credit: LROC Quickmap Having said that, Chandrayaan 3 is closer to the Moon’s south pole than any mission thus far. Its broadly similar environmental and operational characteristics *for sunlit areas* make the mission more challenging than past missions and is worthy of respect in itself, without needing to be ostensible. And if one must talk about the water-related opportunities, they’re there too but in [more nuanced ways](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/), something I wish people focused on instead. ### Surface exploration begins Chandrayaan 3 landed shortly after local sunrise to maximize the solar-powered lander and rover’s surface operations lifetime to an entire period of lunar daylight (14 Earth days). The more challenging local thermal environment than expected meant [the rover’s rollout](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/video/chandrayaan3/ch3%5Frover%5Fmovement%5Fand%5Finplace%5Fturn.webm), attaining full charge, powering on of its two spectrometers, and mobility checkouts took almost an Earth day longer. From August 25, the rover began exploring the [geologically rich landing region](https://doi.org/10.1093/mnrasl/slad106). Relatedly, with the rover [retreating](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1696117102393081997) from a 4-meter wide crater it encountered yesterday, Chethan Kumar’s [report](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/chandrayaan-3-rover-surmounts-its-first-lunar-obstacle-a-100mm-deep-crater/articleshow/103111021.cms) on what makes operating the compact 26-kilogram vehicle a challenge is even more timely. ISRO [powered on](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1694699791505322117) the lander’s three active instruments on August 24, and [first temperature measurements](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1695725102166671448) from its thermal probe are already out. It shows how quickly temperatures dropped from about 50° Celsius to sub-zero with only eight centimeters of insulating lunar regolith. #### Some immediate effects of Chandrayaan 3’s landing success - When [visiting](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=beK3C5lMZ6A) Chandrayaan 3 Mission Control at ISRO ISTRAC on August 26, the Indian Prime Minister announced that August 23 will be celebrated as National Space Day in the country going forward. - The market cap of publicly traded Indian aerospace companies that had supplied parts to Chandrayaan 3 [went up by $2.5 billion before the landing](https://www.bnnbloomberg.ca/space-stocks-in-india-add-2-5-billion-ahead-of-moon-landing-1.1962393) and more than double that after. - The Indian Prime Minister [proposed](https://www.deccanherald.com/india/after-chandrayaan-3-success-india-may-join-brics-nations-in-space-consortium-2658491) that the BRICS group of Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa form a space exploration consortium, which could extend the current data sharing cooperation on a few Earth observation satellites between the five nations to the Moon and beyond. If at all this proposal produces something tangible, a currently non-existent lunar collaboration between India and China might come out of it. #### Chandrayaan 3 reading menu - As usual, r/ISRO subreddit admin u/Ohsin is compiling an excellent [rundown of post-landing events](https://www.reddit.com/r/ISRO/comments/1611gua/chandrayaan3%5Fpostlanding%5Fupdates%5Fand%5Fdiscussion). It’s better than following ISRO’s own seemingly random or at least non-contextualized updates. - A neat webpage by ISRO on the [organizational anatomy of Chandrayaan 3](https://www.isro.gov.in/Making%5FChandrayaan3%5FISRO%5Fculture.html) - [India’s role in the global return to our Moon](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) #### My experience watching the landing from ISRO ISTRAC I was at ISTRAC as a media person representing Scientific American. After Chandrayaan 3 made it to the Moon, it was priceless to see the sheer joy on the faces of many of the people who worked on the mission in person. As for me, I was too tense to cheer the moment of touchdown as I was busy updating and double-checking all the numbers from streaming graphs for my [Chandrayaan 3 landing article](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) per actual events. It was such a tense, agile, and euphoric experience plus learning opportunity. 🚀 --- *Many thanks to *[Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io)* and *[Marc Rayman](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B0PbFp-y6Dc)* for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## NASA advances science planning for historic return of humans to the Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9f39387a-f722-4e39-bdd1-245cbf451518_2300x1300-jpeg.jpg) The 13 candidate landing zones for NASA’s Artemis III crewed Moon mission on the Moon’s south pole. [Credits: NASA / LRO](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-identifies-candidate-regions-for-landing-next-americans-on-moon) | [Browse them on a map](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/layers?extent=-123.1287296%2C-80.2286323%2C62.2044887%2C-76.8446639&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4XyA&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypOOKWbJYZdAJgQWfyJqv5JwDGKIQp0ADgCcWRL2LkBSikA&proj=17) NASA aims to land astronauts on the Moon mid-decade with [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-iii). While the agency’s selection of the SpaceX [Lunar Starship lander](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) in 2021 and [Axiom spacesuits](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-taps-axiom-space-for-first-artemis-moonwalking-spacesuits) in 2022—over and above the standard [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) and [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) present in every [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) mission—largely represent the technology stack to be used for Artemis III, the science end has been catching up lately. After releasing a [request for proposals](https://science.nasa.gov/researchers/solicitations/roses-2022/amendment-86-c25-artemis-iii-geology-team-final-text) in January, NASA has now announced the [12-person ](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-selects-geology-team-for-the-first-crewed-artemis-lunar-landing)*[Artemis III Geology Team](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-selects-geology-team-for-the-first-crewed-artemis-lunar-landing)* led by [Brett Denevi](https://hub.jhu.edu/experts/profiles/brett-denevi). The competitively selected team, with a $5.1 million budget, will specify Artemis III’s science objectives, [help plan and optimize](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Exploration/Mapping%5Fthe%5FMoon) the crew’s activities and traverses, and provide sampling strategies for [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and [more lunar materials](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) of interest. The team will also be involved in pre- and post-mission activities such as astronaut training, initial studies of returned samples, and writing preliminary mission science reports. Below is the timeline for all previous milestones in Artemis science planning. - December 2020: The mission’s [Science Definition Team](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/Artemis/) laid out [their priorities](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/artemis-iii-science-definition-report-12042020c.pdf). - March 2022: NASA revealed the [Artemis science structure](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-112/), comprising an internal NASA Science Team, an external Geology Team, Participating Scientists (which will include international researchers), and an Instruments Team. - August 2022: NASA announced [13 candidate landing zones](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-91/) for Artemis III. The agency has since been soliciting [community input](https://jatan.space/nasa-taps-top-scientist-for-crewed-moon-return/) to downselect from said sites. - March 2023: NASA [announced](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-appoints-lunar-science-leads-for-artemis-iii-artemis-iv-missions) Dr. Noah Petro as the mission’s Science Lead. - May 2023: NASA [solicits competing proposals for instruments](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-130/) to be deployed on Artemis III, and with it the selection of the Instruments Team. Note how the Geology Team is different from the existing *Artemis Science Team*, which consists of several NASA researchers common across [all Artemis missions](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) to ensure that high-level lunar science goals of the US scientific community are being kept in mind at every stage of Artemis planning. They also interface between each *Artemis Geology Team* and the rest of NASA. Moreover, joining the Artemis III Geology Team will be \~10 *Participating Scientists*, also to be competitively chosen. This call will be open to international researchers. NASA is currently collaborating with ESA, JAXA and CSA for the same. ## More mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f7457310c-1931-4f51-836a-a346ac8fb69c_2400x1600-jpeg.jpg) The flight model of the SLIM lander at the Spacecraft and Fairing Assembly Building at Japan’s Tanegashima launch complex. [Credit: JAXA](https://jda.jaxa.jp/result.php?lang=e&id=fe89d858ec44249793acc78a113615f4) - JAXA’s [SLIM](https://global.jaxa.jp/countdown/slim%5Fspecial%5Fsite.html) Moon lander’s launch on the Japanese H-2A rocket has been [postponed](https://global.jaxa.jp/press/2023/08/20230828-2%5Fe.html) due to high upper winds. No specific date for launch is set yet but the launch window runs through to September 15\. The compact lander aims to demonstrate *pinpoint lunar touchdown* (\~100-meter accuracy) with a low mass of just 730 kilograms. To that end, SLIM [will attempt to land](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/feature/forefront/220928.html) somewhere within the rocky ejecta of the 300-meter wide [Shioli crater](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=25.1369017%2C-13.3775317%2C25.3103066%2C-13.279343&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=25.23250488%2C-13.32525147&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFaaKBJ-Im64NOZFkRdi5KjwpA&proj=16). - Russian researchers simulating the trajectory of the [Luna 25](https://spec.tass.ru/luna-25) Moon lander [predict](https://russianspaceweb.com/luna-glob-flight.html#0819) the spacecraft to have [crashed](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-141/) around 57.9°S, 61.5°E, which lies in the 42-kilometer wide Pontecoulant G crater. Roscosmos is [considering](https://tass.com/science/1665417) repeating Luna 25’s objective to land on the Moon with another try by 2026. - The Canadian Space Agency is funding [seven biology-related experiments](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/news/articles/2023/2023-08-17-funding-to-support-the-canadian-space-industry-in-its-exploration-of-the-lunar-environment.asp) totaling $1.25 million to be onboard the upcoming NASA-led [Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) international lunar orbital habitat. ## More Moon - South Africa [signed an agreement](https://payloadspace.com/south-africa-partners-with-china-on-lunar-base) to contribute to the China-led long-term [scientific Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-120/) on the Moon’s south pole called the [International Lunar Research Station](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-32/) (ILRS), Rachael Zisk reports. It isn’t clear what South Africa’s role would be but a ground station is a good guess, something the country’s space agency is [providing to NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/NASA-SANSA-Renew-Lunar-Exploration-Partnership) as well for high bandwidth communications during [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/) crewed missions. Relatedly, Venezuela [formally joined ILRS](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/n6759533/c10077000/content.html) on July 17 with [ground station infrastructure](http://www.abae.gob.ve/venezuela-proyecto-lunar-internacional) being its key contribution. - Space pioneer [James Burke](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%5FBurke%5F%28space%5Fengineer%29) passed away on August 21\. Among his many contributions to space and lunar exploration is managing of the Ranger program, wherein multiple spacecraft [intentionally smashed into the Moon](https://jatan.space/its-craters-all-the-way-down/) to get up-close views of the lunar surface which is what helped NASA select safe landing regions for the Apollo crewed missions. - If you’d like to hear me speak instead of write for a change, I appeared on the Innocence Theory Podcast to [geek out about our Moon](https://open.spotify.com/episode/0CjTlYlJSiPt1voxQ2vISZ?si=lp8uZ2jATFWgJQ4KJ6mFKg) and [Chandrayaan 3](https://open.spotify.com/episode/3JxWU89cE6GVv8b4NQ9obk?si=0fzwzWS6TpqqzL8HJL7wRQ). So much that they needed to make two parts. I also spoke briefly [on NPR](https://www.npr.org/2023/08/22/1195289242/india-is-set-to-land-a-robotic-probe-on-the-moon-tomorrow). --- **→ [Sponsor Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) | [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Moon Monday #141: Luna 25 crashes as Chandrayaan 3 braces for a touchdown and three more missions head to the launchpad URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-141/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:14:54.000Z *Today I got my media registration approval to be at ISRO’s [ISTRAC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISRO%5FTelemetry,%5FTracking%5Fand%5FCommand%5FNetwork) mission operations center in Bengaluru for the Chandrayaan 3 landing attempt this August 23!* :D 🚀 🌗 ** ## The fall of Luna 25, its science, and Russia’s lunar ambitions ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f70d864cb-3405-4d03-a568-9d60caab48b7_1888x940-jpeg.jpg) **Left:** Part of the Luna 25 Moon lander as captured by one of its cameras on August 16 when near the Moon; **Right:** The farside Zeeman crater as imaged by Luna 25 on August 17\. [Credits: Roscosmos / IKI](https://russianspaceweb.com/luna-glob-flight.html) Russia’s [Luna 25](https://spec.tass.ru/luna-25) robotic Moon lander, [launched](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-140/) on August 11 almost 47 years after the former Soviet Union returned lunar samples with Luna 24, [successfully entered an elliptical lunar orbit](https://telegram.me/roscosmos%5Fgk/10492) on August 16 as planned. Shortly after, Luna 25 circularized its orbit to a roughly 100-kilometer altitude. Before it could begin its autonomous descent & landing on August 21, Luna 25 needed to reduce its perilune to 18 kilometers by firing its main engine again. This maneuver on August 19 didn’t work as expected. Luna 25 [went into emergency mode](https://t.me/roscosmos%5Fgk/10535) shortly after the engines fired, and Roscosmos lost contact with the craft about 45 minutes after. Efforts to hear from Luna 25 again until August 20 lead nowhere, implying the spacecraft likely wasn’t in any lunar orbit. As such, Roscosmos [concluded](https://t.me/roscosmos%5Fgk/10540) that Luna 25 has crashed into the Moon. Anatoly Zak [reports](https://russianspaceweb.com/luna-glob-flight.html#0819) that IKI scientist Natan Eismont has said that problems with Luna 25 were discovered well before the fatal orbit-reducing maneuver. Roscosmos Director General Yury Borisov [said](https://twitter.com/katlinegrey/status/1693638624678412639) the engine burn continued anomalously for 127 seconds instead of the planned 84 seconds. This would’ve resulted in Luna 25’s perilune being below the Moon’s surface. Luna 25 is now the fourth of the six soft Moon landing attempts to have crashed within the last five years, joining the heartbreaking ruins of [Beresheet](https://davidson.weizmann.ac.il/en/online/sciencepanorama/what-happened-beresheet), [Chandrayaan 2](https://jatan.space/finding-the-chandrayaan-2-lander/), and ispace’s [Hakuto-R](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-129/) spacecraft. China’s [Chang’e 4](https://www.eoportal.org/satellite-missions/chang-e-4) and [Chang’e 5](https://jatan.space/change-5-landing-site/) are the only successes so far, with [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) hopefully joining them this week. Luna 25’s loss has multiple implications for Russia’s lunar and planetary endeavors: 1. The truly unique science Luna 25 was to do is now lost to Luna. The lander’s [eight instruments](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/displayExperiment.action?spacecraftId=LUNA-25) were going to study nearly every aspect of the local [near-polar](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=-102.6015266%2C-67.1236411%2C52.5260294%2C-35.1574699&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryFeature=0&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=43.48721100%2C-69.49659000%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Luna+25+primary+landing+site%22%7D%7C28.21001000%2C-68.77000500%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Luna+25+secondary+landing+site%22%7D%7C43.48723100%2C-69.49659900%2C28.21003300%2C-68.77003100&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0yioA&proj=17) lunar environment—from the soil and subsurface to plasma and dust in the exosphere including any detections of [water](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) across it all. These investigations were complementary in nature to [the surface science](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) India’s Chandrayaan 3 is expected to produce, as both lunar landers take the first ever ground measurements from environmentally distinct near-polar locations as opposed every prior mission exploring equatorial or near-equatorial regions. 2. The next Russian landing attempt of Luna 27 is five years away, and that’s the timeline from before Luna 25 crashed. Roscosmos Director General Yury Borisov [had told](https://tass.com/russia/1659085) TASS post-launch that the agency plans to launch the [Luna 26 polar orbiter](https://www.laspace.ru/en/activities/projects/luna-resurs-oa/?ELEMENT%5FCODE=luna-resurs-oa) in 2027, and the high-precision [Luna 27 lander](https://www.laspace.ru/en/activities/projects/luna-resurs-pa/?ELEMENT%5FCODE=luna-resurs-pa) in 2028\. Since Luna 25 crashed prematurely before the descent could even begin, Roscosmos unfortunately couldn’t get any data from this critical phase to know how well its lander would’ve performed against engineered expectations. Alas, this would’ve proved useful for Luna 27\. It’s now clear that Russia’s Luna program will contribute much more limitedly towards planning of the China-led long-term [scientific Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-120/) at the Moon’s south pole called the [International Lunar Research Station](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-32/). 3. Mukunth mentions [two notable political elements](https://www.rootprivileges.net/2023/08/20/luna-25) that help get a programmatic sense of Luna 25’s failure. ## Chandrayaan 3 set to attempt a landing on August 23 ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fe4f55c4d-59c8-4f45-ac22-94dda07f5d2f_1250x900-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of the Chandrayaan 3 lander and rover on the Moon. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.facebook.com/photo?fbid=621723726754692&set=a.315999540660447) ISRO [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) Mooncraft [performed](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1691655268449603770) another engine burn on August 16, which attained it a near-circular lunar orbit of 153 by 163 kilometers. On August 17, the Chandrayaan 3 lander [separated](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1692083786895474724) from the propulsion module. It’s the latter which had been providing thrust to carry the combined stack from its initial post-launch Earth orbit all the way to the aforementioned circular lunar one. On [August 18](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1692484515963588645), the Chandrayaan 3 lander fired its own engines for the first time to reduce its perilune to 113 kilometers. A [burn on August 20](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1692995757413192015) put Chandrayaan 3 in its roughly intended final orbit of 25 by 134 kilometers. Today, August 21, ISRO established [two-way communications](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1693549487653048418) between the lander and the [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) as a redundant option should the lander’s direct-to-Earth communications system fail. It’s from this lowest orbital point of 25 kilometers that Chandrayaan 3 will begin its autonomous landing attempt on August 23 to target the near-polar location of [69.37°S, 32.35°E](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=23.237904,-74.1545766,38.0219231,-64.0693701&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryFeature=0&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=32.34810585,-69.36768573@@%7B%22label%22:%22Chandrayaan+3+target+landing+site%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFOOZLRfImqnioA&proj=17). ISRO will broadcast the landing event [on YouTube](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DLA%5F64yz8Ss). To closely follow Chandrayaan 3’s landing and everything related to it, I cannot recommend anything more highly than the compilation by u/Ohsin, an admin of the r/ISRO subreddit: [Chandrayaan 3 landing page by Ohsin 🌗](https://www.reddit.com/r/ISRO/comments/15waz81/chandrayaan3%5Fvikram%5Flanding%5Fattempt%5Fupdates%5Fand) In the meanwhile, Chethan Kumar [reports](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/science/chandrayaan-3-mission-150kg-fuel-left-in-propulsion-module-life-span-now-years/articleshow/102866268.cms) that the propulsion module will stay in the \~150 kilometer circular orbit, and has more than 150 kilograms of fuel remaining onboard. The latter is more than what ISRO expected to be consumed with margins, which should extend the module’s nominal 6-month life to several years. Having said that, ISRO hasn’t provided a break-up of the fuel consumption during the propulsion module’s maneuvers from Earth orbit all the way to the Moon. --- *Many thanks to *[Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io)* and *[Marc Rayman](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B0PbFp-y6Dc)* for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## Queue another Moon lander please ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f7457310c-1931-4f51-836a-a346ac8fb69c_2400x1600-jpeg-1.jpg) The flight model of the SLIM lander at the Spacecraft and Fairing Assembly Building at Japan’s Tanegashima launch complex. [Credit: JAXA](https://jda.jaxa.jp/result.php?lang=e&id=fe89d858ec44249793acc78a113615f4) JAXA’s [SLIM](https://global.jaxa.jp/countdown/slim%5Fspecial%5Fsite.html) Moon lander is set to launch on the Japanese H-2A rocket on August 26 at 09:34 JST (00:34 UTC). The launch window runs through to September 15\. The compact lander aims to demonstrate *pinpoint lunar touchdown* (\~100-meter accuracy) with a low mass of just 730 kilograms. To that end, SLIM [will attempt to land](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/feature/forefront/220928.html) somewhere within the rocky ejecta of the 300-meter wide [Shioli crater](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=25.1369017%2C-13.3775317%2C25.3103066%2C-13.279343&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=25.23250488%2C-13.32525147&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFaaKBJ-Im64NOZFkRdi5KjwpA&proj=16). Orbital data suggests that studying the crater’s ejecta using SLIM’s near-infrared, multi-band spectroscopic camera could enhance our knowledge about [the Moon’s mantle and its formation](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). The official SLIM Press Kit from JAXA has an intriguing amount of mission specifics aided by cool graphics and explanations: [Explore SLIM in-depth 🌗](https://global.jaxa.jp/countdown/slim/SLIM-mediakit-EN%5F2308.pdf) ## NASA CLPS updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f0bcccb1d-2be5-4c11-ad55-b2b306098bbd_1800x1200-jpeg.jpg) The IM-1 lunar lander during its integration phase. [Credit: Intuitive Machines](https://www.flickr.com/photos/intuitivemachines/52733663503) - Intuitive Machines [announced](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/intuitive-machines-reports-q2-financial-results-and-expected-first-lunar-mission-launch-date) that its first Moon lander [IM-1](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/im-1) is complete, and that post several [space-simulating tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/) the company will deliver it to SpaceX by September 15 for launch preparations. The companies are targeting a six-day launch window starting November 15\. IM-1 will carry [six NASA science & technology payloads](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/first-commercial-moon-delivery-assignments-to-advance-artemis) to the polar [Malapert A crater](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=-27.6167293,-80.9725683,9.6287046,-78.2434553&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIgL5A&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypOOKbRFdAJgQSfyJqt6XAMYiBCnrIsibsXLVgydAA4AnJNyEZlarIpA&proj=17) at 80°S as part of the agency’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). - The NASA-funded, lunar-water-studying [Lunar Trailblazer](https://jatan.space/nasa-lunar-trailblazer/) orbiter is progressing towards an early 2024 launch. Lockheed Martin recently [integrated](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/jpl/nasa-s-lunar-trailblazer-gets-final-payload-for-moon-water-hunt) into the 210-kilogram spacecraft its second and final instrument: the Lunar Thermal Mapper provided by the University of Oxford. Trailblazer is now undergoing the standard series of [space-simulating tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/) to ensure its nominal functioning during all mission phases. The orbiter will provide us unprecedented, high-resolution global maps of the amount, distribution, and state of [water](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) across our Moon. To do so, an infrared spectrometer will detect water and hydroxyl (OH) molecules and their forms based on how the lunar surface reflects and absorbs infrared light. Since the temperature of the surface being mapped affects the results, the Lunar Thermal Mapper will simultaneously measure temperatures to correctly calibrate the water detections. ## Crewed Artemis II Moon trip coming together - Hardware progress continues for NASA’s [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to) mission to fly [four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) around our Moon and back circa early 2025\. Following [completing acoustic testing](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2023/05/12/artemis-ii-orion-service-module-completes-acoustic-testing) of the [European Service Module](https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/space/esm) (ESM) part of the [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) in May, now NASA has [completed the same](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2023/08/15/artemis-ii-orion-crew-module-acoustic-testing-complete) for the Orion capsule itself which will host the astronauts. The test involved large speakers simulating the intense sounds and vibrations of an [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) launch. During launch, Orion and ESM need to endure a maximum sound level of 140 decibels, an experience akin to standing next to a speaker at a live rock concert. - In in meanwhile, NASA [moved](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2023/08/17/mobile-launcher-arrives-at-launch-pad-39b-for-artemis-ll-preps) the 116-meter tall [Mobile Launcher 1](https://www.nasa.gov/content/mobile-launcher) of the SLS rocket to the Launch Pad 39B at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida on August 17\. Over the next few months teams will conduct a variety of tests and continue [ground systems upgrades](https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/08/nasa-has-repaired-its-mobile-launcher-so-lets-map-out-the-path-to-artemis-ii), including the new [5.3-million-liter liquid hydrogen sphere](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/kennedy-plays-critical-role-in-large-scale-liquid-hydrogen-tank-development) and an emergency egress system. The Mobile Launcher 1 needed repairs before it could be used for Artemis II because it [sustained more damage than expected](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/teams-assess-mobile-launcher-and-pad-after-successful-artemis-i-launch) during Artemis I’s launch. Stephen Clark provides a [great overview](https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/08/nasa-has-repaired-its-mobile-launcher-so-lets-map-out-the-path-to-artemis-ii) of NASA’s timeline for hardware preparations leading up to Artemis II’s launch. - ULA has [delivered](https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/nasa-sls-hardware-for-artemis-iii-mission-arrives-in-florida) the [upper stage](https://www.ulalaunch.com/interim-cryogenic-propulsion-stage-%28icps%29) of the SLS rocket to NASA designated for the crewed [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-iii) mission. This stage will push the Orion spacecraft hosting NASA astronauts to the Moon for an eventual Moon landing with a [separate lander](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) that docks with Orion in lunar orbit. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2febde1a8a-39a3-4a30-be9d-830819d4a635_1800x1200-jpeg.jpg) The second stage of the SLS rocket which will power NASA’s Artemis III Moon mission. [Credit: ULA](https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/nasa-sls-hardware-for-artemis-iii-mission-arrives-in-florida) ## More Moon - Astrobotic is [building a simulated lunar test field](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-building-a-3d-lunar-surface-for-testing-research) on Earth to test its lunar landing and mobile exploration technologies with Xodiac rockets that it inherited from its [Masten Space acquisition](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-acquires-masten-space-systems). Astrobotic says there will also be a facility for simulating the [extreme lighting conditions](https://www.nasa.gov/ames/feature/the-dark-side-of-the-crater-how-light-looks-different-on-the-moon-and-what-nasa-is-doing) encountered at the Moon’s poles. Astrobotic has won two [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) task orders to carry NASA’s science & technology payloads to the Moon [this year](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-awarded-79-5-million-contract-to-deliver-14-nasa-payloads-to-the-moon) and [next](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/), and to demonstrate [wired power transmission](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-wins-34-6m-for-power-demo-mission-on-the-moon/) on the Moon in a 2026 mission. - New research led by scientists at the Planetary Science Institute used public microwave data from China’s Chang’e 1 and Chang’e 2 orbiters and [found a hotspot](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06183-5) below the lunar farside volcano of Compton-Belkovich, Laurence Tognetti [reports](https://www.universetoday.com/162364/volcanic-hotspot-found-on-the-moon). The researchers say that a large granite magma chamber enriched in radioactive elements lying beneath the volcano once fed its activity, much like how many volcanoes work on Earth. --- **→ [Sponsor Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) | [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Moon Monday #140: The Luna 25 lander and its non-race against Chandrayaan 3, and Artemis & CLPS mission updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-140/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:14:55.000Z ## At long last, Luna 25 launches for the Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f951c2731-8252-484a-87f7-f0ebebb158d3_1650x1200-jpeg.jpg) Liftoff of the Luna 25 Mooncraft inside the Soyuz 2.1b rocket from the Vostochny Cosmodrome in Russia on August 11, 2023\. [Credits: Roscosmos / VSC / Reuters](https://www.reuters.com/technology/space/russia-launch-lunar-spacecraft-race-find-water-moon-2023-08-10) On August 11, a Russian Soyuz 2.1b rocket successfully [launched](https://www.russianspaceweb.com/luna-glob-flight.html) the 1750-kilogram [Luna 25](https://spec.tass.ru/luna-25) Moon lander, almost 47 years after the former Soviet Union returned lunar samples with [Luna 24](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1976-081A). The 3.2-meter tall Luna-25 spacecraft [separated](https://tass.com/russia/1659067) from Soyuz’s uppermost stage Fregat about 1 hour and 19 minutes post-launch. Fregat’s boost put Luna 25 on a trajectory to intercept with the Moon on August 16 for orbital insertion. As usual, Anatoly Zak has an [great rundown](https://www.russianspaceweb.com/luna-glob-flight.html) on the specifics of the launch, deployment, and even the mission activities taking place. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fc62fe9b3-5f39-4ad3-979d-15bb9cc8d393_1920x1000-jpeg.jpg) Luna 25’s mission profile. Credits: NPO Lavochkin / Roscosmos. English translation by [Katya Pavlushchenko](https://twitter.com/katlinegrey/status/1686678219305467904) #### Landing If all goes to plan, Luna 25 will attempt a landing near the Moon’s south pole on [August 21](https://tass.com/russia/1659069). As is the case with most modern lunar landing missions, Luna 25’s landing site selection process involved [major input](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/935) from NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html) (LRO). While [engineering constraints](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pss.2015.05.007) prevented the Luna 25 landing site from being truly polar, the primary site at [69.5°S, 43.5°E](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=-102.6015266%2C-67.1236411%2C52.5260294%2C-35.1574699&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryFeature=0&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=43.48721100%2C-69.49659000%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Luna+25+primary+landing+site%22%7D%7C28.21001000%2C-68.77000500%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Luna+25+secondary+landing+site%22%7D%7C43.48723100%2C-69.49659900%2C28.21003300%2C-68.77003100&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0yioA&proj=17) shows strong hints of subsurface water ice in existing orbital data, particularly from Russia’s [LEND neutron detector](https://np.cosmos.ru/en-us/instruments/lend) onboard LRO. The same is true for the [alternate](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=LUNA-25) landing site at [68.8°S, 21.2°E](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=-102.6015266%2C-67.1236411%2C52.5260294%2C-35.1574699&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryFeature=1&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=43.48721100%2C-69.49659000%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Luna+25+primary+landing+site%22%7D%7C28.21001000%2C-68.77000500%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Luna+25+secondary+landing+site%22%7D%7C43.48723100%2C-69.49659900%2C28.21003300%2C-68.77003100&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0yioA&proj=17). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f00823a26-9933-4417-a533-18b5e8f877ae_800x790-jpeg.jpg) Possible soil water content near the Moon’s south pole as inferred by detections of hydrogen, an indirect sign of water. Luna 25’s primary landing site as well as two alternate sites lie in areas where water may be expected. [Credits: LRO / LEND](https://spec.tass.ru/luna-25/novye-issledovaniya/mesta-posadki) Six cameras on Luna 25—two at the bottom and four wide-angle ones at the top—[will make](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experiment/display.action?id=LUNA-25++-01) a timelapse footage during the descent and landing on the Moon. The four wide-angle cameras will take panoramic views of the local surface. Luna 25’s [eight instruments](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/displayExperiment.action?spacecraftId=LUNA-25), which have a total mass of 30 kilograms, will study nearly every aspect of the local lunar environment—from the soil and subsurface to plasma and dust in the exosphere, including any presence of [water](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) across it all. Russian media outlet TASS has made a really good, informative, and animated website on the technical and scientific specifics of the Luna 25 mission. The information is in Russian but browser translations seem to work pretty well: [Explore Luna 25 in-depth 🌗](https://spec.tass.ru/luna-25) #### Future plans Roscosmos Director General Yury Borisov [told](https://tass.com/russia/1659085) TASS that the agency plans to launch the [Luna 26 polar orbiter](https://www.laspace.ru/en/activities/projects/luna-resurs-oa/?ELEMENT%5FCODE=luna-resurs-oa) in 2027, the high-precision [Luna 27 lander](https://www.laspace.ru/en/activities/projects/luna-resurs-pa/?ELEMENT%5FCODE=luna-resurs-pa) in 2028, and the [Luna 28 sample return craft](https://www.laspace.ru/en/activities/projects/luna-grunt/?ELEMENT%5FCODE=luna-grunt) in 2030 or later. These missions, along with Luna 25, will contribute data towards planning of the China-led long-term [scientific Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-120/) at the Moon’s south pole called the [International Lunar Research Station](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-32/). ## Is Luna 25 racing against Chandrayaan 3 for a Moon landing? Given that India’s [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) will attempt its lunar landing on August 23, and that Russia launched Luna 25 on August 11 seemingly out of the blue for an August 21 landing attempt, many people and media publications worldwide have boldly framed it as a race—notably without backing it up with due rationale. So, is Russia trying to beat India with Luna 25? In my opinion, no. That’s down to several reasons: 1. This is not the cold war era. Budgets are finite enough to not risk expensive hardware being blown amid pursuits of trivial firsts and a slight edge at best. 2. Luna 25 is delayed by many years to begin with. It’s only in the last two to three years that its development picked up pace. If we look at the mission preparation updates of Luna 25 and Chandrayaan 3, which I’ve been sharing for both missions here on [Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/s/moon-monday/archive), we know that Chandrayaan 3 and Luna 25 have been undergoing space environmental testing and final software tests for the past few months in parallel. As such, this overlap is hardly surprising. The specific dates are more of a coincidence than anything else. 3. Luna 25’s primary landing site is about [100 kilometers east](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=-90%2C-72.8224273%2C59.5538578%2C-37.4639624&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=32.34810585%2C-69.36768573%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Chandrayaan+3+target+landing+site%22%7D%7C43.48703200%2C-69.49599700%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Luna+25+target+landing+site%22%7D%7C43.48705100%2C-69.49599500%2C32.34810100%2C-69.36770000&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0yioA&proj=10) of Chandrayaan 3’s primary site. Lunar landings are typically planned to take place shortly after sunrise, primarily to maximize power generation during the lunar day. The landing sites for both missions were selected years ago. As such, if Luna 25 happened to launch in August, Russia has no choice but to attempt its landing on August 21 ideally, shortly after the lunar day dawns at its target site. August 22 or 23 serve as last options if the descent doesn’t commence on August 21 for any technical reasons. If this window is missed, Russia needs to wait in lunar orbit for a month before the same landing site can be within the lander’s range. This applies to India as well for the August 23–25 timeframe. If Russia really wanted to beat India, they would’ve scrambled for a launch last month to gain comfortable margins. Let’s not introduce races, competition, and emotional friction in global discussions and outlook when there are no such things. --- *Many thanks to *[Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io)*, *[Open Lunar Foundation](https://www.openlunar.org)* and *[The Orbital Index](https://orbitalindex.com)* for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## New NASA Artemis developments ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f02a05a74-4cdf-4a47-9cb9-7b7d8dce4b7b_750x500-jpeg.jpg) The auxiliary target on the SLS rocket’s second stage flying on Artemis II. [Credit: ULA](https://blog.ulalaunch.com/blog/icps-2-orion-will-observe-upper-stage-after-launch) - On May 16, ULA [attached](https://blog.ulalaunch.com/blog/icps-2-orion-will-observe-upper-stage-after-launch) a 0.6-meter, photosensitive anodized aluminum target to the company-provided [second stage](https://www.ulalaunch.com/interim-cryogenic-propulsion-stage-%28icps%29) of NASA’s [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) which will fly [four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) around our Moon circa 2025 for the [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to) mission. When in high Earth orbit, the [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) will separate from the SLS second stage, and the astronauts will test Orion’s fine navigation and docking-related abilities with respect to this “auxiliary target” on the SLS second stage. The tests will aid future crewed Artemis missions, which will need to be regularly docking with lunar landers. ULA performed illumination testing of the target in May to ensure that it will be visible to the astronauts in space under varied lighting conditions. - Delays caused by SpaceX’s overall failed [first launch](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-124/) of its fully reusable [Starship Super Heavy](https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/starship) rocket coupled with the program’s many impending milestones has led NASA to consider flying a “different mission” for [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-iii) with Starship instead of [landing humans](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) on our Moon mid-decade, Jeff Foust [reports](https://spacenews.com/nasa-weighs-changes-to-artemis-3-if-key-elements-are-delayed). The agency’s chief official for crewed deep space exploration, James Free, [previously stated](https://spacenews.com/nasa-concerned-starship-problems-will-delay-artemis-3) that NASA has delayed Lunar Starship’s critical design review until after SpaceX performs a cryogenic refueling demonstration in Earth orbit, which is critical to make the envisioned Starship Moon landings possible. ## NASA CLPS mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f92644a7d-0b32-4b5f-8673-33c1b796fa0f_2200x1550-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of the VIPER rover exploring the Moon’s south pole. [Credit: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/lets-get-building) - Dan Andrews, Project Manager of NASA’s upcoming [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) said that the mission team [passed the agency’s gate review](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/lets-get-building), which means they can now fully proceed with building the flight hardware. This review checks the overall readiness for the mission’s integration activities, including hardware availability. While the team [awaits delivery](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/viper-instruments-arriving-for-integration) of its critical drill and some other components, VIPER’s launch to the Moon’s south pole [onboard Astrobotic’s Griffin lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-87/) as part of NASA’s [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) program remains on schedule for November 2024\. VIPER will explore areas in and around [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) for over 100 days, and use its drill and three instruments to unravel the nature of the Moon’s [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) deposits, assess their resource potential, and help determine how accessible they are. This will help NASA plan Artemis crewed missions. - Lunar Outpost [delivered](https://lunaroutpost.com/lunar-outpost-delivers-first-flight-model-rover-in-record-time) its [MAPP rover](https://lunaroutpost.com/nokia-and-intuitive-machines-select-lunar-outpost-for-first-rover-mission-at-lunar-south-pole) to the Johns Hopkins University APL for payload integration and final testing. The rover will be aboard Intuitive Machines’ [third CLPS Moon lander](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-mission-to-reiner-gamma/) aiming to touchdown in the magnetic swirl of [Reiner Gamma](https://jatan.space/swirls-on-the-moon/) in 2024\. [David Blewett](https://civspace.jhuapl.edu/people/david-blewett), who leads the mission’s [Lunar Vertex](https://www.jhuapl.edu/NewsStory/211018b-lunar-vertex) instrument suite said at the [2023 NASA Exploration Science Forum](https://sservi.nasa.gov/nesf2023) in July that all of Lunar Vertex’s spectrometers and magnetometers have been delivered. He added that after integrating the two Vertex instruments belonging to the MAPP rover, the latter will be shipped to Intuitive Machines for lander integration by October. Lunar Vertex will study Reiner Gamma’s composition, and map the strength and direction of magnetic fields on the surface. This will help us better understand the effects of [solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) and [bombarding micrometeorites](https://jatan.space/the-tiniest-of-impact-craters/) on planetary bodies across our Solar System, and also shape our understanding of the Moon’s magnetic evolution. ## More Moon - ISRO [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) Mooncraft [performed](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1690978432321269760) another engine burn today, August 14, which reduced its [previously elliptical polar orbit](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-07/) to a near-circular one of 150 by 177 kilometers. After one more such orbital size reduction on August 16, Chandrayaan 3 will enter a 100-kilometer circular orbit on August 17 to then prepare for its autonomous landing attempt on August 23 targeting the near-polar location of [69.37 S, 32.35 E](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=23.237904,-74.1545766,38.0219231,-64.0693701&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryFeature=0&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=32.34810585,-69.36768573@@%7B%22label%22:%22Chandrayaan+3+target+landing+site%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFOOZLRfImqnioA&proj=17). - Advanced Space, who leads the NASA-funded [CAPSTONE](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/small%5Fspacecraft/capstone) lunar orbiter, has [received funding](https://advancedspace.com/selected-nasa-sbir-2023-awards) from NASA to develop a mission design and planning tool which will increase the autonomy and safety of lunarbound spacecraft along various trajectories. This tool would also benefit crewed missions such as those under Artemis. - *Sponsored listing*: Epsilon3 is hiring a [Head of Engineering](https://jobs.lever.co/epsilon3/d04839bc-a05e-480f-bc7f-3a40d9817f89) to lead and further build their versatile web-based platform used by NASA, Blue Origin, Astrobotic, Firefly, Astrolab, and more to efficiently and safely manage complex spacecraft testing and operational procedures. --- **→ [Sponsor Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) | [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Indian Space Progress #7: Moonbound Chandrayaan 3, Earthbound PSLV, engines for human spaceflight, and many mission updates URL: https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-07/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:14:55.000Z *I’m honored that this [Indian Space Progress](https://blog.jatan.space/s/indian-space-progress/archive) monthly report series is now highlighted as a resource on the website of [Spaceport SARABHAI](https://www.spaceportsarabhai.org/#perspectives), India’s first space think tank founded by an inspiring team of multidisciplinary experts many of whom I admire and have learnt from.* 🚀 ## Chandrayaan 3’s journey to the Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f6e97b61a-2705-4009-a307-0ad267c9d4f1_2200x1300-jpeg.jpg) Chandrayaan 3’s view of our Moon during orbital insertion, taken from a public photo time-lapse of said event. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/Ch3%5FVideo%5FLunar%5FOrbit%5FInsertion.html) Following ISRO [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/)’s launch on July 14 and raising of its Earthbound orbit with multiple precisely timed engine burns, the Mooncraft achieved the desired orbit of 236 by 127,603 kilometers on [July 25](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1683767962560512000). Then, [on August 1](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1686089881875775488), Chandrayaan 3 fired its engines for \~30 minutes and put itself on a trajectory that intersects with Luna, thanks to its orbital parameters of [288 by 369,328 kilometers](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1686327939280035840). A \~30-minute retro-firing on August 5, to decrease velocity and allow lunar gravity to substantially influence the craft, successfully [put Chandrayaan 3 in orbit](https://www.isro.gov.in/Ch3%5FLunar%5FOrbit%5FInsertion%5FPress%5FRelease.html) around our Moon at the intended 164 by 18,074 kilometers. This marks the third consecutive time ISRO has successfully put a spacecraft in lunar orbit, following [Chandrayaan 1](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/) and [2](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/). Another retro-burn on August 6 decreased Chandrayaan 3’s apolune to [4313 kilometers](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1688248504458846208). One more firing on August 9 brought it down to [1437 kilometers](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1689192034916265984). After two more such orbital size reductions, Chandrayaan 3 will enter a 100-kilometer circular polar orbit on August 17 to then prepare for its autonomous landing attempt on August 23 targeting the near-polar location of [69.37 S, 32.35 E](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=23.237904,-74.1545766,38.0219231,-64.0693701&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryFeature=0&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=32.34810585,-69.36768573@@%7B%22label%22:%22Chandrayaan+3+target+landing+site%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFOOZLRfImqnioA&proj=17). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f37c09286-425b-4e4f-9406-9a0e0762e16d_1400x1100-jpeg.jpg) An illustration showing Chandrayaan 3’s planned orbits, which get increasingly closer to the Moon. The green ones highlight accomplished orbits. [Credit: ISRO](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1689192034916265984) Related new post: *[Will Chandrayaan 3 hop after landing?](https://jatan.space/will-chandrayaan-3-hop-after-landing/)* ## PSLV launches more satellites for Singapore ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f798fd446-ac60-480f-bf66-104d1acc03fa_2530x1650-jpeg.jpg) A PSLV rocket launches to Earth orbit early morning on July 29, carrying a Singapore-owned satellite. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/PSLVC56%5Fgallery.html) On July 29, ISRO’s PSLV rocket [successfully launched](https://www.isro.gov.in/PSLVC56-liftoff-and-onboard.html) seven satellites for Singapore into the desired 535-kilometer circular Earth orbit as a commercial loft. The primary payload was [DS-SAR](https://space.skyrocket.de/doc%5Fsdat/ds-sar.htm), a 352-kilogram synthetic aperture radar (SAR) satellite purchased by the Singapore government from Israel Aerospace Industries. DS-SAR will complement Singapore’s indigenously built [TeLEOS-2](https://www.aircosmosinternational.com/article/singapore-launches-development-of-teleos-2-earth-observation-satellite-1654) SAR satellite, also [launched by a PSLV](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-04/) this past April, by enhancing the coverage. PSLV’s July flight carried [six secondary payloads](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/Missions/PSLVC56/PSLV%5FC56%5FMission%5FBrochure.pdf), which comprise varying technology demonstrators from various organizations in Singapore. After deploying the satellites, ISRO [maneuvered](https://www.isro.gov.in/de-orbiting-PS4-PSLVC56.html) PSLV’s fourth stage into a 300-kilometer circular orbit to let it re-enter and burn in our Earth’s atmosphere within two months. This avoids space debris as otherwise a PSLV fourth stage would typically take up to 25 years for re-entry. ISRO also mentioned *passivating* the fourth stage in the [associated update](https://www.isro.gov.in/de-orbiting-PS4-PSLVC56.html): > In line with standard launch practices, the PS4 Stage was passivated after the re-orbiting process, as no further active propulsion need was anticipated. This passivation involved venting of all pressurized compartments (tanks/gas bottles) to release any stored energy or potential hazardous substances. By mitigating the possibility of pressurized compartment failures, the chance of fragmentation of the spent stage in orbit is minimized, thereby further reducing the creation of space debris. In the meanwhile, the Australian Space Agency [concluded](https://www.linkedin.com/posts/australian-space-agency%5Fthe-australian-space-agency-has-concluded-activity-7091609324711538689-Lw4b) that the object that found its way from the Indian Ocean to the Green Head beach in Western Australia in mid-July is most likely debris from a PSLV rocket’s third stage. ISRO confirmed the same, BBC News [reports](https://www.bbc.com/news/world-australia-66359381). An ISRO official said it would be up to Australia to decide what to do with the object. Well, the Western Australian government is considering storing it the state museum alongside debris from NASA’s [Skylab](https://www.nasa.gov/content/40-years-ago-skylab-paved-way-for-international-space-station) station recovered in 1979. --- *Many thanks to the *[Takshashila Institution](https://takshashila.org.in)* and *[SkyServe](https://skyserve.ai)* for sponsoring this month’s Indian Space Progress report.* --- ## More mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f81e6b8b1-6919-4c98-b330-aa83d5b8efd4_2100x1350-jpeg.jpg) The NISAR satellite in an ISRO-URSC clean room. [Credit: VDOS-URSC](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/powerful-nasa-isro-earth-observing-satellite-coming-together-in-india) - In October 2021, ISRO sent commands to its lunar polar circling [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) to [change its orbit](https://web.archive.org/web/20220725175353/https://www.isro.gov.in/update/15-nov-2021/chandrayaan-2-orbiter-ch2o-performs-evasive-manoeuvre-to-mitigate-critically) slightly for avoiding an uncomfortably close approach of about 3 kilometers to NASA’s near-polar circling [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html) (LRO). In a [May 2023 summary](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/Monthly%5Fsummary/MonthlySummary%5FMay2023%5FEnglish.pdf) of India’s space activities, ISRO mentioned that on its request the LRO team postponed their spacecraft’s “Momentum Dumping” plan to avoid more such uncomfortably close conjunctions. In a new post on ISRO’s website providing an [overview of active global lunar orbiters](https://www.isro.gov.in/Current%5FSpace%5FSituation%5Faround%5FMoon%5FAssessment.html), which alluded to the importance of managing growing lunar traffic, ISRO also mentioned having commanded another Chandrayaan 2 orbiter maneuver for avoiding a close approach to South Korea’s first lunar orbiter [KPLO](https://jatan.space/kplo/). - ISRO is targeting launch of the [Aditya-L1](https://jatan.space/isro-space-science-missions-2020-2025/) solar observatory in [early September](https://www.reddit.com/r/ISRO/comments/15mp8sy/pslvc57adityal1%5Fanother%5Frelated%5Fnotam%5Fenforcement) instead of August end on a PSLV rocket. Aditya-L1 will study the Sun’s surface, atmosphere, and its wind from the first Lagrangian point (L1) between the Sun and Earth, where the gravitational pull of these two bodies roughly balance. The L1 point is not a point as much as a small region in space, host to [multiple solar science missions](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) in the past, such as SOHO, ACE, WIND and DSCOVR. The spacecraft will have a unique ability to observe the Sun in multiple wavelengths while also measuring the solar magnetic field and the solar wind radiation using its in-situ instruments. - ISRO and NASA continue making progress in readying the [NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar](https://nisar.jpl.nasa.gov) (NISAR) Earth observation satellite for its 2024 launch. In mid-June, ISRO [joined](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/powerful-nasa-isro-earth-observing-satellite-coming-together-in-india) the spacecraft’s co-developed bus to the body which hosts the two radar payloads: the L-band SAR from NASA JPL and the S-band SAR from ISRO. This [joint project](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasa-isro-science-instruments-arrive-in-india-ahead-of-2024-launch) represents one of the world’s most advanced radar systems, one also among the most expensive at [$1.5 billion](http://syntheticapertureradar.com/nasa-isro-sar-project-nisar). Over the course of its three-year primary mission post-launch in Q1 2024, NISAR will observe nearly our entire planet every 12 days to reveal ongoing changes in Earth’s crust, polar ice, climatic processes, biomass, agricultural regions, and more. The satellite will also be used for disaster management, whereby its data will be available only a few hours after observations. ## Propulsion for human spaceflight coming through ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f0a14d9bf-286b-4361-829d-0e2489ec5d99_2100x1400-jpeg.jpg) As ISRO works towards the ambitious inaugural [Gaganyaan mission](https://www.isro.gov.in/Gaganyaan.html) to indigenously send humans to space, it continues qualifying technologies needed to achieve the feat. Following the recent [qualification of the crew module’s propulsion system](https://www.isro.gov.in/cmps.html), which will be used for atmospheric descent and for attitude control during non-nominal ascent, ISRO [successfully tested](https://www.isro.gov.in/SMPS%5FTest.html) the service module’s wholly integrated liquid propulsion system for the first time on July 19\. The system features five 440-newton engines and sixteen 100-newton reaction control thrusters. During Gaganyaan missions, it’s the service module that injects the astronauts in the crew module into orbit, circularizes to a 400-kilometer altitude, then maintains it for the mission length, and eventually provides the de-boost maneuver for the crew module before separating. ISRO conducted [two more hot fire tests](https://www.isro.gov.in/smps.html) on July 26, and plans three more to be sure that the system works as desired in both nominal and several non-nominal cases. *Aside: Watch the engines glow red hot and then orange in this [beautiful video](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1684449425828245504).* As part of an ongoing [series of sea recovery trials](https://www.isro.gov.in/Recovery%5Ftrials%5FGaganyaan%5FMission.html) that began in February, ISRO and the Indian Navy completed another recovery test on July 20 with a representative crew module, which simulates the mass, center of gravity, outer dimensions, and externals of the actual Gaganyaan Crew Module. The various stages of recovery tests include attaching the recovery buoy, and towing, handling, and lifting of the crew module onto a ship deck. ISRO is using the experience gained from such trials to refine the Gaganyaan Recovery Training Plan document [released](https://www.isro.gov.in/CrewRecoveryTrainingPlan%5FGaganyaan.html) internally in May. The next milestone for Gaganyaan is [an abort test](https://www.deccanherald.com/science-and-environment/isro-human-space-foray-set-for-next-step-1177994.html) with a full-scale crew module in August end or September, followed by another one end of year. ## Private and commercial space updates - In June 2022, a European Ariane 5 rocket [launched](https://www.arianespace.com/press-release/first-ariane-5-launch-of-2022-is-a-success-supporting-two-loyal-clients-of-arianespace-measat-malaysia-and-nsil-india/) [GSAT-24](https://space.skyrocket.de/doc%5Fsdat/gsat-24.htm), an ISRO-made [$48 million](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/space-psu-nsil-to-launch-sat-for-tatasky/articleshow/81081943.cms) communications satellite funded and owned by New Space India Limited (NSIL), a government company commercializing Indian space technologies. To that end, NSIL leased GSAT-24’s entire capacity to [Tata Play](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata%5FPlay) for the latter’s Direct-to-Home consumer business. The satellite [entered commercial operations](https://pib.gov.in/PressReleseDetailm.aspx?PRID=1946499) only now after over a year, apparently due to exhaustive testing needed so far. - NSIL has [transferred](https://www.isro.gov.in/ISRO%5FTransfers%5FIMS1SatelliteBus.html) the technology of ISRO’s [IMS-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian%5FMini%5FSatellite%5Fbus) small satellite bus to private firms [Alpha Design Technologies](https://www.nsilindia.co.in/sites/default/files/NSIL%20ADTL%5Fupdated%5F1.pdf) and [Dhruva Space](https://www.nsilindia.co.in/sites/default/files/NSIL%20Dhruva%5Fupdated.pdf), marking the beginning of such satellite tech transfers to the private Indian space industry as part of a broader national push for commercialization of space. ISRO has flown IMS-1 on three Earth observation missions. - [KaleidEO](https://satsure.co/kaleidEO), SatSure’s subsidiary for Earth observation satellites, will [utilize](https://satsure.co/astrogate.html) Bengaluru-based Astrogate’s promising 1Gbps laser communications system for the company’s upcoming four 100-kilogram multispectral satellites. - Skyroot, which launched [suborbital test mission ](https://www.isro.gov.in/mission%5Fprarambh.html)*[Prarambh](https://www.isro.gov.in/mission%5Fprarambh.html)* last November and became India’s first privately developed such rocket, is progressing towards an orbital launch of its Vikram-I rocket. On July 4, the company [announced](https://twitter.com/SkyrootA/status/1676116935933857800) completing the carbon-fiber winding and curing of the rocket’s Stage-1 motor case. On June 21, Skyroot [flight qualified](https://twitter.com/SkyrootA/status/1671416833579286529) its Raman-I engine, which will provide roll attitude control for Vikram-I. On July 21, the company [successfully tested](https://www.isro.gov.in/Support%5FSpaceStartup%5FRocketEngine.html) at an ISRO facility the first hot firing of its Raman-II engine, which will power Vikram-I’s fourth stage. A second, [10x longer test](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1682745543343079424) of 100 seconds followed on July 22, with more to follow to qualify Raman-II for orbital flight. ## More Indian space - On the occasion of Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s visit to France on July 13–14, the two countries [announced collaborating](https://in.ambafrance.org/Visit-to-France-of-Prime-Minister-MODI-13-and-14-July) in [various capacities](https://www.mea.gov.in/bilateral-documents.htm?dtl/36806/Horizon%5F2047%5F25th%5FAnniversary%5Fof%5Fthe%5FIndiaFrance%5FStrategic%5FPartnership%5FTowards%5FA%5FCentury%5Fof%5FIndiaFrance%5FRelations) across multiple initiatives. These include finalizing the upcoming joint climate monitoring satellite [TRISHNA](https://www.eoportal.org/satellite-missions/trishna), conducting enhanced conjunction analysis to protect Indian and French satellites, aiding ISRO’s Gaganyaan human spaceflight program, co-working on reusable engines and commercial launches, and more. - An ultraviolet telescope and spectrograph developed by the Indian Institute of Astrophysics to analyze interstellar material is facing [export delays](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3230215/indian-equipment-chinas-tiangong-space-station-faces-export-delay) for its launch to China’s [Tiangong space station](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiangong%5Fspace%5Fstation) due to general political tensions between the two countries. If and when the instrument flies, it could become the first international payload onboard Tiangong, which would be quite a feat considering how little China and India cooperate in space. ## Reading menu > Even though women head significant projects at ISRO, the organization has never had a female director in any of its five \[key\] centers. – **[India Space Congress shows the need to bridge gender gap](https://theprint.in/author/mohana-basu)** / Mohana Basu **[The New York Times continues to misrepresent Indian space](https://jatan.space/the-nyt-continues-to-misrepresent-indian-space/)** --- **→ [Sponsor Indian Space Progress](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-indian-space-progress) | [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Moon Monday #139: Updates on lunarbound Chandrayaan 3, Luna 25, KPLO, Artemis, Chang’e craft, and more! URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-139/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:14:55.000Z *Last week saw so many lunar developments from around the world that I got a bit too excited to write this Moon Monday edition! If you enjoy and appreciate my work to serve space communities with global lunar exploration updates, kindly consider [sponsoring Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) as an organization or individual to help sustain and flourish my flagship writing.* [Email me: hey@jatan.space](mailto:hey@jatan.space) *If you have feedback, the [previously circulated form](https://forms.gle/nqMxyqRmddzGtcv59) will close this Saturday, August 12 so fill it up if you haven’t. To the hundreds of you who have already provided feedback, thank you so much. I may not respond to everyone individually but be rest assured that I’ve read every line.* ## Chandrayaan 3 now Moonbound ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f6e97b61a-2705-4009-a307-0ad267c9d4f1_2200x1300-jpeg-1.jpg) Chandrayaan 3’s view of our Moon during orbital insertion, taken from a public photo time-lapse of said event. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/Ch3%5FVideo%5FLunar%5FOrbit%5FInsertion.html) India’s [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) Mooncraft fired its engines for \~30 minutes [on August 1](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1686089881875775488) and put itself on a trajectory that intersects with Luna, thanks to its orbital parameters of [288 by 369,328 kilometers](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1686327939280035840). A \~30-minute retro-firing on August 5, to decrease velocity and allow lunar gravity to substantially influence the craft, successfully [put Chandrayaan 3 in orbit](https://www.isro.gov.in/Ch3%5FLunar%5FOrbit%5FInsertion%5FPress%5FRelease.html) around our Moon at the intended 164 by 18,074 kilometers. This marks the third consecutive time ISRO has successfully put a spacecraft in lunar orbit, following [Chandrayaan 1](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/) and [2](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/). Another retro-burn on August 6 decreased Chandrayaan 3’s apolune to [4313 kilometers](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1688248504458846208). After a few more such orbital size reductions, Chandrayaan 3 will enter a 100-kilometer circular polar orbit on August 17 to then prepare for its autonomous landing attempt on August 23 targeting the near-polar location of [69.37 S, 32.35 E](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=23.237904,-74.1545766,38.0219231,-64.0693701&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryFeature=0&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=32.34810585,-69.36768573@@%7B%22label%22:%22Chandrayaan+3+target+landing+site%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFOOZLRfImqnioA&proj=17). Related new post on my second space blog: [Will Chandrayaan 3 hop after landing? 🌗](https://jatan.space/will-chandrayaan-3-hop-after-landing/) ## Luna 25’s Moonshot launch on August 11 ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2faa4a3532-77bf-4fdf-bb99-67b6d707ccaf_1030x720-jpeg.jpg) The Luna 25 lander being housed inside its Soyuz rocket’s upper stage. [Credit: Roscosmos](https://twitter.com/katlinegrey/status/1687470968925519872) Roscosmos [encapsulated](https://twitter.com/katlinegrey/status/1687470968925519872) its 1750-kilogram [Luna 25](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2021/pdf/2032.pdf) Moon lander into a Soyuz 2.1b rocket’s Fregat upper stage as of August 4\. It’s now being mated to the rest of the rocket. Roscosmos is targeting launching Luna 25 on August 11 from the Vostochny cosmodrome. Mark Trevelyan [reports](https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/russia-evacuate-village-first-lunar-lander-mission-half-century-2023-08-07) that Luna 25 would reach the Moon in five days, and then spend five to seven days in lunar orbit before descending near the Moon’s south pole. The schedule means that Luna 25 aims to land sometime in the August 21–23 timeframe, potentially landing before Chandrayaan 3 does. For launch, residents of a small village in Russia’s far east will be evacuated early morning to avoid the minuscule chance that the rocket’s boosters could fall there. [Apparently](https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/russia-evacuate-village-first-lunar-lander-mission-half-century-2023-08-07), they will enjoy a free breakfast while viewing the launch. Luna 25’s instruments include a robotic arm to sample material from 15 to 30 centimeters below the surface and then feed it to a laser spectrometer to determine elements and isotopes within. There’s also a neutron and gamma ray spectrometer to determine the composition of the subsurface. The mission’s primary landing site at [69.5°S, 43.5°E](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=-105.1504917%2C-64.7849218%2C52.2970061%2C-42.0265319&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryFeature=0&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=43.48721100%2C-69.49659000%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Luna+25+primary+landing+site%22%7D%7C28.21001000%2C-68.77000500%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Luna+25+secondary+landing+site%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFOOZLRfImqnioA&proj=17), while not truly polar due to engineering constraints, is selected such that subsurface [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) might still be detected. ## A new look at Reiner Gamma from KPLO ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fa15c8cfc-6ce0-4a53-9b68-8bc58d1492de_1400x1050-jpeg.jpg) The magnetic swirl of Reiner Gamma on our Moon, as imaged by South Korea’s first lunar orbiter KPLO on April 5, 2023\. [Credit: KARI](https://www.kari.re.kr/kplo/danuri/multi/multiMediaView.do?idx=35&pageIndex=1&searchCnd=&searchWrd=) South Korea celebrated the [one year launch anniversary](https://www.kari.re.kr/kplo/danuri/news/newsView.do?nttId=8803&pageIndex=1&searchCnd=&searchWrd=) of its first lunar orbiter [KPLO](https://jatan.space/kplo/) on August 5 with the release of new images of our Moon snapped by the craft. The pictures can be browsed in the mission’s [updated gallery](https://www.kari.re.kr/kplo/multimedia). It includes a view of the magnetic swirl of [Reiner Gamma](https://jatan.space/swirls-on-the-moon/) captured by the spacecraft’s unique wide-angle polarimetric camera PolCam, which determines the size and composition of surface materials based on how light reflects and scatters off of them. While Reiner Gamma’s composition doesn’t differ from its surroundings, swirls like it clearly stand out by being brighter. Weak magnetic fields associated with swirls protecting the maturity of their soils from [solar radiation](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) alone isn’t enough to explain these features. Scientists have thus long expected polarization data to be [particularly helpful](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2021/pdf/2430.pdf) to understand the brightness of swirls, especially since even Earth-based, low-resolution observations have found the density and particle size distribution of Reiner Gamma’s soil to be very different from its surroundings. At 41 meters/pixel, PolCam’s highest resolution views of Reiner Gamma thus far coupled with KPLO’s [magnetometer](https://www.kari.re.kr/kplo/danuri/news/newsView.do?nttId=8656&pageIndex=1&searchCnd=&searchWrd=) data will be crucial in helping solve this mystery. Of course, a surface mission aided by such data can explore Reiner Gamma in literal granular detail. And that’s exactly what will happen when Intuitive Machines’ [third Moon lander](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-mission-to-reiner-gamma/) part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) lands in Reiner Gamma in 2024 to study it with the [Lunar Vertex](https://www.jhuapl.edu/NewsStory/211018b-lunar-vertex) instrument suite of spectrometers and magnetometers. Relatedly, NASA has been [testing](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasas-trio-of-mini-rovers-will-team-up-to-explore-the-moon) variants of the three shoebox-sized [CADRE rovers](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/game%5Fchanging%5Fdevelopment/projects/CADRE) to be deployed at Reiner Gamma by the aforementioned lander. The rovers will autonomously navigate the landed region to demonstrate collectively better mapping it than a single rover would. The rovers will have multistatic ground penetrating radars to create 3D images of the subsurface structure up to 10 meters deep. --- *Many thanks to *[Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io),* *[Jason Davis](https://www.planetary.org/profiles/jason-davis)* and *[Matt Ryall](https://www.linkedin.com/in/mattryall)* for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## Artemis mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f1c48203d-a6f9-48c2-baa2-9caa06e241e8_1920x1280-jpeg.jpg) NASA, the US Navy, and the US Air Force personnel practice Artemis recovery procedures in the Pacific Ocean by assisting simulated crew members exit the representative Orion capsule onto an inflatable “front porch” for a helicopter pickup to the recovery ship. [Credits: NASA / Kenny Allen](https://images.nasa.gov/details/KSC-20230729-PH%5FKAA01-0104) - NASA and the US Department of Defense have begun the series [sea recovery trials](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-completes-first-recovery-test-for-artemis-ii) with representative variants of the [Orion capsule](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft), whose flight version will splashdown with [four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) in the Pacific Ocean after going around the Moon as part of the [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to) mission. Lessons learnt from Orion’s recovery [during Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/splashdown-nasa-s-orion-returns-to-earth-after-historic-moon-mission) last year is helping teams modify the procedures to ensure delivery of astronauts to the recovery ship within two hours of splashdown. - NASA is extending [suited manikin Campos](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/public-names-moonikin-flying-around-moon-on-nasa-s-artemis-i-mission)’ original mission of recording acceleration and vibration throughout [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-i) to being [a crash test dummy](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-testing-on-artemis-i-manikin-informs-future-crewed-missions) helping improve safety of astronauts during critical phases of future Artemis missions such as launch and atmospheric reentry. With accelerations up to 19g on a sledge, the tests will help improve suit, helmet, and seat designs for future missions. Campos will also be inside Artemis II’s Orion capsule during its upcoming launch vibration testing to get a better handle on what [its four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to) will experience during their ride to space on a [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html). - NASA has declared [end of mission](https://blogs.nasa.gov/lunah-map/2023/08/03/nasas-lunah-map-mission-ends-validates-science-instrument-performance) for the [LunaH-Map](https://lunahmap.asu.edu/mission) CubeSat, which was launched as a rideshare on Artemis I. While the CubeSat was supposed to map hydrogen, an indicator of [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/), on the Moon’s south pole up to a meter below the surface in high resolution, LunaH-Map couldn’t enter lunar orbit due to a stuck valve in its propulsion system. LunaH-Map’s neutron spectrometer did demonstrate [detecting neutrons](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/pdf/2960.pdf) from 1300 kilometers above the Moon during its flyby last year. In late 2022, the CubeSat [demonstrated autonomous optical navigation](https://blogs.nasa.gov/lunah-map/2022/12/07/nasas-lunah-map-captures-image-of-auriga-constellation) too, an important ability for small satellites going ahead. A version of LunaH-Map’s neutron spectrometer will be part of the upcoming [Lunar-VISE](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/pdf/2152.pdf) instrument suite onboard the [to-be-selected](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-new-instruments-for-priority-artemis-science-on-moon) NASA-funded [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) lander, which will descend on one of the [Gruithuisen Domes](https://jatan.space/unique-volcanic-domes-of-gruithuisen/) in 2026 to expand our knowledge of the Moon’s volcanic past. ## More Chang’e lunar sampling - China’s Chang’e 7 mission will consist of an orbiter and a lander, the latter of which [will deploy](https://weibo.com/6618567819/KcpftkBxA?type=comment#%5Frnd1619422059900) a rover and a small flying probe to explore one of the few [key identified landing regions](https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/EGGNRR4jfK5J8978aH8ing) on the Moon’s south pole. In much the same vein as the NASA [VIPER](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) and JAXA-ISRO [LUPEX](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-111/) missions, the Chang’e 7 flying probe will host a drill to sample materials from [permanently shadowed areas](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) at different depths, Leonard David [reports](https://www.leonarddavid.com/china-outlines-permanently-shadowed-crater-exploration-lunar-resource-utilization-plans). A mechanical arm on the probe will feed the samples into a heating furnace for the onboard Lunar Water Molecular Analyzer (LWMA) to scan it for [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other volatile resources such as ammonia. - China is [inviting](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465652/n6465653/c10086003/content.html) the international scientific community to solicit and study volcanic [lunar samples](https://moon.bao.ac.cn/moonSampleMode/index.html) brought to Earth by CNSA’s [Chang’e 5](https://jatan.space/change-5-landing-site/) mission in December 2020\. Relatedly, Ling Xin [reported](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3218138/chinas-lunar-sample-gifts-france-russia-have-scientists-over-moon) in May that after exchanging 1.5 grams of samples with Russia last year for Soviet [Luna 16](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1970-072A) ones, China gifted France 1.5 grams of Chang’e 5 samples in March owing to their decades-long space cooperation. Xin pointed out that several of the over 100 research groups across China have had international collaborators from the US, many European countries, Japan, and Australia. ## More Moon - Meet [MoonDiff](https://trek.nasa.gov/moondiff), NASA’s new citizen science project for people to help spot changes on the lunar surface by comparing images from the agency’s 2009-launched [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html) and the [Lunar Orbiters](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/orbiter) from the 1960s. - The hybrid [Endurance Science Workshop](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/endurance2023) from August 9-11 will explore and refine the potential science from the Endurance mission, which was proposed as the highest impact lunar mission in the [latest Decadal Survey](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-74/)—a report produced every 10 years by the US scientific community to guide future NASA missions. Endurance involves a robotic rover traversing 2,000 kilometers across the Moon’s pristine [South Pole-Aitken Basin](https://www.nasa.gov/mission%5Fpages/LRO/multimedia/lro-20100709-basin.html) to collect about 100 kilograms of samples to bring to Earth. Studying these samples will [lend us revolutionary insights](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) into the conditions on the young Moon and in the early Solar System shortly after Earth’s origin. Relatedly, at NASA’s [Exploration Science Forum](https://sservi.nasa.gov/nesf2023) in July 2023, the agency announced that JPL is undertaking a formal study to refine the mission concept. --- **→ [Sponsor Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) | [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Will Chandrayaan 3 hop after landing? URL: https://jatan.space/will-chandrayaan-3-hop-after-landing/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:14:55.000Z *Sep 4, 2023 edit: [It hopped](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-143/)!* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fb17ee345-635f-4fa6-ab93-67908017906e_2200x1550-jpeg.jpg) An illustration showing the Chandrayaan 3 lander on the Moon with its thermal probe deployed and inserted into the surface. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan3%5Fcurtainraiser%5Fvideo.html) India’s [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) lander is on its way to the Moon as we speak, aiming for a graceful touchdown near the lunar south pole on August 23\. In a [pre-launch interview](https://youtu.be/SO06qo6UyBY?t=374), popular Indian YouTuber *Gareeb Scientist* asked an interesting question to ISRO Chief S. Somanath: can Chandrayaan 3 hop after its primary mission of one lunar day (14 Earth days) is accomplished? Somanath’s response was that while it’s not currently planned, it can be done in principle by uplinking a suitable new program for the lander’s inertial and navigation systems, which should ideally be functional at that point. While a hop would be pretty neat, and allow studying [rocket plume effects](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/game%5Fchanging%5Fdevelopment/projects/PSI) on lunar soil, I’m certain mission operators will ultimately reject any such action after consideration. The reason has to do with a NASA lander that jumped on the Moon in 1967. NASA’s Surveyor 6 spacecraft [hopped a week after its landing](https://www.drewexmachina.com/2017/11/07/surveyor-6-the-third-time-is-the-charm) to relocate a few meters away. This was part of an experiment to discern the physical properties and behavior of the lunar soil underneath based on exactly how the lander’s engine plumes affected it. But in the process of hopping, the sensor head of the onboard Alpha Scattering Experiment got flipped on its side. What was supposed to measure the lunar soil’s composition was stuck gathering background radiation data for the rest of the mission. Surveyor’s deployment mechanism wasn’t designed to reel in the sensor head and redeploy it as and when needed, showing an oversight in design and mission procedures built around it. In Chandrayaan 3’s case, three of the four lander instruments need to be deployed: the seismometer, the thermal probe, and the plasma experiment. Based on publicly available information, the lander has no mechanisms to safely reel back all these instruments and redeploy them. Even if there was, a hop is out of the question as the [valuable science](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) to be gained from any of these experiments would far outweigh the benefits of a demonstrative lunar jump that could compromise not just the functioning of the instruments but potentially other lander hardware due to dust blowback. Separately, there’s also the undesirable matter of the rover ramp needing to be pulled back into the lander before a hop. As we mount increasingly challenging missions to our Moon this decade and next, the case of Surveyor 6 serves as another reminder that we should [avoid past mistakes](https://jatan.space/past-lunar-mission-mistakes-to-avoid/). --- Aside: Of course, hardware specifically designed to hop on the Moon is fascinating. For example, Intuitive Machines’ NASA-funded small [Micro-Nova](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/intuitive-machines-and-nasa-finalize-contract-for-extreme-lunar-mobility-spacecraft) robot [aims to hop five times](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-134/) during the company’s [second Moon mission](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-to-land-water-measuring-payload-on-the-moon) in 2023 as part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). ESA is funding [the LEAP mission concept](https://www.europlanet-society.org/four-legged-jumping-robots-leap-to-explore-the-moon) wherein a versatile four-legged robot can hop to explore some of the most challenging terrains on the Moon, starting with the [geologically rich Aristarchus](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-44/), a landing region [highly desired by scientists](https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/PSJ/abfec6) but one also difficult to access. The LEAP team aims for a launch on ESA’s upcoming [European Large Logistic Lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-94/) by end of decade or early next, with prototype testing ongoing on Earth in testbeds that simulate lunar terrain. --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### Talk: Sustaining lunar exploration through worldwide public support URL: https://jatan.space/talk-sustaining-lunar-exploration-at-els-2023/ Last updated: 2024-02-24T10:27:46.000Z I [gave a talk](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5HLPe4Op6bI) at the [2023 European Lunar Symposium](https://sservi.nasa.gov/els2023) on June 29 about how despite the emergence of private and commercial Moon missions there’s no alternative to public buy-in, funding, and outreach to sustain lunar exploration globally and reap its [immense benefits](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) to science and technological progress. Talk slides attached below: [ELS 2023 | Sustaining Moon exploration by Jatan Mehtaels-2023-slides-on-sustaining-moon-exploration-by-jatan-mehta.pdf22 MBdownload-circle](https://cdn.magicpages.co/spaceimpact.mymagic.page/2024/02/els-2023-slides-on-sustaining-moon-exploration-by-jatan-mehta.pdf "Download") ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fd310f177-4d31-48c5-8c25-5021de961f0f_2879x1673-jpeg.jpg) Screengrab from the talk. **→** [**Browse the Blog**](https://blog.jatan.space/start) **|** [**About**](https://blog.jatan.space/about) **|** [**Donate ♡**](https://jatan.space/support) ### Moon Monday #138: Towards technologies for long-term lunar exploration and living URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-138/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:14:55.000Z *My friends at [The Orbital Index](https://orbitalindex.com), a kind Moon Monday sponsor, have added the ability for readers to [directly support](https://ko-fi.com/orbitalindex) their newsletter. It’s honestly one of the most crisp, versatile, and technical space weeklies out there so I encourage you to donate for said work to thrive.* 🚀 ## NASA invests in more future lunar technologies As part of the public-private *Tipping Point* contracts, NASA is [funding](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-partners-with-american-companies-on-key-moon-exploration-tech) eight advanced lunar exploration technologies on a milestone basis for up to four years, each of which contribute towards sustained exploration of our Moon as well as long-term lunar living. Four of these projects, discussed below, get north of $10 million each. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f44854d83-e667-4216-9797-b07025e768b0_2560x1440-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of elements of Astrobotic’s upcoming LunaGrid power generation and distribution service on the Moon. [Credit: Astrobotic](https://www.astrobotic.com/lunar-delivery/lunar-surface-power) #### Astrobotic’s build up to a lunar power grid Astrobotic is being awarded $34.6 million to [demonstrate power transmission](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-wins-34-6m-for-power-demo-mission-on-the-moon) on the Moon. After a lunar landing targeting 2026, the company’s tethered, autonomy-capable [CubeRover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-93/)—itself supported by a [$5.8 million](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/solicitations/tipping%5Fpoints/2020%5Fselections) Tipping Point contract—will unreel more than a kilometer of high-voltage, 1 kilowatt power line across the surface. The demonstration will be a test for [LunaGrid](https://www.astrobotic.com/announcing-lunagrid-a-commercial-power-service-for-the-moon), wherein Astrobotic aims to deliver commercial power by end of decade to enable hardware on the Moon’s poles to survive the [poorly lit terrain](https://arxiv.org/abs/1208.5587) and frigid nights. Quite cleverly, LunaGrid combines virtually everything Astrobotic has been tangibly building so far: [landers](https://www.astrobotic.com/lunar-delivery/landers), [rovers](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-93/), [wireless chargers](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-82/), and their [also NASA-funded](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/three-companies-to-help-nasa-advance-solar-array-technology-for-moon) 20-meter tall, retractable polar solar arrays to be deployed on [maximally sunlit sites](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/271). #### Blue Origin’s tech alchemist Blue Origin will receive $34.7 million to advance its [‘Blue Alchemist’ solar cells](https://www.blueorigin.com/news/blue-alchemist-powers-our-lunar-future)—made using silicon, iron, and aluminum extracted from a lunar soil simulant—by demonstrating their autonomous operation in a “simulated lunar environment” by 2026\. While undeniably intriguing, the sheer complexity and scale of producing infrastructure *on the Moon* to power habitats means that at least for a decade from now, NASA’s plans for getting power—[solar](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/three-companies-to-help-nasa-advance-solar-array-technology-for-moon) and [nuclear](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-announces-artemis-concept-awards-for-nuclear-power-on-moon)—for surface activities continues to be through the annoying tradition of pulling material out of [Earth’s gruesome gravitational well](https://jatan.space/the-moon-as-a-rocket-platform/). #### Nuclear electrical power on the Moon NASA will award $15 million for Project Harmonia, a team led by Zeno Power which includes [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) vendors Blue Origin and Intuitive Machines, to demonstrate nuclear electrical power on the Moon in 2027\. Specifically, Jeff Foust [reports](https://spacenews.com/nasa-selects-companies-to-advance-lunar-power-and-other-technologies) that the team aims to demonstrate a radioisotope generator using a Stirling engine instead of traditional thermocouples to convert radioactive heat into electrical power. The system will use the Americium-241 isotope, which is more readily available than the conventionally used Plutonium-238. #### Redwire’s Moon-made infrastructure Redwire, leading a team which includes [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) vendors Astrobotic and Lockheed Martin, is being awarded $12.9 million to [develop microwave heating technologies](https://redwirespace.com/newsroom/pads-roads-and-other-forms-of-infrastructure-on-the-moon) to solidify lunar soil for building infrastructure such as roads, foundations for habitats, and landing pads. The funding doesn’t seem to include a lunar surface demonstration. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f94daf583-e380-4ebb-9a88-cf49f74b4022_1450x950-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of a lunar road construction. [Credit: Redwire](https://redwirespace.com/newsroom/pads-roads-and-other-forms-of-infrastructure-on-the-moon) ## Living on and around the Moon While having astronauts live long-term on and around our Moon is still a while away, the trickle of related developments continue. Here are all such updates from last week: - NASA’s decision to [launch](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-contract-to-launch-initial-elements-for-lunar-outpost) the upcoming US-led [Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway/overview) international lunar orbital station’s habitable module mated to its power & propulsion one has led to some mass constraints, which combined with evolving Gateway requirements from NASA have resulted in contractor Northrop Grumman taking a $36 million hit in building the habitable module, Jeff Foust [reports](https://spacenews.com/northrop-grumman-takes-36-million-charge-on-nasa-gateway-module). - The Japan Times [reports](https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2023/07/22/business/corporate-business/toyota-moon-rover) that Toyota’s upcoming [autonomous crewed pressurized rover](https://global.jaxa.jp/press/2019/03/20190312a.html), co-built with JAXA, will host NASA Artemis astronauts on the Moon for up to 42 Earth days at a time. The rover will use solar energy and water to produce hydrogen and oxygen through electrolysis during the day, and fuel cells for electricity at night. The rover is being designed to work on the Moon for at least 10 years. We know from JAXA’s presentation at the [LEAG 2022 Annual Meeting](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/leag2022) that the rover can even enter small [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) if traverse routes involve slopes less than 20 degrees. NASA is [expected to](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/president-biden-nasa-to-welcome-japanese-astronaut-aboard-gateway) but hasn’t yet confirmed the rover’s inclusion in the [Artemis Basecamp](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept) plan. - In June 2022, the Italian Space Agency (ASI) and NASA [signed an agreement](https://www.asi.it/en/2022/06/artemis-mission-signed-agreement-between-asi-and-nasa) to conduct a preliminary design study of an Artemis Basecamp surface habitation module. On July 26, ASI [announced an agreement](https://www.asi.it/2023/07/un-grande-passo-italiano-verso-la-permanenza-delluomo-sulla-luna) with Politecnico di Milano to advance work on the ORACLE project aimed at extracting oxygen from lunar soil on a Moon mission by 2028. - ESA is funding research on how to prevent microbial growth inside future lunar spacesuits, and decided to title their blog post explaining the same as “[Keeping your underwear clean on the Moon](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FEngineering%5FTechnology/Keeping%5Fyour%5Funderwear%5Fclean%5Fon%5Fthe%5FMoon)”. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f98174575-f953-4537-938e-b158a3f24e7f_2100x1400-jpeg.jpg) Exploded view of key elements of the Gateway lunar orbital habitat and their respective players. [Credit: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway/overview) --- *Many thanks to *[Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io)* for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## More Moon - India’s [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) Mooncraft performed a final Earthbound orbit raising burn on [July 25](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1683767962560512000), which achieved the desired parameters of 236 by 127,603 kilometers. The \~30-minute engine burn to push Chandrayaan 3 towards the Moon will be on August 1. - On July 27, Argentina [became the 28th country](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-welcomes-argentina-as-newest-artemis-accords-signatory) and the fifth Latin American nation to sign the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords). The other Latin American signatories are Mexico, Brazil, Colombia, and Ecuador. Interestingly, Argentina, Mexico, and Ecuador are members of the recently formed “[Latin American and Caribbean Space Agency](https://qz.com/2114990/why-latin-america-needs-its-own-space-agency)”, or ALCE. Inspired in part by the model of the European Space Agency, ALCE aims to pool resources of Latin American nations to better their space activities and their impacts up there and on the ground. --- > Although there are significant differences between the visions for lunar governance advanced by the Artemis partners and at COPUOS, neither grouping is focused on protecting scientific opportunity on the Moon. The Artemis Accords serve the needs of the US Artemis programme, first and foremost a human lunar exploration programme, though one with some scientific objectives. Scientific interests go almost entirely unaddressed in the text of the Accords. COPUOS, meanwhile, remains heavily focused on overcoming a long-standing schism between developed and developing countries over how to share the material benefits of space activities, including resource exploitation. It has devoted scant attention to the global public interest in protecting science on and from celestial bodies. – **[Time to protect scientific opportunity on the Moon](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-023-02002-z.epdf?sharing%5Ftoken=WBwBmjWR6vqTzC%5FENT%5F8OdRgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0NklfA29rvGYH1qLAS6yaYX7WWQfo5GYHdmhCRx3IZ3G3OYfuqF8aK994FruDqAUTtegqs1OqbjSCZbUrHFd9TVktLsvy6W43CziR0LWOq7iyR3K1erqqgfT7YtQQATDk8%3D)** / Alanna Krolikowski --- **→ [Sponsor Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) | [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Moon Monday #137: China’s crewed lunar landing, Chandrayaan 3 updates, Artemis, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-137/ Last updated: 2024-04-15T11:56:18.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2facd83bc9-351a-48b1-967e-cd16a725cf0c_2300x1300-jpeg.jpg) CGI concept of China’s first crewed Moon landing mission. [Credit: PhilLeafSpace](https://m.weibo.cn/detail/4922740148013011) ## China’s first crewed Moon landing plan On July 12, Zhang Hailian of the China Manned Space Agency (CMSA) shared China’s current high-level plan to land two astronauts on the Moon circa 2030\. As [reported](https://spacenews.com/china-sets-out-preliminary-crewed-lunar-landing-plan) by Andrew Jones, the mission envisions China’s upcoming [Long March 10](https://spacenews.com/china-claims-progress-on-rockets-for-crewed-lunar-landings-and-moon-base) rocket launching a next-generation [\~26,000-kilogram spacecraft](https://spacenews.com/new-chinese-spacecraft-landing-marks-step-toward-future-crewed-lunar-missions) with crew to lunar orbit, where it would dock with a similarly massive [lunar lander](https://spacenews.com/china-unveils-lunar-lander-to-put-astronauts-on-the-moon) launched separately by another Long March 10\. Two astronauts will transfer to the lander for a lunar touchdown, and return to orbit after exploring the Moon’s surface for a few days. China is designing the spacesuits such that astronauts should be able to explore the lunar surface for at least eight hours at a time. In May, CMSA [solicited industry proposals](https://english.news.cn/20230529/d072333c56424753bec141dc75c35b67/c.html) for the mission’s lunar rover, which the crew can drive up to 10 kilometers from the landed site. On July 17, CMSA [solicited science payload proposals](http://www.cmse.gov.cn/gfgg/202307/t20230717%5F54065.html) for the mission’s lander. Similar to NASA’s [Artemis III deployed science instruments call](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-130/), CMSA wants these proposals to focus on lunar geology, physics, solar and astronomical observations, and life sciences. Unlike said Artemis III solicitation though, CMSA is open to in-situ resource utilization demos being proposed as well. Relatedly, Venezuela [formally joined](https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/n6759533/c10077000/content.html) on July 17 the [upcoming](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-32/) China-led long-term [scientific Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-120/) at the Moon’s south pole called the International Lunar Research Station (ILRS). Venezuela’s key contribution will be to [provide ground station infrastructure](http://www.abae.gob.ve/venezuela-proyecto-lunar-internacional) in support of both robotic and crewed missions part of ILRS, which would include China’s first crewed Moon landing. For China, this move is in the context of the country [looking for international partners](https://spacenews.com/china-seeks-new-partners-for-lunar-and-deep-space-exploration) to explore the Moon. As Andrew Jones [reported recently](https://spacenews.com/china-attracts-moon-base-partners-outlines-project-timelines), China is in the process of establishing an overarching organization to coordinate and manage the construction of ILRS. To that end, China will next complete signing of ILRS cooperation agreements with the Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization, whose members are China, Pakistan, Thailand, Bangladesh, Iran, Mongolia, and Peru. China has also seen formal interest from the UAE and Brazil, who are notably signatories of the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords). It will be a curious case if either of them proceed with full-fledged collaboration on ILRS especially since UAE’s second lunar rover [supposed to be onboard](https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/CkjacBB3c4L%5FUbwNbeFPvA) China’s upcoming Chang’e 7 robotic lander was a collaboration [allegedly blocked](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3214396/us-tech-rules-bar-uae-moon-rover-chinas-change-7-mission-sources) by US export control rules. ## Earthbound Chandrayaan 3 continues engine burns ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fd269a2f6-9647-4ac4-838c-0f996f490a67_2300x1600-jpeg.jpg) As of July 20, India’s Chandrayaan 3 spacecraft entered its penultimate Earth orbit prior to a push for the Moon. [Credit: ISRO](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1681960236347965440) Following [launch](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan3%5Fonboard%5Fvideo.html) on July 14 and [raising of its Earthbound orbit](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1680845817903722497) on July 17, India’s [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) Moon lander performed two more orbit raising maneuvers last week. On July 18, Chandrayaan 3 fired the engines on its propulsion module to [attain](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1681293895341162499) an orbit of 228 by 51,400 kilometers, up from 226 by 41,603\. On July 20, another such maneuver [raised the orbit](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1682029955746770944) to 233 by 71,351 kilometers, continuing the intended trajectories. ISRO [says](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1681960236347965440) the next maneuver is planned for July 25 between 14:00 to 15:00 IST (8:30 to 9:30 UTC). The burn to push Chandrayaan 3 towards the Moon will be on July 31. ## Artemis updates from NASA’s Exploration Science Forum The hybrid [2023 NASA Exploration Science Forum](https://sservi.nasa.gov/nesf2023) held on July 18–20 provided many updates on Artemis and related lunar science & exploration missions. Here are some notable ones from the sessions I could attend: - Artemis lunar science lead [Sarah Noble](https://science.nasa.gov/researchers/sara/program-officers-list/sarah-noble) said that NASA has provided “Lunar Fundamentals” classroom training for [Artemis II astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) to better equip them for [their flight](https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/artemis-ii-map) around the Moon and back circa early 2025 in the Orion capsule. The agency has appointed [Dr. Kelsey Young](https://science.gsfc.nasa.gov/sed/bio/kelsey.e.young) as the lead for Artemis II’s lunar observing campaign. The larger context of these updates is that unlike Apollo, NASA will provide basic geology training even to mission flight controllers, flight directors, and more related people to streamline science-related phases of every Artemis mission. - To prepare future Artemis astronauts to explore the lunar south pole’s challenging [rocky terrain](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/SPole%5FSRidgemap%5FLOLA-Slope5m%5Fv20190515.pdf) and [unique lighting conditions](https://www.nasa.gov/ames/feature/the-dark-side-of-the-crater-how-light-looks-different-on-the-moon-and-what-nasa-is-doing), NASA is employing diverse analog facilities to cater to different aspects of how mission operations would be on the Moon. These include an [underwater facility](https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/dark-mode-activated), [full-scale field operations](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/moonwalking-test-mission-daily-field-log), and testing with [lunar-gravity offloading](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/new-tests-evaluate-mission-readiness-of-astronauts-upon-landing). The talk didn’t mention it but such preparations also extend to NASA [sending astronauts](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2021/09/16/kate-and-the-moon) to participate in ESA’s lunar geology field training campaign called [Pangaea](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/CAVES%5Fand%5FPangaea/What%5Fis%5FPangaea). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f44b01276-0be1-4777-aab3-5b61f9b6cc35_1900x1000-jpeg.jpg) Source: NASA / Cindy Evans - Intuitive Machines’ [third Moon landing mission](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-mission-to-reiner-gamma/) part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) is progressing well towards its 2024 launch to the magnetic swirl of [Reiner Gamma](https://jatan.space/swirls-on-the-moon/), said [David Blewett](https://civspace.jhuapl.edu/people/david-blewett) who leads the mission’s [Lunar Vertex](https://www.jhuapl.edu/NewsStory/211018b-lunar-vertex) instrument suite. Blewett noted that all of Lunar Vertex’s spectrometers and magnetometers have been delivered. He added that the Lunar-Outpost-provided rover part of the mission is intended to be shipped to Intuitive Machines for integration with the lander by October. Lunar Vertex will study Reiner Gamma’s composition, and map the strength and direction of magnetic fields on the surface. This will help us better understand the effects of [solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) and [bombarding micrometeorites](https://jatan.space/the-tiniest-of-impact-craters/) on planetary bodies across the Solar System, and shape our understanding of the Moon’s magnetic evolution. - [Noah Petro](https://science.gsfc.nasa.gov/sed/bio/noah.e.petro), project scientist for NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html) (LRO), shared first details on LExSO, a NASA Mission Concept at the Pre-Phase A stage. Put forth as a successor to LRO, the current study assumes a 2028 launch and a \~3-year primary mission for this polar orbiter. This move is in the context of a [recent report](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag/reports/CLOC-SAT%5FReport.pdf) from a specialized team of US lunar scientists called [CLOC-SAT](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag/reports/220721%5FNESF%5FCLOC-SAT-Pieters.pdf), who urged NASA to replace the 2009-launched LRO in order to support the increasingly important and upcoming NASA(-funded) [robotic](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) and [crewed](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) Artemis Moon missions with advanced orbital data. In the meanwhile, a tight NASA-ISRO collaboration with India’s already existing [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/)—whose capabilities said report recognizes—continues to be a [largely untapped opportunity](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-116/), with few exceptions such as cross-organization team [utilizing](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/pdf/2397.pdf) the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter’s radar to uniquely characterize the [Artemis III candidate landing regions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-91/). --- *Many thanks to* [***Epsilon3***](https://www.epsilon3.io) *and *Nitish* for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## More Moon - Jeff Foust has a good report on how NASA’s plan to have [fission power systems on the Moon](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-announces-artemis-concept-awards-for-nuclear-power-on-moon) by end of decade is [facing fiscal challenges](https://spacenews.com/nasa-plans-for-lunar-fission-power-systems-face-fiscal-challenges). - Spaceport SARABHAI, an Indian space think tank, will host an [online panel discussion](https://www.linkedin.com/feed/update/urn:li:activity:7086907081370320896) on August 3 regarding [India’s signing of the Artemis Accords](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-133/), specifically discussing how the country could navigate possible convergences and conflicts between India’s [new space policy](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-04/) and its international obligations like the 1967 Outer Space Treaty & the 1979 Moon Agreement vis à vis the Accords. Registration is free. - This past July 20 was International Moon Day. Well, if you read this newsletter, that might be the case for you every Monday 🌝. In any case, it’s for all such occasions of wider public interest in our Moon that I’ve created a [curated webpage](https://blog.jatan.space/our-moon) where people from all backgrounds can learn about and support our cosmic companion’s immense importance to science, technology, and exploration. If you like my labor of lunar love, share it with a friend, relative, or colleague you think might benefit from it or could dispatch further: [Explore Our Moon! 🌗](https://jatan.space/our-moon/) --- **→** [**Sponsor Moon Monday**](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) **|** [**Browse the Blog**](https://blog.jatan.space/start) **|** [**About**](https://blog.jatan.space/about) ### Reading menu: Weird cosmic worlds URL: https://jatan.space/reading-menu-weird-cosmic-worlds/ Last updated: 2024-11-11T04:59:49.000Z > A neutron star is like a huge atomic nucleus held together by gravity rather than the strong nuclear force. But we don’t fully understand how neutrons interact at extreme temperatures and densities. It’s possible that within a neutron star the neutrons break down into a soup of quarks, forming what is known as a quark star. If quark stars exist, then it’s possible that high-energy up and down quarks could collide to create strange quarks. And this is where things could get, well, a bit strange. – [**A Stranger Star**](https://briankoberlein.com/blog/stranger-star) / Brian Koberlein --- > I downloaded NASA’s entire exoplanet archive to mess with the data and see if I could pick out any cool trends! I was having plenty of harmless fun sifting through the data over the weekend, but upon filtering the catalog by the mass of planets’ host stars, I noted something rather peculiar—not one of our dozens of exoplanet hunting missions has yet detected a planet around a star that is greater than 10 solar masses. – [**What is the Largest Possible Star with Planets?**](https://medium.com/our-space/what-is-the-largest-possible-star-with-planets-19b2188effde) / Brandon Weigel --- > This planet must be tough – it is right in the zone where we expected Neptune-sized planets could not survive. It is truly remarkable that we found a transiting planet via a star dimming by less than 0.2% – this has never been done before by telescopes on the ground, and it was great to find after working on this project for a year. We are now scouring out data to see if we can see any more planets in the Neptune Desert – perhaps the desert is greener than was once thought. – [**Into the Neptunian Desert**](https://www.centauri-dreams.org/2019/05/30/into-the-neptunian-desert) / Paul Gilster --- > “It flies in the face of conventional wisdom that a body the size of Mercury, the smallest rocky planet in our solar system, has not cooled and become geologically inactive long ago,” Watters said. “Somehow, Mercury has managed to insulate its interior and slowed the loss of heat that provides the driving force for geologic activity.” – [**Study Reveals That Mercury Is the Not-So-Shrunken Planet**](https://www.si.edu/newsdesk/releases/study-reveals-mercury-not-so-shrunken-planet) / Smithsonian --- > In 2014, NASA's Swift mission caught a red dwarf emitting a flare [10,000 times more powerful](https://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard/nasas-swift-mission-observes-mega-flares-from-a-mini-star) than any ever expelled by our Sun. Most newly born red dwarfs may emit such mega-flares, perhaps in revolt against us having judged them on size. The intense radiation from these mega-flares could prevent life from ever arising on nearby planets. – [**Are the Universe's smallest stars promising places for life?**](https://jatan.space/life-around-red-dwarfs/) / Yours truly ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/11/flaring-red-dwarf.jpg) Artist’s impression of a flaring red dwarf star, orbited by an exoplanet. [Image: NASA / ESA / G. Bacon](https://exoplanets.nasa.gov/news/1439/flares-may-threaten-planet-habitability-near-red-dwarfs/) ### India aims for the Moon again with launch of Chandrayaan 3 URL: https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/ Last updated: 2026-04-30T05:29:18.000Z *August 23 edit: The landing* [*was successful*](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/)*!* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f5910da37-1a2a-46e9-8c81-27ee93a5874f_3000x2000-jpeg.jpg) Liftoff of the Moonbound Chandrayaan 3 by a GSLV Mk III rocket. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/chandrayaan3%5Fgallery.html) On July 14, Friday at 14:35 IST (09:05 UTC), the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) [launched](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan3%5Fonboard%5Fvideo.html) the robotic [Chandrayaan 3](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan3%5FDetails.html) spacecraft for a second attempt to land on the Moon. This is India’s second such try, as the lander on the 2019 [Chandrayaan 2 mission](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-2-moon-landing-mission/) unfortunately [crashed](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/india-loses-contact-with-lunar-lander) during its final descent phase. Chandrayaan 2 wasn’t a complete failure as India did deploy [its second lunar orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/), which continues to [provide](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-44/) valuable data for lunar science as well as future exploration planning. ## A leg up for sticking the lunar landing ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ff919f736-2a6d-48cf-a89a-1d8c329ecea9_2700x1800-jpeg.jpg) The Chandrayaan 3 spacecraft stack is seen here mounted in an acoustic chamber. The stack comprises the lander and an orbiter for co-flight until lunar orbit. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan%5F3%5FModule%5FDynamic%5FTests.html) The 1752-kilogram Chandrayaan 3 lander, named *Vikram* after the father of the Indian space program Vikram Sarabhai, is 280 kilograms heavier than its predecessor. Not only does it carry more fuel to better stay on its intended trajectory to the lunar surface, ISRO has built into Vikram [far more redundancies](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5FmqKOwK1AM) and safeguards to gracefully touchdown this time around. This includes several upgrades such as strengthened legs to absorb mechanical shocks of touchdown, a new velocity sensor for enhanced navigation measurements, and software improvements to accommodate sensor failures. Combined with numerous ground tests, ISRO has left no stone unturned to get India in history as the fourth country to achieve a lunar landing, following the USSR, the US, and China. “Instead of a success-based design, ISRO has this time opted for a failure-based design,” said ISRO’s chairman S. Somanath during a July 6 [press briefing](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xjs62N-UY-Y). That is, for Chandrayaan-3, ISRO has focused on what can fail and how those failures can be prevented. “We looked at sensor failure, engine failure, algorithm failure, calculation failure,” Somanath said. For launch, ISRO mated the lander to a 2148-kilogram orbiter. At 3,900 kilograms, the combined stack was just within the lift limit of their ride to space—the GSLV Mk III rocket that is also India’s most powerful. After being [deployed](https://www.youtube.com/live/q2ueCg9bvvQ?feature=share&t=3495) to a highly elliptical Earth orbit of \~170 by 36,500 kilometers, the Chandrayaan 3 orbiter [will propel](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/Missions/LVM3/LVM3M4%5FChandrayaan3%5Fbrochure.pdf) Vikram to and around the Moon, and then maneuver it into a circular polar orbit of 100 kilometers above the lunar surface. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9c7a55f2-5c15-4435-9fdb-9865e1a5731d_1500x700-jpeg.jpg) Mission profile of Chandrayaan 3\. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/Missions/LVM3/LVM3M4%5FChandrayaan3%5Fbrochure.pdf) Vikram will then detach itself from the orbiter to close in on the Moon, and on August 23 begin an autonomous descent to the surface by orchestrating its four 800-newton engines and eight thrusters based on continuous distance, velocity, orientation, and imaging input from its sensors. If all goes to plan, the solar-powered lander will confirm its touchdown from the Moon. ## A lunar region never explored Located at the near-polar location of [69.37 S, 32.35 E](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=23.237904,-74.1545766,38.0219231,-64.0693701&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryFeature=0&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=32.34810585,-69.36768573@@%7B%22label%22:%22Chandrayaan+3+target+landing+site%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFOOZLRfImqnioA&proj=17), Chandrayaan 3’s target landing site is a geologically rich region embedded in a larger rocky highland. ISRO scientists and engineers chose it [based on](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/pdf/1037.pdf) high-resolution photos and data from their Chandrayaan 2 orbiter as well as NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter. “This is the first ever surface exploration of a high-latitude near-polar region, something that’s never \[been\] measured in-situ,” says [Anil Bhardwaj](https://www.prl.res.in/prl-eng/director), director of the Physical Research Laboratory in Ahmedabad, India, and a scientist involved in several of the nation’s planetary missions. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9ffc44ec-0ce2-4886-a0b0-569b4d86c350_1920x1080-jpeg.jpg) The landing sites of Chandrayaan 2 and 3 are marked as CH-2 and CH-3 respectively in these orthographic views of the Moon’s nearside and south pole. [Click to explore](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=-43.2663985,-76.9293749,40.7466262,-47.9179747&id=lroc&layerListFilter=&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=32.34810585,-69.36768573@@%7B%22label%22:%22Chandrayaan+3+target+landing+site%22%7D%7C22.67039939,-70.82998430@@%7B%22label%22:%22Chandrayaan+2+target+landing+site%22%7D%7C22.67065629,-70.83019811,32.34793832,-69.36759126&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0yioA&proj=17) on an interactive map. Credit: LROC Quickmap / Markings by Jatan Mehta To begin Chandrayaan 3’s surface mission, Vikram will deploy a 26-kilogram rover called *Pragyan* via a ramp. The six-wheeled, solar-powered rover will communicate to and from Earth via the lander, as it explores the landing region for 14 Earth days—or one lunar day—with a traverse path optimized for engineering safety versus scientific return. Pragyan carries two spectrometers to help scientists determine what elements and minerals make up the soil and rocks around the landing region. One of these is the [APXS](https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.1910.09232), a miniaturized, 0.7-kilogram X-ray spectrometer. APXS proved particularly challenging to realize, says its principal investigator [Santosh Vadawale](https://scholar.google.co.in/citations?user=-X7GaNkAAAAJ&hl=en), an astrophysicist at PRL. “For APXS to work, it has to be within 5 centimeters of its target,” he explains. “It took multiple design iterations to make such a mass-constrained instrument deployable without a traditional robotic arm.” The instrument protrudes the rover’s front, and rotates by 90 degrees to study the material below it. Procuring the radioactive Curium-244 source central to APXS wasn’t straightforward either. “It’s available only from Russia, even for NASA’s Mars rovers needing the same,” notes Vadawale. The instrument’s lead engineer [M. Shanmugam](https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=QBzG9e8AAAAJ&hl=en) adds, “The procurement started in 2010, and took about 7 years.” ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ff8ab315e-a7f9-4579-b8ef-a85f49e2415a_2400x1430-jpeg.jpg) The Chandrayaan 3 rover rolling out of the lander ramp. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan3%5Fcurtainraiser%5Fvideo.html) The Vikram lander itself hosts four science experiments. A seismometer will detect moonquakes to provide clues about [the Moon’s internal structure](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/), building on work that began with the deployment of similar instruments by NASA’s Apollo missions. A Langmuir probe and a radio occultation experiment will study for the first time near-surface lunar plasma created by incessantly [streaming charged particles](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) from the Sun. NASA is contributing a retroreflector, an upgraded version of the ones [left on the Moon](https://www.nasa.gov/mission%5Fpages/LRO/multimedia/lroimages/lroc-20100413-apollo15-LRRR.html) by Apollo missions, which scientists will bounce laser pulses off to [better understand](https://ilrs.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/williams%5Flw13.pdf) the gravitational nature of the Earth-Moon system as well as the lunar interior. The lander will also insert a thermal probe to about 10 centimeters into the lunar soil and provide pristine soil temperature measurements throughout the lunar day. “This is the first ever in-situ thermal profiling of the Moon’s near subsurface. It will tell us exactly how the Sun’s heat propagates downwards from the surface,” says PRL planetary scientist [K. Durga Prasad](https://www.prl.res.in/~durgaprasad/), one of the experiment leads. A heater just above the probe’s tip will warm up the soil to help scientists determine the latter’s thermal conductivity, and from it infer its density and physical properties—something critical for future advanced lunar exploration. “Temperatures dictate the presence, stability, and mobility of water on the Moon,” Durga adds. “The experiment will tell us about stability zones of such resources. Future studies and even extraction operations of lunar soil will benefit from this data.” ## India’s role in the return to our Moon Chandrayaan 3 feeds into the [global frenzy](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) of sending hardware to the Moon, particularly to its south pole. The upcoming US Artemis crewed missions, China’s Chang’e robotic craft, and the majority of other government as well as private endeavors plan to explore the Moon’s south pole. They [eventually aim](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/can-nasas-artemis-moon-missions-count-on-using-lunar-water-ice) to extract its [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other resources to sustain lunar missions for long durations and commercialize aspects of such operations. However, getting to the lunar surface remains risky. Three out of the last four landing attempts—including Chandrayaan 2—have failed. India’s hopefully successful reattempt with Chandrayaan 3 will help keep the momentum for the Moon going. “India giving the hard problem of Moon landing a second try soon after its first attempt is an appreciated investment the whole world will benefit from,” says [Jessy Kate Schingler](http://jessykate.com/about), a researcher in outer space policy and a senior advisor at the Open Lunar Foundation. In fact, India’s investment in the Moon is growing. For the Chandrayaan program, ISRO [developed](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0032063320303299) its own lunar soil simulant facility to test a variety of hardware as the country prepares for more lunar activity. For its next Moon mission launching before the end of decade, India is partnering with Japan to have the [LUPEX rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-111/) directly study water ice on the Moon’s south pole. “LUPEX will help us understand the distribution, nature as well as quantity of water ice accessible in the first few centimeters of the polar surface it explores,” Bhardwaj states. It’s quite the timing then that on June 21 India [signed](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-welcomes-india-as-27th-artemis-accords-signatory) the [Artemis Accords](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/nasa-proposes-new-rules-for-moon-focused-space-race), a US-led lunar governance framework aiming to peacefully manage lunar activity from the increasing number of global missions. Seeing that both Japan and India are signatories of the Accords, the mission will likely feed into the critical data on which future crewed Artemis missions will bank on. “The Accords are a non-binding political understanding of a Signee for mutually beneficial space exploration activities based on the desire to implement provisions of the Outer Space Treaty with focus on the Artemis program. As a signatory, India could accelerate its lunar exploration program by better collaborating with the US and other signee nations,” said [Ranjana Kaul](https://www.duaassociates.com/people/ranjana-kaul) of the law firm Dua Associates, who specializes in international space law and policy and is on the board of the International Institute of Space Law. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f8ff5292b-ca6d-46c8-a01b-00ee7b4c7ad3_1344x756-jpeg.jpg) An illustration of Artemis astronauts doing science on the Moon and collecting samples. [Credit: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-companies-to-develop-human-landers-for-artemis-moon-missions) But there’s a catch. ISRO’s aspiring [upcoming space science missions](https://jatan.space/isro-space-science-missions-2020-2025/) have been facing nothing but delays due to budget shortages and [overshadowing priorities](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-100/). While India’s [new space policy](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-04/), out in April, does encourage ISRO to “undertake missions on in-situ resource utilization and celestial prospecting”, failure to increase such science & technology outputs for real wouldn’t allow India to sufficiently leverage the Accords in helping shape our future at the Moon. “The Accords could be a sign that India will invest much more in lunar and space exploration,” Schingler adds. “However, it’s the actual outcome that will at least partially determine the weight India can pull in space policy matters.” One thing is clear. The success of ISRO’s Chandrayaan 3 Moon lander will be critical for anchoring India’s long-term role in lunar exploration and governance. *Originally published on* [*Scientific American*](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/india-aims-for-the-moon-with-launch-of-chandrayaan-3)*, and tweaked for my blog.* ### Moon Monday #136: Chandrayaan 3 on its way to Luna as Russia and Japan prep their Moonshot, plus NASA mission updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-136/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:14:59.000Z On July 14, Friday at 14:35 IST (09:05 UTC), ISRO [launched](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan3%5Fonboard%5Fvideo.html) the robotic [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) spacecraft for a second attempt to land on the Moon. Chandrayaan 3’s Project Director P. Veeramuthuvel [said](https://www.youtube.com/live/q2ueCg9bvvQ?feature=share&t=3495) in a post-launch briefing that the GSLV Mk III rocket injected the spacecraft close to the ideal intended orbit of 170 x 36,500 kilometers. He added that both the lander and its connected propulsion module are generating power nominally. On July 15, ISRO [confirmed](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1680239822110162944) Chandrayaan 3’s propulsion module having fired its engines and raising the combined spacecraft’s orbit to 173 by 41762 kilometers, the first in a series of maneuvers leading to a push towards the Moon around July 31\. The orbit perigee was raised to [226 kilometers](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1680845817903722497) on July 17\. Relatedly, [Sankar Viswanathan](https://sankara.net) has created a [cool orbit animation](https://sankara.net/chandrayaan3.html) of Chandrayaan 3’s mission profile using ephemeris data from the online NASA JPL HORIZONS tool. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fc360a3aa-d0a0-4a17-b0a1-1a5f3821cdce_1500x700-jpeg.jpg) Mission profile of Chandrayaan 3\. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/Missions/LVM3/LVM3M4%5FChandrayaan3%5Fbrochure.pdf) A graceful touchdown by the lander on August 23 would make India only the fourth country in the world to achieve the feat, following the USSR, the US, and China. My article on the mission [discusses](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) its scientific details, its global relevance, and critical importance to India in anchoring a long-term role in shaping lunar exploration and governance. Read the piece: [Chandrayaan 3 in-depth 🌗](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) #### How did Chandrayaan 2 fail? In an interview with ANI, ISRO Chief S. Somanath [explained](https://youtu.be/gGv4qpSSl3w?t=50) that the [Chandrayaan 2](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-2-moon-landing-mission/) Moon lander [failed](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/india-loses-contact-with-lunar-lander) due to two major reasons. Its five main engines were firing at a slightly greater thrust than expected, which accumulated navigation errors over time. As a result, at some point the parameters related to these errors surpassed the bounds against which the onboard software was designed and tested. Combined with the built-in requirement that the lander must only target a tight landing ellipse of 500 by 500 meters—despite it being a non-nominal scenario—the lander ended up increasing its velocity *while descending* and thus crashed on the Moon. Somanath later explained how all of these issues have been [resolved for Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/). ## Two more Moon landers prep for liftoff ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f42f6e95d-9b0c-4eca-9818-794481d4fb6b_1800x1300-jpeg.jpg) Russia’s Luna 25 Moon lander at Vostochny Cosmodrome. [Credit: JSC NPO Lavochkin](https://www.facebook.com/groups/SpaceTalk101/posts/1876360879413390) - After passing a standard series of [space simulating tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/), the Roscosmos [Luna 25](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2021/pdf/2032.pdf) robotic Moon lander was delivered to its launch site Vostochny Cosmodrome to prepare for an August 11 launch, [says](https://twitter.com/RussianSpaceWeb/status/1678728747606847488) Anatoly Zak. Luna 25’s instruments include a robotic arm to sample material from 20 to 30 centimeters below the surface and then feed it to a laser spectrometer to determine elements and isotopes within. There’s also a neutron and a gamma ray spectrometer respectively to identify the composition of the subsurface. The mission’s landing site at [69.5°S, 43.5°W](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=38.7852738%2C-75.1315854%2C48.1250685%2C-63.6840809&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=43.48721100%2C-69.49659000%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Luna-25+target+landing+site%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKWbJYNOZLRfImq3ioA&proj=17), while not truly polar due to engineering constraints, is selected such that subsurface [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) could still be detected. - JAXA’s [SLIM](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/home/slim/SLIM/technology.html) Moon lander will launch on the Japanese H-2A rocket on [August 26](https://global.jaxa.jp/press/2023/07/20230711-1%5Fe.html) at 09:34 JST (00:34 UTC). The launch window runs through to September 15\. The compact lander aims to demonstrate *pinpoint lunar touchdown* (\~100-meter accuracy) with a low mass of just 590 kilograms. To that end, SLIM [will land](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/feature/forefront/220928.html) somewhere within the rocky ejecta of the 300-meter wide [Shioli crater](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=25.1369017%2C-13.3775317%2C25.3103066%2C-13.279343&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=25.23250488%2C-13.32525147&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFaaKBJ-Im64NOZFkRdi5KjwpA&proj=16). Orbital data suggests that studying the crater’s ejecta using SLIM’s near-infrared, multi-band spectroscopic camera could enhance our knowledge about [the Moon’s mantle and its formation](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). --- *Many thanks to *[Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io)*, *[The Orbital Index](https://orbitalindex.com)* and *[Open Lunar Foundation](https://www.openlunar.org)* for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## CLPS and Artemis updates - Intuitive Machines has [completed](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/nova-c-lunar-lander-passes-complete-spacecraft-test-run) the final ground test of [its first Moon lander](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/im-1), which includes hot firing the main engine, to verify various key functionalities for its upcoming late Q3 mission near the Moon’s south pole as part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). Next up the lander will undergo a standard series of [space simulating tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/) before being prepared for launch. - NASA has [received](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/new-fleet-of-vehicles-for-nasa-s-artemis-crews-arrives-at-kennedy) from Canoo three next-generation, all-electric vans which will transport the agency’s Moonbound astronauts from suit-up facilities to the launchpad starting with [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-iii). Formally called the “Artemis Crew Transportation Vehicle”, each van can carry up to 8 passengers, including 4 fully suited astronauts. The vans will also support other related tasks such as prelaunch operations, training and launch countdown tests. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2feb9414aa-f72c-4067-a2d4-136afd4b9ab8_1000x750-jpeg.jpg) The beautiful and bright lunar swirl of Reiner Gamma. It spans well over a hundred kilometers. [Credit: NASA / LRO WAC](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Reiner%5FGamma.jpg) - Southwest Research Institute has [delivered](https://www.swri.org/press-release/swri-delivers-plasma-spectrometer-moon-mission) the high-resolution plasma spectrometer to be onboard Intuitive Machines’ [third CLPS Moon lander](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-mission-to-reiner-gamma/), which is targeting a 2024 launch to the magnetic swirl of [Reiner Gamma](https://jatan.space/swirls-on-the-moon/) on our Moon. The 5-kilogram spectrometer is a key part of [Lunar Vertex](https://www.jhuapl.edu/NewsStory/211018b-lunar-vertex), a suite of instruments on the lander and a rover to help scientists better understand the effects of [solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) and [bombarding micrometeorites](https://jatan.space/the-tiniest-of-impact-craters/) on planetary bodies across the Solar System, and also shape our understanding of the Moon’s magnetic evolution. - NASA [will fund](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/new-nasa-artemis-instruments-to-study-volcanic-terrain-on-the-moon) a 2027 CLPS mission to have a rover study the enigmatic volcanic feature of [Ina](https://jatan.space/ina-irregular-mare-patch/) on our Moon so as to “definitively resolve the debate on how recently the Moon was volcanically active”. - Tangent: Both Ina and Reiner Gamma are featured in my curated digital gallery of [weird yet wonderful lunar features](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-weird-lunar-features/). 🌝 - NASA has [awarded $5 million](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-expands-options-for-spacewalking-moonwalking-suits-services) to Collins Aerospace to advance work on [its lunar spacesuit](https://www.collinsaerospace.com/news/news/2022/06/collins-aerospace-selected-to-outfit-the-next-generation-of-space-explorers) as part of the company’s selection alongside [Axiom Space’s offering](https://www.axiomspace.com/axiom-suit) to [competitively](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-80/) provide suits for the agency’s crewed Artemis missions. ## More Moon - In October 2021, ISRO sent commands to its lunar polar orbiting [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) to [change its orbit](https://web.archive.org/web/20220725175353/https://www.isro.gov.in/update/15-nov-2021/chandrayaan-2-orbiter-ch2o-performs-evasive-manoeuvre-to-mitigate-critically) slightly for avoiding an uncomfortably close approach of about 3 kilometers to NASA’s near-polar circling [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html) (LRO). Now in a [May 2023 summary](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/Monthly%5Fsummary/MonthlySummary%5FMay2023%5FEnglish.pdf) of India’s space activities, ISRO mentions that on its request the LRO team postponed their spacecraft’s “Momentum Dumping” plan in order to avoid more such uncomfortably close conjunctions between the two orbiters. - Popular Indian YouTuber *Gareeb Scientist* has a [great interview](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SO06qo6UyBY) with ISRO Chief S. Somanath discussing a whole range of finer things related to Chandrayaan 3\. Gareeb Scientist usually does videos in Hindi to benefit the Indian demographic but this one is in English for accessibility by a broader global audience. ## Feeling the Chandrayaan 3 launch I was thrilled to be at Sriharikota to watch Chandrayaan 3 blast off for the Moon. Feeling the rumblings caused by the rocket was epic. I witnessed the liftoff and ascent from the public [Launch View Gallery](https://goo.gl/maps/twE6Z6JH4cnRLnbv6), which was [packed](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1679809643437248513/photo/2) with well over 5,000 spectators and from where people have captured really cool imagery. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f09c71df2-ddeb-4714-9d22-f08891062d7f_640x800-jpeg.jpg) The rising MK III glows up a cloud. [Credit: Ananth Y R](https://www.reddit.com/r/ISRO/comments/1504gtg/pictures%5Fof%5Fthe%5Fchandrayaan%5F3%5Flaunch%5Fcaptured) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f95a5d17a-d92f-4c8c-9e34-e90de722d6c4_1800x2190-jpeg.jpg) Since the sky was clear, I got to see the maximum rocket path possible from Sriharikota unlike [the last cloudy launch](https://jatan.space/i-saw-a-rocket-launch/) of Chandrayaan 2\. Look at that beautiful rocket trail shadow! Credit: Jatan Mehta --- **→ [Sponsor Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) | [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Indian Space Progress #6: Chandrayaan 3 launches for the Moon as India signs the Artemis Accords and expands the scope of Gaganyaan URL: https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-06/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:00.000Z On July 14, Friday at 14:35 IST (09:05 UTC), ISRO [launched](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan3%5Fonboard%5Fvideo.html) the [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) spacecraft for its second Moon landing attempt. Chandrayaan 3’s Project Director P. Veeramuthuvel [said](https://www.youtube.com/live/q2ueCg9bvvQ?feature=share&t=3495) in a post-launch briefing that the GSLV Mk III rocket injected the spacecraft close to the ideal intended orbit of 170 x 36,500 kilometers. He added that both the lander and its connected propulsion module are generating power nominally. A graceful touchdown by the lander on August 23 would make India only the fourth country in the world to achieve the feat, following the USSR, the US, and China. My article on the mission [discusses](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/india-aims-for-the-moon-with-launch-of-chandrayaan-3) its scientific details, its global relevance, and critical importance to India in anchoring a long-term role in shaping lunar exploration and governance. Read the piece: [Chandrayaan 3 in-depth 🌗](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) In an interview with ANI, ISRO Chief S. Somanath [explained](https://youtu.be/gGv4qpSSl3w?t=50) that the [Chandrayaan 2](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-2-moon-landing-mission/) Moon lander [failed](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/india-loses-contact-with-lunar-lander) due to two major reasons. Its five main engines were firing at a slightly greater thrust than expected, which accumulated navigation errors over time. As a result, at some point the parameters related to these errors surpassed the bounds against which the onboard software was designed and tested. Combined with the built-in requirement that the lander must only target a tight landing ellipse of 500 by 500 meters—despite it being a non-nominal scenario—the lander ended up increasing its velocity *while descending* and thus crashed on the Moon. Somanath later explained that all of these issues have been [resolved for Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/). ## India signs the Artemis Accords to shoot for the Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f7c312bf6-e87c-40d6-bf34-111bed13e2a1_2000x1200-jpeg-1.jpg) Image credits: [NASA / Chris Meaney](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/images/lithos/LRO%20litho1%5Ffinal.pdf) / ISRO / TeamIndus | Graphic: Jatan Mehta As part of an unprecedented set of [broad-sweeping agreements](https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2023/06/22/joint-statement-from-the-united-states-and-india) between the US and India centered around collaborative science & technology advancements, India [signed](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-welcomes-india-as-27th-artemis-accords-signatory) the [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords) on June 21\. Notably, India is one of the few nations with independent *and* frequent access to space joining to shape this US-led lunar governance framework, which aims to peacefully manage increasing global activity at the Moon. In a [feature story](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-133/), I highlight and contextualize its biggest implications and opportunities for NASA and ISRO to better explore our Moon: [Implications of the Accords for India 🌗](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-133/) --- *Many thanks to the *[Takshashila Institution](https://takshashila.org.in)* and *[SkyServe](https://skyserve.ai)* for sponsoring this month’s Indian Space Progress report.* --- ## The growing scope of Gaganyaan The [White House factsheet](https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2023/06/22/fact-sheet-republic-of-india-official-state-visit-to-the-united-states) on the new India-US agreements builds upon the previous, recent partnership [forged in January](https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2023/01/31/fact-sheet-united-states-and-india-elevate-strategic-partnership-with-the-initiative-on-critical-and-emerging-technology-icet) for “critical and emerging technologies” by furthering human spaceflight cooperation between the two nations: > NASA will provide advanced training to ISRO astronauts with the goal of launching a joint effort to the International Space Station in 2024\. Additionally, NASA and the ISRO are developing a strategic framework for human spaceflight cooperation by the end of 2023. ISRO Chief S. Somanath [told](https://indianexpress.com/article/india/us-training-for-astronauts-will-help-in-gaganyaan-preparation-isro-head-8800327) The Indian Express that NASA’s training of Indian astronauts will help ISRO better design and tweak hardware for its own crewed [Gaganyaan missions](https://www.isro.gov.in/Gaganyaan.html). The ambitious inaugural Gaganyaan flight to indigenously send humans to space is currently targeting a 2025 launch. ISRO has completed human-rating the [GSLV Mk III](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-03/), which is the country’s most powerful rocket and the vehicle of choice for launching astronauts. Within just the last month, both NASA and private US companies have shown interest in leveraging parts of Gaganyaan’s technology stack: - Blue Origin is keen on using the Mk III for launching crew capsules to service its upcoming commercial space station called [Orbital Reef](https://www.orbitalreef.com), Chethan Kumar [reports](https://web.archive.org/web/20230630012711/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/blue-origin-keen-on-using-lvm3-for-commercial-space-activities/articleshow/101352730.cms). - [Bhavya Lal](https://www.nasa.gov/offices/otps/bios/Bhavya%5FLal%5FAssociate%5FAdministrator%5Fof%5FOTPS), NASA’s associate administrator for technology, policy, and strategy [told PTI](https://www.telegraphindia.com/world/india-needs-to-join-united-states-of-america-led-artemis-accords-national-aeronautics-and-space-administration-official/cid/1945773) expressed zeal for this very kind of possibility. “I’m most excited about India’s human space flight program because once India has a presence in low earth orbit, we can take cargo to each other’s stations. We can take the crew to each other.” Relatedly, Somanath [confirmed](https://web.archive.org/web/20230630012711/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/blue-origin-keen-on-using-lvm3-for-commercial-space-activities/articleshow/101352730.cms) recently that Mk III cargo missions to the International Space Station or any other compatible station—docking-wise—are possible in the future. - Voyager Space [announced](https://voyagerspace.com/2023/07/10/voyager-space-signs-mou-with-isro-and-in-space-to-explore-utilization-of-gaganyaan-spacecraft-for-the-starlab-space-station) that it’s considering using ISRO’s Gaganyaan crewed spacecraft to service the upcoming [Starlab](https://c212.net/c/link/?t=0&l=en&o=3914647-1&h=229353924&u=https%3A%2F%2Fstarlab-space.com%2F&a=Starlab) commercial space station for which it has partnered with Lockheed Martin and Airbus. ## Private and commercial space updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f03c1c90f-9020-47ea-8dc2-358bd196ea97_1140x1000-jpeg.jpg) Firing of Raman-I engine, which will provide roll attitude control for the Vikram-I rocket. [Credit: Skyroot](https://twitter.com/SkyrootA/status/1671416833579286529) - On June 12, a SpaceX Falcon 9 Transporter flight launched Ahmedabad-based Azista BST’s [first satellite](https://www.financialexpress.com/business/defence-indian-startup-azista-bst-aerospaces-first-satellite-launched-by-spacex-3124736) called AFR. The 80-kilogram satellite is the first of up to five Earth imagers the company hopes to operate within three years. Long-term, the company [hopes to leverage](https://www.azista-bst.com/azista-bst-aerospace-rolls-out-maiden-satellite-from-its-mass-manufacturing-factory) its avant-garde 50,000 sq. ft facility to mass produce eight satellites a month to provide commercial offerings to agricultural, strategic, and analytics customers in South-East Asia. - Bengaluru-based Digantara announced on June 20 having [raised $10 million](https://spacenews.com/indian-ssa-startup-raises-10-million) primarily to make satellites forming the world’s first space-based system to track objects in Earth orbit. It will advance the company’s commercial space situational awareness offering, which collates and analyzes available data of numerous existing satellites. Digantara is also building a ground-based optical observatory in India dedicated to space situational awareness. - IN-SPACe, which is an Indian Department of Space (DOS) entity created to promote space activities” of private players, has put out an [Expression of Interest](https://www.inspace.gov.in/inspace?id=inspace%5Fsslv%5Ftransfer%5Ftech%5Fpage) to transfer the technology of ISRO’s new SSLV rocket to the private industry. This move is notable since SSLV is set to enter the [cut-throat](https://europeanspaceflight.substack.com/p/more-vehicles-than-customers-1446755) smallsat market with a [lower target price and quicker turnaround](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-02/) than Rocket Lab’s Electron. NSIL, a DOS company commercializing Indian space technologies, aims to offer as many as [ten SSLV launches](https://www.livemint.com/companies/news/isro-arm-targets-10-commercial-sslv-launches-by-2026-11678114241233.html) a year by 2026. - Skyroot, which launched [suborbital test mission ](https://www.isro.gov.in/mission%5Fprarambh.html)*[Prarambh](https://www.isro.gov.in/mission%5Fprarambh.html)* last November and became India’s first privately developed such rocket, is progressing towards an orbital launch of its Vikram-I rocket. On July 4, the company [announced](https://twitter.com/SkyrootA/status/1676116935933857800) completing the carbon-fiber winding and curing of the rocket’s Stage-1 motor case. On June 21, Skyroot [flight qualified](https://twitter.com/SkyrootA/status/1671416833579286529) the Raman-I engine, which will provide roll attitude control for Vikram-I. ## More Indian space - With the [Aditya-L1](https://jatan.space/isro-space-science-missions-2020-2025/) solar observatory’s final instrument [delivered](https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/pune/unique-space-telescope-designed-pune-scientists-sun-mission-8667571) to ISRO early June, the agency is now targeting the space telescope’s launch by August end. The delivered instrument is the Solar Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope, or [SUIT](https://instru.iucaa.in/index.php/projects/16-ongoing-projects/24-suit), which will provide continuous full disc observations of the Sun’s “surface”—aka the photosphere—as well as its inner atmosphere called the chromosphere. - On July 1, ISRO [conducted](https://www.isro.gov.in/First%5FHot%5FTest%5FSemicryogenicEngine.html) the first hot fire test on its indigenous 2000 kiloNewton kerolox engine. The test was prematurely terminated at 2.0 seconds due to an unanticipated spike in the turbine pressure. ISRO is now analyzing the issue before it can proceed with the intended series of long duration tests of the engine. The test took place at a new facility dedicated for testing semi-cryogenic engines to be used on ISRO’s future rockets. The agency plans to replace the existing two [Vikas engines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikas%5F%28rocket%5Fengine%29) powering the GSLV Mk III’s core stage with one kerolox engine to increase the rocket’s GTO payload capacity to \~6,000 kilograms from 4,000\. Variants or derivatives of this semi-cryogenic engine will also power parts of India’s upcoming [heavy-lift](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified%5FLaunch%5FVehicle) and [reusable launch vehicle](https://jatan.space/isro-continues-building-rlv-td-spaceplane/) respectively. - Popular Indian YouTuber *Gareeb Scientist* has a [great interview](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SO06qo6UyBY) with ISRO Chief S. Somanath discussing a whole range of finer things related to Chandrayaan 3 as well as the Indian space program and its future at large. Gareeb Scientist usually does videos in Hindi to benefit the Indian demographic but this one is in English for accessibility by a broader global audience. - [Chandrayaan 3 mission trivia, tidbits, and reading menu](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-135/) ## Feeling the Chandrayaan 3 launch I was thrilled to be at Sriharikota to watch Chandrayaan 3 blast off for the Moon. Feeling the rumblings caused by the rocket was epic. I witnessed the liftoff and ascent from the public [Launch View Gallery](https://goo.gl/maps/twE6Z6JH4cnRLnbv6), which was [packed](https://twitter.com/isro/status/1679809643437248513/photo/2) with well over 5,000 spectators and from where people have captured really cool imagery. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f09c71df2-ddeb-4714-9d22-f08891062d7f_640x800-jpeg-1.jpg) The rising MK III glows up a cloud. [Credit: Ananth Y R](https://www.reddit.com/r/ISRO/comments/1504gtg/pictures%5Fof%5Fthe%5Fchandrayaan%5F3%5Flaunch%5Fcaptured) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f95a5d17a-d92f-4c8c-9e34-e90de722d6c4_1800x2190-jpeg-1.jpg) Since the sky was clear, I got to see the maximum rocket path possible from Sriharikota unlike [the last cloudy launch](https://jatan.space/i-saw-a-rocket-launch/) of Chandrayaan 2\. Look at that beautiful rocket trail shadow! Credit: Jatan Mehta --- **→ [Sponsor Indian Space Progress](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-indian-space-progress) | [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Moon Monday #135: India set to launch Chandrayaan 3, an overview of Chang’e 5 science, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-135/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:00.000Z *I’m pleased to welcome [Arun Raghavan](https://arunraghavan.net) as the first individual sponsor of Moon Monday for a year! If you too would like to personally support this one-of-a-kind newsletter and space community resource, get in touch:* [Email me: hey@jatan.space](mailto:hey@jatan.space) ## Chandrayaan 3 takes off on July 14 ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f4857bce3-59e3-48a6-b2fa-abf15343e5a8_2400x1600-jpeg.jpg) A tailor-made truck carrying the large and tall fairing of the GSLV Mk III rocket, which houses inside it the Chandrayaan 3 spacecraft stack. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/chandrayaan3%5Fgallery.html) ISRO is [set to launch](https://web.archive.org/web/20230708155437/https://twitter.com/isro/status/1676918082265321472) its [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) Moon lander on Friday, July 14 at 2:35 PM IST. Its lander will attempt a soft touchdown on Luna as India’s second such try, as the lander on the 2019 [Chandrayaan 2 mission](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-2-moon-landing-mission/) unfortunately [crashed](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/india-loses-contact-with-lunar-lander) during its final descent phase. A graceful touchdown would make India only the fourth country to achieve a lunar landing, following the US, the USSR, and China. I’m thrilled that I’ll be at Sriharikota to watch Chandrayaan 3 blast off for the Moon in person! 🚀🌗 Except an article on the mission soon, along with its updates per usual. In the meanwhile, below are some interesting mission tidbits and trivia to munch on. - The solar panels on both the Chandrayaan 3 lander and rover are mounted nearly 90° relative to the Moon’s surface. Since the landing site is at \~[69°S](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=23.237904,-74.1545766,38.0219231,-64.0693701&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryFeature=0&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=32.34810585,-69.36768573@@{"label":"Chandrayaan+3+target+landing+site"}&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFOOZLRfImqnioA&proj=17), the Sun won’t rise higher than \~21° in the sky throughout the mission length of one lunar day. The sideways-facing solar panels thus maximize generated power. - Since the [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) is operating successfully with its host of Moon-studying science instruments, and [one observing the Sun](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-orbiter-is-also-a-sun-watcher/) in fact, the orbiter module of Chandrayaan 3 is primarily tasked with getting the lander to and around the Moon post-launch. Having said that, the orbiter will host one Earth-observing experiment called [SHAPE](https://old.reddit.com/r/ISRO/comments/vweeu5/report%5Fon%5Fspace%5Fresearch%5Fin%5Findia%5Ffor%5F44th%5Fcospar/ifpfurp), which is a near-infrared spectro-polarimeter made to observe the full Earth disc from Luna to get a sense of what signatures of habitable [Earth-like exoplanets](https://jatan.space/nasa-tess-space-telescope/) might look like. - For testing Chandrayaan landers and rovers, ISRO developed a lunar soil simulant called [LSS-ISAC-1](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0032063320303299). To make the simulant, ISRO sourced naturally occurring lunar-like anorthosite rock fragments from the [Sittampundi Anorthosite Complex](https://www.mindat.org/loc-194805.html) in southern India. This aided the simulant’s fidelity. The bulk chemistry, mineralogy, and physical & mechanical properties of the final LSS-ISAC-1 simulant are [similar to](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0032063321001938) Apollo 16 highland soil samples. This partly due to Chandrayaan 2’s [target landing site](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-landing-site-in-the-southern-highlands/) having been a lunar highland too, as is also the case with Chandrayaan 3. - Originally slated for launch in the first half of 2023, Chandrayaan 3 was [robbed of its ride to space](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-100/) as ISRO prioritized two GSLV Mk III rockets for [commercial OneWeb launches](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-03/) instead. - ISRO and NASA signed an agreement in [February 2022](https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/article-files/monthly-summary-of-department-of-space-last-1-year/february-2022-monthly%5Fsummary.pdf) to use the latter’s [Deep Space Network](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/heo/scan/services/networks/deep%5Fspace%5Fnetwork/about) (DSN) to support communications for Chandrayaan 3\. ESA [will also provide](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Operations/ESA%5FGround%5FStations/ESA%5Fsupports%5FIndian%5Flunar%5Fand%5Fsolar%5Fmissions) backup mission communications via their [Estrack network](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Operations/ESA%5FGround%5FStations/Estrack%5Fground%5Fstations). ISRO uses its own [Indian Deep Space Network](https://www.isro.gov.in/indian-space-science-data-centre-issdc-gateway-to-indias-space-science-data) as a primary means for communicating with its planetary spacecraft but partners with other space agencies like is the case here for backup and secondary options. India’s [Chandrayaan 1](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/) orbiter had DSN support too. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ff233a338-8ce9-4ea7-9def-26b473b5ed1f_1500x1000-jpeg.jpg) An artist’s impression of the Chandrayaan 2 lander and rover on the Moon, showing the sideways-facing solar panels. Chandrayaan 3 hardware looks broadly similar. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=--8ORixBXQE) #### Reading menu: The road till Chandrayaan 3 - [Looking back at Chandrayaan 1 and forward to Artemis](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/) - [How NASA and India discovered water on the Moon](https://jatan.space/how-nasa-and-chandrayaan-discovered-water-on-the-moon/) - [Interviewing Chandrayaan 1’s Mission Director on India’s role in the new Moon race](https://jatan.space/interviewing-isro-chandrayaan-1-mission-director/) - [Chandrayaan 2, India’s first mission to attempt a Moon landing](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-2-moon-landing-mission/) - [The Chandrayaan 2 orbiter is creating the highest resolution map of the Moon](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) - [Chandrayaan 2’s landing failure and the road ahead](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-landing-failure-and-the-road-ahead/) - [Explainer – Why did it take so long to find the Chandrayaan 2 lander?](https://jatan.space/finding-the-chandrayaan-2-lander/) - [India signs the US-led Artemis Accords](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-133/) --- *Many thanks to *[Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io), [Arun Raghavan](https://arunraghavan.net)* and *[Alexandra Witze](http://alexandrawitze.com)* for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## Key scientific results from Chang’e 5 *Note: Chandrayaan 3’s launch date was shockingly the only major lunar update of any kind last week, making it the weakest news cycle in the nearly three years of Moon Monday! Well, a neat paper on Chang’e 5 came out recently so this is a good opportunity to write about it.* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f09bd511f-8e1c-4559-9b03-08395d362d9a_2200x1600-jpeg.jpg) Back-scattered electron images (top) and false-color energy dispersive spectroscopy element maps (bottom, color coded) of two basaltic Chang’e 5 sample fragments. Blue=Silica, Green=Magnesium, Red=Iron, White=Aluminum, Yellow=Calcium, Pink=Titanium, and Cyan=Potassium. Notably, Potassium, a heat-producing element is lower than expected. [Credit: Xiaochao Che, et al.](https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abl7957) Scientists from the Chinese Academy of Sciences have published an [open access paper](https://doi.org/10.59717/j.xinn-geo.2023.100014) providing a great overview of the key scientific results from China’s [Chang’e 5](https://jatan.space/change-5-landing-site/) mission, which brought [lunar samples](https://moon.bao.ac.cn/moonSampleMode/index.html) from near a volcanic dome to Earth. Here are some key takeaways: - Chang’e 5 sample studies [confirmed](https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abl7957) that the Moon was volcanically active 2 billion years ago, a fairly recent time on geological scales. However, the [extremely low water content](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-04107-9) and an [unexpectedly low abundance](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-04119-5) of heat-producing elements in those samples suggest that there seems to have been [no significant catalyst](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-50/) in the Moon’s mantle to make Luna spew out lava for so long after peak volcanism ended well over a billion years ago at that point. While we don’t know the answer to this mystery yet, a spectrometer on the Chang’e 5 lander [found evidence of surface water](https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/939534) in the landing region, which indicates higher concentrations of volcanism-aiding elements. Clues also come from the review paper noting enhanced presence of clinopyroxene-ilmenite cumulate in the samples, which could’ve also catalyzed late lunar volcanism by lowering the lava’s melting point. - Chinese scientists have used the precise ages of the Chang’e 5 samples to update the [crater counting model](https://english.cas.cn/newsroom/research%5Fnews/phys/202202/t20220214%5F300776.shtml), which is [the basis for determining ages](https://www.planetary.org/articles/0401-the-lunar-chronology) of most features on the Moon. It then turned out that some lunar features may be [as much as 240 million years older](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-022-01604-3) than previously thought. The scientific value of the Chang’e 5 samples isn’t limited to the Moon. Scientists are using these more accurate ages of lunar places and regions to calibrate the ages of features on other worlds such as Mars and Mercury. Chang’e 5 samples are thus helping us refine our understanding of the [chain of key events in our Solar System](https://jatan.space/solar-system-history-101/). - The Chang’e 5 samples also contain notable amounts of meteoritic materials, helping scientists unravel the type of asteroids that impacted the Moon in the past 2 billion years, providing another key constraint in understanding the evolution of our Solar System. China is launching [Chang’e 6](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-126/) next year to bring about two kilograms of lunar samples from the scientifically even more valuable [Apollo impact crater](https://jatan.space/peak-ringed-apollo-crater/) on the Moon’s farside. ## More Moon - ULA is disassembling their new [Vulcan rocket](https://www.ulalaunch.com/rockets/vulcan-centaur) to send its [Centaur V](https://www.flickr.com/photos/ulalaunch/49720321573/in/album-72157690220351103) upper stage back to its factory for reinforcing its paper-thin liquid hydrogen steel tank, Stephen Clark [reports](https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/06/ula-shipping-vulcan-upper-stage-back-to-factory-for-more-work). This comes as ULA Chief Tory Bruno [said](https://twitter.com/torybruno/status/1668314430785097728) on June 13 that the March 29 [blowing up](https://twitter.com/torybruno/status/1646572389193625600) of a test Centaur V was due to the tank’s skin being too thin. This means the long-awaited inaugural Vulcan launch carrying [Astrobotic’s first Moon lander](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-awarded-79-5-million-contract-to-deliver-14-nasa-payloads-to-the-moon) will now take place no earlier than Q4 of this year. The lander will carry [NASA CLPS payloads](https://science.nasa.gov/lunar-discovery/deliveries/to2-astrobotic) as well as [commercial, international ones](https://www.astrobotic.com/lunar-delivery/manifest). - I was [interviewed](https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-sci-tech/why-india-sign-artemis-accords-significance-8808051) by The Indian Express on how India [having signed](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-133/) the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords) could benefit India’s space program as well as feed into NASA’s crewed Artemis missions. --- **→ [Sponsor Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) | [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Moon Monday #134: A whole bunch of lunar exploration updates from around the world! URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-134/ Last updated: 2025-05-26T14:03:40.000Z *I’m over the Moon to share that* [*Open Lunar Foundation*](https://www.openlunar.org) *is continuing to sponsor Moon Monday for one more year!* 🌗 *Open Lunar is a non-profit organization* [*developing*](https://www.openlunar.org/our-work) *space policies, plans, and partnerships to help ensure that our return to the Moon with humans for eventual long-term habitation is peaceful, cooperative, and sustainable.* [*Jessy*](http://jessykate.com/about) *gave me feedback on the very first Moon Monday edition, and the Open Lunar team has been increasingly supportive ever since, and so I’m joyful to have their continued support for this one-of-a-kind newsletter and community resource.* :) 🚀 ## Updates from the European Lunar Symposium ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fac659500-a7d3-425e-bf2d-de8a8f298e6d_1625x1000-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of SSTL’s Lunar Pathfinder orbiter, which will relay communications between Earth and robotic mission hardware at the Moon as a commercial service. [Credit: SSTL](https://www.esa.int/Applications/Navigation/Galileo%5Fwill%5Fhelp%5FLunar%5FPathfinder%5Fnavigate%5Faround%5FMoon) I attended (virtually) the very informative [European Lunar Symposium](https://sservi.nasa.gov/els2023) last week, and below are some notable lunar exploration updates from across the sessions I could attend. [**Day 1**](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q-YpgnOnDYc) **(link to all talks):** - Simone Pirrotta from the Italian Space Agency said that [ArgoMoon](https://blogs.esa.int/orion/2022/05/20/argomoon-cubesat-a-personal-photographer-for-orions-boost-to-the-moon), one of [the 10 CubeSats](https://jatan.space/science-on-artemis-i/) launched on [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-i) last year, was deployed by the SLS rocket’s [upper stage](https://www.ulalaunch.com/interim-cryogenic-propulsion-stage-%28icps%29) at a higher tumbling rate than expected. The CubeSat achieved stable attitude only after 15 minutes, meaning it couldn’t capture images of the upper stage pushing the [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) out of Earth orbit and onward to the Moon, or help monitor other CubeSats being deployed. - Sara Al Maeeni from the UAE space agency said that the sub-30 kilogram [Rashid 2](https://gulfnews.com/uae/science/uae-meet-the-team-working-on-rashid-2-moon-rover-1.95374557) rover will launch by 2027 to study [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other resources on the Moon’s south pole. The rover will travel to Luna on an as-yet-unselected commercial lander. While on the surface, the rover will also make use of a third party lunar orbiter to enable or enhance communications with Earth. - UK’s SSTL, maker of the upcoming ESA-backed [Lunar Pathfinder](https://jatan.space/nasa-esa-collaborate-on-lunar-pathfinder/) orbiter providing communications relay services between lunar hardware and Earth, is partnering with Norway-based KSAT for terrestrial ground station services. KSAT’s several grounds stations are already a [growing part](https://www.ksat.no/news/news-archive/2022/ksat-to-invest-in-antenna-network-for-lunar-missions) of NASA’s [Near Space Network](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/heo/scan/services/networks/near%5Fspace%5Fnetwork/complexes), and the company is also establishing [a dedicated ground network](https://www.ksat.no/news/news-archive/2022/ksat-to-invest-in-antenna-network-for-lunar-missions) to provide communications services for the increasing number of Moon missions. SSTL and KSAT are also working on a combined commercial offer for their complementary lunar services. Lunar Pathfinder is targeting a 2026 launch via a [commercial Firefly lander](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-picks-firefly-aerospace-for-robotic-delivery-to-far-side-of-moon) part of NASA [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). - Dan Blumberg of the Israel Space Agency said the orbiter from the upcoming mid-decade [Beresheet 2](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-51/) mission will sport the first hyperspectral camera at the Moon. The orbiter will also host a radiation experiment to test drug stability. The lander will have an Australian experiment to germinate seeds and grow plants on the Moon. SpaceIL, who leads the Beresheet 2 mission, [lost several of its key donors](https://spacewatch.global/2023/05/beresheet-2-lunar-mission-loses-chief-donors) two months ago due to the [recently worsened](https://press.un.org/en/2023/sc15264.doc.htm) socio-economic situation in Israel. SpaceIL is looking for other ways to complete the mission funding. - The European Union is funding €30 million for the [Earth-Moon-Mars project](https://pnrr.inaf.it/progetto-emm) led by the Italian Space Agency to develop a communications node to be deployed on the Moon, at some point. It will work as an enhanced link between Earth’s ground stations and hardware assets on or around the Moon. [**Day 3**](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-6YL5tjVMjQ) **(link to all talks):** - Each NASA [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) lander will host a [retroreflector](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retroreflector) as standard, to help us [better understand](https://ilrs.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/williams%5Flw13.pdf) the exact gravitational nature of the Earth-Moon system and the Moon’s interior. - Intuitive Machines’ NASA-funded [Micro-Nova](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/intuitive-machines-and-nasa-finalize-contract-for-extreme-lunar-mobility-spacecraft) hopper will fly to the Moon’s south pole later this year on the company’s [second CLPS lander](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-to-land-water-measuring-payload-on-the-moon). Trent Martin from the company said the hopper—which sports two Canadensys cameras to boot—is now enhanced with a neutron spectrometer for subsurface hydrogen detection (as an indirect sign of [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/)), a radiometer for surface temperature measurements, and a Nokia 4G antenna. Micro-Nova will perform 5 hops, including one in a [permanently shadowed region](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/), and with it help determine geophysical properties of [its landing region](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-intuitive-machines-announce-landing-site-location-for-lunar-drill). Martin added that the Earth-Moon cruise time for the lander itself is just 6 days, after which it will spend only 24 hours in lunar orbit before descending to attempt a safe touchdown. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ff0ab71bf-0957-46e5-8d45-ff50d6c72646_2500x1418-jpeg-1.jpg) Mission plan for the 5 lunar hops to be performed by Intuitive Machine’s Micro-Nova craft (shown in the inset image) during its inaugural mission. The hops start from where Nova-C, the lander, is marked in the image, and end with going in and out of a permanently shadowed regions. Credits: Trent Martin / Intuitive Machines - ESA is continuing to work on its [Electronic Field Book](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2021/11/11/to-all-moonwalkers-update-your-space-tablet), which will aid future Artemis astronauts to dynamically plan Moonwalks as well as detect mineral and chemical composition of lunar rocks and soil in near real-time to help enhance sample collection. The latter detection is possible thanks to improvements in machine learning and an open access mineralogical database of more than 10,000 spectra, both currently employed by the Electronic Field Book for ESA’s [Pangaea campaign](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/CAVES%5Fand%5FPangaea/What%5Fis%5FPangaea) training future lunar astronauts in geology. I [gave a talk](https://www.youtube.com/live/-6YL5tjVMjQ?feature=share&t=29907) at the European Lunar Symposium about how despite the emergence of private and commercial Moon missions, there’s no alternative to public buy-in, funding, and outreach to sustain lunar exploration globally and reap its [immense benefits](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) to science and technological progress. [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f388ce785-9095-4f57-b970-f1178e848292_2879x1673-jpeg.jpg)](https://www.youtube.com/live/-6YL5tjVMjQ?feature=share&t=29907) [****Watch the video**](https://www.youtube.com/live/-6YL5tjVMjQ?feature=share&t=29907) --- *Many thanks to* [***Epsilon3***](https://www.epsilon3.io) *and* [***Open Lunar Foundation***](https://www.openlunar.org) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## More mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f4c295cf3-d851-40f9-bb0a-a79ccd43c295_1800x1200-jpeg.jpg) Installation of the heat shield for the Artemis II Orion spacecraft. [Credit: NASA / Cory Huston](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2023/06/27/orion-heat-shield-installed-for-nasas-artemis-ii-mission) - ISRO has completed assembly of the GSLV Mk III rocket that will launch the [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-3-prelaunch-info/) Moon lander, now sitting in its fairing, Soumya Pillai [reports](https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/completion-of-chandrayaan-3-rocket-assembly-nears-launch-date-expected-in-july-101688321617408.html). The targeted launch window continues to be July 12–19. - Hardware progress continues for NASA’s [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to) mission to fly [four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) around our Moon and back circa early 2025\. On June 25, NASA [completed installing](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2023/06/27/orion-heat-shield-installed-for-nasas-artemis-ii-mission) the 5-meter wide [heat shield](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/after-15-years-1000-tests-orion-s-heat-shield-ready-to-take-the-heat) of the next [Orion capsule](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) to protect the astronauts during the [fiery Earth reentry](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/orion-spacecraft-to-test-new-entry-technique-on-artemis-i-mission). Up next for Orion is passing launch survival testing before it can be mated with the 15,000-kilogram [European Service Module](https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/space/esm), which will provide propulsion, water, oxygen, thermal control, and electrical power to Orion throughout its deep space journey. - South Korea has [extended](https://www.kari.re.kr/kplo/danuri/news/newsView.do?nttId=8785&pageIndex=1&searchCnd=&searchWrd=) their first lunar orbiter mission, [KPLO](https://jatan.space/kplo/), from the original one year duration to a total of three years. KPLO’s Falcon 9 launch, deployment, and Moonward push last year was more precise than expected, which has spared it an additional \~30 kilograms of fuel to use in lunar orbit. This is great news, albeit the spacecraft’s aging solar panels and battery will shorten the nominal mission day in 2025 from the current 24 hours to 16\. The mission’s lead institute [KARI](https://www.kari.re.kr/eng.do) expects a possible battery discharge during a 2025 solar eclipse to bring the mission to an end. KPLO’s four indigenously built instruments have been providing promising [preliminary science results](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-123/), as has NASA’s ultra-sensitive [ShadowCam](https://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/about) imager onboard with its [uniquely impactful observations](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-110/) concerning [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s poles. - NASA’s [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/), aiming for a late 2024 [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) launch, will explore rocky terrain in and around [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s south pole for over 100 days to unravel the nature of lunar [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) deposits. But if the rover is unable to safely drive drive out of the ramps on Astrobotic’s large [Griffin lander](https://www.astrobotic.com/griffin) after touchdown onto the surface, the landing would’ve essentially been for nothing. That’s why mission engineers recently [completed yet another test series](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/nasa-s-moon-rover-prototype-conquers-steep-scary-lander-exit-test) with the most realistic rover prototype and lander ramp designs yet. Engineers tested VIPER’s hours-long egress under various scenarios including steep ramps, for if the lander touches down on such terrain, and one ramp being more inclined than the other. The rover, its software, and the mission operators performed well during all tests. ## Australian lunar technologies find their way into US missions As part of the [Moon to Mars Demonstrator Grants](https://business.gov.au/grants-and-programs/moon-to-mars-initiative-demonstrator-mission-grants/grant-recipients) program, the Australian Space Agency is funding three lunar technology projects: 1. $3.4 million to *Advanced Navigation* for providing US-based Intuitive Machines with a [LiDAV navigation sensor](https://www.advancednavigation.com/news/advanced-navigation-awarded-5-2m-in-funding-from-australian-space-agency-for-future-lunar-exploration) for what looks to be slated for the company’s [second CLPS mission](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-to-land-water-measuring-payload-on-the-moon) at the earliest. The aforementioned [Micro-Nova](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/intuitive-machines-and-nasa-finalize-contract-for-extreme-lunar-mobility-spacecraft) hopper on the mission will also use said LiDAV sensor for autonomous navigation. 2. $3 million for a ground station for the NASA Artemis [Orion](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) capsule’s upcoming high bandwidth [optical laser communications terminal](https://esc.gsfc.nasa.gov/news/Lasers%5FLight%5Fthe%5FWay%5Ffor%5FArtemis%5FII%5FMoon%5FMission). 3. $2.4 million to *Fleet Space* for deploying a miniature seismic station to work for 14 Earth days via the [Draper CLPS lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-87/) going to the Moon’s farside in 2025\. While the lander will host [two distinct, NASA-funded lunar-night-surviving seismometers](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2022/pdf/1576.pdf) operating for more than four months to help us better understand [the Moon’s internal structure and how it evolved](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/), these Fleet-provided instruments will provide complementary data about the Moon’s upper crust. This move advances Australia’s ongoing strategy to enter the US space industry supply chain with [NASA as a key partner](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-97/) and enabler. ## More Moon - The upcoming NASA-funded [Lunar Trailblazer](https://jatan.space/nasa-lunar-trailblazer/) orbiter will provide us unprecedented, high-resolution global maps of the amount, distribution, and state of water across our Moon. It will also help us better understand [several other key scientific aspects](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/lunarGeologicSettings.html) of Luna. Mission intern Filo Merid recently created a [nice new infographic](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/news/trailblazerDataGraphic.html) summarizing Trailblazer’s scientific goals. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fa960a41e-ac9a-4d59-8b5a-0749dacddf16_2500x1400-jpeg.jpg) [Credit: Filo Merid](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/news/trailblazerDataGraphic.html) - ESA, CNES, and DLR jointly conducted [three parabolic flights](https://blogs.esa.int/exploration/eac-experiments-take-off-in-hypogravity/) in April to mimic lunar gravity and [test the ergonomics](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2023/06/Gravity%5Fgoes%5Flunar%5Fputting%5FLESA%5Fto%5Fthe%5Ftest) of an equipment transport carrier whose future version could be used by lunar astronauts, including Artemis ones. - The hybrid [2023 NASA Exploration Science Forum](https://sservi.nasa.gov/nesf2023) from July 18–20 will focus on lunar science and related exploration updates on Artemis and related missions as well as on collaboration activities with the NASA’s international partners. --- **→** [**Sponsor Moon Monday**](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) **|** [**Browse the Blog**](https://blog.jatan.space/start) **|** [**About**](https://blog.jatan.space/about) ### Moon Monday #133: India signs the Artemis Accords; NASA prepares for future crewed lunar exploration; Chandrayaan 3 update, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-133/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:01.000Z ## From Chandrayaan 1 to the Artemis Accords, India and US aim for the Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2faa74acfe-2a68-4772-999f-c87becc61917_1125x750-jpeg.jpg) Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and US President Joe Biden during a June 22 press conference where Modi mentioned India’s signing of the Artemis Accords. [Credit: The White House](https://spacenews.com/u-s-and-india-to-expand-spaceflight-cooperation) As part of an unprecedented set of [broad-sweeping agreements](https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2023/06/22/joint-statement-from-the-united-states-and-india) between the US and India centered around collaborative science & technology advancements, India [signed](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-welcomes-india-as-27th-artemis-accords-signatory) the [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords) on June 21\. India is the 27th country—but more notably one of the few with independent *and* frequent access to space—to join in shaping this US-led lunar governance framework aiming to peacefully manage the increasing number of Moon missions from around the globe. What started as a [close collaboration](https://jatan.space/interviewing-isro-chandrayaan-1-mission-director/) on India’s [Chandrayaan 1](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/) lunar orbiter—which [discovered water](https://jatan.space/how-nasa-and-chandrayaan-discovered-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon and catalyzed the [worldwide lunar return](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) including that of crew with the US [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) program—has now peaked policy-wise with India’s historic signing of the Accords. As it happens, it was only last week that I highlighted [many major considerations](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-132/) for India to join the Accords so you can refer the same for many points which still stand. But I’ll resurface some specifics below, which have become much more relevant now, and expand on them considering the new and exciting lunar avenues now open for India and the US. #### India’s Gateway to the Moon The Accords could fast-track India’s human spaceflight capabilities and ambitions. While India has already been working towards being the world’s fourth nation to indigenously send humans to space with the ambitious [Gaganyaan mission](https://www.isro.gov.in/Gaganyaan.html) mid-decade, it simply has no near-future plans, technical means, or the budget to send humans to the Moon. However, ISRO Chief S. Somanath [said](https://youtu.be/BPOQFxpfts0?t=932) in a March 2023 interview that the agency is considering possibly contributing to the [Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway), an upcoming NASA-led international lunar orbital station for Artemis astronauts. And so similar to how NASA is [providing crew seats](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-79/) to Japan, Europe, and Canada in return for their respective Gateway contributions, India might work its way towards one too. Being an Accords signee will certainly be of aid here. This possibility isn’t to be dismissed as a moonshot because the [factsheet](https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2023/06/22/fact-sheet-republic-of-india-official-state-visit-to-the-united-states) of the new India-US agreements signals both the wide scope and the immediacy of intended human spaceflight prospects: > NASA will provide advanced training to ISRO astronauts with the goal of launching a joint effort to the International Space Station in 2024\. Additionally, NASA and the ISRO are developing a strategic framework for human spaceflight cooperation by the end of 2023. #### Aiding crewed Artemis missions from orbit and surface ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2faef94331-1d6c-4826-9d95-2015f0c0724f_425x364.png) Illustration of the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter. Credit: ISRO The Artemis Accords could finally help catalyze a [tight NASA-ISRO collaboration](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-116/) with India’s [Chandrayaan 2 lunar orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) providing advanced orbital data to help plan upcoming [robotic](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) & [crewed](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) Artemis missions. It’s been an untapped opportunity, especially as US scientists have [formally urged](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-116/) NASA to replace the gracefully aging, 2009-launched [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html) (LRO), and therein have recognized the abilities of the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter. In fact, at the 54th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference this year, Wes Patterson of the LRO team, working with ISRO SAC scientists, [described](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/pdf/2397.pdf) how they’re using complementary radar data from LRO and the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter to uniquely characterize the [Artemis III candidate landing sites](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-91/). This included getting valuable information on landing hazards within those sites, better access to their [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) than optical imagers, and gaining a broad sense of the physical states of the regions from inferred physical properties. For India, such a collaboration at scale would mean the country’s budding planetary science community gets infused with a wealth of LRO-derived operational and scientific knowledge. Perhaps more importantly, it would lend India via the Accords a seat on the table for prospecting resources on the Moon so as to ultimately help shape the governance of their extraction as and when it becomes a reality. Also of note here is the Indo-Japanese [LUPEX Moon rover mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-111/), which is targeted for launch in the 2026–2028 timeframe to study the nature, abundance, and accessibility of [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s south pole. The mission is similar yet complementary to NASA’s [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/), and will now most certainly feed into the critical data on which future crewed Artemis missions will bank on—seeing that both Japan and India are signatories of the Accords now. The Japanese government has already approved the LUPEX mission but India is yet to, and so that will be the green light to look out for this year. #### But what about the Moon Treaty? The next big question is if India will ratify the [1979 Moon Treaty](https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/moon-agreement.html), which has strict and even [highly idealistic](https://www.thespacereview.com/article/3975/1) non-sovereignty underpinnings that fundamentally do not gel well with the Accords. The US has [explicitly formally stated](https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/presidential-actions/executive-order-encouraging-international-support-recovery-use-space-resources) it doesn’t support The Moon Treaty. The Accords might—but doesn’t yet—put its signatories [in objection](https://www.lawfareblog.com/artemis-accords-step-toward-international-cooperation-or-further-competition) of the [1967 Outer Space Treaty](https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/outerspacetreaty.html), particularly by [controversially](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/do-nasas-lunar-exploration-rules-violate-space-law) setting potentially dangerous long-term precedence for local resource extraction, ownership, and therefore de facto governance on the Moon. That the Accords is non-binding and currently [lacks a formal mechanism](https://takshashila.org.in/research/takshashila-issue-paper-india-and-the-artemis-accords) to resolve disputes arising from lunar activities only furthers the concerns. The thing is India’s [new space policy](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-04/), out in April, has similar language and ambitions for extracting, using, and selling space resources to what four signatories of the Accords—the US, Japan, Luxembourg, and UAE—have [passed as national bills](https://spacenews.com/japan-passes-space-resources-law). India joining the Accords will thus likely accelerate the morphing of the country’s space policy into a national bill, at which point India might need to take a firm stance with regards to the Moon Treaty. As a signee, India might need to either withdraw from the Moon Treaty [just like Saudi Arabia did](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-110/) or ratify it and join Australia, who is both a member of the Accords and the Moon Treaty. Considering the [growing](https://www.minister.industry.gov.au/ministers/price/media-releases/partnering-india-space-science-technology-grow-aussie-industry) Indo-Australian space partnership, and India and Australia’s presence in the [Quad countries](https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/09/24/joint-statement-from-quad-leaders) alongside the US and Japan, India and/or Australia could possibly lead forming an international lunar regime via the Treaty under UN [COPUOS](https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/copuos/index.html) to ensure multilateral agreements on lunar governance rather than simply rely on bilaterally mounted consensus via the Accords. #### The noted hurdle US export controls [continue to be a chokepoint](https://carnegieindia.org/2023/03/07/forging-high-technology-partnership-between-united-states-and-india-in-age-of-export-controls-pub-89209) even for traditional US allies when partnering on science and technology projects, including space. For example, NASA’s Office of Inspector General elaborated in a [January report](https://oig.nasa.gov/docs/IG-23-004.pdf) how export control laws are affecting and delaying international cooperation on Artemis and the Gateway. This is why it’s notable that the [June 22 US-India Joint Statement](https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2023/06/22/joint-statement-from-the-united-states-and-india) from the White House mentions the issue: > Welcoming India’s Space Policy – 2023, the leaders \[President Biden and Prime Minister Modi\] called for enhanced commercial collaboration between the U.S. and Indian private sectors in the entire value chain of the space economy and to address export controls and facilitate technology transfer. > > \[…\] > > The leaders welcomed the launch of the interagency-led Strategic Trade Dialogue in June2023 and directed both sides to undertake regular efforts to address export controls, explore ways of enhancing high technology commerce, and facilitate technology transfer between the two countries. The [Indian government’s press release](https://pib.gov.in/PressReleseDetailm.aspx?PRID=1934838) on signing the Accords similarly says: > The \[Artemis Accords\] pact will also pave the way for easing restrictions on import of critical technologies in the space domain especially electronics, benefitting Indian companies to develop systems and innovate for US markets. It will also facilitate participation of India in more scientific programmes jointly, allow access to common standards for long term engagements in activities including human Spaceflight programmes and stronger engagements with the US in more strategic areas including micro-electronics, quantum, space security etc. #### ISRO’s budget isn’t enough All of the said collaborative space potential will not brew if India doesn’t scale up its space budget dramatically, as Aditya Ramanathan [notes](https://hightechir.substack.com/p/india-the-us-and-a-diplomatic-moonshot). ISRO’s aspiring [upcoming space science missions](https://jatan.space/isro-space-science-missions-2020-2025/) have been facing nothing but delays due to budget shortages and [overshadowing priorities](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-100/). While India’s [new space policy](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-04/) does explicitly encourage ISRO to undertake “missions on in-situ resource utilization, celestial prospecting and other aspects of extra-terrestrial habitability”, failure to increase such science and technology outputs for real wouldn’t allow India to sufficiently leverage the Accords for helping shape our future at the Moon. --- *Many thanks to *[Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io)* for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## Chandrayaan 3 launch nears at last ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fc9f215fd-89c3-40e0-8c9a-14f4169f746c_1600x2000-jpeg.jpg) The Chandrayaan 3 spacecraft stack being integrated into its GSLV Mk III rocket’s payload fairing. The stack comprises the lander and the propulsion module (bottom) for co-flight until lunar orbit. The payload fairing is far enough in the background that it seems smaller. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/chandrayaan3%5Fgallery.html) The success of ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-3-prelaunch-info/) Moon lander, launching mid-July, will be critical to the survival of India’s planetary science program, and for anchoring India’s long-term role in lunar governance via the Accords. Speaking of the mission, here are its latest tidbits: - ISRO has now integrated the lander into its rocket fairing, and will mate it atop the rest of the fully assembled GSLV Mk III rocket by early July to target a mid-July launch. - The Hindu [notes](https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/chandrayaan-3-lander-vikram-rover-pragyan-to-return-for-another-tryst-with-the-moon/article67008553.ece) that ISRO is retaining the original names of the [Chandrayaan 2](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-2-moon-landing-mission/) lander and rover for their Chandrayaan 3 equivalents: the *Vikram* lander and *Pragyan* rover. - ISRO has put up a [gallery webpage](https://www.isro.gov.in/chandrayaan3%5Fgallery.html) with some neat new photos of the Mooncraft.✨ ## NASA progressing on new RS-25 engines for crewed Artemis Moon missions ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f8a0444ce-baae-4ee3-bb82-b2523ca1cd0a_2400x1600-jpeg.jpg) A remote camera view of a redesigned RS-25 engine’s hot fire test conducted on February 8, 2023\. [Credits: NASA / Stennis](https://www.nasa.gov/centers/stennis/news/releases/2023/NASA-Conducts-First-2023-Test-of-Redesigned-Moon-Rocket-Engine) On June 22, NASA [completed the first certification test series](https://www.nasa.gov/centers/stennis/news/releases/2023/NASA-Achieves-Key-Milestone-for-Production-of-Future-Artemis-Engines) of the fully redesigned [RS-25](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/sls%5Frs25%5Fengine%5Ffs%5F508.pdf) engine to be used on future [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) Moon flights starting with [Artemis V](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/). The tests included eight 500-second firings of an RS-25 engine—the same amount of time as required during an SLS mission—and four longer burns for ensuring margins. During one of those longer burns, engineers and operators also [tested flight-like gimbaling](https://www.nasa.gov/centers/stennis/news/releases/2023/NASA-Tests-Critical-In-Flight-Capability-During-RS-25-Engine-Hot-Fire) of the engine, which during a mission helps stabilize the rocket as well as keep it on its intended trajectory. NASA is now preparing to begin the final test series this Northern fall, after the success of which new RS-25 engines can be produced for Artemis V and beyond. NASA aims to have new RS-25s be built with [advanced manufacturing techniques](https://www.nasa.gov/centers/stennis/news/release/2023/NASA-Continues-Test-Series-for-Redesigned-Artemis-Moon-Rocket-Engines) with an aim to reduce cost by over 30% from the current $100 million. But in a [scathing May 25 report](https://oig.nasa.gov/docs/IG-23-015.pdf), NASA’s Office of Inspector General pointed out that this figure excludes project management and overhead costs. ## Exploring accessible lunar water deposits NASA LRO continues to [help us narrow down](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2021.114874) the feasible resource prospecting areas in [the hell of constraints](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) that is the Moon’s south pole. By combining ten datasets from eight instruments, the LRO team has [highlighted](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/1255) several regions that should host [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) with high confidence while being accessible by future missions to know and act on the ground truth. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f588df103-d891-48ee-9257-68f3f32023cd_1100x1100-jpeg.jpg) An exploration assessment map for the Moon’s south pole. Light yellow indicates largely plain, non-rocky areas receiving sufficient solar illumination during the expected [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-iii) mission timeframe (July 9, 2024 to June 11, 2025). Potential water ice surface deposits are shown in light pink. Overlapping areas are ideal for exploration. [Credits: NASA / LRO / ASU / GSFC](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/1255) Going forward, it would take the ongoing, [more precise measurements](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-110/) from NASA’s ultra-sensitive ShadowCam instrument onboard South Korea’s [KPLO orbiter](https://jatan.space/kplo/) coupled with [deeper underground radar measurements](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/pdf/2397.pdf) from India’s Chandrayaan 2 orbiter to identify the best, precise locations of water ice lunar deposits for future missions. ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9a2359b6-88cf-487b-94e9-5cbb0625828b_2400x1600-jpeg.jpg) Artemis II astronauts Reid Wiseman (left), Jeremy Hansen (middle), and Victor Glover of NASA (right) [visited](https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/its-rock-science) the Apollo Lunar Lab at NASA’s Johnson Space Center on May 9 to study Moon samples. [Credits: NASA / Robert Markowitz](https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/its-rock-science) - On June 21, Ecuador [became the 26th country](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-welcomes-ecuador-as-26th-artemis-accords-signatory) and the fourth in Latin America to sign the Artemis Accords. The other Latin American signatories are Brazil, Colombia, and Mexico. Jeff Foust [notes](https://spacenews.com/state-department-framework-seeks-to-coordinate-its-space-policy-activities) that this move comes in the context of some members of the Accords wanting to onboard non-traditional space nations. - The US-based International Lunar Observatory Association and the National Astronomical Observatories of China are [hiring for a post doctorate](https://jobregister.aas.org/ad/2493b979) to publish results based on data from the Chang’e 3 lander’s [ultraviolet telescope](https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.1510.01435) and also make the instrument’s data more accessible to the global scientific community. - If you’re attending the [European Lunar Symposium](https://sservi.nasa.gov/els2023) this week, do tune in to my virtual talk on “[Sustaining lunar exploration through worldwide public support](https://jatan.space/talk-sustaining-lunar-exploration-at-els-2023/)” on Day 3, June 29\. For those not attending the conference, I’ll put up the recorded talk for public viewing after getting due permission. I look forward to learning a lot from the international symposium, which will [discuss the breadth and depth](https://sservi.nasa.gov/els2023/program) of the science and technology of upcoming exploration of our Moon. 🌗 ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f62c7fcbe-2d7a-46bf-8b6d-c1ce1ad422d7_1268x400-jpeg.jpg) Screenshot of my talk schedule from the [program](https://sservi.nasa.gov/els2023/program) --- **→ [Sponsor Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) | [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Moon Monday #132: India and the Artemis Accords, mission updates, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-132/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:01.000Z *Thank you so much everyone for your kind notes on Moon Monday crossing [5,000 readers](https://jatan.space/5000-moon-monday-subscribers/)* :)*. Considering the upcoming wave of exciting Moon missions from around the globe, I’m gathering feedback on how I can continue uniquely serving lunar and space communities with this one-of-a-kind newsletter. I request you to take this private, 2-minute survey to that end:* [Give feedback for Moon Monday 🌗](https://forms.gle/nqMxyqRmddzGtcv59) --- ## On NASA’s desire to have India sign the US-led Artemis Accords, and clearing misconceptions ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f7c312bf6-e87c-40d6-bf34-111bed13e2a1_2000x1200-jpeg-2.jpg) Image credits: [NASA / Chris Meaney](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/images/lithos/LRO%20litho1%5Ffinal.pdf) / ISRO / TeamIndus | Graphic: Jatan Mehta [Bhavya Lal](https://www.nasa.gov/offices/otps/bios/Bhavya%5FLal%5FAssociate%5FAdministrator%5Fof%5FOTPS), NASA’s associate administrator for technology, policy, and strategy [told PTI](https://www.telegraphindia.com/world/india-needs-to-join-united-states-of-america-led-artemis-accords-national-aeronautics-and-space-administration-official/cid/1945773) on June 16 that the agency wants India to sign the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords) to ensure sustainable lunar and space exploration: > I think signing the Artemis Accords should be a priority for India. I mean, NASA feels pretty strongly that India is a global power. It’s one of the few countries with independent access to space, has a thriving launch industry, has been to the Moon, and has been to Mars; it needs to be part of the Artemis team. > > \[…\] > > It’s about how we make sure space remains sustainable for future generations. So, I think the benefit is that like-minded countries that have similar values have a chance to explore together. This urge from the highest ranking Indian American within NASA is bound to stir up discussions and sentiments within decision makers at ISRO and at large the (Indian) Department of Space. This is a great time to list below high-level facts as well as some indispensable considerations when talking about the Accords and India, complete with links for your perusal. I’ll also attempt to clear a few common misconceptions. 1. There is international concern that the Accords ultimately might—but doesn’t yet—put its signatories [in objection](https://www.lawfareblog.com/artemis-accords-step-toward-international-cooperation-or-further-competition) of the [1967 Outer Space Treaty](https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/outerspacetreaty.html), particularly by [controversially](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/do-nasas-lunar-exploration-rules-violate-space-law) setting potentially dangerous long-term precedence for local resource extraction, ownership, and therefore de facto governance on the Moon. Simply put, many would [much prefer](https://www.friendsofeurope.org/insights/artemis-accords-a-step-toward-space-mining-and-colonisation) an international regime be setup via the UN [COPUOS](https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/copuos/index.html) instead of relying on bilaterally mounted consensus. While such a process would be slow, the outcome should by definition be more acceptable to the over hundred member states of COPUOS rather than just the US allies. 2. India’s [new space policy](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-04/), out in April, states for the first time the country’s novel ambition to extract, use and sell space resources, which also implies utilizing lunar resources. While the policy is yet to morph into a bill, its language is right in line with the respective [national bills passed](https://spacenews.com/japan-passes-space-resources-law) by four signatories of the Accords: the US, Japan, Luxembourg, and UAE. 3. India has signed—but not ratified—the [1979 Moon Treaty](https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/moon-agreement.html), which has strict and even [highly idealistic](https://www.thespacereview.com/article/3975/1) non-sovereignty underpinnings that fundamentally do not gel well with the Accords. The US has [explicitly formally stated](https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/presidential-actions/executive-order-encouraging-international-support-recovery-use-space-resources) it doesn’t support The Moon Treaty. If India signs the Accords, it might either need to consider withdrawing from the Moon Treaty [just like Saudi Arabia did](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-110/) or join Australia and France as the only other such countries trying to walk on thin lines. It’s possible to pursue forming an international lunar regime via the Moon Treaty, which India, France, and Australia might act on. 4. [Many](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-welcomes-vice-president-of-colombia-for-artemis-accords-signing) [countries](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-welcomes-nigeria-rwanda-as-newest-artemis-accords-signatories) who have signed the Accords aren’t conducting any substantial space activities—much less lunar ones—or plan to anytime soon. The Accords is primarily a geopolitical instrument, and will be seen as such before its potential utility as a science & technology collaboration framework. 5. In a March 2022 interview, ISRO Chief S. Somanath [said](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BPOQFxpfts0&t=927s) that the agency has submitted an internal report to the Indian government regarding possible stances the country could take on the Accords. Relatedly, the Takshashila Institution has published an interesting [SWOT analysis](https://takshashila.org.in/research/takshashila-issue-paper-india-and-the-artemis-accords) of India signing the Accords versus taking other routes. The document also highlights several shortcomings of the Accords, such as it lacking a formal mechanism to resolve disputes. 6. Having said all that, a country signing the Accords *is not* a prerequisite for it to collaborate with NASA on [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) missions, the context of which is captured well by Marcia Smith in a [December 2022 report](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/two-african-countries-join-artemis-accords-bringing-total-to-23). In any case, said fact is also evident when you simply look at existing Artemis collaborations, wherein many countries aren’t signatories of the Accords. Germany in particular [stands out](https://spacenews.com/european-parliamentarian-seeks-to-build-up-ties-between-u-s-and-e-u-in-space) like a sore thumb. Relatedly, the Accords aren’t binding anyway, and so India could continue pursuing collaboration with other countries such as Russia if it wants to. 7. Between the [Chandrayaan 1](https://jatan.space/interviewing-isro-chandrayaan-1-mission-director/) lunar orbiter and the upcoming high-profile [NISAR](https://nisar.jpl.nasa.gov) Earth observation satellite, India-US space relations have [continued to grow](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-02/) in the past two decades. At the same time, the sour relations between India and China make their collaboration on the Sino-Russian [International Lunar Research Station](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-32/) unlikely. India’s traditionally strong space ties with Russia have also been dwindling in favor of the US, and so faster due to Russia’s invasion of Ukraine. 8. As part of a [new US-India partnership](https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2023/01/31/fact-sheet-united-states-and-india-elevate-strategic-partnership-with-the-initiative-on-critical-and-emerging-technology-icet) on some “critical and emerging technologies”, the two nations decided in January to identify possible contributions from ISRO and Indian aerospace companies to NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), which aims to regularly, commercially send payloads, instruments, and hardware to the Moon on privately built US landers. But no single company is known to be identified yet. While many such India-US collaborative frameworks for science and space exploration already exist, they may not carry the momentum of being an Accords signee. 9. The Accords could fast-track India’s planetary exploration and human spaceflight capabilities and ambitions, and do so cost-effectively, via collaborations with not just the US but other members of the Accords as well. As Pradeep Mohandas [notes](https://science.thewire.in/aerospace/should-india-sign-the-artemis-accords), such exploration partnerships would notably include the [Quad countries](https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/09/24/joint-statement-from-quad-leaders) of the US, Japan, India, and Australia. All quad members but India have signed the Accords. 10. Japan and India are already collaborating on the [LUPEX Moon rover mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-111/) to study [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s south pole. It’s targeted for launch in the 2026–2028 timeframe. LUPEX, similarly to NASA’s [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/), aims to help scientists unravel the physical and chemical nature of the Moon’s water ice deposits, assess their realistic resource potential, and determine how accessible they really are to help us plan future crewed missions. If VIPER somehow fails, LUPEX stands to provide NASA, via JAXA, a second and more cost-effective chance at obtaining the desired critical data on which Artemis crewed missions will rely. 11. A direct NASA-ISRO collaboration with India’s [Chandrayaan 2 lunar orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) for Artemis [represents an untapped opportunity](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-116/), especially as US scientists have formally urged NASA to replace the gracefully aging, 2009-launched [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html). The upcoming [robotic](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) & [crewed](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) Artemis Moon missions will need continued and advanced orbital data support, for which said US scientists recognize the abilities of the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter in [their report](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-116/). For both the US and India, the Artemis Accords could catalyze this collaborative end. What’s in it for India though? Other than the country’s budding planetary science community being infused with a wealth of LRO-derived operational and scientific knowledge, it would lend India a seat on the table for polar resource prospecting to ultimately help shape resource extraction governance as and when it happens. I hope these points illustrate the impetus but also the challenges for India to sign the Accords, and thus how it isn’t a straightforward decision for the country as is being otherwise often assumed, implied, and expected. --- *Many thanks to *[Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io)* for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## Mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fe469541f-d6a8-4214-a04e-2219b6b7b927_2100x1400-jpeg.jpg) The Orion capsule’s European Service Module and adapter for the crewed Artemis II mission. [Credit: NASA](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2023/06/European%5FService%5FModule-2%5Fon%5Fthe%5Fmove) - ULA Chief Tory Bruno [said](https://twitter.com/torybruno/status/1668314430785097728) on June 13 that the March 29 [blowing up](https://twitter.com/torybruno/status/1646572389193625600) of a test [Centaur V](https://www.flickr.com/photos/ulalaunch/49720321573/in/album-72157690220351103) upper stage of their new [Vulcan rocket](https://www.ulalaunch.com/rockets/vulcan-centaur) was due to a super thin steel skin of the hydrogen tank being a bit too thin. This means ULA will need to redo pressure testing of at least a new Centaur V structure if not also the flight version of the long-awaited inaugural Vulcan launch carrying [Astrobotic’s first Moon lander](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-awarded-79-5-million-contract-to-deliver-14-nasa-payloads-to-the-moon). On June 7, ULA [completed](https://spacenews.com/vulcan-performs-static-fire-test) the long-awaited hot fire test of the two main engines powering Vulcan’s first stage. But with the Centaur changes, Eric Berger [says](https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/06/vulcan-rocket-completes-critical-test-but-launch-slipping-toward-end-of-2023) two of his sources indicate a Q4 Vulcan launch. Astrobotic’s first Moon lander will carry [NASA CLPS payloads](https://science.nasa.gov/lunar-discovery/deliveries/to2-astrobotic) and [commercial, international ones](https://www.astrobotic.com/lunar-delivery/manifest) too. - Hardware progress continues for NASA’s [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to) mission to fly [four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) around our Moon and back circa early 2025\. On June 14, ESA formally [handed over](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Orion/Handing%5Fover%5FEuropean%5FService%5FModule%5Ffor%5FArtemis%5FII) the 15,000-kilogram [European Service Module](https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/space/esm) (ESM) to NASA. ESM will provide propulsion, water, oxygen, thermal control, and electrical power to the [Orion crew capsule](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) hosting the astronauts. As part of an ongoing series of standard [space-simulating tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/), NASA [completed launch acoustic testing](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2023/05/12/artemis-ii-orion-service-module-completes-acoustic-testing) of the ESM in May. The ESM will undergo more tests, including separate deployment and inspections of its four solar arrays, before being mated with the crew capsule in the coming months. - Relatedly, the NASA-MIT-developed optical laser communications terminal called [O2O](https://esc.gsfc.nasa.gov/news/Lasers%5FLight%5Fthe%5FWay%5Ffor%5FArtemis%5FII%5FMoon%5FMission) passed space testing and has been [delivered for integration](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2023/nasa-laser-communications-terminal-delivered-for-artemis-ii-moon-mission) with the Artemis II Orion crew capsule. It’s a technology demonstration to send more data with lower size, weight, and power requirements compared to traditional radio transmission systems. During the mission, NASA hopes to beam 4K HD videos and pictures during minimal cloud coverage at likewise suitably selected two ground stations. This demonstration is part of the agency’s [Space Communications and Navigation (SCaN)](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/heo/scan/index.html) program’s [optical infusion](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2022/the-future-of-laser-communications) effort, which has been demonstrating laser communications on multiple missions. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f8327c8fd-17b9-4c41-baf3-0e3d7b9fc7cb_1920x1080-jpeg.jpg) Timeline for NASA missions demonstrating laser communications from space. [Credits: GSFC / Dave Ryan](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2022/the-future-of-laser-communications) ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f7594eb04-5feb-48c0-9d3d-b2c3adde3e12_1020x750-jpeg.jpg) Change in Earth’s length of day over time. [Credits: Ross Mitchell / Uwe Kirscher](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-023-01202-6/figures/2) - The fact that our Moon has been absorbing Earth’s rotational energy, slowing our planet’s spin to the current 24-hour day while boosting itself to a higher orbit, may not have always been a gradual process. In a [study](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-023-01202-6) published on June 12, scientists examine ample rhythmic layering within special sedimentary rocks to infer that roughly between two to one billion years ago, resonance between solar and lunar tides caused the Earth’s day to remain frozen at around 19 hours. Matt Williams from Universe Today has [explained and contextualized](https://www.universetoday.com/161937/a-day-on-earth-used-to-only-be-19-hours) the findings well. - Cislune has won [four $150,000 NASA grants](https://spaceref.com/science-and-exploration/cislune-wins-four-nasa-contracts-to-develop-the-infrastructure-for-a-lunar-gas-station) to advance on specific problems across the spectrum of advanced lunar exploration technologies: from ensuring minimal water ice loss during resource excavation to designing launchpads that minimize threats of regolith blasts from landers. - [A new paper](https://doi.org/10.1086/724888) by Dagomar Degroot, an environmental historian at Georgetown University, says NASA’s “planetary protection” efforts to quarantine Apollo 11 astronauts after returning from the Moon were [mostly for show](https://web.archive.org/web/20230618124224/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/06/09/science/nasa-moon-quarantine.html). --- **→ [Sponsor Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) | [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Grateful to the 5,000 of you for reading Moon Monday URL: https://jatan.space/5000-moon-monday-subscribers/ Last updated: 2025-09-07T13:38:23.000Z Hello fellow lunatics! I’m happy to share that my [Moon Monday newsletter](https://blog.jatan.space/s/moon-monday/archive) now has more than 5,000 readers. 🚀 Thank you so much to each one of you for reading my labor of lunar love. It means a lot that so many space buffs want to stay in the loop on what I have to say every Monday. My deep gratitude also goes to the kind sponsors of Moon Monday who help financially sustain this one-of-a-kind newsletter: [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io), [Open Lunar Foundation](https://www.openlunar.org), and [The Orbital Index](https://orbitalindex.com). And I’m also grateful to the many [individual supporters](https://jatan.space/support) of my [independent space writing](https://blog.jatan.space/about), whose support has been a morale boost. One of my goals when starting Moon Monday in late 2020 was to reach and serve a truly global audience, including people specifically at space agencies, companies, research institutions, and media publications. And so, I’m happy and proud to report below the relative distribution of Moon Monday readers by country/region as well as a sampling of their employment organizations. ![US 1074, IN 1045, EU 426, BR 102, AU 72, SEA 69, RU 57, JP 49, CN 41, MEA 23, KR 22, NAU 17, NZ 15](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f28f96bb5-6947-45c0-8a31-cafc3473e17b_1808x1000-jpeg.jpg) Moon Monday is now read by at least 3 active subscribers in 50 countries. ![Space agencies: NASA, ISRO, ESA, KARI, CNES, ASA, JAXA, DLR | Lunar: ispace, Astrobotic, Open Lunar, Draper, Intuitive Machines, MVA, Astrolab Venturi, Canadensys | Media publications: Nature, Payload, SpaceNews, The Planetary Society, The Orbital Index, The Hindu, Science.org, Universe Today | Space industry: Honeybee Robotics, SpaceX, Firefly, Lockheed Martin, Airbus, Epsilon3, Thales Group, Blue Origin | Institutions: APL, Caltech, ISU France, TU Berlin, UCL London, NTU Singapore, LPI, TIFR](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fbfac7487-8712-4c1e-9a9e-658a4a53e7ee_1664x694-jpeg.jpg) Moon Monday is also featured on lunar community websites of [Lunar-L](https://www3.nd.edu/~cneal/Lunar-L), [NextGen](https://nextgenlunar.space/resources), and the [Moon Village Association](https://moonvillageassociation.org). Given these milestones and considering the upcoming wave of exciting Moon missions from across the globe, I’d like to better know my readers and gather some feedback on how I can continue uniquely serving lunar and space communities. I request you to kindly take this private, 2-minute reader survey to that end: [Give feedback for Moon Monday 🌗](https://forms.gle/nqMxyqRmddzGtcv59) If you value Moon Monday as a community resource, sharing it with at least one fellow lunatic would be great: If your organization would like to sponsor Moon Monday while increasing your visibility among this unique newsletter’s highly enthusiastic audience, get in touch: [Email me: hey@jatan.space](mailto:hey@jatan.space) *Here’s to going forward to our Moon together. 🌕* – [Jatan](https://blog.jatan.space/about) ### Moon Monday #131: Pathfinding for lunarbound hardware, gleaning a solid core, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-131/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:02.000Z ## Hardware for Moonbound navigation arrives ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fd812e90f-f945-4d57-a886-8f57cbcea4c3_2000x1300-jpeg.jpg) Navigation hardware for the Lunar Pathfinder orbiter; from left to right: the four helix antenna, the NaviMoon receiver, and the low noise amplifier. [Credit: SSTL](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2023/06/Satnav%5Ffrom%5FEarth%5Fto%5Fthe%5FMoon) SpacePNT has [delivered](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2023/06/Satnav%5Ffrom%5FEarth%5Fto%5Fthe%5FMoon) the ‘NaviMoon’ GNSS receiver for SSTL’s ESA-backed [Lunar Pathfinder](https://jatan.space/nasa-esa-collaborate-on-lunar-pathfinder/) orbiter, which is targeting a 2026 launch. The payload is at the heart of an ESA-NASA collaboration to [demonstrate a location fix at Luna](https://www.esa.int/Applications/Navigation/The%5FMoon%5Fwhere%5Fno%5Fsatnav%5Fhas%5Fgone%5Fbefore) using signals millions of times fainter than those used by our phones. When in lunar orbit, Pathfinder will regularly orient NaviMoon towards Earth to get positioning fixes from Earthbound GNSS satellites, which mission engineers will compare with conventional radio ranging methods to see how accurate the new technique is. Moreover, a [NASA-provided retroreflector](https://www.esa.int/Applications/Navigation/NASA%5Flaser%5Freflector%5Ffor%5FESA%5Fsatnav%5Fon%5FLunar%5FPathfinder), which was [delivered](https://www.esa.int/Applications/Navigation/NASA%5Flaser%5Freflector%5Ffor%5FESA%5Fsatnav%5Fon%5FLunar%5FPathfinder) in November 2022 for spacecraft integration, will also help engineers independently validate the GNSS fixes. No spacecraft has used all the above three ranging services simultaneously from the Moon. If Pathfinder’s demonstration is wholly successful, it will pave the way forward for a wave of future Mooncraft to navigate at Luna without direct reliance on terrestrial ground stations. For ESA, a successful test would boost their upcoming commercial navigation service called [Moonlight](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-98/). NASA itself aims to [test a similar GPS fix](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2022/nasa-moon-mission-set-to-break-record-in-navigation-signal-test) but from the Moon’s surface on [Firefly’s 2024 mission](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-firefly-aerospace-for-artemis-commercial-moon-delivery-in-2023) part of the agency’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). How will Lunar Pathfinder get to the Moon? As part of an [agreement](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-esa-finalize-agreements-on-climate-artemis-cooperation), NASA is aiming to deliver the 280-kilogram spacecraft to lunar orbit in 2026 via a [commercial Firefly CLPS lander](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-picks-firefly-aerospace-for-robotic-delivery-to-far-side-of-moon). In return, ESA will let NASA use the polar-orbiting Pathfinder to relay communications between the agency’s surface hardware and Earth. ## More mission updates - Along the sidelines of the [International Conference on Spacecraft Mission Operations](https://smops2023.istrac.gov.in), ISRO Chief S. Somanath said on June 8 that the agency will integrate the [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-3-prelaunch-info/) Moon lander into its GSLV Mk III rocket by early July to target the launch mid-month. The rocket’s stages have arrived at the Sriharikota spaceport, and technicians will fully assemble the rocket by end of month. Tangential tidbit: In a talk at said conference, M. Srikant of the Chandrayaan 3 rover operations team said they will use stereo images of the Moon’s surface taken by [the mission’s rover](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-3-prelaunch-info/) to estimate local slopes. They will leverage that information to quickly decide optimal traverse paths for the rover during its 14-Earth-day mission. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f45cc23ed-7a8b-43b3-86bb-677159d588e2_1890x1200-jpeg-1.jpg) Hot fire test of the inaugural Vulcan rocket’s first stage. [Credit: ULA](https://twitter.com/ulalaunch/status/1666848213163290638) - On June 7, ULA [completed](https://spacenews.com/vulcan-performs-static-fire-test) the long-awaited hot fire test of the two main engines powering its new [Vulcan rocket](https://www.ulalaunch.com/rockets/vulcan-centaur). The company now hopes to soon integrate [Astrobotic’s first Moon lander](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-awarded-79-5-million-contract-to-deliver-14-nasa-payloads-to-the-moon) and secondary payloads into the rocket for final launch preparations. However, ULA is still investigating why a test [Centaur V](https://www.flickr.com/photos/ulalaunch/49720321573/in/album-72157690220351103) upper stage [blew up](https://twitter.com/torybruno/status/1646572389193625600) during a March 29 test. Since Centaur V is a key design element of Vulcan, ULA Chief Tory Bruno [told SpaceNews](https://spacenews.com/ula-preparing-for-vulcan-centaur-static-fire) that if the investigation’s findings require the company to modify Centaur V, the launch would slip to end of year. Astrobotic’s first Moon lander will carry [NASA payloads](https://science.nasa.gov/lunar-discovery/deliveries/to2-astrobotic) as part of the agency’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). There will be [commercial, international payloads](https://www.astrobotic.com/lunar-delivery/manifest) onboard too. - SpaceX’s overall failed [first launch](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-124/) of its fully reusable [Starship Super Heavy](https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/starship) rocket coupled with the program’s many impending milestones have increased NASA’s concerns about Starship [landing humans](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) on our Moon for the historic [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-iii) mission within time by mid-decade, Jeff Foust [reports](https://spacenews.com/nasa-concerned-starship-problems-will-delay-artemis-3). To be clear, this was already widely expected, for even SpaceX’s uncrewed lunar landing demonstration with a “[skeleton Starship](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-92/)” to be done a year prior to Artemis III wasn’t realistically expected to launch until 2025\. Instead, the *news* here is that NASA is now publicly voicing the concern. The agency’s chief official for crewed deep space exploration, James Free, says NASA has delayed Lunar Starship’s critical design review until after SpaceX performs a cryogenic refueling demonstration in Earth orbit, which is critical to make the envisioned Starship lunar landings possible. --- *Many thanks to *[Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io)* for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## A solid lunar core ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fbf73e0da-8c21-4c67-863e-22df36009d7d_700x700-jpeg.jpg) An artist's impression of the Moon’s interior. From the surface down to the centre: a thin crust, a very thick mantle, a low viscosity zone at the core-mantle boundary, a fluid outer core, and a solid inner core. [Credit: Géoazur / Nicolas Sarter](https://www.cnrs.fr/en/moons-heart-revealed-first-time) What is the Moon’s core like? Analysis of Apollo mission data over the decades from the [Passive Seismic Experiments](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/apollo/apollo%5F16/experiments/ps), the [Laser Ranging Retroreflectors](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/apollo/apollo%5F15/experiments/lrr), and the [Lunar Surface Magnetometers](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/apollo/apollo%5F15/experiments/lsm) implied to scientists that the Moon has an outer fluid core. But the state of the innermost core remained mysterious. Now a team of [French scientists](https://www.cnrs.fr/en/moons-heart-revealed-first-time) have analyzed data from multiple lunar missions to study the exact nature of the Moon’s rotation, tidal deformation, and crustal structure, all of which get affected by the inner core. Their results [strongly suggest](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-05935-7) that our Moon has a solid, iron-rich inner core spanning about 500 kilometers wide. This would imply that the lunar core, solid and liquid combined, represents only about 25 percent of the Moon’s radius, in contrast to about 50 percent for Earth. The findings support [the leading theory](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/) that our Moon coalesced from the orbital remnants of the titanic collision of a Mars-sized object with the newborn Earth 4.5 billion years ago. This theory suggests that much of the impactor planet’s core would’ve been absorbed by Earth, [leaving a smaller core](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/lunar-origins-simulations) for the Moon, which the new results reinforce. It’s worth noting that Earth is the densest planet in the Solar System, which could be explained by said mechanism. Of course, we need to meticulously analyze [pristine mantle and crust samples](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) from diverse locations on the Moon to be more confident about the exact nature of the lunar interior. This is where NASA’s [Artemis missions](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) are most intriguing, as they promise to bring us abundant samples from some geologically diverse and pristine locations on the Moon’s south pole. ## Going forward to the Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fb31d685c-9fd0-471d-abb4-33ae1fe680a1_2500x1600-jpeg.jpg) Illustrations of SpaceX’s Lunar Starship and Blue Origin’s Blue Moon lunar landers respectively, which will land Artemis astronauts on the Moon for NASA this decade and beyond. Credits: [SpaceX](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-spacex-second-contract-option-for-artemis-moon-landing-0) / [Blue Origin](https://www.blueorigin.com/news/nasa-selects-blue-origin-for-mission-to-moon) In a [feature piece](https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/05/at-long-last-the-glorious-future-we-were-promised-in-space-is-on-the-way), Eric Berger captures the larger importance as well as some political context of NASA’s selection of the [Blue Moon lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/) and SpaceX’s Lunar Starship for crewed Artemis lunar landings: > With SpaceX's fully reusable Starship, and now Blue Moon, NASA has selected two vehicles based around the concept of many launches and the capability to store and transfer propellant in space. This is a remarkable transformation in the way humans will explore outer space—potentially the biggest change in spaceflight since the Soviet Union launched the Sputnik satellite in 1957\. It has been a long time coming. Relatedly, Peter Hague makes interesting guesstimates about the potential of the two lunar landers based on public information in his [Mass Value Report for May](https://planetocracy.substack.com/p/mass-value-report-for-may-2023): > The Starship HLS can put 100 tonnes on the lunar surface with, based on the submission SpaceX made for the contract, 15 launches at 100 tonnes to LEO each. 100 tonnes on the surface is 1,346 tonnes equivalent mass value. This is less than the amount that could be placed into LEO by that many Starships, which indicates a very inefficient system. The 15 launches is a conservative estimate which includes the delivery of the lander from LEO to NRHO, and there may be an architecture that does not require as many launches. From these figures though, it looks as if Blue Origin have, on paper, chosen a good architecture. They can land 100 tonnes on the surface by launching 1,260 tonnes into LEO, compared to 1,500 tonnes for Starship. > > \[…\] > > Measuring mass value, it is possible to include the kind of lunar mining Blue Origin proposes, which has the potential to pick up the baton of growing the space economy once it can’t practically be done with launch. What isn’t clear is if the approach of developing the Moon could scale as fast as SpaceX launch capabilities — certainly there is no real scope within Artemis to do that, but Blue Origin may be able to make it happen independently if they have the will and capability. ## More Moon - Advanced Space, who leads the NASA-funded [CAPSTONE](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/small%5Fspacecraft/capstone) lunar orbiter mission, [says](https://advancedspace.com/space-resources-roundtable-2023) the company is developing a navigation system called the Sustained Low Altitude Lunar Orbital Mission​ (SLALOM), which will allow spacecraft to safely fly as close as 10 kilometers from the Moon’s surface for many months by autonomously identifying terrain features to avoid. Advanced Space envisions this capability enabling specialized spacecraft prospecting for lunar resources such as [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). The only prior mention of SLALOM I’m able to find is in a document concerning the [31st AAS/AIAA Space Flight Mechanics Meeting](https://www.space-flight.org/docs/2021%5Fwinter/31stSFM%5FProgram%5FFINAL.pdf) in 2020. - [Past mistakes to avoid in our grand return to the Moon this decade](https://jatan.space/past-lunar-mission-mistakes-to-avoid/) --- **→ [Sponsor Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) | [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Moon Monday #130: Artemis III science, some Starship specifics, mission updates, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-130/ Last updated: 2024-04-01T11:22:56.000Z ## NASA advances science planning for the historic return of humans to the Moon In a historic return since Apollo, NASA aims to land astronauts on our Moon again mid-decade with [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-iii). What science instruments will they bring along to deploy on the Moon’s south pole for [advancing our understanding](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) of the whole Solar System? On May 30, NASA released a [request for proposals](https://nspires.nasaprs.com/external/solicitations/summary.do?solId=%7b76053627-8933-47CD-B627-C5DCDD474076%7d&path=&method=init) for the same, wherein the agency is asking teams of scientists to submit details of their desired instrument suites by June 30 for competitive evaluation. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f7593e6e4-4cd5-4cf8-8755-b922733c410d_2200x1500-jpeg.jpg) Apollo 11 astronaut Buzz Aldrin with the solar-powered seismic experiment he just deployed. The experiment’s antenna is pointed at Earth. [Credit: NASA](https://moon.nasa.gov/resources/13/apollo-11-seismic-experiment) ### Timeline of NASA’s Artemis science planning While the agency’s selection of the SpaceX [Lunar Starship lander](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) in 2021 and [Axiom spacesuits](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-taps-axiom-space-for-first-artemis-moonwalking-spacesuits) in 2022—over and above the standard [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) and [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) present in every [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) mission—largely represent the technology stack to be used for Artemis III, the science end has been catching up. Below is the timeline for all major milestones in Artemis science planning. - December 2020: The mission’s [Science Definition Team](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/Artemis/) laid out [their priorities](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/artemis-iii-science-definition-report-12042020c.pdf). - March 2022: NASA revealed the [Artemis science structure](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-112/), comprising an internal NASA Science Team, an external Geology Team, Participating Scientists (which will include international researchers), and an Instruments Team. - August 2022: NASA announced [13 candidate landing zones](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-91/) for Artemis III. The agency has since been soliciting [community input](https://jatan.space/nasa-taps-top-scientist-for-crewed-moon-return/) to downselect from said sites. - January 2023: NASA releases a [request for proposals](https://science.nasa.gov/researchers/solicitations/roses-2022/amendment-86-c25-artemis-iii-geology-team-final-text) for the competitively selected, \~10 member Geology Team. The agency will announce the selected team end of year. - March 2023: NASA [announced](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-appoints-lunar-science-leads-for-artemis-iii-artemis-iv-missions) Dr. Noah Petro as the mission’s Science Lead. - May 2023: Where we’re now—NASA [solicits](https://nspires.nasaprs.com/external/solicitations/summary.do?solId=%7b76053627-8933-47CD-B627-C5DCDD474076%7d&path=&method=init) competing proposals for instruments to be deployed on Artemis III, and with it the selection of the Instruments Team. NASA will select at least one instrument suite from all the proposals in Q1 2024. ### The kinds of instruments NASA seeks for Artemis III The attached document in the solicitation titled the “[Artemis III Deployed Instruments Program](https://nspires.nasaprs.com/external/viewrepositorydocument/cmdocumentid=918330/solicitationId=%7B76053627-8933-47CD-B627-C5DCDD474076%7D/viewSolicitationDocument=1/F.12%20A3DI%5FAmend26.pdf)” reveals interesting details about the kind of science experiments scientists can propose to be deployed on the Moon during Artemis III. - First and foremost, the proposed instruments must address one or more scientific objectives [outlined](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/artemis-iii-science-definition-report-12042020c.pdf) by the mission’s [Science Definition Team](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/Artemis/). These primarily concern the geology and environment of the Moon’s south pole, specifically how studying it would advance our understanding of our Moon’s [origin](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/) and [evolution](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/), and its volatiles such as [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). Notably, [the solicitation’s FAQ](https://nspires.nasaprs.com/external/viewrepositorydocument/cmdocumentid=934044/solicitationId=%7B76053627-8933-47CD-B627-C5DCDD474076%7D/viewSolicitationDocument=1/F.12%20A3DI%20FAQ%5F20230530.pdf) says astronauts can collect up to 500 grams of samples *processed* by a deployed instrument to bring them to Earth. - Each instrument must function autonomously, be self-powered, have a maximum mass of 60 kilograms, and cost no more than $25 million. - The instrument proposals can also cater to the much broader scientific themes in the outlined objectives, such as “revealing the record of the ancient Sun”, conducting [radio astronomy from the Moon](https://jatan.space/radio-astronomy-from-the-moon/), or studying how biological life reacts to Luna’s radiation environment and one-sixth gravity. - For biological experiment proposals, NASA is requiring scientists to demonstrate additional relevance to the [2010–2020 Decadal Report on Biological and Physical Sciences](https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/13048/recapturing-a-future-for-space-exploration-life-and-physical-sciences), the most recent consensus-based report produced by the US scientific community listing priorities and objectives in the field to address next. - The instruments must not be for external mounting on Lunar Starship, and they cannot be only technology demonstrators. - NASA will consider instrument proposals from foreign space organizations, albeit on a “no exchange of funds” basis. - [The FAQ](https://nspires.nasaprs.com/external/viewrepositorydocument/cmdocumentid=934044/solicitationId=%7B76053627-8933-47CD-B627-C5DCDD474076%7D/viewSolicitationDocument=1/F.12%20A3DI%20FAQ%5F20230530.pdf) states that proposals can include having a rover to deploy instruments, but the rover itself will count against the mass and funding limits. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f2fae3650-3e58-42a6-8a5d-1d671b64d980_2500x1562-jpeg.jpg) Relative distribution of thorium-containing mantle material across the vast South Pole–Aitken Basin on the Moon’s farside. Artemis III astronauts might collect such materials exposed in their landing region and bring them to Earth to help us better understand our Moon’s evolution. [Credits: NASA / LRO / Lunar Prospector / Dan Moriarty, et al.](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2021/lro-deep-secrets-of-moon) #### More details on Artemis III and Lunar Starship Interestingly, the [solicitation document](https://nspires.nasaprs.com/external/viewrepositorydocument/cmdocumentid=918330/solicitationId=%7B76053627-8933-47CD-B627-C5DCDD474076%7D/viewSolicitationDocument=1/F.12%20A3DI%5FAmend26.pdf) also states that NASA and SpaceX are targeting launch of the mission’s Lunar Starship in December 2025\. Considering that Starship will loiter in lunar orbit for at least a month, or as much as three, before astronauts arrive in the Orion spacecraft to transfer to Starship for the Moon landing, this implies the historic Artemis III touchdown is formally postponed to 2026. The document also mentions Starship’s Wi-Fi range for payloads: > The expected range of Starship WiFi is 300m. Payloads that desire to operate on the surface after departure of Starship, or that desire to be located outside of this WiFi range, must rely on payload-provided communications and data transfer capabilities/hardware. NASA also shines light on Starship’s available payload capacity and its allocation for Artemis III: > Up to 450kg of Starship’s mass allocation will be available for utilization, i.e., to conduct science, research, development, test and evaluation, public outreach, education, and commercialization using a human exploration platform and/or mission. For Artemis III, the utilization mass allocation includes sample collection tools and sample return containers as well as payloads. Between 80-90kg are estimated for the former, leaving 360-370kg available for other utilization activities, including the payloads solicited in this call. Intriguingly, the aforementioned [FAQ](https://nspires.nasaprs.com/external/viewrepositorydocument/cmdocumentid=934044/solicitationId=%7B76053627-8933-47CD-B627-C5DCDD474076%7D/viewSolicitationDocument=1/F.12%20A3DI%20FAQ%5F20230530.pdf) also states that there might be a lunar orbiter available to relay communications between Artemis III surface hardware and Earth: > It is expected that an orbiting relay satellite will be available for deployed instruments; proposers are not expected to provide the relay satellite. It’s possible that NASA leverages the ESA-backed [Lunar Pathfinder](https://jatan.space/nasa-esa-collaborate-on-lunar-pathfinder/) orbiter for this purpose. As part of an [agreement](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-esa-finalize-agreements-on-climate-artemis-cooperation), NASA is aiming to deliver the 280-kilogram Pathfinder to lunar orbit in 2026 via a [commercial Firefly lander](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-picks-firefly-aerospace-for-robotic-delivery-to-far-side-of-moon) part of the agency’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). In return, ESA will let NASA use the polar-orbiting Pathfinder to relay communications between the agency’s surface hardware and Earth. Related: [Dr. David Kring](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/science/staff/kring/), Principal Scientist at the Lunar and Planetary Institute, will [deliver a talk](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/features/2023/051123/cess) on June 8 about the fascinatingly alien terrain and environment that Artemis III astronauts will encounter during the mission’s Moonwalks. --- *Many thanks to* [***Epsilon3***](https://www.epsilon3.io) *and* [***The Orbital Index***](https://orbitalindex.com) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## More mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f04dd4ac3-b72b-4bb7-9698-f69272f33f60_950x649-jpeg.jpg) Russia’s Luna 25 Moon landing spacecraft, pictured during its assembly. [Credits: Sergey Bobylev / TASS](https://tass.com/science/1393447) - Roscosmos [says](https://tass.com/science/1625509) the launch of its [Luna 25 robotic Moon lander](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2021/pdf/2032.pdf) is postponed from July to August. The Russian space agency is currently putting the spacecraft through a standard series of [space simulating tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/), and is also conducting soft landing software simulation tests in parallel. Luna 25’s instruments include a robotic arm to sample material from 20 to 30 centimeters below the surface and then feed it to a laser spectrometer to determine elements and isotopes within. There’s also a neutron and a gamma ray spectrometer to identify the composition of the subsurface. The mission’s landing site, while not truly polar due to engineering constraints, is selected at about 70°S such that underground [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) could still be detected. - The launch of JAXA’s compact [SLIM](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/home/slim/SLIM/technology.html) Moon lander on the Japanese H-2A rocket has been delayed until at least September. H-2A’s upper stage engine is similar to the one that [failed to ignite](https://spacenews.com/japans-h3-rocket-launch-fails-after-second-stage-malfunction) on the H3 rocket’s debut flight in March, and so while the latter’s failure investigation continues JAXA has decided to put H2-A launches [on hold](https://www3.nhk.or.jp/news/html/20230525/k10014078151000.html). SLIM aims to demonstrate *pinpoint lunar touchdown* (\~100-meter accuracy) with a low mass spacecraft. To that end, SLIM [will land](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/feature/forefront/220928.html) somewhere within the 300-meter wide [Shioli crater](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=25.1369017%2C-13.3775317%2C25.3103066%2C-13.279343&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=25.23250488%2C-13.32525147&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFaaKBJ-Im64NOZFkRdi5KjwpA&proj=16)’s ejecta, which lies amid rocky terrain. Orbital data suggests that studying the crater’s ejecta using SLIM’s near-infrared, multi-band spectroscopic camera could enhance our knowledge about [the Moon’s mantle and its formation](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). - NASA’s [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/), aiming for a late 2024 [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) launch, will explore rocky terrain in and around [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s south pole for over 100 days to unravel the nature of lunar [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) deposits. A NASA [blog post](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/engineers-test-vipers-very-nimble-gimbal) describes how VIPER, which will be on the move more often than not, will constantly and precisely point its high-gain antenna at Earth to keep transmitting ample data. NASA will then leverage [distributed computing](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/vipers-many-brains-are-better-than-one) to allow the science team at mission control to react quickly to situations as they unfold. Engineers recently successfully completed nighttime testing of the antenna gimbaling on a VIPER rover prototype. - On May 29, the China Manned Space Agency (CMSA) released an announcement [soliciting industry proposals](https://english.news.cn/20230529/d072333c56424753bec141dc75c35b67/c.html) for the country’s first crewed lunar rover, which will be driven by the first two Chinese astronauts on the Moon [end of decade](https://spacenews.com/china-unveils-lunar-lander-to-put-astronauts-on-the-moon). This announcement follows just three days from NASA’s [seeking](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-pursues-lunar-terrain-vehicle-services-for-artemis-missions) of industry proposals to build and launch before end of decade the [Lunar Terrain Vehicle](https://jatan.space/what-we-know-about-artemis-ltv/), which will be a versatile crew-capable *and* tele-operable robotic rover to be used across Artemis missions for at least 10 years. Andrew Jones [neatly summarizes](https://spacenews.com/china-sets-sights-on-crewed-lunar-landing-before-2030) China’s high-level progress towards a crewed Moon landing. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f72af054b-0445-4866-bfcb-1898e416b9bb_2036x1440-jpeg.jpg) An artist’s impression of two Chinese astronauts exploring the Moon using a rover. [Credit: Xinhua](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zTopir7Gukk) ## More Moon - On May 30, Spain [became the 25th country](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-welcomes-spain-as-25th-artemis-accords-signatory) and eighth ESA member to sign the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords). This move come after Spain established a formal national space agency [in March](https://payloadspace.com/spain-officially-has-a-space-agency). Germany is the only major ESA member who hasn’t signed the Accords. - Jacobs is hiring a [Senior Planetary Science Data Archivist](https://jacobs.taleo.net/careersection/ex/jobdetail.ftl?lang=en&job=ADV0006LK) to provide data handling expertise to NASA’s CLPS program. --- **→** [**Sponsor Moon Monday**](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) **|** [**Browse the Blog**](https://blog.jatan.space/start) **|** [**About**](https://blog.jatan.space/about) ### Indian Space Progress #5: ISRO’s navigation satellites, advances toward human spaceflight, and more science & technology updates URL: https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-05/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:02.000Z ## ISRO begins launching navigation satellites with GPS interoperability and self-made atomic clocks ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f3587b112-b18d-43b1-9dc1-175f758e2058_2400x1700-jpeg-1.jpg) Launch of the NVS-01 satellite (right) on a GSLV Mk II rocket (left). [Credit: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/GSLV%5FF12%5FNVS01%5Fgallery.html) On May 29, an ISRO GSLV Mk II rocket successfully [launched and deployed](https://www.isro.gov.in/GSLV%5FF12%5FLandingpage.html) the [NVS-01](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NVS-01) navigation satellite into a Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO), providing a much needed boost to India’s regional navigation service called [Navigation with Indian Constellation](https://www.isro.gov.in/SatelliteNavigationServices.html) (NavIC). Prior to this launch, India only had [four fully operational](https://old.reddit.com/r/ISRO/comments/zo6wsm/well%5Fufrustrated%5Fpluto%5Fdid%5Fit%5Fagain) NavIC satellites out of the deployed seven, and four is the minimum number required to provide continuous positioning, navigation, and timing services to the Indian mainland plus 1,500 kilometers beyond. NVS-01 is a second-generation NavIC satellite and features an L1 band for the first time, which allows it to interoperate with other GNSS systems such as GPS. Perhaps just as importantly, NVS-01 boasts an indigenously developed Rubidium atomic clock, which provides a stable frequency reference to the satellite for precision time keeping—a fundamental requirement of a navigation service. Back in 2017 when many Rubidium atomic clocks on ESA’s Galileo navigation satellites [failed](https://spaceflight101.com/galileo-atomic-clock-failures), it affected some of India’s first-generation NavIC satellites as well because ISRO [imported](https://thewire.in/science/atomic-clock-rubidium-irnss) said clocks from Europe. This prompted India to develop the technology indigenously, accomplished specifically by ISRO’s Space Applications Center in Ahmedabad. This makes ISRO only the fifth space agency in the world have an operational Rubidium atomic clock in space, following NASA, ESA, CNSA, and Roscosmos. ISRO aims to launch four more second-generation NavIC satellites by 2025, each designed to last at least 12 years. While originally these were supposed to expand the literal range of NavIC services on the globe, the atomic clock failures coupled with the whole initial constellation reaching end of operational life soon anyway has meant that the second generation NavIC satellites are essentially a reinforced redo of the primary baseline service. India’s ambition to make NavIC a global service like the GNSS providers is going to have to wait a while. Even within the country itself, the Indian government has [found it difficult](https://9to5mac.com/2022/09/26/apple-companies-concerned-india-navic-gps) to have smartphone makers adopt NavIC compatibility. While the first-generation NavIC satellites were all launched on PSLV-XL rockets, the more capable GSLV Mk II is ISRO’s choice for the second generation fleet. It’s therefore especially notable that the Mk II successfully deployed NVS-01 to GTO as it marks the rocket’s return to flight after its cryogenic third stage [had failed](https://web.archive.org/web/20220715113556/https://www.isro.gov.in/update/25-mar-2022/gslv-f10-eos-03-mission-failure-failure-analysis-committee-submits-conclusions) on its last mission in 2021. ## Another leap towards human spaceflight ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f52a71f95-0b41-4184-a312-db25c17e6d66_960x640-jpeg.jpg) Pad-abort ejection test of a dummy Gaganyaan crew module, followed by descent under parachutes, as conducted on July 5, 2018\. [Credits: ISRO](https://web.archive.org/web/20181122034003/https://www.isro.gov.in/update/05-jul-2018/successful-flight-testing-of-crew-escape-system-technology-demonstrator) As ISRO works towards the ambitious inaugural [Gaganyaan mission](https://www.isro.gov.in/Gaganyaan.html) to indigenously send humans to space, it has continued qualifying technologies needed to achieve the feat. On May 12, ISRO performed a 603-second burn of the twelve 100-newton thrusters that will power the Crew Module during Gaganyaan missions to provide controlled atmospheric descent. With this 14th successful test, all designed to validate the propulsion system’s functionality under various nominal and non-nominal mission scenarios, ISRO has now [completed qualifying](https://www.isro.gov.in/cmps.html) the system for flight. In case of an abnormal rocket behavior during the launch phase, the propulsion system will also provide attitude control to the crew module between a height of 3 to 70 kilometers. Speaking of such situations, ISRO plans to [conduct two milestone abort tests](https://www.deccanherald.com/science-and-environment/isro-human-space-foray-set-for-next-step-1177994.html) with full-scale crew modules this year, one by [August](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cVyLnF4ui9Q) and the other by end of year. For the first such test, called [TV-D1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TV-D1), the parachutes have [arrived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230513183434/https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/parachutes-for-re-entry-capsule-of-mission-gaganyaan-shipped-from-agra/article66847079.ece) as of May 13\. ISRO [qualified](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/Monthly%5Fsummary/Monthly%5Fsummary%5Fjanuary%5F2023.pdf) the TV-D1 Crew Module structure in January, and received [an unpressurized module](https://www.isro.gov.in/handing-over-scm-test-vehicle-mission.html) for the abort test from its contractor in February. ISRO also [commenced a series of sea recovery trials](https://www.isro.gov.in/Recovery%5Ftrials%5FGaganyaan%5FMission.html) in February with a representative crew module, which simulates the mass, center of gravity, outer dimensions, and externals of the actual Gaganyaan Crew Module. On May 24, ISRO [released](https://www.isro.gov.in/CrewRecoveryTrainingPlan%5FGaganyaan.html) the Gaganyaan Recovery Training Plan document internally to the expert teams led by the Indian Navy who will recover astronauts post splashdown on Earth. --- *Many thanks to the *[Takshashila Institution](https://takshashila.org.in)* and *[SkyServe](https://skyserve.ai)* for sponsoring this month’s Indian Space Progress report.* --- ## Space Science & Technology updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f8982a8b9-2a3f-4404-9530-b6f112fad1b3_1900x1400-jpeg.jpg) Densities of various discovered giant exoplanets and brown dwarf starts as a function of mass. The object TOI-4603b lies in the overlapping region. [Credits: Akanksha Khandelwal, et al.](https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full%5Fhtml/2023/04/aa45608-22/F3.html) - Scientists using the Gurushikhar Observatory’s [PARAS](https://www.prl.res.in/~miro/index.php?id=64) instrument have [discovered](https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202245608) an unusually dense Hot Jupiter exoplanet, TOI-4603b, which straddles the boundary between massive Jupiter-like planets and failed stars called [brown dwarfs](https://earthsky.org/space/definition-what-are-brown-dwarfs). No more than five exoplanets from the over 5,000 discovered to date currently fall in this mysterious mass region. This is the third exoplanet discovered by the PARAS instrument, following a [sub-Saturn/super-Neptune](https://jatan.space/where-does-indias-first-exoplanet-discovery-fit-in/) find in 2018 and an [inflated Hot Jupiter](https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/509/3/3339/6409152) in 2021. - ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-3-prelaunch-info/) Moon lander, aiming to be launched in the [second week](https://web.archive.org/web/20230518102940/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/science/final-assembly-of-payloads-begin-for-chandrayaan-3-isro-confident-of-mid-july-window/articleshow/100322580.cms) of July, arrived at the Sriharikota spaceport on May 26 to begin launch preparations, Sidharth MP [reports](https://www.wionews.com/science-technology/exclusive-chandrayaan-3-spacecraft-arrives-at-indias-spaceport-in-preparation-for-july-launch-597257). As part of a standard series of [space simulating tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/), Chandrayaan 3 notably successfully passed [launch survival testing](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan%5F3%5FModule%5FDynamic%5FTests.html) in March and [electromagnetic interference testing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-115/) in February. - On May 10, ISRO [successfully conducted](https://www.isro.gov.in/First%5FIntegrated%5FTest%5FSemicryogenicEngine.html) the first integrated chill-down test on an indigenous 2000 KiloNewton kerolox Engine powerhead. It took place at a new facility dedicated for testing semi-cryogenic engines to be used on ISRO’s future rockets. ISRO plans to upgrade the core stage of the GSLV Mk III rocket—which recently [commercially launched](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-03/) OneWeb satellites—with said engine instead of the existing two [Vikas ones](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikas%5F%28rocket%5Fengine%29). This will increase the Mk III’s payload capacity to GTO from \~4,000 kilograms to 6,000\. Variants of this semi-cryogenic engine will also power parts of India’s upcoming [heavy-lift](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified%5FLaunch%5FVehicle) and [reusable launch vehicle](https://jatan.space/isro-continues-building-rlv-td-spaceplane/) respectively. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ffd812cc7-10c7-4646-ac7d-fe4b11c5b164_2050x1300-jpeg.jpg) A test stand at the new “Semicryogenic Integrated Engine & Stage Test facility” part of the ISRO Propulsion Complex in Mahendragiri, India. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/First%5FIntegrated%5FTest%5FSemicryogenicEngine.html) ## More Indian space - Pixxel, headquartered in India but with a major US presence, [announced](https://www.pixxel.space/blogs/pixxel-raises-36-million-in-series-b-funding-to-advance-hyperspectral-satellite-constellation-and-data-platform) a Google-led $36 million Series B funding round. The company was [previously targeting](https://www.pixxel.space/blogs/launching-towards-pixxels-hyperspectral-vision) launching six commercial hyperspectral Earth imaging satellites to a sun-synchronous 550-kilometer orbit this year but now says in the funding raise announcement that the satellites will launch in 2024\. Pixxel has raised a total of \~[$70 million](https://www.crunchbase.com/organization/pixxel-81c6/company%5Ffinancials) until today. - The [International Conference on Spacecraft Mission Operations](https://smops2023.istrac.gov.in), organized by ISRO and the Astronomical Society of India, takes place on June 8 and 9\. It will see various national space agencies and global industry players discuss challenges of complex spacecraft operations from across the spectrum of space missions. The conference will also focus on emerging automation technologies to cater to said existing and upcoming challenges. I will be in Bengaluru to attend the conference. [Get in touch](https://jatan.space/connect) if you’d like to chat space, science, or the Web. --- **→ [Sponsor Indian Space Progress](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-indian-space-progress) | [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Moon Monday #129: ispace lander’s crash site and cause, mission updates, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-129/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:03.000Z ## ispace Japan’s first Moon lander crashed less than 7 kilometers from its target site ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2feea4c80c-d221-49a1-b0b7-d9bdfa71d755_2500x1607-jpeg.jpg) An annotated image of part of the Moon’s Atlas crater showing marked locations of the ispace M1 lander’s target landing site and crashed site respectively. The inset image shows the impact site as photographed by NASA’s LRO spacecraft on April 26, with labels A–D pointing to lander debris. [Click to explore](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=41.6621752%2C45.8304051%2C46.9196689%2C48.8074047&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=44.40014864%2C47.49964213%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22ispace+M1+target+landing+site%22%7D%7C44.09400401%2C47.58099318%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22ispace+M1+crash+site%22%7D%7C44.40014518%2C47.49963961%2C44.09401204%2C47.58100074%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Range+between+the+two+sites%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFaaKBJ-Im64NOZFkRdi5KjwpA&proj=16) the region and marked points on an interactive map. Base image credit: [LROC Quickmap](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=41.6621752%2C45.8304051%2C46.9196689%2C48.8074047&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=44.40014864%2C47.49964213%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22ispace+M1+target+landing+site%22%7D%7C44.09400401%2C47.58099318%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22ispace+M1+crash+site%22%7D%7C44.40014518%2C47.49963961%2C44.09401204%2C47.58100074%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Range+between+the+two+sites%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFaaKBJ-Im64NOZFkRdi5KjwpA&proj=16); Inset image: [NASA / LRO / GSFC / ASU](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/1302); Base image annotations: [Jatan Mehta](https://blog.jatan.space/about) Just a month after ispace Japan’s [first lunar lander](https://jatan.space/ispace-japan-m1-moon-mission/) Hakuto-R [failed to touchdown](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-125/) on the Moon on April 25, the company has identified from telemetry data the key causes of the M1 surface mission failure, and has shared it publicly via a [press release](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4691) and an unusually candid and detailed [media briefing](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Owt2u9SJIbU). ispace says as the lander passed over the rim of the Atlas crater, so as to approach its target landing site at [47.5°N, 44.4°E](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=40.2145798%2C44.1202909%2C48.4074855%2C48.7594362&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=44.40014864%2C47.49964213&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFaaKBJ-Im64NOZFkRdi5KjwpA&proj=16) lying within the crater, its laser rangefinder correctly reported to the onboard software an increased elevation of roughly three kilometers corresponding to the crater’s depth. But the software, designed to filter out certain abrupt altitude values to keep the lander’s motion stable against possible hardware failures, rejected the measurement as erroneous. The lander, thinking it was closer to the surface than it really was, continued decelerating slowly at less than 1 meter/second and eventually ran out of fuel while still at around 5 kilometers altitude. Presumably, the software kept rejecting the repeatedly higher altitude measurements all this while because it determined the rangefinder to have failed. The lander then faced an accelerated free fall crash under the Moon’s gravity. A motivated group of amateur radio observers monitoring the lander’s radio transmissions [independently concluded](https://amsat-dl.org/en/analysis-of-hakuto-r-spacecraft-landing-on-the-moon-2023-apr-25) the free fall state in mid-May. ispace CTO Ryo Ujiie said during the media briefing that the software issue wasn’t identified and fixed during simulation testing of the lander descent—which is based on real terrain data—because the company chose the targeted landing site just a month before the December 2022 launch. While ispace did perform extensive testing for the [previous landing site](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=2549) lying in the plains of Lacus Somniorum, which was selected two months before the mission’s critical design review in February 2021, its scenarios were evidently insufficient to deal with the terrain encountered at Atlas. In a world first, ispace has [gotten insurance](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=3952) from Mitsui Sumitomo last year. It’s supposed to cover several possible failures from launch through landing but ispace is waiting to hear back on the claim. In any case, ispace will incorporate necessary software and simulation testing related changes for their M2 mission, whose flight lander is now being assembled for a 2024 launch. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f7e5e8831-063d-435e-96ec-1873bf626abd_2879x1613-jpeg.jpg) An overview of identified areas of enhancement from the M1 mission which ispace will feed into M2\. [Credit: ispace](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Owt2u9SJIbU) NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO), thanks to its preplanned arrangements with ispace to image the landing region and adjacent areas on April 26, captured photos showing [lander debris](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/1302) in a now-higher-reflectance area at 47.581°N, 44.094°E. Using the amazing [LROC Quickmap](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu), I get an estimated range between ispace’s target landing site and crash site to be [\~6.7 kilometers](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=41.6621752%2C45.8304051%2C46.9196689%2C48.8074047&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryFeature=2&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=44.40014864%2C47.49964213%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22ispace+M1+target+landing+site%22%7D%7C44.09400401%2C47.58099318%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22ispace+M1+crash+site%22%7D%7C44.40014518%2C47.49963961%2C44.09401204%2C47.58100074%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Range+between+the+two+sites%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFaaKBJ-Im64NOZFkRdi5KjwpA&proj=16). In contrast to LRO’s quick find of the ispace lander is the crash of ISRO’s Chandrayaan 2 lander in September 2019, wherein it [took three months](https://jatan.space/finding-the-chandrayaan-2-lander/) for NASA to locate the spacecraft’s debris because ISRO didn’t share any substantial data. Again, the good communications transparency demonstrated by ispace must serve as an example for tax-funded government space agencies to [take cues](https://rootprivileges.net/2019/10/02/the-virtues-and-vices-of-reestablishing-contact-with-vikram) from, as should it for the upcoming NASA-funded, competing, private [CLPS landers](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). --- *Many thanks to *[Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io)* for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## Mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fe0daa47d-3479-4a57-bfb7-17e1a3ee650c_1050x1130-jpeg.jpg) Mission profile of India’s Chandrayaan 3 Moon landing mission. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan3%5FNew.html) - ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-3-prelaunch-info/) Moon lander, aiming to be launched in the [second week](https://web.archive.org/web/20230518102940/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/science/final-assembly-of-payloads-begin-for-chandrayaan-3-isro-confident-of-mid-july-window/articleshow/100322580.cms) of July, arrived at the Sriharikota spaceport on May 26 to begin launch preparations, Sidharth MP [reports](https://www.wionews.com/science-technology/exclusive-chandrayaan-3-spacecraft-arrives-at-indias-spaceport-in-preparation-for-july-launch-597257). - In a [post](https://blogs.nasa.gov/clps/2023/05/25/intuitive-machines-lunar-landing-site-moves-to-south-pole) on the official CLPS Blog, NASA reveals why it changed the landing site of Intuitive Machines’ [first CLPS lunar lander](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/im-1)—carrying [six agency payloads](https://science.nasa.gov/lunar-discovery/deliveries/op-to2-intuitive-machines)—from a near-equatorial location to besides the [Malapert A crater](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=-27.6167293,-80.9725683,9.6287046,-78.2434553&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIgL5A&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypOOKbRFdAJgQSfyJqt6XAMYiBCnrIsibsXLVgydAA4AnJNyEZlarIpA&proj=17) at 80°S. NASA says it’s to fulfill “a need to learn more about terrain and communications near the lunar South Pole.” This seems likely to be in the context that *near-polar* regions—especially elevated ones like Malapert A—have [better Earth visibility](https://ipnpr.jpl.nasa.gov/progress%5Freport/42-176/176C.pdf) over the lunar year than sites with even higher latitudes. That’s ultimately because the Moon’s wobbling makes the latter places be out of Earth’s line of sight more often. Jeff Foust has previously [noted](https://spacenews.com/first-intuitive-machine-lunar-lander-mission-slips-to-the-third-quarter) that mission modifications stemming from the landing site change increased the company’s contract value from $77 million to $116.3 million. - Applying [thermal protection](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/technicians-apply-foam-to-moon-rocket-hardware-for-artemis-iii.html) to the cone-shaped [stage adapter](https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/space/usa) of NASA’s SLS rocket takes several months.. which is [now done](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/technicians-apply-thermal-protection-material-to-nasa-moon-rocket-hardware.html) for the [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-iii) mission to land astronauts on the Moon mid-decade. Well, at least it’s the last such adapter to be dealt with for Artemis as NASA will switch crew launches to SLS’ more cargo capable [Block 1B](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/sls%5Flift%5Fcapabilities%5Fand%5Fconfigurations%5F508%5F08202018%5F0.pdf) variant beginning with [Artemis IV](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-101/). - NASA is [seeking industry proposals](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-pursues-lunar-terrain-vehicle-services-for-artemis-missions) by July 10 to build and launch before end of decade the [Lunar Terrain Vehicle](https://jatan.space/what-we-know-about-artemis-ltv/) (LTV), which will be a versatile crew-capable *and* tele-operable robotic rover to be used across Artemis missions for at least 10 years. NASA expects the delivered LTV to demonstrate successful operations on the Moon’s south pole before crew can use it starting 2029 with [Artemis V](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/). Relatedly, Lunar Outpost recently [switched sides](https://lunaroutpost.com/lunar-outpost-joins-lockheed-martin-team-for-next-generation-moon-rover) from Northrop Grumman to Lockheed Martin for the LTV bid. Lunar Outpost is providing robotic rovers on two upcoming [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) missions, [one](https://lunaroutpost.com/nokia-and-intuitive-machines-select-lunar-outpost-for-first-rover-mission-at-lunar-south-pole) to the lunar south pole and [another](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-mission-to-reiner-gamma/) to the swirl of Reiner Gamma. Also competing for LTV will be Leidos-Dynetics [in partnership](https://www.nascar.com/news-media/2023/04/18/leidos-nascar-speed-into-lunar-rover-race) with NASCAR. NASA will announce the LTV contract award this November. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fc4aa8dd1-da22-4854-9891-a090018fab0f_2640x1500-jpeg.jpg) Desired capabilities of the Artemis Lunar Terrain Vehicle. [Credit: NASA](https://sam.gov/api/prod/opps/v3/opportunities/resources/files/90f14b078fad4da587e2f6fbbfe60768/download?&token=) ## More Moon - In a [scathing report](https://oig.nasa.gov/docs/IG-23-015.pdf) published on May 25, NASA’s Office of Inspector General criticizes the agency’s handling of [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) engine contracts to Aerojet Rocketdyne and Northrop Grumman, who provide the vehicle’s [RS-25](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/sls%5Frs25%5Fengine%5Ffs%5F508.pdf) engines and the [twin boosters](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/fs/solid-rocket-booster.html) respectively for crewed Artemis missions. The inspector says that not only has there been a $6 billion cost increase and an over six-year delay in receiving said hardware for the designated initial Artemis missions but that “NASA and its contracts will continue to exceed planned cost and schedule, resulting in a reduced availability of funds, delayed launches, and the erosion of the public’s trust in the agency’s ability to responsibly spend taxpayer money and meet mission goals and objectives—including returning humans safely to the Moon.” - Australia [will establish](https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2023/05/20/australia-united-states-joint-leaders-statement-an-alliance-for-our-times) a new ground station to support NASA’s Artemis missions. Tangent: Intuitive Machines will utilize commercial ground station services [from CSIRO](https://www.csiro.au/en/news/News-releases/2021/CSIROs-Dish-to-support-one-of-the-first-commercial-Moon-landings)’s high-bandwidth capable [Parkes](https://www.csiro.au/en/about/facilities-collections/ATNF/Parkes-radio-telescope) disk in Australia for all of its robotic lunar missions. - Japan-based GITAI has raised $29 million—adding to their previous $17 million funding from 2021—to develop a lunar rover with a two-meter inchworm robotic arm, Jason Rainbow [reports](https://spacenews.com/japans-gitai-raises-29-million-for-space-robotics-business). GITAI is also expanding its US presence, and has been operating prototypes in the Mojave desert to test various activities related to assembling parts of lunar habitats ahead of an ambitious 2026 launch to such demonstrative end. - The US National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency is working with NASA, the US Geological Survey, the US Space Force, and the US Space Command to develop a positioning and navigation system for the Moon that would provide more accurate references to lunar missions than NASA’s already in-progress [LunaNet](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2021/lunanet-empowering-artemis-with-communications-and-navigation-interoperability) architecture, Sandra Erwin [reports](https://spacenews.com/nga-to-map-lunar-geography-to-enable-gps-on-the-moon). --- **→ [Sponsor Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) | [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Moon Monday #128: Welcoming the Blue Moon, a Chandrayaan launch, lune hops, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-128/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:03.000Z *I only recently learnt that months were originally called moonths. I’m so going to say moonths now every chance I get. The word has been duly added to my device dictionaries.* 🌝 --- ## NASA selects Blue Moon to compete with SpaceX Lunar Starship for crewed Artemis lunar landings NASA has [selected](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-blue-origin-as-second-artemis-lunar-lander-provider) Blue Origin and its “National Team” to build what the agency calls a “[sustainable](https://www.nasa.gov/nextstep/humanlander4)” lunar lander, which can regularly carry humans between the Moon’s surface and its orbit. To begin with, NASA has tasked the National Team—which includes Blue Origin, Lockheed Martin, Draper, Boeing, Astrobotic, and Honeybee Robotics—with safely landing astronauts on the Moon in 2029 for the agency’s Artemis V mission. The National Team’s 16-meter tall “Blue Moon” lander is the second such “sustainable” crewed Mooncraft NASA is co-funding following the agency’s selection of SpaceX’s [upgraded Lunar Starship](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-spacex-second-contract-option-for-artemis-moon-landing-0) last year, which is currently targeting landing astronauts for [Artemis IV](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-101/) in 2028\. SpaceX and Blue Origin will bid against each other for crewed landings following Artemis V, giving the agency competition-fueled cost-effectiveness as well redundancy as it hopes to have astronauts visit Luna every year leading up to a sustained [Artemis Moonbase](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept). #### Artemis V Notably, even though NASA chose Blue Moon based on the agency’s own [sustainable lander requirements](https://sam.gov/api/prod/opps/v3/opportunities/resources/files/1c0f2f45dbb5482485ef791c0e9a037a/download?&token=), which include four astronauts being able to live and work for a month on the Moon, the agency’s [press release](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-blue-origin-as-second-artemis-lunar-lander-provider) states that Blue Moon will only host two astronauts for a week on Luna for Artemis V. NASA’s $3.4 billion fixed price, milestone-based contract to the National Team includes Blue Moon performing a full-scale uncrewed lunar landing demonstration by 2028 before crew can fly on Artemis V. This Uncrewed Flight Test (UFT) will even demonstrate life support systems and ascent back to lunar orbit despite NASA only requiring precision lunar landing as a baseline. In the [Source Selection Statement](https://sam.gov/api/prod/opps/v3/opportunities/resources/files/22a175c103714b9a9a2da0facceadbcd/download?&token=) detailing why NASA chose Blue Moon as the second crewed Artemis lander, the agency noted Blue’s only eligible competitor Dynetics bid a “substantially higher” (undisclosed) amount. It wasn’t the most important consideration though. Technical strengths such as having a full-scale uncrewed mission and faster [maturing](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/heo/scan/engineering/technology/technology%5Freadiness%5Flevel) of key technologies played in Blue Moon’s favor, as Jeff Foust [elaborates](https://spacenews.com/technical-strengths-and-lower-cost-led-nasa-to-select-blue-origin-lander). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ff8bc0269-941e-4667-a57c-6878d1292191_2500x1600-jpeg.jpg) Illustration showing the crewed Blue Moon lander alongside a brief of NASA’s baseline high-level requirements for a “sustainable” lander on a reference lunar mission. Credits: [Blue Origin](https://www.blueorigin.com/news/nasa-selects-blue-origin-for-mission-to-moon) / [NASA](https://sam.gov/api/prod/opps/v3/opportunities/resources/files/49365fa938584255853066b4f86cd8e6/download?&token=) #### Colder than lunar ice Docking with every crewed Blue Moon lander in lunar orbit will be a Lockheed Martin-built “Cislunar Transporter”, which will bring 20+ tons of liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen from Earth orbit to transfer to Blue Moon for enabling lunar landing and ascent. To prevent liquid hydrogen from notoriously boiling off during the coasting phase of the cislunar transporter, and time spent by Blue Moon in lunar orbit and on the surface, [Blue Origin says](https://www.blueorigin.com/news/nasa-selects-blue-origin-for-mission-to-moon) the company is working on a solar-powered cryocooler that operates at 20 degrees above absolute zero. That’s [5–10 degrees colder](https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/news/907/moons-south-pole-in-nasas-landing-sites) than some of the coldest known [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s poles. Blue Origin is banking on this hydrogen storage technology to open up sustainable deep space missions across our Solar System, including by using [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) extracted from the Moon’s permanently shadowed regions to fuel hardware for such missions. #### NASA wants crewed non-polar and cargo-for-crew Moon missions too As part of the [sustainable lander requirements](https://sam.gov/api/prod/opps/v3/opportunities/resources/files/1c0f2f45dbb5482485ef791c0e9a037a/download?&token=), NASA intriguingly mentioned last year that it wanted the proposed lander designs to also support short-stay two-astronaut missions at non-polar regions across the Moon, including the farside. This may sound like a minor enhancement over polar crewed missions but is huge as it would lay the foundation for landing and living on the Moon anywhere—however briefly. To that end, NASA’s [Source Selection Statement](https://sam.gov/api/prod/opps/v3/opportunities/resources/files/22a175c103714b9a9a2da0facceadbcd/download?&token=) praises Blue Moon’s proposed non-polar capabilities: > Blue Origin proposes an excess capability to provide Non-Polar Surface Access to six of the six sites listed for NASA DRM-H-001b (Non-Polar Sortie Mission Variant), which demonstrates flexibility and added margin against the non-polar NASA DRM. This is something NASA said in the statement Dynetics’ proposals offered as well. Lunar Starship can naturally be expected to feature said capability too. Moreover, as mentioned at the [LEAG 2022 Annual Meeting](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/leag2022), NASA plans to complement the crewed landers and help sustain & extend astronaut stays post-2030 under [Artemis Base Camp](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept) with “Human-Class Cargo Delivery Landers” or HDL. These landers, which could be built by a number of companies including SpaceX and Blue Origin, should be able to deliver at least 12,000 kilograms of cargo to the Moon’s surface, which could include crew-critical supplies, scientific payloads, large rovers, habitat modules, and more. To that end, NASA mentions in the aforementioned Blue Moon selection statement the following: > NASA plans to leverage crewed lander development activities to procure and certify the design of landers capable of human-class cargo delivery via specific Contract Line Item Numbers (CLINs). And sure enough, as Jeff Foust [notes](https://spacenews.com/nasa-selects-blue-origin-to-develop-second-artemis-lunar-lander), Blue Origin is planning to build a cargo version of Blue Moon that can transport 20,000 to 30,000 kilograms to the Moon. SpaceX is also making a cargo variant of Lunar Starship. In fact, NASA [selected it](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/new-companies-join-growing-ranks-of-nasa-partners-for-artemis-program) in 2019 as a biddable option for the [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), which aims to regularly send the agency-funded science & technology payloads on commercial Moon landers. #### All great but the budget In the [FY 2023 budget](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-109/), NASA received the requested $1.49 billion in funding for the development of said crewed lunar landers. For [FY 2024](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-119/), NASA has requested \~$400 million more. The US Congress approving that level of funding later this year will be key to keeping the Blue Moon lander on schedule. NASA’s chief official for crewed deep space exploration, James Free, [recently warned](https://arstechnica.com/science/2023/05/nasa-leader-warns-agency-needs-more-funding-to-fly-artemis-missions) that even the current best case scenario of the US Congress fully funding NASA’s FY 2024 budget request doesn’t help the fact that the Artemis program’s overall cost is ballooning. ![The lander has high gain antennas at the top for communications, two tanks with the upper one storing liquid hydrogen and the lower one liquid oxygen, thermal radiator panels, and a crew module at the bottom which is equipped with a docking adaptor.](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f8318f50f-3ce5-4114-ab77-518ab860efcc_2500x1607-jpeg.jpg) A labeled illustration of the Blue Moon lander. Image: [Blue Origin](https://www.blueorigin.com/news/nasa-selects-blue-origin-for-mission-to-moon) / Labels: [Jatan Mehta](https://blog.jatan.space/about) --- *Many thanks to *[Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io)* for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## Mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f863dede6-7f70-4ebd-8eb9-ce8efd041f20_2700x1800-jpeg-1.jpg) The Chandrayaan 3 spacecraft stack is seen here mounted in an acoustic chamber. The stack comprises the lander and the co-flying propulsion module until lunar orbit. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan%5F3%5FModule%5FDynamic%5FTests.html) - ISRO is aiming to launch the [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-3-prelaunch-info/) Moon lander in the second week of July, Times of India [reports](https://web.archive.org/web/20230518102940/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/science/final-assembly-of-payloads-begin-for-chandrayaan-3-isro-confident-of-mid-july-window/articleshow/100322580.cms). ISRO has begun final assembly of the lander’s payloads at the U R Rao Satellite Center in Bengaluru, with integration and final assessments to follow before Chandrayaan 3 is sent to Sriharikota for launch preparations. As part of a standard series of [space simulating tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/), Chandrayaan 3 notably successfully passed [launch survival testing](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan%5F3%5FModule%5FDynamic%5FTests.html) in March and [electromagnetic interference testing](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-115/) in February. - The NASA-funded and Advanced Space-led [CAPSTONE](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/small%5Fspacecraft/capstone) CubeSat has [completed six months](https://advancedspace.com/capstone-primary-mission-success) it its intended unique [Near-Rectilinear Halo Orbit](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/a-lunar-orbit-that-s-just-right-for-the-international-gateway). Since November 2022, CAPSTONE has helped refine our mathematical models of this fuel-efficient orbit based on the exact propellant and power it needed to maintain desired operations in said orbit. CAPSTONE is a literal pathfinding mission for the NASA-led international [Gateway astronaut station](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) launching mid-decade, and the mission team is [publishing papers](https://advancedspace.com/subject/papers-presentations) to that end. The [CAPSTONE team](https://advancedspace.com/capstone-mission-team) deserves the fruits of this success, for they practically [fully recovered](https://advancedspace.com/capstone-mission-recovery-success-update) a failing spacecraft as well as managed to have it enter the intended lunar orbit despite a faulty valve in one of its eight thrusters. - Israel-based SpaceIL has lost several key donors for their second Moon landing attempt with the [twin Beresheet 2 landers](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-51/), SpaceWatch Global [reports](https://spacewatch.global/2023/05/beresheet-2-lunar-mission-loses-chief-donors). The donors had previously cumulatively invested $45 million on the ambitions project aiming for both a nearside and farside landing as well as having an orbiter. Beresheet 2 requires roughly [$100 million](https://www.calcalistech.com/ctech/articles/0,7340,L-3912152,00.html) in funding to be realized, and SpaceIL is hoping to fill the void soon. The investors backed out so they can better employ those funds to aid non-profit organizations helping improve the [recently worsened](https://press.un.org/en/2023/sc15264.doc.htm) socio-economic situation in Israel. Good. - The [four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) who will fly around our Moon and back on NASA’s 10-day [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to) mission will begin their 18-month training in June. They’ll [particularly learn](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-gears-up-to-train-artemis-ii-crew-for-moon-mission) how to monitor and operate their host [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) during the ascent, spaceflight, and Earth reentry phases of the mission, and of course how to deal with emergency situations. ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f56dd3f5b-2077-4e49-9ff9-13b3c07e8ff3_1300x1020-jpeg.jpg) A VR view of the upcoming polar-Moon-analogue LUNA training facility for astronauts and rovers, being jointly built by ESA and DLR. [Credits: ESA / DLR](https://www.dlr.de/rb/desktopdefault.aspx/tabid-17506) - ESA and the German space agency DLR are pooling researchers from across the continent for the “[Movement in low gravity environments](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/The%5Fscience%5Fof%5FMoon%5Fhopping)” (MoLo) program to study how human bodies would react and adapt long-term in lunar gravity, particularly in the context of living in lunar habitats. Based on their current research using [bungee rope-like setups](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Videos/2023/03/Lunar%5Fbounce%5F-%5Fvideo%5F1) and parabolic flights both simulating some lunar conditions, it seems that having astronauts do controlled hopping coupled with the expected extravehicular activities (EVAs) and daily tasks could be an effective way to help mitigate or even prevent physiological deconditioning. To advance such research, ESA and DLR will have more test systems at their upcoming [LUNA facility](https://www.dlr.de/rb/desktopdefault.aspx/tabid-17506), such as a vertical suspension system for having two astronauts perform simulate Moonwalks. - At the [19th Lunar Surface Science Workshop](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lunarsurface2020) on May 25, teams from NASA will provide updates on ongoing lunar science integration into Artemis missions by the way of hardware, operations, and training preparations. --- **→ [Sponsor Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) | [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Moon Monday #127: Mission updates, lovely lunar science, hoppers, engine tests, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-127/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:04.000Z ## Mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f8f9e36c4-a320-4b0f-928a-beed9811da80_1950x1300-jpeg-3.jpg) Astrobotic’s first Moon lander, Peregrine. [Credit: John Thornton](https://www.linkedin.com/feed/update/urn:li:activity:6998697480980676609) - ULA CEO Tory Bruno [says](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/ulas-vulcan-moves-closer-to-first-flight) the company’s [Vulcan rocket](https://www.ulalaunch.com/rockets/vulcan-centaur) will launch no earlier than June. This update comes as full-scale [Vulcan testing](https://www.ulalaunch.com/rockets/vulcan-centaur/countdown-to-vulcan) resumes following an investigation prompted by the March 29 [blowing up](https://twitter.com/torybruno/status/1646572389193625600) of a test [Centaur V](https://www.flickr.com/photos/ulalaunch/49720321573/in/album-72157690220351103) upper stage, which is a key element of the rocket’s design. Aboard the rocket will be [Astrobotic’s first Moon lander](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-awarded-79-5-million-contract-to-deliver-14-nasa-payloads-to-the-moon) carrying [NASA payloads](https://science.nasa.gov/lunar-discovery/deliveries/to2-astrobotic) as part of the agency’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). There will be [commercial, international payloads](https://www.astrobotic.com/lunar-delivery/manifest) onboard as well. - Intuitive Machines said in an [investor update](https://investors.intuitivemachines.com/news-releases/news-release-details/intuitive-machines-reports-first-quarter-2023-financial-results) that the launch of its [first lunar lander](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/im-1), which is also carrying [NASA payloads](https://science.nasa.gov/lunar-discovery/deliveries/op-to2-intuitive-machines) under CLPS, has been delayed from June to Q3\. The company recently completed structural testing and fuel-loading demonstrations of the Nova-C lander, and notably conducted a full-duration flight software test wherein the lander avionics reacts to various simulated mission scenarios. Jeff Foust [notes](https://spacenews.com/first-intuitive-machine-lunar-lander-mission-slips-to-the-third-quarter) that mission modifications stemming from NASA [changing](https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/09/in-a-bid-to-expand-its-moon-business-intuitive-machines-will-go-public) the near-equatorial landing site to the polar [Malapert A crater](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=-27.6167293,-80.9725683,9.6287046,-78.2434553&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIgL5A&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypOOKbRFdAJgQSfyJqt6XAMYiBCnrIsibsXLVgydAA4AnJNyEZlarIpA&proj=17) at 80° S increased the company’s contract value from $77 million to $116.3 million. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f2178f20a-a9f9-406f-9bc8-871b2782604c_1020x900-jpeg.jpg) The European Service Module for NASA’s crewed Artemis II mission configured for acoustic testing. [Credits: NASA / Amanda Stevenson](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2023/05/12/artemis-ii-orion-service-module-completes-acoustic-testing) - Hardware progress continues for NASA’s [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to) mission to fly [four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) around our Moon and back circa early 2025\. As part of an ongoing series of standard [space-simulating tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/), NASA recently [completed acoustic testing](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2023/05/12/artemis-ii-orion-service-module-completes-acoustic-testing) of the 15,000-kilogram [European Service Module](https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/space/esm) (ESM)—which will provide propulsion, water, oxygen, thermal control, and electrical power to the [Orion capsule](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) hosting the astronauts. The test involved large speakers simulating the intense sounds and vibrations of an [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) launch. During launch, the ESM needs to endure a maximum sound level of 140 decibels, an experience akin to standing next to a speaker at a live rock concert. Fun fact: To that end, ESA [says](https://blogs.esa.int/orion/2023/04/05/dropping-the-fat-beats-with-d-fat) the speakers used to test ESM are also rented for concerts! - NASA has declared [end of mission](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/jpl/nasa-calls-end-to-lunar-flashlight-after-some-tech-successes) for the 14-kilogram [Lunar Flashlight](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/cubesat/missions/lunar%5Fflashlight.php) CubeSat, which launched in December to study [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s south pole. The spacecraft [couldn’t enter lunar orbit](https://spacenews.com/lunar-cubesats-encounter-technical-problems) since three of its four thrusters have been [underperforming](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/jpl/nasa-s-lunar-flashlight-team-assessing-spacecraft-s-propulsion-system), likely due to the additively manufactured fuel lines having obstructing metal debris. The mission team had hoped to put Flashlight in a very high Earth orbit that flies over the Moon’s south pole once a month but efforts to clear the obstructions failed. Mission operators now hope to dispose Flashlight in a solar orbit after it passes 65,000 kilometers above Earth at its closest on May 17\. NASA’s [LunaH-Map](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/lunah-map-university-built-cubesat-to-map-water-ice-on-the-moon) CubeSat launched last year to also study lunar polar water [couldn’t get into its desired orbit](https://blogs.nasa.gov/lunah-map/2022/11/22/nasas-lunah-map-post-launch-update) either due to propulsion issues. :( ## Some more love for lunar science ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fdc3a314a-5d8e-44c3-9275-f6ac831c73f9_1304x940-jpeg.jpg) The Apollo missions sampled ancient crustal rocks from the Moon. This rock brought back by Apollo 16, sample 67215, has parts that are \~4.46 billion years old. [Credit: NASA](https://www.virtualmicroscope.org/content/67215-68-fragmental-polymict-breccia) The NASA-backed [SSERVI](https://sservi.nasa.gov) virtual institute—which supports science research relevant to human space exploration—is [funding](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-selects-five-teams-to-study-lunar-science-and-sample-analysis) five competitively selected teams with a total of $7.5 million to conduct lunar sample studies in ways that directly enables and enhances science on upcoming crewed [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) missions as well as robotic [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) ones. The studies range from understanding our Moon’s [origin](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/) and [evolution](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) to the [early Solar System](https://jatan.space/solar-system-history-101/) and its implications for Earth & Luna to the evolution of [lunar polar volatiles](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) such as water ice. The lunar-only focus of these selections is notable because SSERVI’s [last such funding in 2019](https://sservi.nasa.gov/articles/nasa-selects-teams-to-study-our-moon-mars-moons-and-more) included studies of near Earth asteroids and the Martian moons as well. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fb79682be-6bad-4889-97be-98e1f9dc1de3_1100x650-jpeg.jpg) The 600-plus-meter tall silicic volcano of Mairan T on our Moon. Image is about 6.6 kilometers across. [Credits: NASA / GSFC / ASU](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/1271) We know that the upcoming NASA-funded [Lunar Trailblazer](https://jatan.space/nasa-lunar-trailblazer/) orbiter will provide us unprecedented, high-resolution global maps of the amount, distribution, and state of water across our Moon. In doing so its infrared spectrometer and thermal mapper will also [help us better understand](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/lunarGeologicSettings.html) several other key scientific aspects of Luna such as: - [swirls](https://jatan.space/swirls-on-the-moon/), a bright and mysteriously magnetic feature unique to our Moon; - “[the Moon’s pink mineral](http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Dec14/lunar-pink-spinel.html)”, which is a magnesium-rich crustal material found sprinkled across Luna. The majority of lunar crust is made of the magnesium-deficient and iron-rich anorthosite, which is familiar to us as the nice and bright regions on our Moon; - the [Procellarum KREEP terrane](https://www.nationalacademies.org/documents/embed/link/LF2255DA3DD1C41C0A42D3BEF0989ACAECE3053A6A9B/file/D8A52B3DF9988441FE18BF7B61FAC07252BB9E48996F?noSaveAs=1), which is tantalizingly rich in heat-producing elements such as Potassium and Phosphorus. Figuring out its origin will lend us valuable insights into [our Moon’s interior and evolution](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/); - and water-rich [silicic volcanic domes](https://jatan.space/unique-volcanic-domes-of-gruithuisen/), which NASA [aims to visit](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-new-instruments-for-priority-artemis-science-on-moon) with a robotic surface CLPS mission mid-decade. The familiar dark patches on our Moon mostly contain solidified lava plains from [basaltic volcanism](https://curator.jsc.nasa.gov/lunar/letss/mare3.pdf) not silicic. I can’t wait for Lunar Trailblazer’s launch alongside Intuitive Machines’ [second CLPS Moon lander](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-to-land-water-measuring-payload-on-the-moon)! Last we heard, launch was targeted no earlier than October 2023 but it seems from Intuitive Machines’ aforementioned update that liftoff might slip to early 2024. --- *Many thanks to *[Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io)* for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## More Moon - Rachael Zisk [reports](https://payloadspace.com/israeli-startup-wespace-technologies-plans-a-lunar-hopper) that Israeli startup WeSpace Technologies is developing a commercial lunar hopper, which can fly over terrain otherwise inaccessible to traditional rovers. WeSpace hopes to launch the first hopper by 2026\. Related: Intuitive Machines’ NASA-funded [Micro-Nova](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/intuitive-machines-and-nasa-finalize-contract-for-extreme-lunar-mobility-spacecraft) hopper aims to fly to the Moon on the company’s [second CLPS lander](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-to-land-water-measuring-payload-on-the-moon) so it will likely be the first such hopper. - Andrew Jones [reports](https://web.archive.org/web/20230513182734/https://www.space.com/china-rocket-engine-test-site-moon-program-video) that China has started using a [new facility](http://www.spacechina.com/n25/n2014789/n2014804/c3793458/content.html) in Tongchuan dedicated to testing huge rocket engines, complete with a water deluge system to cool the exhaust and reduce sound pressure levels. This test stand will see firing of engines powering the upcoming Long March 9 and Long March 10 rockets central to CNSA’s [plans to land humans](https://spacenews.com/china-unveils-lunar-lander-to-put-astronauts-on-the-moon) on the Moon. - South Korea’s first lunar orbiter [KPLO](https://jatan.space/kplo/) flew 18 kilometers above NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter ([LRO](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html)) on April 7, and managed to [image it](http://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/images/1299)! The feat required [precise coordination](http://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/images/1299) of orbital information between mission operators of the two orbiters. LRO was also made to slew by 20 degrees to allow the spacecraft’s back and radiator be brightly illuminated by the Sun. --- I’m excited to share that I’ll be giving a virtual talk on “Sustaining lunar exploration through worldwide public support” at the [European Lunar Symposium](https://sservi.nasa.gov/els2023) on June 29\. 🌗 ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fafdcece2-9aab-4c4b-b46c-dc1362c013ed_2000x500-jpeg.jpg) Screenshot of my talk from the [program](https://sservi.nasa.gov/els2023/program) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/4f5f5cae-3649-4450-9e39-f52bed40680b_2000x1430-jpeg.jpg) Abstract: Sustaining lunar exploration through worldwide public support | By Jatan Mehta225KB ∙ PDF file[Download](https://blog.jatan.space/api/v1/file/70cde58e-9326-4ff5-a062-c43aaab2f60e.pdf)[Download](https://blog.jatan.space/api/v1/file/70cde58e-9326-4ff5-a062-c43aaab2f60e.pdf) The hybrid, international symposium will [discuss the breadth and depth](https://sservi.nasa.gov/els2023/program) of the science and technology of upcoming exploration of our Moon, including resource utilization as one of the key focus areas. I look forward to learning a lot! --- **→ [Sponsor Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) | [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Moon Monday #126: China’s next two lunar missions, India’s ambition to mine Luna, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-126/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:04.000Z ## China to launch Queqiao 2 and Chang’e 6 lunar missions next year #### Queqiao 2 relay satellite China is on track to launch the Queqiao 2 lunar orbiter by May next year, Andrew Jones [reports](https://spacenews.com/china-to-establish-organization-to-coordinate-international-moon-base). Its 4.2-meter wide parabolic antenna will relay communications between Earth and CNSA’s upcoming Chang’e [6](https://web.archive.org/web/20230506204804/https://www.space.com/china-moon-far-side-sample-return-mission-2024), [7](https://news.cgtn.com/news/2022-11-25/China-offers-int-l-cooperation-opportunity-via-Chang-e-lunar-missions-1ff6P0b2L7O/index.html), and [8](https://web.archive.org/web/20230507161717/https://www.space.com/china-moon-3d-printing-bricks-change-8-2028) Moon landers. Unlike the first [Queqiao](https://www.planetary.org/articles/0519-change-4-relay-satellite) relay satellite, which is halo-orbiting the Earth-Moon Lagrangian point #2 for the farside [Chang’e 4](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/change-4) mission, Queqiao 2 will be in a [Distant Retrograde Orbit](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/orion-will-go-the-distance-in-retrograde-orbit-during-artemis-i). Said orbit is exactly what the still-active “service module” of China’s [Chang’e 5](https://jatan.space/change-5-landing-site/) mission has [been testing](https://skyriddles.wordpress.com/2022/01/25/change-5-returns-to-the-moon) since December last year. In fact, Queqiao 2 will be part of a [larger satellite constellation](https://spacenews.com/china-to-build-a-lunar-communications-and-navigation-constellation) providing navigation and communications (navcom) for hardware as well as crewed missions on and around the Moon as part the [upcoming](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-32/) Sino-Russian long-term [scientific Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-120/) called the International Lunar Research Station (ILRS). Chang’e 7 and 8 will represent a formal beginning of the ILRS project. One of these two spacecraft is expected to deploy another navcom orbiter to join Queqiao 2. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f2ec571dd-2a8f-4c39-8a72-83ed9d809158_1300x970-jpeg-2.jpg) Illustration of a multi-nodal cislunar communications architecture considered by Chinese researchers for ILRS as a south polar Moonbase. Navcom orbiters like Queqiao 2 form part of the “lunar relay nodes”. [Credit: Baobi Xu, et al.](https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4102-9%5F86) ESA’s [Moonlight](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-98/) initiative also aims to provide a navcom lunar service, and will set in motion with the [launch](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-picks-firefly-aerospace-for-robotic-delivery-to-far-side-of-moon) of UK’s [Lunar Pathfinder](https://jatan.space/nasa-esa-collaborate-on-lunar-pathfinder/) orbiter in 2026\. Lockheed Martin’s newly formed subsidiary [Crescent Space](https://www.crescentspace.com) is targeting launch of the [first two satellites](https://news.lockheedmartin.com/2023-03-28-Crescent-Space-to-Deliver-Critical-Services-to-a-Growing-Lunar-Economy) of its envisioned lunar navcom constellation [Parsec](https://www.lockheedmartin.com/en-us/news/features/2021/lunar-communication-and-navigation-network.html) in 2025\. More vying competitors in this space include [ArkEdge Space](https://spacenews.com/japans-arkedge-space-closes-18-7-million-series-a-for-nanosatellite-projects), [Aquarian Space](https://spacenews.com/another-startup-joins-race-to-provide-high-speed-lunar-communications), and [Plus Ultra](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=2515). #### Chang’e 6 sample return China’s Chang’e 6 mission aims to bring about two kilograms of lunar samples to Earth, with a similar mechanism and mission profile to [Chang’e 5](https://jatan.space/change-5-landing-site/) but with an [improved sampler](https://hksar.org/hong-kong-team-behind-chang-e-5-moon-rock-sampling-set-sights-on-chang-e-6). The Chang’e 6 samples will be scientifically even more valuable since [the mission’s landing site](https://weibo.com/5027345285/MDDYGhTAY) lies within the 3.9-billion-year old [Apollo impact crater](https://jatan.space/peak-ringed-apollo-crater/) on the Moon’s farside. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ffb8adfb7-5fc3-4bc0-b4b1-cd49391933c1_920x630-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of the Chang’e 5 spacecraft on the Moon with its sample collector. Chang’e 6 is expected to have a similar spacecraft configuration. [Credit: CGTN](https://astronomycommunity.nature.com/posts/the-moon-s-last-gasp-dating-the-youngest-lunar-sample) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fb5cde1d8-5362-4f6a-a477-0055d90428c8_1023x768-png-1.jpg)](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?camera=-1990963.786%2C-1008004.587%2C-1633145.293%2C6.283%2C-1.571%2C0.000%2C2765352.345%2C60.000&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4XyA&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEoAsjYIHYFcA2vIBvAXwF1Siylw4oNEQBmOOR9RHfS870oA&proj=22) The \~500-kilometer wide Apollo crater on the Moon’s farside. China currently aims to land Chang’e 6 in the crater’s southern part. Click the image to [explore the region](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?camera=-1990963.786%2C-1008004.587%2C-1633145.293%2C6.283%2C-1.571%2C0.000%2C2765352.345%2C60.000&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4XyA&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEoAsjYIHYFcA2vIBvAXwF1Siylw4oNEQBmOOR9RHfS870oA&proj=22) on an interactive map. [Photo credits: LROC / ASU](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=166.0817047,-43.0031527,-106.5981042,-15.675952&camera=-2095116.4542062357,-1197059.9579817657,-1703433.4648448634,6.283185307179586,-1.5707963267948966,0&proj=22&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEoAsjZwLrc0A); Graphic: Jatan Mehta The Apollo crater lies within the largest and deepest crater on the Moon, the [South Pole-Aitken (SPA) basin](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2008/pdf/1626.pdf). Since this ancient crater holds clues to what was happening in [our early Solar System](https://jatan.space/solar-system-history-101/) about 4 billion years ago, a sample return mission from here has been assessed as [a top priority](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-74/) in the [latest Planetary Decadal Survey](https://nap.nationalacademies.org/resource/26522/interactive)—a report produced every 10 years by the US scientific community to guide future NASA missions. Furthermore, the SPA-creating impact [excavated](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-39/) deep into [the Moon’s crust and mantle](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). Since the Apollo crater formed later, its impact might have uplifted deeper crustal materials, ready to offer insights into our Moon’s interior and evolution. It’s to this end that NASA had chosen the Apollo crater as a candidate [Constellation Landing Region](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/leag2009/presentations/Day-2%20PM/03-35%5FGruener.pdf). At 500 kilometers wide, Apollo is a huge crater and there are tradeoffs to be made between the scientific richness and engineering plausibility of landing sites within. Let’s hope that the Chang’e 6 lunar samples would nevertheless contain at least traces of ancient lunar material key to understanding [our Moon’s evolution](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) and [origin](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/). The Chang’e 6 lander will also carry [three European scientific instruments](https://web.archive.org/web/20191217061438/https://gbtimes.com/china-invites-international-cooperation-in-change-6-moon-sample-return-mission): 1. CNES’s [DORN](https://web.archive.org/web/20230407084513/https://sciences-techniques.cnes.fr/en/dorn-french-instrument-change-6-mission) instrument will measure the noble gas radon leaking out of the Moon’s surface, which would be [evidence](https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abl4920) that our Moon and Earth do indeed share an origin. It will also study volatile gases such as water vapor in the Moon’s exosphere. 2. Italy-based SCF Lab’s [INRRI](https://www.lnf.infn.it/esperimenti/etrusco/MOONLIGHT-2.html) retroreflector, which will reflect laser beams sent from Earth to make precise distance measurements, and from it infer properties of the lunar core and the Moon’s drift rate away from Earth. 3. [NILS](https://meetingorganizer.copernicus.org/EPSC2022/EPSC2022-992.html), an instrument from the Swedish Institute for Space Physics, will detect highly energetic neutral [solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) atoms which slam and get reflected from the Moon’s surface. This will help scientists study surface elements as well as [local magnetic fields](https://jatan.space/swirls-on-the-moon/). The Chang’e 6 orbiter will carry a Pakistani CubeSat called ICUBE-Q, which would make it the country’s first Moon mission. ## India wants to mine the Moon too ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f211dcd3b-64db-493f-a025-cdb92dd234ca_1500x1000-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of the Chandrayaan 2 lander and rover on the Moon. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=--8ORixBXQE) India’s [new space policy](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/IndianSpacePolicy2023.pdf), approved by its government in April, states for the first time the country’s novel ambition to extract and use space resources. While the document’s [chief purpose](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-04/) is to clarify the nature and extent of space activities Indian private businesses are now being encouraged to pursue to grow the nation’s space economy, it is the two mentions related to space resources that are pertinent to our Moon. > Non-Governmental Entities shall engage in the commercial recovery of an asteroid resource or a space resource. Any NGE engaged in such process shall be entitled to possess, own, transport, use, and sell any such asteroid resource or space resource obtained in accordance with applicable law, including the international obligations of India. In fact, ISRO is being encouraged to specifically carry out missions to said end. > ISRO shall undertake studies and missions on in-situ resource utilization, celestial prospecting and other aspects of extra-terrestrial habitability. The phrasing “commercial recovery of an asteroid resource or a space resource” is interesting because it includes the Moon without mentioning it. You see, India is a signatory of the [1979 Moon Treaty](https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/moon-agreement.html), which has strict and even [highly idealistic](https://www.thespacereview.com/article/3975/1) non-sovereignty underpinnings. Being seen at odds with the Moon Treaty with such a policy direction could become an overnight concern with one misstep. None of the indigenously crewed spacefaring nations of the US, China, and Russia have signed the Moon Treaty, and [don’t plan to](https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/presidential-actions/executive-order-encouraging-international-support-recovery-use-space-resources). The US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords) also [controversially](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/do-nasas-lunar-exploration-rules-violate-space-law) intends to set precedence for local resource extraction on the Moon. There is international concern that the Accords ultimately might—but doesn’t yet—put its signatories [in objection](https://www.lawfareblog.com/artemis-accords-step-toward-international-cooperation-or-further-competition) of the [1967 Outer Space Treaty](https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/outerspacetreaty.html), which India has also signed. The US and three other signees of the Accords—Japan, Luxembourg, and UAE—have [passed national bills](https://spacenews.com/japan-passes-space-resources-law) to allow their private companies to extract space resources and use or sell them. While India’s space policy is yet to morph into a bill, there’s little doubt that India taking a stance similar to the Accords doesn’t gel along with its commitment to The Moon Treaty. And so, will India withdraw from The Moon Treaty [just like Saudi Arabia did](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-110/)? Between the new policy and [growing Indian-US space relations](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-02/), the chances of India signing the Artemis Accords are certainly higher now. --- *Many thanks to *[Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io)* and *[The Orbital Index](https://orbitalindex.com)* for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## Testing for the Moon on Earth - China is [building](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3DZTJbZQPiQ) new [space-simulating](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/) facilities dedicated to Moon exploration in preparation for [upcoming crewed missions](https://spacenews.com/china-unveils-lunar-lander-to-put-astronauts-on-the-moon), CCTV says. One such facility where trial operations are ongoing is a comprehensive lunar dust simulator, which can impart electric charges to simulated lunar soil, and even loft dust particles with vibrators. Relatedly, Andrew Jones recently reported about China’s [staged descent lander](https://spacenews.com/china-unveils-lunar-lander-to-put-astronauts-on-the-moon) concept for landing astronauts on the Moon before 2030. - The Luxembourg-ESA co-run [European Space Resources Innovation Centre](https://www.esric.lu) (ESRIC) is establishing [a terrestrial pilot plant](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FrhS4U8Bnkw) to accelerate as well as de-risk technologies and concepts related to extraction and utilization of lunar resources before their use in actual Moon missions. ## More Moon - On May 3, the Czech Republic [became the 24th country](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-welcomes-czech-foreign-minister-for-artemis-accords-signing) and seventh ESA member to sign the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords). The country is [contributing sensors](https://advacam.com/2849.html) as part of ESA’s deep space radiation experiments [ERSA](https://blogs.esa.int/exploration/artemis-introducing-ersa-european-experiment-to-monitor-radiation-in-deep-space) and [IDA](https://blogs.esa.int/exploration/internal-radiation-payload-approved-for-the-gateway) onboard the upcoming NASA-led international [Gateway lunar orbital habitat](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway). With the signing of the Accords, Czech Republic and the US both expect academic and industrial space ties to develop and strengthen. - Israel-based Lulav Space—who aided the world’s first private lunar orbiter [Beresheet](https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/beresheet/in-depth) with guidance, navigation and control (GNC) technologies—is [partnering with Sidus Space](https://sidusspace.com/sidus-space-partners-with-lulav-space-to-offer-solution-for-guidance-navigation-and-control-on-lunar-missions) to offer modular GNC products and services to US companies building Moon missions. Aside: Lulav is continuing to provide GNC for the [twin Beresheet 2 landers](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-51/), which are targeting a 2025 launch. Sidus provides some hardware components and testing support for NASA’s SLS rocket and Orion spacecraft for Artemis Moon missions. Notably, Sidus has also [partnered](https://sidusspace.com/sidus-ksat-join-forces-enable-end-to-end-mission-operations) with KSAT, which offers [dedicated lunar ground stations](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-69/) to meet communications needs of the increasing number of (commercial) Moon missions. - As part of the [2023 NASA Entrepreneurs Challenge](https://www.herox.com/NASAEntrepreneurChallenge), the agency is encouraging public proposals for lightweight science & technology payloads that might be co-funded for a future commercial flight to the Moon as part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). The proposals should align with NASA’s [Moon to Mars Objectives](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/moon-to-mars-objectives-.pdf) or [the Decadal’s lunar recommendations](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-74/). --- **→ [Sponsor Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) | [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Indian Space Progress #4: A new national policy, a poetic launch, a LIGO facility, and more URL: https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-04/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:04.000Z *[Indian Space Progress](https://blog.jatan.space/s/indian-space-progress/archive) now has more than 4,000 subscribers! Thank you very much for reading. These monthly reports are absolutely free to access by everyone, and I never display ads. If you find value in my work, you can [sponsor it](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-indian-space-progress) as an individual or an organization.* 🚀 ## India’s new space policy is here, and it’s a whole new world ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ff6b0f992-449f-4fef-90f6-0bd002a83e85_2400x1500-jpeg-1.jpg) GSLV Mk II rocket transporter. Credit: ISRO At long last, the Government of India approved and released the country’s [new space policy](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/IndianSpacePolicy2023.pdf) as of April. The brief document states for the first time some of India’s novel space ambitions, such as use of space resources. However, its chief purpose is to clarify the nature and extent of space activities that Indian private businesses are now free to pursue, in stark contrast to the traditional treatment of space as a government-channeled sector for half a century. Just like in the US, Indian private entities are now allowed and encouraged to formally, independently pursue commercial launching of rockets, operating of satellites and ground infrastructure, and broadly all else related. ![](https://substack.com/img/attachment_icon.svg) Indian Space Policy (April 2023)376KB ∙ PDF file[Download](https://blog.jatan.space/api/v1/file/584cbcd1-2bff-4d40-9b67-73b96a2c111d.pdf)[Download](https://blog.jatan.space/api/v1/file/584cbcd1-2bff-4d40-9b67-73b96a2c111d.pdf) #### The push for privatization This commercial policy push is part of the ongoing space reforms to provide Indian companies with regulatory certainty, and a level-playing field against ISRO itself. India hopes to expand its space economy from its current global footprint of about 2% to [at least 10%](https://www.geospatialworld.net/prime/indias-space-policy-propel-startups-heights) by end of decade. To that end, the largest section of revised space policy provides many much-needed clarifications on the exact role of the Indian National Space Promotion & Authorization Centre (IN-SPACe), which is a Department of Space (DOS) entity created to “promote, hand-hold, guide and authorize space activities” of private players. Two of those functions delineated for IN-SPACe stood out to me: > IN-SPACe shall work with academia to widen the space ecosystem and enable industry-academia linkages. > > \[…\] > > IN-SPACe shall identify technologies developed by ISRO that are ready for transfer to Non-Governmental Entities and facilitate the transfer of such technologies. To that second role, the policy asks ISRO’s operations to reciprocally change: > ISRO shall transition out from the existing practice of being present in the manufacturing of operational space systems. Hereafter, mature systems shall be transferred to industries for commercial exploitation. #### A new ISRO ISRO is being further repurposed to double down on advanced space research and cutting-edge technology development. To one such end, the policy asks the country’s premier space organization to focus on expanding human spaceflight capabilities beyond the mid-decade inaugural [Gaganyaan mission](https://www.isro.gov.in/Gaganyaan.html), which aims to make India the world’s fourth nation to indigenously send humans to space. > ISRO shall demonstrate human spaceflight capability and develop a long term road-map for sustained human presence in space. Towards this, it shall identify and develop necessary technologies, infrastructure and ecosystem. #### Mine the Moon, you say? In a complete 180, India’s new space policy now explicitly states and encourages extraction and utilization of space resources. > Non-Governmental Entities shall engage in the commercial recovery of an asteroid resource or a space resource. Any NGE engaged in such process shall be entitled to possess, own, transport, use, and sell any such asteroid resource or space resource obtained in accordance with applicable law, including the international obligations of India. In fact, ISRO is being encouraged to specifically carry out missions to said end. > ISRO shall undertake studies and missions on in-situ resource utilization, celestial prospecting and other aspects of extra-terrestrial habitability. The phrasing “commercial recovery of an asteroid resource or a space resource” is interesting because it includes the Moon without mentioning it. You see, India is a signatory of the [1979 Moon Treaty](https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/moon-agreement.html), which has strict and even [highly idealistic](https://www.thespacereview.com/article/3975/1) non-sovereignty underpinnings. Being seen at odds with the Moon Treaty with such a policy direction could become an overnight concern with one misstep. None of the indigenously crewed spacefaring nations of the US, China, and Russia have signed the Moon Treaty, and [don’t plan to](https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/presidential-actions/executive-order-encouraging-international-support-recovery-use-space-resources). The US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html) also [controversially](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/do-nasas-lunar-exploration-rules-violate-space-law) intends to set precedence for local resource extraction on the Moon. There is international concern that the Accords ultimately might—but doesn’t yet—put its signatories [in objection](https://www.lawfareblog.com/artemis-accords-step-toward-international-cooperation-or-further-competition) of the [1967 Outer Space Treaty](https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/outerspacetreaty.html), which India has also signed. The US and three other signees of the Accords—Japan, Luxembourg, and UAE—have [passed national bills](https://spacenews.com/japan-passes-space-resources-law) to allow their private companies to extract space resources and use or sell them. While India’s space policy is yet to morph into a bill, there’s little doubt that India taking a stance similar to the Accords doesn’t gel along with its commitment to The Moon Treaty. And so, will India withdraw from The Moon Treaty [just like Saudi Arabia did](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-110/)? Between the new policy and [growing Indian-US space relations](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-02/), the chances of India signing the Artemis Accords are certainly higher now. #### More problems and next steps There are several blind spots in India’s revised space policy, which need to be clarified or addressed as the document goes through refinements and additions before culminating into a much-awaited space activities bill. For one, the policy makes no mention of allowing foreign direct investments (FDI) in Indian space companies. However, in an [April statement](https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1914226) to the *Rajya Sabha*—which is roughly the Indian equivalent to the US Senate—lead DOS Minister Jitendra Singh said opening up of FDI for the space sector without government involvement is being worked on as part of a revised policy. IN-SPACe’s role as both a *promoter* and *regulator* of private space activities remains perplexing. Also, there are still uncertainties regarding the nature of IN-SPACe’s establishment as being *under DOS*. The policy states that IN-SPACe will be an autonomous body but as Pranav Satyanath [writes](https://takshashila.org.in/blogs/assessing-the-new-space-policy-2023), it’s unclear how it will be achieved: > For IN-SPACe to carry out its regulatory activities, it must be given the legal powers by Parliament. Consider for example the establishment of TRAI under the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India Act, 1997\. The Act established the powers of TRAI and set firm the structure of the agency. No such law exists behind the establishment of IN-SPACe. In a [NewSpace India podcast episode](https://share.transistor.fm/s/86dd5dfb), Narayan Prasad of SatSearch and Aditya Ramanathan of the Takshashila Institution (an Indian Space Progress sponsor) discuss many finer aspects present as well as missing in the revised policy. Last but far from the least, having DOS as the nodal agency implementing India’s new space policy, and one essentially having final say in ambiguous matters and disputes, seems to a core structural problem. The DOS Secretary and the ISRO Chief are the same person, at least as things stand currently. Ensuring a level playing field for all Indian space players is going to take some more work. ## ISRO launches a POEM on a PSLV ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f1e40a4c0-07dd-48ba-bb67-bd6a3f5edf4a_2400x1600-jpeg.jpg) Launch of ISRO’s PSLV rocket on April 22, 2023 carrying Singapore’s TeLEOS-2 satellite. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/PSLVC55%5Fgallery.html) On April 22, an ISRO PSLV rocket launched and deployed Singapore’s in-house [TeLEOS-2](https://www.aircosmosinternational.com/article/singapore-launches-development-of-teleos-2-earth-observation-satellite-1654) synthetic aperture radar satellite into its intended 586-kilometer circular orbit. The rocket also deployed the LUMELITE-4 smallsat, a Singaporian maritime-related technology demonstrator. Singapore’s first Earth observation satellite, [TeLEOS-1](https://www.eoportal.org/satellite-missions/teleos-1), was also launched on a PSLV in 2015. This [57th flight](https://www.isro.gov.in/PSLV%5FC55MissionLandingPage.html) of the rocket was a dedicated commercial lift for TeLEOS-2 negotiated by New Space India Limited (NSIL), a government-owned company commercializing Indian space technologies. #### The POEM continues The launch is the third time ISRO uniquely repurposed the PSLV’s fourth stage as a stabilized, solar-powered platform for onboard payloads. This affords organizations low-cost access to space for demonstrating their technologies ahead of use in future missions. ISRO calls the platform the PSLV Orbital Experimental Module, or [POEM](https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/everyday-explainers/explained-what-is-isros-poem-platform-8001754). On this launch, POEM is home to [seven payloads](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/Missions/PSLVC55/PSLVC55TeLEOS.pdf) from various organizations, notably including an ionospheric analyzer, a privately developed Hall-effect thruster, and a novel low-cost star sensor. In a [post-launch briefing](https://www.youtube.com/live/AeF7OpbOwjQ?feature=share&t=3182), ISRO said this POEM is the first to sport deployable solar panels, which increases its power generation capacity from 150 watts to 500. #### Meet Starberry-Sense A 470-gram star sensor hosted on POEM called [Starberry-Sense](https://dst.gov.in/astronomers-develop-low-cost-alternative-satellites-orient-themselves-space) hopes to help future CubeSats determine their orientation in space at 10 times lower cost. Led by researchers at the Indian Institute of Astrophysics, the module is powered by a Raspberry Pi Zero computer. For this demonstration mission, Starberry-Sense is expected to work in Earth orbit for [three to six months](https://www.reddit.com/r/ISRO/comments/11ry33l/comment/jce0y7o/?context=1), and initial data shows it’s [performing well](https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleseDetail.aspx?PRID=1921167). A modified Starberry-Sense [will be utilized](https://arxiv.org/abs/2207.03087) in the Indian Astronomical Observatory at Ladakh. #### Produce more PSLVs The PSLV has now launched [350 satellites for 36 countries](https://web.archive.org/web/20221024134415/https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/ForeignSatellites/381%5Fforeign%5Fsatellites.pdf). This particular PSLV was integrated at ISRO’s new namesake facility near the first of the two launch pads at Sriharikota. The PSLV Integration Facility [cuts down](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/coffee%5Ftable.pdf) assembly time by several weeks, enabling ISRO to launch a PSLV a month now. In parallel, ISRO and NSIL are working on increasing PSLV’s production rate by having them [fully industry-built](https://www.nsilindia.co.in/sites/default/files/Press%20Release-%20Contract%20signed%20for%20production%20of%2005%20nos%20PSLV-XL.pdf) as part of a [$104 million contract](https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/indl-goods/svs/engineering/hal-lt-to-build-five-pslv-rockets-bags-rs-860-crore-deal-from-nsil-for-the-project/articleshow/93980649.cms?utm%5Fsource=contentofinterest&utm%5Fmedium=text&utm%5Fcampaign=cppst) awarded to a consortium of major PSLV contractors. --- *Many thanks to the [Takshashila Institution](https://takshashila.org.in) and [SkyServe](https://skyserve.ai) for sponsoring this month’s Indian Space Progress report.* --- ## Upcoming mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f4cda8c42-fef0-4090-856e-af012444430c_2400x1500-jpeg.jpg) The third stage cryogenic engine of the GSLV Mk III rocket being transported. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/LVM3M3%5Fgallery.html) - ISRO’s NVS-01 satellite, which is a replacement spacecraft for the **[Nav](https://www.isro.gov.in/SatelliteNavigationServices.html)**[igation with ](https://www.isro.gov.in/SatelliteNavigationServices.html)**[I](https://www.isro.gov.in/SatelliteNavigationServices.html)**[ndian ](https://www.isro.gov.in/SatelliteNavigationServices.html)**[C](https://www.isro.gov.in/SatelliteNavigationServices.html)**[onstellation](https://www.isro.gov.in/SatelliteNavigationServices.html) (NAVIC) system, will launch on a GSLV Mk II rocket end of May, possibly on [May 24](https://www.reddit.com/r/ISRO/comments/134ci2h/gslvf12nvs01%5Faka%5Firnss1j%5Fregional%5Fmedia%5Falso). NAVIC is India’s regional GPS-like service. - In a [press conference](https://www.youtube.com/live/lGyCpYFS90o) held after the aforementioned PSLV launch, ISRO provided target launch timeframes for some upcoming missions. No dates, as is usual for the agency, but it’s something: - The [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-3-prelaunch-info/) Moon lander and the [Aditya-L1](https://jatan.space/isro-space-science-missions-2020-2025/) solar observatory will each be launched by July on a GSLV Mk III and PSLV rocket respectively. - As ISRO works towards the ambitious inaugural [Gaganyaan mission](https://www.isro.gov.in/Gaganyaan.html), it will conduct in June a milestone, in-flight capsule abort test called [TV-D1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TV-D1) at a 14-kilometer altitude. - The [X-ray Polarimetry Satellite](http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/2017/copuos2017tech30E.pdf), or XPoSat, will launch on a PSLV rocket later this year. The space telescope was previously supposed to launch on an [SSLV](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-02/). - ISRO and NASA successfully tested [data flow](https://twitter.com/nascom1/status/1647047848884850688) between the [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-3-prelaunch-info/) lunar lander and the US [Deep Space Network](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/heo/scan/services/networks/deep%5Fspace%5Fnetwork/about) (DSN). This is [part of](https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/article-files/monthly-summary-of-department-of-space-last-1-year/february-2022-monthly%5Fsummary.pdf) a February 2022 agreement to have DSN support communications for the mission. ESA’s [Estrack network](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Operations/ESA%5FGround%5FStations/Estrack%5Fground%5Fstations) will also provide [backup communications](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Operations/ESA%5FGround%5FStations/ESA%5Fsupports%5FIndian%5Flunar%5Fand%5Fsolar%5Fmissions), as part of a broader [mutual support agreement](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Operations/ESA%5FGround%5FStations/ESA%5Fand%5FIndian%5Fspace%5Fagency%5FISRO%5Fagree%5Fon%5Ffuture%5Fcooperation) with the Indian space agency. ISRO uses its own [Indian Deep Space Network](https://www.isro.gov.in/indian-space-science-data-centre-issdc-gateway-to-indias-space-science-data) as a primary means for communicating with its planetary spacecraft but partners with other space agencies for backup and auxiliary options. India’s [Chandrayaan 1](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/) and [2](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) orbiters as well as [Mangalyaan](https://jatan.space/reviewing-mission-mangalyaan/) have had DSN support too. Aside: ISRO is [collaborating](https://www.isro.gov.in/ISROandMVA%5Fcollaborate%5FChandrayaan3Mission.html) with the Moon Village Association for public outreach of Chandrayaan 3. ## India to join the quest to detect gravitational waves In a big step forward for Astrophysics as well as Indian science, the Indian government [approved](https://www.caltech.edu/about/news/india-approves-construction-of-its-own-ligo) on April 6 the construction of a $320 million gravitational wave detection facility. Called LIGO-India, it will feature a refined design of the twin Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO) facilities in the US, which [detected](https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/news/ligo20160211) the first gravitational waves from colliding black holes in 2015\. LIGO-India is a collaboration between the LIGO Laboratory and several Indian research institutes, and is expected to begin observations end of decade. LIGO-India will join the two LIGO detectors in the US, [Virgo](https://www.virgo-gw.eu/) in Italy, and [KAGRA](https://gwcenter.icrr.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/) in Japan in the quest to detect ripples in spacetime caused by cataclysmic cosmic events. The LIGO project is helping us better understand how black holes form, where the heavy elements of our cosmos come from, and the rate at which our Universe is expanding. Scientists expect LIGO-India’s addition to provide at least a [tenfold improvement](https://www.caltech.edu/about/news/india-approves-construction-of-its-own-ligo) in the network’s ability to locate the sources of detected gravitational wave events. LIGO-India’s location will also help cover greater portions of the sky. This is a big moment for Indian science, especially because while the country has [considerable contributions](https://home.cern/news/news/cern/india-becomes-associate-member-state-cern) to cutting-edge fundamental physics experiments such as at the Large Hadron Collider, India hasn’t yet built a state-of-the-art scientific facility of this scale in its home turf. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f2bf3f3b4-2cfa-485b-964e-57d12f746092_1400x510-jpeg-1.jpg) A computer-generated map showing how LIGO-India will help scientists better localize cataclysmic stellar mergers for quick and time-sensitive follow-up studies. With two detectors (right), events can be localized to within 100 to 1,000 square degrees of the sky. With a third detector, the localization can improve to just 10 square degrees. The full Moon spans about 0.2 square degrees. [Credit: Caltech](https://www.caltech.edu/about/news/india-approves-construction-of-its-own-ligo) ## More Indian Space - With seven maneuvers, ISRO safely [disposed off](https://www.isro.gov.in/PostMissionDisposal%5FofGSAT%5F12.html) its [GSAT-12](https://www.isro.gov.in/GSAT%5F12.html) communications satellite on March 23 in a graveyard orbital belt, roughly 400 kilometers above geostationary earth orbit. The satellite was launched in 2011. - To increase the talent pool in fundamental space research, ISRO has launched a new online training program called “Space Science and Technology Awareness Training” ([START](https://www.isro.gov.in/START.html)) for post-graduate and final-year undergraduate students of physical sciences and technology. As part of the program, scientists from Indian academia and ISRO centers will teach space sciences, instrumentation, and aeronomy. --- **→ [Sponsor Indian Space Progress](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-indian-space-progress) | [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Moon Monday #125: ispace Japan’s Moonshot, China’s partnership push, Artemis updates, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-125/ Last updated: 2026-01-05T08:27:02.000Z ## On ispace’s failed Moon landing attempt and related tangents for NASA’s CLPS craft ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9f72c0bb-506d-4f55-baff-4e9c3df9b837_1450x1050-jpeg.jpg) ispace Japan’s Hakuto-R spacecraft captured this view of our Moon and Earth from lunar orbit. The dark shadow on Earth is of the Moon from the solar eclipse of April 20, 2023\. [Credit: ispace](https://www.youtube.com/live/CpR1UUnix3g?feature=share&t=3747) On April 25, ispace Japan’s [first lunar lander](https://jatan.space/ispace-japan-m1-moon-mission/) Hakuto-R [aced through](https://www.youtube.com/live/CpR1UUnix3g?feature=share&t=3625) its remotely-initiated, hour-long autonomous descent on the Moon until the very last moments when it stopped communicating to Earth. ispace [said](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4655) that while the M1 mission lander was upright just before then, it anomalously accelerated because of running out of fuel for engine braking. Communications were lost after this point so ispace thinks the lander crashed on the Moon. Of course, [as with Beresheet](https://jatan.space/past-lunar-mission-mistakes-to-avoid/)—the only prior privately funded lunar landing attempt—we would likely only know the true cause of the mission failure and its extent after ispace engineers conduct detailed telemetry analysis and a failure investigation. **Update:** [*ispace lander’s crash site and cause*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-129/) #### What else was lost to the Moon with M1? - The UAE’s onboard [Rashid rover](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirates%5FLunar%5FMission), which sported three [high-resolution cameras](https://presse.cnes.fr/en/rashid-rover-heading-moon-carrying-three-caspex-cameras-developed-cnes) from the French space agency, bit the harsh lunar dust. However, the country wasted no time in [announcing](https://gulfnews.com/uae/science/uae-meet-the-team-working-on-rashid-2-moon-rover-1.95374557) the successor Rashid 2 rover. The UAE [had planned](https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/CkjacBB3c4L%5FUbwNbeFPvA) on China’s Chang’e 7 lander launching mid-decade to carry the rover but the partnership [is apparently blocked](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3214396/us-tech-rules-bar-uae-moon-rover-chinas-change-7-mission-sources) by US export control rules. The UAE could fallback to their original choice of Rashid 2 launching on one of the two [Beresheet 2](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-51/) landers in 2025. - The lander-hosted JAXA’s novel 250-gram [hemispherical rover](https://global.jaxa.jp/press/2021/05/20210527-1%5Fe.html), NGK’s [solid-state battery](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=2585) for better power storage on future Moon missions, and Canadian company Mission Control’s $3-million [AI system](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=2591) as a Rashid rover assistant all thus couldn’t carry out their demonstration missions. - ispace’s lander was supposed to [collect lunar soil samples](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=3829) from its footpad and [transfer its legal ownership](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-companies-to-collect-lunar-resources-for-artemis-demonstrations) to NASA, a tokenistic move by the space agency intended to [set precedence](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-companies-to-collect-lunar-resources-for-artemis-demonstrations) for future resource use under the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords). This too naturally couldn’t be completed. #### What M1 achieved On March 21, ispace became the second private entity to have hardware [orbit our Moon](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4460), following the Israel-based [Beresheet](https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/beresheet/in-depth) lander’s said feat in 2019\. The M1 lander spent roughly 100 days in space, most for a private Mooncraft, and about a month in lunar orbit. Based on what we know so far, the nominal performance of the lander’s guidance, navigation, and control algorithms through all but the last phase of descent can certainly be considered a partial success. ispace also [captured](https://www.youtube.com/live/CpR1UUnix3g?feature=share&t=3747) some beautiful views of Luna, including one which showed the Moon’s shadow on Earth during the April 20 solar eclipse! As far as I can tell, this is the third time a spacecraft has captured a solar eclipse from the vantage point of our Moon, [the first one](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1-captures-solar-eclipse/) being from India’s [Chandrayaan 1](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/) orbiter [followed](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/980) by NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html). #### ispace forges ahead with M2 Scott Moon—who is ispace’s Lead Assembly, Testing, and Integration engineer—[said](https://www.youtube.com/live/CpR1UUnix3g?feature=share&t=3522) during the M1 landing livestream that ispace has begun building the flight model of the M2 mission lander, and that it remains on track for a 2024 launch. M2 features the same lander hardware design as M1 but one that’s iteratively improved based on lessons from putting together M1\. There will be software improvements too, especially based on the lander’s performance during its 100 days in space as well as the insights gained from identifying shortfalls during the descent. #### Communications 101 from ispace It was nice to see the [public support](https://www.linkedin.com/posts/jacobmalthouse%5Fwhat-happened-during-ispaces-moon-landing-activity-7056738556257472512-1S7P) ispace received after the failed landing, especially from [competitors](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/congratulations-ispace-hakuto-r-achieves-remarkable-success). But I’d like to take this space to commend the company specifically for being blunt and prompt about the facts in their public communications. It was within merely half an hour of the crashed landing that ispace’s CEO Takeshi Hakamada himself [announced and acknowledged](https://www.youtube.com/live/CpR1UUnix3g?feature=share&t=5732) M1’s touchdown attempt to be a failure. Even tax-funded government space agencies haven’t been this forthcoming, case in point being the [utterly opaque](https://rootprivileges.net/2019/10/02/the-virtues-and-vices-of-reestablishing-contact-with-vikram) manner in which ISRO handled [Chandrayaan 2](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-2-moon-landing-mission/)’s crash landing in 2019\. I hope that the US-based private companies sending an [armada of landers](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) to the Moon this decade as part of NASA’s CLPS program follow ispace’s example in this regard. #### On fuel margins Before you read further, let me stress that the following commentary isn’t specifically about the fuel margins on ispace’s M1 lander, on which I have no internal knowledge anyway. Having said that, Hakuto-R’s unexpectedly empty tanks make for an ideal time to discuss a widely applicable point for the nascent private lunar industry. Moon missions from private companies, including the partly NASA-funded [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) ones, simply don’t have the high budgets afforded by government space agencies. This necessarily implies lesser overall redundancy in their lander designs and thus higher risks. In particular, fuel margins on privately built robotic landers will always be lower because every kilogram of added fuel would take away at least several hundred thousand dollars worth of commercial payload capacity. During the lunar descent, the closer the lander is to the surface the lesser its ability to self-correct, including due to depleting fuel reserves. Again, I’m not implying lack of a higher fuel margin is what failed Hakuto-R but for private entities to sustain their businesses, it’s a tradeoff they have to perpetually consider. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f2b416a30-23d4-4082-bdc5-d979b845830b_2400x1600-jpeg.jpg) ispace’s M1 Hakuto-R lander inside Falcon 9’s fairing pre-launch. [Credit: SpaceX](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4020) --- *Many thanks to* [*Epsilon3*](https://www.epsilon3.io) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## On China’s push for lunar partnerships with Chang’e 5 and beyond ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fccd358ca-243b-4607-a667-1790bac6e8aa_1816x1804-jpeg.jpg) A close look at some of the Chang’e 5 lunar samples. Credit: CNSA: [1](https://moon.bao.ac.cn/moonSampleMode/infoDetail.html?sampleId=CE5C0000YJYX03501GP), [2](https://moon.bao.ac.cn/moonSampleMode/infoDetail.html?sampleId=CE5C0000YJYX041GP), [3](https://moon.bao.ac.cn/moonSampleMode/infoDetail.html?sampleId=CE5C0000YJYX042GP) Andrew Jones [reports](https://spacenews.com/china-to-establish-organization-to-coordinate-international-moon-base) that China will establish an overarching organization this month to coordinate and manage the construction of the [upcoming](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-32/) Sino-Russian long-term joint [scientific Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-120/), called the International Lunar Research Station (ILRS). This move is in the context of China [looking for international partners](https://spacenews.com/china-seeks-new-partners-for-lunar-and-deep-space-exploration) to explore the Moon. China and Russia [formulated an ILRS Declaration](http://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465652/n6465653/c6812568/content.html) in September 2021 to clarify the project’s principles and how international entities can participate. To that end on April 25, CNSA signed a joint statement on ILRS cooperation with the Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization, whose members include China, Pakistan, Thailand, Bangladesh, Iran, Mongolia, and Peru. China has previously seen formal interest from the UAE, Brazil, Argentina, and Venezuela. Out of all of these, UAE and Brazil are signatories of the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords) so it will be notable if either of them proceed with full-fledged collaboration on ILRS. After all, the Chang’e 7 lander was supposed to [carry UAE’s second lunar rover](https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/CkjacBB3c4L%5FUbwNbeFPvA) but [is apparently blocked](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3214396/us-tech-rules-bar-uae-moon-rover-chinas-change-7-mission-sources) by US export control rules. Relatedly, China is leveraging the 1.7 kilograms of volcanic [lunar samples](https://moon.bao.ac.cn/moonSampleMode/index.html) the [Chang’e 5](https://jatan.space/change-5-landing-site/) mission brought to Earth in December 2020 as a means of forging or enhancing lunar science partnerships. Ling Xin [reports](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3218138/chinas-lunar-sample-gifts-france-russia-have-scientists-over-moon) that after exchanging 1.5 grams of samples with Russia last year for Soviet [Luna 16](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1970-072A) ones, last month China gifted France 1.5 grams of Chang’e 5 samples owing to their decades-long cooperation in space. Xin adds that CNSA has thus far dispatched \~65 grams of Chang’e 5 samples to 100 research groups across China, several of which have international collaborators from the US, many European countries, Japan, and Australia. Moreover, China will begin accepting international applications for soliciting Chang’e 5 samples later this year. ## Artemis updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f03a331ed-ab88-4a51-aa13-cc15e98e7b4c_2000x1450-jpeg.jpg) A remote camera view of a redesigned RS-25 engine’s hot fire test on March 8, 2023\. [Credit: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/centers/stennis/news/release/2023/NASA-Continues-Test-Series-for-Redesigned-Artemis-Moon-Rocket-Engines) - On April 26, NASA [performed](https://www.nasa.gov/centers/stennis/news/releases/2023/NASA-Tests-Critical-In-Flight-Capability-During-RS-25-Engine-Hot-Fire) a 720-second hot fire test of the fully redesigned [RS-25](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/sls%5Frs25%5Fengine%5Ffs%5F508.pdf) engine to be used on future [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) lunar flights starting with Artemis V. This was first test in an ongoing series to demonstrate flight-like gimbaling of the engine, which during a mission helps stabilize the rocket as well as keep it on its intended trajectory. The new RS-25 is built with [advanced manufacturing techniques](https://www.nasa.gov/centers/stennis/news/release/2023/NASA-Continues-Test-Series-for-Redesigned-Artemis-Moon-Rocket-Engines) to reduce cost and build time, the former by over 30%. - Lockheed Martin has [awarded](https://web.archive.org/web/20230420003124/https://www.rocket.com/article/aerojet-rocketdyne-provide-propulsion-three-additional-orion-spacecraft) a $67 million contract to Aerojet Rocketdyne for supplying the [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft)’s propulsion systems for Artemis missions VI–VIII. Artemis VIII is also when Orion will feature [an upgraded main engine](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-orion-main-engine-contract-for-future-artemis-missions) from Aerojet instead of its current Shuttle-era one. - In a [world first](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-successfully-extracts-oxygen-from-lunar-soil-simulant), scientists from NASA’s Johnson Space Center have extracted oxygen from simulated lunar soil in a vacuum environment, increasing the technology’s [readiness level](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/heo/scan/engineering/technology/technology%5Freadiness%5Flevel) before eventual use on future Artemis Moon missions. The setup involves a NASA-funded [carbothermal reactor](https://www.sierraspace.com/newsroom/press-releases/sierra-space-completes-successful-nasa-test-readiness-review-for-lunar-oxygen-extraction-system) made by Sierra Space and a large 4.5-meter wide vacuum chamber. Being built at an accelerated pace as part of NASA’s [Game Changing Development program](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/game%5Fchanging%5Fdevelopment/index.html), the agency ultimately intends to demonstrate the system on the Moon via a future [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) mission, possibly the same one carrying [Australia’s first lunar rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-97/) in 2026. ## More Moon - Astrobotic has [announced](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-purchases-falcon-heavy-launch-services) its third Moon mission, which aims to have a large robotic [Griffin lander](https://www.astrobotic.com/lunar-delivery/landers/griffin-lander) launch on a SpaceX Falcon Heavy rocket and touchdown on the Moon’s south pole in 2026\. The company’s first two Moon missions have NASA as their primary customer, aiming to deliver CLPS [surface payloads](https://science.nasa.gov/lunar-discovery/deliveries/to2-astrobotic) this year and the [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) in late 2024\. Astrobotic’s third mission is not yet part of CLPS. Jeff Foust [reports](https://spacenews.com/astrobotic-purchases-falcon-heavy-for-third-lunar-lander-mission) that Astrobotic is also offering satellite deployments to lunar orbit for the mission, [similar](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/im-2-south-pole-mission-adds-secondary-rideshare-spaceflight-inc) to what other CLPS vendors like Intuitive Machines do. - NASA [will work](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-12-companies-to-collaborate-on-key-technology-development) with Venturi Astrolab to build and demonstrate a durable tire for future lunar rovers that can better tolerate the extremely cold temperatures of [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s poles. This would allow better mobility as well as flexibility in mission planning and operations. Astrolab [aims to send](https://astrolab.space/news/blog/145) a versatile rover to the Moon’s south pole in 2026, and is pitching the same rover’s crewed variant to NASA for the [Lunar Terrain Vehicle](https://jatan.space/what-we-know-about-artemis-ltv/), which will be used across Artemis missions starting end of decade for at least 10 years. --- **→** [**Sponsor Moon Monday**](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) **|** [**Browse the Blog**](https://blog.jatan.space/start) **|** [**About**](https://blog.jatan.space/about) ### Moon Monday #124: Starship Artemis, mission updates, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-124/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:07.000Z *I’m stoked to share that [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io/) is continuing their sponsorship of Moon Monday for another year!* 🌗 *Epsilon3 is a web-based platform for managing complex spacecraft testing and operational procedures. Designed to save time and reduce risk in building space mission hardware, Epsilon3 is used by engineers and hardware operators in Astrobotic, Astrolab, and more organizations creating for the Moon and beyond.* *I’m grateful to [Max](https://www.linkedin.com/in/maxmednik) and [Laura](https://www.linkedin.com/in/lauracrabtree) for their persistent support since the early months of this one-of-a-kind newsletter.* :) --- ## NASA’s road to the Moon goes through Starship ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fb994c5cc-e4d3-4293-ad3c-42a54c603735_2100x1150-jpeg.jpg) First liftoff of the Starship Super Heavy rocket. [Credit: SpaceX](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-1wcilQ58hI) SpaceX’s [first launch](https://www.spacex.com/launches/mission/?missionId=starship-flight-test) of its fully reusable [Starship Super Heavy](https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/starship) rocket on April 20 cleared the launchpad, and survived maximum aerodynamic pressure, but tumbled during the stage separation phase and couldn’t achieve said stage disconnect. After this point, the automated flight termination system kicked in to instantly blow up the rocket for safety. SpaceX will take a close look at the ground infrastructure as well as the Raptor engine failures powering the Super Heavy booster before deciding to launch another stacked Starship in the coming months. There’s substantial caution even outside the company. Marcia Smith [reports](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/faa-monitoring-spacexs-clean-up-after-starship-launch) that the US Federal Aviation Administration will oversee the flight failure investigation and determine when Starship can return for launch from a public safety perspective. The administration also requires SpaceX to have a qualified biologist monitor vegetation and wildlife in the region, and remove launch debris from sensitive habitats. Flying debris due to Super Heavy [damaged infrastructure](https://payloadspace.com/starship-lifts-off-in-historic-launch-clearing-max-q-before-exploding-midair) in the larger launchpad area, and per the [New York Times](https://www.nytimes.com/2023/04/21/us/spacex-rocket-dust-texas.html) residents of nearby Port Isabel noted layers of soil and sand “landing on everything”. Since NASA has [selected](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) Starship’s lunar variant to land humans on our Moon again for the historic [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-iii) mission, last week’s successful liftoff but failed overall launch is likely to delay Lunar Starship’s targeted late 2025 flight. I very much hope that the next stacked Starship launch is wholly successful but let’s not forget that Starship is a pacing item for Artemis III. In fact, Starship is also a critical element for Artemis IV, for which NASA chose an [upgraded Lunar Starship](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-spacex-second-contract-option-for-artemis-moon-landing-0) to land astronauts. The larger perspective to consider is [the huge deal](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-101/) that is Artemis IV. If successful, in just one mission after Artemis III’s crewed landing demonstration, NASA will have upgraded its entire lunar transportation stack—from improving payload capacity to lunar orbit by 10,000 kilograms with the [SLS](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) rocket’s [Block 1B](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/sls%5Flift%5Fcapabilities%5Fand%5Fconfigurations%5F508%5F08202018%5F0.pdf) variant to sending the first astronauts to the orbital [Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) station to having an upgraded crewed lander enabling an extended surface mission of up to 33 days from Artemis III’s 6.5-day stay. Artemis IV’s architecture is the template NASA will keep using for future missions leading to an [Artemis Moonbase](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept). It’s thus far more important to get all Artemis IV elements right, including Starship, than to worry about it not being done in 2027, say. We have waited decades for a [return to our Moon](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/), and just as long for a fully reusable space launch system. We can wait a few years more. *Related: NASA has [published](https://www.nasa.gov/moontomarsarchitecture) its first Artemis Architecture [Concept Review](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/m2m-architecture-executive-summary.pdf) and [Definitions Document](https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20230002706/downloads/M2MADD%5FESDMD-001%28TP-20230002706%29.pdf), which is part of a new annual process that the agency hopes will help optimally [refine](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-96/) its [Moon to Mars Objectives](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/moon-to-mars-objectives-.pdf). Jeff Foust [explores interesting tangents](https://spacenews.com/nasa-releases-architecture-for-human-exploration-of-the-moon-and-mars) on the topic.* ## Mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f6938f88a-2a7d-4db5-a6c5-144face9fe0b_2500x1400-jpeg.jpg) A simplified illustration of the landing sequence ispace’s Hakuto-R lander aims to execute during its lunar descent. [Credit: ispace](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4611) - ispace Japan’s [first lunar lander](https://jatan.space/ispace-japan-m1-moon-mission/) Hakuto-R will attempt a remotely-initiated, hour-long autonomous landing tomorrow, April 25, starting from 15:40 UTC. You can [watch the livestream](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CpR1UUnix3g) on ispace’s YouTube channel. The target landing site lies within the Atlas crater at [47.5°N, 44.4°E](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=40.2145798%2C44.1202909%2C48.4074855%2C48.7594362&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=44.40014864%2C47.49964213&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFaaKBJ-Im64NOZFkRdi5KjwpA&proj=16). If ispace doesn’t initiate the lander’s descent tomorrow, there are backup opportunities on April 26, May 1, and May 3. - The NASA-funded and Advanced Space-led [CAPSTONE](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/small%5Fspacecraft/capstone) lunar orbiter has had to perform [lesser correction burns](https://advancedspace.com/capstone-17apr23-update) than expected to maintain its fuel-efficient [Near-Rectilinear Halo Orbit](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/a-lunar-orbit-that-s-just-right-for-the-international-gateway), the same orbit the NASA-led international [Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) crewed orbital station will be in later this decade. To that end, the CAPSTONE team recently traveled to NASA’s Johnson Space Center to provide a three-day rundown of mission lessons to over 300 people involved in Artemis. - L3Harris will [provide the audio system](https://www.l3harris.com/newsroom/press-release/2023/04/l3harris-provide-audio-system-nasas-first-crewed-flight-moon-apollo) for NASA’s [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to) [Orion](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) spacecraft, which will fly four astronauts around our Moon and back by mid-decade. The system includes lightweight, low-power interface units that clip to astronaut’s suits for hands-free usage. Aside: L3Harris also [provides avionics](https://www.l3harris.com/artemis-missions) for the core stage, boosters, and the second stage of the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) for each Artemis mission. - Philip Sloss [reports](https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2023/04/egs-launch-team-sls-lessons) how NASA wants to streamline future SLS launches and improve overall liftoff chances based on [data collected](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/data-from-the-first-sls-flight-to-prepare-nasa-for-future-artemis-missions.html) from the whole [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to) launch campaign last year. --- *Many thanks to [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io) for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f8f4c28c1-f4ea-4164-b6d9-be14f6961610_2640x1500-jpeg.jpg) Desired capabilities of the Artemis Lunar Terrain Vehicle. [Credit: NASA](https://sam.gov/api/prod/opps/v3/opportunities/resources/files/90f14b078fad4da587e2f6fbbfe60768/download?&token=) - Lunar Outpost has [switched sides](https://lunaroutpost.com/lunar-outpost-joins-lockheed-martin-team-for-next-generation-moon-rover) from Northrop Grumman to Lockheed Martin for the upcoming proposal bids to NASA for the [Lunar Terrain Vehicle](https://jatan.space/what-we-know-about-artemis-ltv/) (LTV), which will be used across Artemis missions starting end of decade for at least 10 years. Lunar Outpost is providing robotic rovers on two upcoming [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) Moon landing missions, [one](https://lunaroutpost.com/nokia-and-intuitive-machines-select-lunar-outpost-for-first-rover-mission-at-lunar-south-pole) to the south pole and [another](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-mission-to-reiner-gamma/) to the swirl of Reiner Gamma. Joining the four competing teams for the LTV is Leidos-Dynetics [in partnership](https://www.nascar.com/news-media/2023/04/18/leidos-nascar-speed-into-lunar-rover-race) with none other than NASCAR. - ISRO is [collaborating](https://www.isro.gov.in/ISROandMVA%5Fcollaborate%5FChandrayaan3Mission.html) with the Moon Village Association for public outreach of the upcoming [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-3-prelaunch-info/) Moon landing mission. - Hyundai, [in partnership](https://www.hyundaimotorgroup.com/news/CONT0000000000044807) with several South Korean research institutes, is building an [autonomous lunar rover](https://www.hyundaimotorgroup.com/news/CONT0000000000088347) to explore the Moon south pole. The group expects to complete a test unit in H2 next year, and have a flight-ready model as soon as 2027. ## Events and Jobs - The hybrid [11th European Lunar Symposium](https://sservi.nasa.gov/els2023) from June 27–29 will [discuss the breadth and depth](https://sservi.nasa.gov/els2023/program) of the science and technology of upcoming exploration of our Moon, including resource utilization as one of the key focus areas. Last date for registration is April 30. - NASA’s Johnson Space Center is looking for an [Artemis Curation Lead](https://www.usajobs.gov/job/719983800) to ensure readiness for optimally sampling, storing, and studying upcoming polar lunar samples from Artemis missions. The person will join the [Artemis Science Team](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-112/). --- **→ [Sponsor Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) | [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Moon Monday #123: Views of Luna from a Korean craft, mission updates, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-123/ Last updated: 2025-08-22T06:27:04.000Z *I’m happy to share that* [*The Orbital Index*](https://orbitalindex.com/) *is continuing their sponsorship of* [*Moon Monday*](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday/) *for another year!* 🚀 *Considering that the newsletter was part of my inspiration for starting Moon Monday,* [*Andrew*](https://www.linkedin.com/in/cantino) *and* [*Ben*](https://www.linkedin.com/in/blachman)*’s support continues to be a gratifying validation of my efforts to cover in context all major global exploration developments in our grand return to the Moon. As an aside, The Orbital Index remains my favorite technical space newsletter, and I genuinely think the space nerd in you might enjoy perusing* [*its archive*](https://orbitalindex.com/archive)*.* 🛰️ --- ## Science mode is ON for the Moonbound KPLO South Korea’s first lunar orbiter [KPLO](https://jatan.space/kplo/) formally started its one-year primary mission to study the Moon’s surface in February, after mission operators had completed the [commissioning](https://www.kari.re.kr/kplo/danuri/news/newsView.do?nttId=8623&pageIndex=1&searchCnd=&searchWrd=) and [testing](https://www.kari.re.kr/kplo/danuri/news/newsView.do?nttId=8597&pageIndex=1&searchCnd=&searchWrd=) phases of the orbiter’s instruments and subsystems. The mission’s lead institute, Korean Aerospace Research Institute ([KARI](https://www.kari.re.kr/eng.do)), has [provided updates](https://www.kari.re.kr/kplo/danuri/news/newsView.do?nttId=8650&pageIndex=1&searchCnd=&searchWrd=) on the some of the preliminary scientific activities from KPLO’s [four indigenously built instruments](https://space.skyrocket.de/doc%5Fsdat/kplo.htm). In March, KPLO’s highest resolution imager—which does 2.5 meters/pixel best case—[photographed](https://www.kari.re.kr/kplo/danuri/news/newsView.do?nttId=8650&pageIndex=1&searchCnd=&searchWrd=) several pre-identified places including the farside craters of [Tsiolkovskiy](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/projections?camera=-1414321.771%2C1745837.301%2C-844417.384%2C6.283%2C-1.571%2C0.000%2C2400269.708%2C60.000&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4XyA&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFOOZLRfImqnioA&proj=22) and [Szilard M](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/projections?camera=-495523.212%2C1749911.889%2C1031616.634%2C6.283%2C-1.571%2C0.000%2C2090925.095%2C60.000&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4XyA&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFOOZLRfImqnioA&proj=22). Note that South Korea will use images from this very instrument to help identify good landing site candidates for its upcoming [fully indigenous Moon lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-93/), which is targeting launch in [2032](https://spacenews.com/134853-2). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f30f75bea-218a-47c0-be31-26dde7f1b645_5880x1400-jpeg.jpg) A spectacular view of the Tsiolkovskiy crater on our Moon’s farside, as imaged by South Korea’s KPLO spacecraft. [Credit: KARI](https://www.kari.re.kr/kplo/danuri/news/newsView.do?nttId=8650&pageIndex=1&searchCnd=&searchWrd=) KPLO’s unique wide-angle polarimetric camera, which determines the size and composition of surface materials based on how light reflects and scatters off of them, has [captured](https://www.kari.re.kr/kplo/danuri/news/newsView.do?nttId=8655&pageIndex=1&searchCnd=&searchWrd=) polarization data of various areas. This capability will be [particularly helpful](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2021/pdf/2430.pdf) to understand the origin(s) of the enigmatic bright features on our Moon called [swirls](https://jatan.space/swirls-on-the-moon/). The orbiter’s gamma-ray spectrometer, which looks at highly energetic gamma rays released from the Moon’s surface to determine its elements, has [begun taking measurements](https://www.kari.re.kr/kplo/danuri/news/newsView.do?nttId=8657&pageIndex=1&searchCnd=&searchWrd=) as well. The [same goes](https://www.kari.re.kr/kplo/danuri/news/newsView.do?nttId=8656&pageIndex=1&searchCnd=&searchWrd=) for KPLO’s magnetometer, whose datasets should help us better understand our Moon’s localized magnetic features, including swirls, and in turn [our Moon’s evolution](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). KARI plans to release a bunch of datasets from all of these four instruments by end of April. Relatedly, we’ve already discussed previously how NASA’s ultra-sensitive [ShadowCam](https://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/about) imager onboard KPLO has initiated its [uniquely impactful observations](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-110/) concerning [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s poles. [A peek at the Moon’s actual dark side 🌑](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-110/) ## ispace to attempt a Moon landing next week ![Illustration shows a four-legged lander on a largely plain lunar landscape, with Earth hanging in the pitch black sky.](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fbb2a3a83-d473-430f-ad2b-7b2e79619a6f_2096x1078-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of the Hakuto-R lander on the Moon. [Credit: ispace](https://ispace-inc.com/project) ispace Japan’s [first lunar lander](https://jatan.space/ispace-japan-m1-moon-mission/) Hakuto-R will attempt a remotely-initiated, hour-long autonomous landing on [April 25](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4577) starting from 15:40 UTC. The target landing site lies within the Atlas crater at [47.5°N, 44.4°E](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=40.2145798%2C44.1202909%2C48.4074855%2C48.7594362&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=44.40014864%2C47.49964213&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFaaKBJ-Im64NOZFkRdi5KjwpA&proj=16). Hakuto-R has spent almost a month [orbiting our Moon](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4460) at this point, and ispace [says](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4611) the lander attained a 100-kilometer circular orbit on April 13\. This orbit, necessary to begin the lunar surface descent, was achieved over weeks from the previously elliptical orbit of 100 x 6,000 kilometers. In case ispace doesn’t initiate the lander’s descent on April 25, there are backup opportunities on April 26, May 1, and May 3. Relatedly, ispace Japan [got listed](https://ir.ispace-inc.com/stock) on the Tokyo Stock Exchange on April 12, under ticker code 9348\. Nikkei Asia [reports](https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Aerospace-Defense-Industries/Japan-s-ispace-shares-left-untraded-during-market-debut) how the company’s shares soared by 370% on the opening day but that they remained un-traded regardless. Jeff Foust has [some interesting notes](https://spacenews.com/first-ispace-mission-ready-for-lunar-landing-as-company-stock-starts-trading) on ispace’s financial details, one being that ispace’s sales are increasing but the overall loss growing year-over-year. If you’d like an overview of all of ispace’s lunar activities across its presence in Japan, Europe, and the US, check out [my article](https://jatan.space/ispace-japan-m1-moon-mission/) covering the company’s first Moon mission, future ones, technology work, and business ambitions. [ispace’s Moon missions and ambitions 🌗](https://jatan.space/ispace-japan-m1-moon-mission/) --- *Many thanks to* [*Epsilon3*](https://www.epsilon3.io) *and* [*The Orbital Index*](https://orbitalindex.com) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## More mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f93f957f3-b279-4b3b-837e-68af5437a1e5_2400x1800-jpeg.jpg) The second SLS rocket upper stage is seen here at the Delta Operations Center to prepare it for the Artemis II mission. [Credit: ULA](https://blog.ulalaunch.com/blog/icps-2-ula-begins-readying-upper-stage-for-artemis-ii-launch) - ISRO and NASA successfully tested [data flow](https://twitter.com/nascom1/status/1647047848884850688) between India’s soon-launching [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-3-prelaunch-info/) Moon lander and the US [Deep Space Network](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/heo/scan/services/networks/deep%5Fspace%5Fnetwork/about) (DSN). This is [part of](https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/article-files/monthly-summary-of-department-of-space-last-1-year/february-2022-monthly%5Fsummary.pdf) a February 2022 agreement to have DSN support communications for the mission. ESA’s [Estrack network](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Operations/ESA%5FGround%5FStations/Estrack%5Fground%5Fstations) will also provide [backup communications](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Operations/ESA%5FGround%5FStations/ESA%5Fsupports%5FIndian%5Flunar%5Fand%5Fsolar%5Fmissions), as part of a broader [mutual support agreement](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Operations/ESA%5FGround%5FStations/ESA%5Fand%5FIndian%5Fspace%5Fagency%5FISRO%5Fagree%5Fon%5Ffuture%5Fcooperation) with the Indian space agency. ISRO uses its own [Indian Deep Space Network](https://www.isro.gov.in/indian-space-science-data-centre-issdc-gateway-to-indias-space-science-data) as a primary means for communicating with its planetary spacecraft but partners with other space agencies for backup and auxiliary options. India’s [Chandrayaan 1](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/) and [2](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) orbiters as well as [Mangalyaan](https://jatan.space/reviewing-mission-mangalyaan/) have had DSN support too. - The [blowing up](https://twitter.com/torybruno/status/1646572389193625600) of a test [Centaur V](https://www.flickr.com/photos/ulalaunch/49720321573/in/album-72157690220351103) upper stage, a key element of ULA’s upcoming [Vulcan rocket](https://www.ulalaunch.com/rockets/vulcan-centaur), is bound to delay [Astrobotic’s first Moon lander](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-awarded-79-5-million-contract-to-deliver-14-nasa-payloads-to-the-moon) which was previously targeting a [May 4](https://spacenews.com/ula-announces-may-launch-of-first-vulcan) launch on the rocket. This lander, alongside that of [Intuitive Machines](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/first-commercial-moon-delivery-assignments-to-advance-artemis), will be the first two missions part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) aimed at regularly, commercially sending payloads, instruments, and hardware to our Moon. - [More](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/nasa-connects-all-major-structures-of-artemis-ii-moon-rocket-core-stage.html) and [more](https://blogs.esa.int/orion/2023/04/05/dropping-the-fat-beats-with-d-fat) hardware continues to come online for NASA’s [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to) mission to fly [four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) around our Moon and back. The ULA-built Interim Cryogenic Propulsion Stage [(ICPS)](https://www.ulalaunch.com/interim-cryogenic-propulsion-stage-%28icps%29), which forms the second stage of the mission’s [SLS](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) rocket, is [now being tested](https://blog.ulalaunch.com/blog/icps-2-ula-begins-readying-upper-stage-for-artemis-ii-launch) by the company before delivery to NASA. After launch, which NASA aims to be in November 2024, the ICPS will fire its engine to push the connected [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) and astronauts within out of Earth orbit and on the path to the Moon. During the mission the ICPS will also be a target object for Orion to test rendezvous and proximity operations with, in preparation for the future [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-iii) crewed mission. - On April 13, Draper [said](https://spacenews.com/draper-completes-initial-milestones-for-nasa-clps-mission) it has successfully completed preliminary reviews for [its first CLPS mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-87/), which is targeting a 2025 launch of the company-led lander aspiring a touchdown on the Moon’s farside. **Note:* I’ve again updated my* [*CLPS missions page*](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) *with the latest information and links.* ## More Moon - With a [scrubbed launch](https://spacenews.com/spacex-scrubs-first-starship-launch-attempt) today, SpaceX will target [first launch](https://everydayastronaut.com/starship-superheavy-orbital-flight-test) of its fully reusable Starship Super Heavy launch vehicle sometime later this week. A successful flight of the both the Super Heavy booster and Starship upper stage will mark a key milestone towards [landing the first Artemis astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-iii) on the Moon since NASA has [so far](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-lays-out-revised-approach-for-future-human-lunar-landing-systems) selected Starship’s lunar variant as the primary lander for the mission. - With a slightly increased budget of [$3.1 billion](https://tass.com/science/1603323) this fiscal year, Roscosmos intends to [accelerate](https://tass.com/science/1603347) its lunar missions and ambitions. To that end, the agency is [working on](https://tass.com/science/1602877) getting its government to approve a Russian Moon program draft, which aspirationally includes crewed cosmonaut landings. Now this isn’t the first time we’re hearing of such a goal but one thing is clear: The fate of Russia’s long-delayed [Luna 25 robotic Moon lander](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2021/pdf/2032.pdf), currently scheduled for a [July 13](https://tass.com/science/1580885) launch, will shape the scope of the country’s future Moon missions. ## Events - This year’s [Space Resources Week](https://www.spaceresourcesweek.lu/programme-2023) event is from April 19–21\. It will focus on international collaborations and research projects on space resources—including that of the Moon—as well as on upcoming resource-extraction technology demonstrators and their legal aspects. Online attendance is free. - NASA has [two publicly accessible Artemis briefings](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-to-participate-in-space-symposium-discuss-moon-to-mars) on April 18 and 19 as part of the otherwise paid-only [38th Space Symposium](https://www.spacesymposium.org). - The Indian institute of [ICTS](https://www.icts.res.in/about/icts) has organized a [Lunar Gravitational-Wave Detection](https://www.icts.res.in/discussion-meeting/lgwd) meet from April 17–20 to discuss the science and technology of future gravitational wave detections from the Moon as well as ongoing tangential lunar exploration efforts. ### Europe launches the JUICE spacecraft to explore Jupiter’s icy moons in unprecedented detail URL: https://jatan.space/esa-juice-mission-to-jupiter-moons/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:10.000Z Iconic missions to the outer Solar System such as Voyager 1 & 2, Galileo, and Cassini gave us a close look at the largest moons of giant planets. Once thought of as inactive, cold conglomerates of ice and rock, we now know these distant moons are [planet-like](https://www.planetary.org/worlds/what-is-a-planet) worlds with rich histories. While our search for life in the universe was once restricted to Earth-like planets with terrestrial atmospheres and surface oceans, such icy moons with [potentially habitable underground oceans](https://jatan.space/when-will-we-explore-enceladus-to-find-life/) offer new horizons. Jupiter’s three largest icy moons—Europa, Ganymede and Callisto—all show hints of hosting liquid water oceans beneath their crusts. On Earth, [life thrives](https://portlandpress.com/emergtoplifesci/article/2/4/629/77362/Methanogens-pushing-the-boundaries-of-biology) in the deepest, darkest parts of our oceans near hydrothermal vents. Could life similarly evolve or survive in the underground oceans floors of these moons? The European Space Agency (ESA) [successfully launched](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Videos/2023/04/Juice%5Fliftoff) today, April 14, its boldest mission yet to find out. The JUpiter ICy moons Explorer, or [JUICE](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Space%5FScience/Juice/Juice%5Fspacecraft%5Fspecs), will give us [insights](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Space%5FScience/Juice/The%5Fscience%5FJuice%5Fs%5Fkey%5Fobjectives%5Fat%5FJupiter) on how icy worlds around Jupiter and Jupiter-like exoplanets evolve. By finding out if Jupiter’s icy moons are habitable, JUICE will greatly expand possible places to look for life in the universe. ## The journey ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f1c8101f9-2a14-49a4-88fa-6bea5f30c404_3100x1800-jpeg.jpg) ESA's JUICE spacecraft will carry 10 state-of-the-art instruments to study Jupiter and its icy moons. [Credit: ESA](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2022/12/Juice%5Fs%5Fscience%5Finstruments) Over years now JUICE will perform a [whole bunch](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2022/12/Juice%5Fs%5Fjourney%5Fto%5FJupiter) of planetary [gravity assists](https://jatan.space/gravity-assist-the-simple-physics-trick-thats-allowed-humanity-to-explore-deep-space/)—orbital gymnastics, really—to arrive at Jupiter in July 2031\. It will spend 3.5 years orbiting Jupiter, often flying within 200 to 1,000 kilometers of the icy moons. In this first phase of the mission, the [solar-powered](https://sci.esa.int/web/juice/-/-7-all-panels-delivered-for-juice-s-solar-wings) spacecraft will flyby Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto a total of 35 times, enabling repeated close studies of these icy moons in unprecedented detail. In the next and final mission phase, JUICE will orbit Ganymede starting December 2034 to study it closely for at least nine months. This would be the first time a spacecraft orbits a moon other than our own. At [6,000 kilograms](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Space%5FScience/Juice%5Ffactsheet), JUICE is a heavy spacecraft. JUICE’s complex mission trajectories require it to carry more than 3,000 kilograms of fuel. JUICE hosts [10 state-of-the-art instruments](https://sci.esa.int/web/juice/-/50073-science-payload), which together weigh only [104 kilograms](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/opag/mar2012/presentations/Friday/5%5FJUICE%5FSummary.pdf) thanks to experience gained by ESA in past missions. Japan has [substantially contributed](https://cosmos.isas.jaxa.jp/the-juice-mission-japan-joins-esa-to-head-to-the-icy-moons) to 6 of these instruments. ## The science ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f40a929cc-23a4-4d3c-b0a0-b7f0ff2e889e_1300x1000-jpeg.jpg) This 'family portrait' shows a composite of images of Jupiter and its four largest moons: Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto. ESA’s JUICE spacecraft will study the latter three up-close. Europa is about the same size as our Moon whereas Ganymede is bigger than planet Mercury. [Credit: ESA](https://sci.esa.int/web/juice/-/58894-jupiter-s-largest-moons) JUICE’s visible-and-infrared spectrometer will detect what the surfaces of the Jovian icy moons are made of. It will help us identify and map minerals across Ganymede’s surface, understand the formation of complex landforms on Europa and Callisto, and find organic molecules—building blocks of life—on each of the moon’s surfaces as signs of their potential habitability. A laser-altimeter onboard will complement this data by mapping 3D shapes of features on the moons. NASA’s [Hubble space telescope](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/hubble) has observed hints of [water vapor in Ganymede’s exosphere](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2021/hubble-finds-first-evidence-of-water-vapor-at-jupiter-s-moon-ganymede) and [water plumes erupting on Europa](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-s-hubble-spots-possible-water-plumes-erupting-on-jupiters-moon-europa). JUICE’s ultraviolet spectrometer and charged particle detector can confirm such activity by identifying water molecules in the exospheres of these moons. JUICE will also sport a novel sub-millimeter wave spectrometer, which detects light frequencies between infrared and microwave, to complement surface mapping and exospheric data from the aforementioned two spectrometers. Part of the JUICE mission involves studying Jupiter too, since the giant planet considerably affects the icy moons and their conditions. Jupiter has a [massive magnetic field](https://www.missionjuno.swri.edu/media-gallery/magnetosphere), one that is 20 times stronger than Earth’s. And so Europa and Ganymede in particular, being fairly close to Jupiter, are showered in intense charged radiation particles traveling along Jupiter’s magnetic field lines. To that end, JUICE’s magnetometer, particle detector, and plasma instrument will together map and measure Jupiter’s magnetic field, radiation within, and how they [alter material](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/jpl/nasa-juno-takes-first-images-of-jovian-moon-ganymedes-north-pole) on the surfaces of the icy moons. ### An ocean inside Ganymede Ganymede is the only moon in our Solar System with its own magnetic field. JUICE’s magnetometer will measure it, explore how Jupiter’s field interacts with it, and study how charged particles raining down along the Jovian field lines cause the glowing [aurorae on Ganymede](https://hubblesite.org/contents/media/images/2021/033/01FAK3EK6KGRA8NJWGDSA7KMY7?news=true). Hubble’s aurorae observations of Ganymede, coupled with [magnetic field measurements](https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20020044825) by NASA’s Galileo spacecraft, strongly suggest the presence of a [100 kilometers thick ocean](https://hubblesite.org/contents/news-releases/2015/news-2015-09.html)—10 times deeper than Earth’s—on the moon, buried under 150 kilometers of ice. Such an ocean should affect magnetic field lines passing through it. JUICE’s magnetometer can sense such changes and could confirm the presence of this vast purported ocean. Similarly, JUICE will help solidify or nullify [previous hints of an ocean](http://www.igpp.ucla.edu/people/mkivelson/Publications/ICRUS147329.pdf) inside Callisto. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f8dc1b98e-ac2b-4ff6-b73f-7b0626a02629_2368x1504-jpeg.jpg) Ganymede imaged by NASA’s Juno spacecraft during its flyby on June 7, 2021\. [Credits: NASA / JPL](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/ganymede-from-juno-2021) ### Keep piercing The Italian Space Agency and NASA are providing JUICE’s radar that can penetrate the surfaces of the icy moons as deep as 9 kilometers, showing us their internal structures for the first time. While the oceans of all three worlds are expected to lie further below, this data will inform us greatly on the nature of the icy terrain leading to them. This includes knowing about ice-sandwiched liquid water pockets (especially on Europa), how the crusts of the moons evolved over time, and how they shaped the surfaces to what they are today. JUICE will also measure the [gravity fields](https://jatan.space/the-moons-lumpy-gravity-field/) of Jupiter’s icy moons. As JUICE passes over denser and rarer regions of the moons, its position and velocity will be impacted by the changes in gravity. Two radio instruments onboard will note these finer movements of the spacecraft, allowing scientists to infer the gravity fields of the moons and thus [provide insights](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/planetary%5Fnews/2021/06/07/jupiters-moon-europa-may-have-active-seafloor-volcanoes/) into their interiors. ## Jovian space odyssey JUICE is part of ESA’s [Cosmic Vision 2015-2025](https://sci.esa.int/web/cosmic-vision/-/46510-cosmic-vision) program, which undertakes ambitious space science missions that take over a decade to realize. In May 2012, ESA selected JUICE as the program’s first of the three large-class missions, the other two being [Athena](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Space%5FScience/Athena%5Ffactsheet) and [LISA](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Space%5FScience/LISA%5Ffactsheet). ESA completed a [detailed study](https://sci.esa.int/web/juice/-/54994-juice-definition-study-report) of JUICE’s design and goals in 2014, and then set out to build the complex Jovian explorer. NASA is planning to launch [Europa Clipper](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/europa-clipper) in late 2024, which will arrive at Jupiter in 2030\. It will perform multiple flybys of Europa to help us better understand the moon’s ability to support life. China [might send](https://www.planetary.org/articles/jupiter-mission-callisto-landing) a mission to Jupiter's moons too, which could include a Callisto orbiter and lander. Together, these missions will inform us not only about the habitability of the icy moons of Jupiter but that of icy worlds around giant planets across the Universe. *Originally published at [The Planetary Society](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/juice) in 2021, revised for 2023 per final launch and mission details.* --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### How ISRO continues to build its own spaceplane URL: https://jatan.space/isro-continues-building-rlv-td-spaceplane/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:12.000Z An uncrewed, autonomous spaceplane prototype developed by ISRO [successfully landed](https://www.isro.gov.in/Reusable%5Flaunch%5Fvehicle%5Fautonomous%5Flanding%5Fmission.html) on a runway at Chitradurga, India on April 2\. The winged vehicle, officially called the Reusable Launch Vehicle Technology Demonstrator (RLV-TD), was heli-dropped from a height of 4.5 kilometers such that its descent simulates an approach from space. The RLV-TD plane then maneuverd itself to the runway, where it deployed a parachute to kill much of its velocity of 350 kilometers per hour. ISRO uploaded [a cool video](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/video/RLV%5FLEX%5FMISSION.mp4) which starts with the heli-lift and ends with the landing. ## How we got here ISRO built the RLV-TD as a flying testbed for evaluating various technologies needed to ultimately build an Indian [reusable launch vehicle](https://www.isro.gov.in/RLVTD.html). This vehicle will sport a scaled-up RLV as its second stage or equivalent. In 2016, ISRO [launched](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bw7iv5O8%5FLc) a heat-shield-enabled RLV-TD to an altitude of 65 kilometers at hypersonic speeds, which then [successfully steered itself](https://spaceflightnow.com/2016/05/23/india-flies-winged-space-plane-on-experimental-suborbital-launch) 450 kilometers downrange to a sea splashdown in a targeted zone. This month’s precise landing test of an RLV-TD complements the 2016 flight. ## Let’s go orbital In a post-landing address, ISRO Chief S. Somanath [said](https://twitter.com/sdhrthmp/status/1642399731287482368) the agency will conduct more such landing experiments (LEX) with varied initial conditions so as to approach a robust RLV design. The ultimate such test will see a [60% larger](https://www.wionews.com/india-news/exclusive-india-lands-unmanned-spaceplane-with-pin-point-accuracy-next-destination-is-space-578210) RLV-TD autonomously land after being launched to orbit on a modified GSLV rocket. The orbital RLV-TD could spend up to a month in space, autonomously operating onboard payloads and experiments, and then deorbit itself for atmospheric reentry leading to a runway landing. ISRO even intends to test [air-breathing propulsion](https://www.isro.gov.in/ScramjetEngineTechnology.html) on a future RLV-TD flight to assess its viability as part of RLV’s ongoing design ideation. ## What India’s spaceplane isn’t Media outlets have frequently [compared](https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/india-s-very-own-space-shuttle-launched-successfully-by-isro/story-53k4Yr6sdfxzj7BS9vEUSO.html) the RLV to NASA’s retired Space Shuttle. But ISRO is neither designing the RLV to carry humans to space nor is it intended to be a heavy-lift launch vehicle. As a highly autonomous platform, the RLV will be much more akin to the flying [Boeing X-37B](https://www.boeing.com/defense/autonomous-systems/x37b/index.page) and Sierra Space’s upcoming [Dream Chaser](https://www.sierraspace.com/space-transportation/dream-chaser-spaceplane). ## What’s the catch? The RLV is an exciting project that could boost [India’s rocket fleet](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-03/) but it’s also missing a publicly known target launch year. The RLV is being developed at a low priority while ISRO’s major growth focus remains its [Gaganyaan program](https://www.isro.gov.in/Gaganyaan.html) to indigenously send humans to space by mid-decade. *Originally published on [Payload](https://payloadspace.com/isro-continues-building-its-own-spaceplane).* --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### Moon Monday #122: Moonstruck maple nation, Artemis updates, a lunar water map, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-122/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:12.000Z ## Canada ramps up its lunar exploration ambitions ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f2fd6b7af-337b-432c-95b7-4170047c906e_1450x1080-jpeg-1.jpg) An illustration of Canada’s highly autonomous Canadarm3 servicing system, located on the exterior of Gateway, an upcoming NASA-led lunar orbital habitat. [Credits: CSA / NASA](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/multimedia/search/image/watch/12642) On March 28, the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) [announced](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/news/articles/2023/2023-03-29-significant-investments-to-further-propel-canadian-space-exploration.asp) long-term budgets to accelerate the country’s lunar exploration endeavors, summarized below in context: - Thanks to Canada contributing the [Canadarm3](https://asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/canadarm3/about.asp) robotics servicing system to the [Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway), an upcoming NASA-led international lunar orbital habitat, the country has secured not just [astronaut seats](https://www.canada.ca/en/space-agency/news/2020/12/a-canadian-astronaut-will-fly-to-the-moon.html) but also dedicated time to perform science & technology experiments onboard. To that end, CSA will invest $76.5 million over eight years in Canada-led Gateway experiments. - Relatedly, NASA is targeting [launch](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-contract-to-launch-initial-elements-for-lunar-outpost) of the Gateway with two core modules in 2025, which will host some interfaces of the highly autonomous Canadarm3 system. But the bulk of it including the arms, which is [maturing](https://mda.space/en/article/mda-awarded-contract-for-next-phase-canadarm3) in its design phase right now with $269 million in funding, will launch in 2027 at the earliest. Canadarm3 will aid in installing and supporting scientific instruments on the Gateway. - Canada will continue investing $150 million over five years in its Lunar Exploration Accelerator Program ([LEAP](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/funding-programs/programs/leap)). Previously as part of LEAP CSA [chose Canadensys](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronomy/moon-exploration/first-canadian-rover-to-explore-the-moon.asp) last year to develop [the country’s first lunar rover](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronomy/moon-exploration/first-canadian-rover-to-explore-the-moon.asp) to explore south polar [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). It will launch on an as-yet unspecified NASA-funded [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) lander in 2026\. It’s also through LEAP that [multiple payloads and services](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=2587) are flying on [ispace Japan’s first Moon lander](https://jatan.space/ispace-japan-m1-moon-mission/) right now in lunar orbit, with [more payloads](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/funding-programs/programs/leap/contributions-awarded.asp#capability) being funded. - Canada will invest $1.2 billion over 13 years to develop a “Lunar Utility Vehicle”, which will provide critical assistance to [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) astronauts on future surface missions. Canada hopes that akin to Canadarm3, this contribution will allow a Canadian astronaut to walk on the Moon as part of a NASA Artemis mission. JAXA also hopes to have [a Japanese astronaut on the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-79/) in return for providing an [advanced crewed pressurized rover](https://global.jaxa.jp/press/2019/03/20190312a.html). - This isn’t the first move by Canada intended to provide infrastructure support for Artemis. Last year, CSA [funded](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/funding-programs/programs/stdp/funding-potential-moon-infrastructure.asp) five companies to conduct seven concept studies on possible infrastructure contributions to NASA’s future [Artemis Basecamp](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept) surface habitat. The studies range from food production to mining and power generation. Next up, CSA intends to soon fund five of these to start prototyping hardware. ## Artemis updates Hardware progress continues for NASA’s [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to) mission to fly [four astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) around our Moon and back. The latest update concerns the 15,000-kilogram [European Service Module](https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/space/esm) (ESM), which will provide propulsion, water, oxygen, thermal control, and electrical power to the [Orion capsule](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) hosting the astronauts. As part of an ongoing series of standard [space-simulating tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/), the ESM is [undergoing acoustic testing](https://blogs.esa.int/orion/2023/04/05/dropping-the-fat-beats-with-d-fat) with large speakers that simulate the intense sounds and vibrations of an [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) launch. During launch, the ESM needs to endure a maximum sound level of 140 decibels, an experience akin to standing next to a speaker at a live rock concert. Fun fact: To that end, ESA [says](https://blogs.esa.int/orion/2023/04/05/dropping-the-fat-beats-with-d-fat) the speakers used to test ESM are also rented for concerts! Tangent: NASASpaceflight [details](https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2023/04/egs-launch-team-artemis-ii) how Integration Console engineers on the Artemis II launch team would work with the astronauts to ensure smooth launch day activities. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f7db8b8a4-48ef-4357-b571-edc2b35b9eb3_2072x1400-jpeg.jpg) The Orion crew module during its 141-decibel acoustic testing in 2019 for Artemis I. [Credits: Radislav Sinyak / NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/good-vibrations-orion-crew-module-undergoes-testing) NASA published a [document](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/m2m%5Fstrategy%5Fand%5Fobjectives%5Fdevelopment.pdf) on April 5 explaining the systems engineering methodologies the agency is using to develop and [refine](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-96/) its [Moon to Mars Objectives](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/moon-to-mars-objectives-.pdf), something central to its long-term human exploration plans. This comes just as NASA’s Exploration Systems Development Mission Directorate ([ESDMD](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/exploration-systems-development)) formed a [new Strategy and Architecture Office](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/new-program-office-leads-nasa-s-path-forward-for-moon-mars), which will lead the development of an integrated master plan for crewed Artemis missions based on said objectives. --- *Many thanks to [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io) for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## Scientists continue better understanding water’s movement on our Moon One of the last scientific contributions by NASA-DLR’s now-retired, airborne [SOFIA](https://www.nasa.gov/mission%5Fpages/SOFIA/overview/index.html) infrared observatory is a [new wide-area map](https://doi.org/10.3847/PSJ/acbdf2) of water on our Moon’s surface as observed in February 2022\. It supports [previous research results](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasa-study-highlights-importance-of-surface-shadows-in-moon-water-puzzle) which suggest that lunar surface water hops and accumulates in shaded regions over the day. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f5599b35e-fc08-4bd1-a59f-30b9cddac059_1920x1080-jpeg.jpg) A visualization of SOFIA water signature data overlaid on a visualization of the Moon as it appeared at the time of the observations in February 2022\. Dark blue indicates the highest concentration levels. [Credits: Ernie Wright / NASA GSFC](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/study-reveals-map-of-moon-s-water-near-its-south-pole) The upcoming NASA-funded [Lunar Trailblazer](https://jatan.space/nasa-lunar-trailblazer/) orbiter will better [monitor](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/files/NESFELS%5F210720.pdf) how lunar water migrates across sunlit regions in a wide range of latitudes. ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) has already [detected](https://doi.org/10.18520/cs/v121/i3/391-401) both water and hydroxyl molecules in three different sunlit lunar areas, across a wide latitude range, to help scientists understand how water is produced and transported across the surface. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f7965089f-3719-450d-9063-3ba9e9348179_2120x1000-jpeg.jpg) Water concentrations in mid-northern-latitudes on the Moon as observed by ISRO’s Chandrayaan 2 infrared spectrometer. Note that red indicates highest concentrations here. [Credit: Prakash Chauhan, et al.](https://doi.org/10.18520/cs/v121/i3/391-401) Both these orbiters can use finer spectral data and and better temperature measurements from lunar orbit to better apply thermal corrections and achieve a better signal-to-noise ratio than the Earthbound SOFIA, where scientists had to deal with more false positives due to water in our atmosphere. And so, we’ll soon get a better handle on exactly how water moves across the Moon, day and night, and how some of it settles inside [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/). ## More Moon - ISRO [organized a workshop](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan-3%5FData%5FAnalysis%5FWorkshop%5Ffor%5FNational%5FAcademia%5Fand%5FInstitutes.html) on March 28–29 to train students and researchers on lunar science and data analysis, especially for the expected in-situ measurements from instruments on the soon-launching [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-3-prelaunch-info/) lander and rover respectively. - Andrew Jones [reports](https://spacenews.com/china-invites-venezuela-to-join-moon-base-project) that China has invited long-time space partner Venezuela to support the joint Sino-Russian long-term scientific base on the Moon’s south pole, called the [International Lunar Research Station](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-32/) (ILRS). According to a [joint statement](https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/0ncCkxq9TaWtkDL5TBV0xA), Venezuela intends to sign a Memorandum of Understanding as soon as possible. The country of Pakistan is another such candidate, considering that their first lunar orbiter ICUBE-Q will launch [aboard](https://spacenews.com/china-seeks-new-partners-for-lunar-and-deep-space-exploration) the Chang’e 6 lander in 2026. - For All Moonkind, a nonprofit aiming to [protect](https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefings-statements/bill-announcement-123020-2) heritage lunar landing sites, has started the [Institute on Space Law and Ethics](https://www.forallmoonkind.org/institute/). Their primary goal is to draft a series of white papers to help governments with ethical issues surrounding commercial lunar exploration, especially in cases where regulations wouldn’t have yet caught up with drastic technological advancements. - The [Spring Meeting](https://lsic.jhuapl.edu/Events/Agenda/index.php?id=380) of the Lunar Surface Innovation Consortium, a key group which formally supports NASA’s lunar technology developments, will be on April 24–25\. Day 2’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) updates might be something to look out for. --- **→ [Sponsor Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) | [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Indian Space Progress #3: ISRO’s approach to commercial launch, Chandrayaan 3 liftoff in sight, Gaganyaan engines, mission updates, and more URL: https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-03/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:12.000Z *At \~2,000 words, this edition is filled with updates and context on what has been a buzzing March for Indian space. I hope you enjoy reading it as much as I did trying to make sense of it all.* :) ## ISRO solidifies its commercial leg with second launch for OneWeb ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ff4fbb42b-a038-4cea-aaed-0ea90f7f01c0_2400x1600-jpeg-1.jpg) Liftoff of 36 OneWeb satellites on India’s GSLV Mk III rocket on March 26, 2023\. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/LVM3M3%5Fgallery.html) An Indian GSLV Mk III rocket [launched and deployed](https://www.isro.gov.in/LVM3%5FM3%5FOneWeb%5FIndia2%5Fmission%5Fsuccessful.html) 36 OneWeb satellites on March 26, marking ISRO’s second commercial launch for the UK firm. ISRO’s fleet of rockets exist first and foremost to give India independence from foreign launchers. But they also offer commercial opportunities, as illustrated by the OneWeb launches. Russia’s invasion of Ukraine in February 2022 [terminated](https://spacenews.com/oneweb-takes-229-million-charge-for-canceled-soyuz-launches) OneWeb’s launch arrangement with Roscosmos, which had already launched 428 satellites for the company aboard Soyuz rockets. India seized the opportunity by offering OneWeb [prioritized rides](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L68zTAyTd0I) to meet the company’s urgent need. New Space India Limited (NSIL), a Department of Space company tasked with commercializing Indian space technologies, negotiated on behalf of ISRO and won the two OneWeb contracts at [$60 million](https://ianslive.in/news/oneweb%5Fpays%5Fover%5Frs%5F1%5F000%5Fcr%5Fto%5Findia%5Ffor%5Flaunching%5F72%5Fsatellites%5Flead%5F-914790/SCIENCE-AND-TECHNOLOGY/36) per launch—just under the $67 million [price tag](https://payloadspace.com/spacex-increases-launch-and-starlink-prices/) of a dedicated SpaceX Falcon 9. ISRO has launched the Mk III [six times](https://www.isro.gov.in/LVM3%5FLaunchers.html) now, all successful. At [\~6,000 kilograms](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/Missions/LVM3/LVM3%5FM3%5FOneWeb%5FIndia2%5FBrochure%5FV8.pdf) each, the two OneWeb launches were the heaviest payloads ever carried on an Indian rocket. ISRO is [working on](https://www.vssc.gov.in/GSLVmk3.html) increasing Mk III’s payload capacity further to complement its workhorse, medium-lift PSLV rocket. The agency is also human-rating the Mk III to launch astronauts by mid-decade for project [Gaganyaan](https://www.isro.gov.in/Gaganyaan.html), which would make the rocket more reliable. As of its last flight on November 26, the PSLV has launched [348 satellites for 36 countries](https://web.archive.org/web/20221024134415/https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/ForeignSatellites/381%5Fforeign%5Fsatellites.pdf) since its first commercial launch in 1999\. To keep the vehicle relevant amid increasing global launch competition, NSIL awarded a [$104 million contract](https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/indl-goods/svs/engineering/hal-lt-to-build-five-pslv-rockets-bags-rs-860-crore-deal-from-nsil-for-the-project/articleshow/93980649.cms?utm%5Fsource=contentofinterest&utm%5Fmedium=text&utm%5Fcampaign=cppst) in September to a consortium of major PSLV contractors to have [fully industry-built PSLVs](https://www.nsilindia.co.in/sites/default/files/Press%20Release-%20Contract%20signed%20for%20production%20of%2005%20nos%20PSLV-XL.pdf) with increased production rates and reduced prices. In parallel, with a [successful launch](https://www.isro.gov.in/mission%5FSSLV%5FD2.html) this February, ISRO’s new modular SSLV rocket is set to enter the [cut-throat](https://europeanspaceflight.substack.com/p/more-vehicles-than-customers-1446755) smallsat market with a [lower target price and quicker turnaround](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-02/) than Rocket Lab’s Electron. NSIL aims to offer as many as [ten SSLV launches](https://www.livemint.com/companies/news/isro-arm-targets-10-commercial-sslv-launches-by-2026-11678114241233.html) a year by 2026. Evidently, the primary factor limiting commercial success for Indian rockets isn’t pricing but launch frequency. India can currently produce a Mk III every [six to eight months](https://spacenews.com/oneweb-launch-sign-of-greater-role-for-india-in-commercial-launch-market). NSIL and ISRO want to cut that in half by 2025\. But even when coupled with increased production rates of the PSLV and SSLV, the country simply has no plans to launch as amply as the Falcon 9. Again, all of ISRO’s rockets exist primarily to serve India’s national interests, including civil needs. The Mk III was particularly created to drastically [reduce India’s dependence](https://www.isro.gov.in/2018press2.html) on Europe-based Arianespace for launching its heaviest satellites. In fact, ISRO Chief S. Somanath [said](https://www.youtube.com/live/bIKIzl-h3Qo?feature=share&t=4471) in a post-launch briefing that the Mk III used for the March 26 lift of OneWeb satellites debuted [upgraded solid rocket boosters](https://web.archive.org/web/20220728025345/https://www.isro.gov.in/update/13-may-2022/isro-successfully-tests-large-human-rated-solid-rocket-booster-gaganyaan) with increased margins. These are designed for future Gaganyaan flights, and are thus being tested ahead of time. As such, once operational for the nation’s own needs, ISRO’s fleet of rockets are offered commercially. The MK III’s orbital loft of OneWeb satellites solidifies ISRO’s small but definitive place in the global space launch market. *This section was originally published on [Payload](https://payloadspace.com/oneweb-launch-shows-isros-budding-commercial-opportunities), and is extended and tweaked for my blog.* ## Chandrayaan 3 liftoff in sight ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f863dede6-7f70-4ebd-8eb9-ce8efd041f20_2700x1800-jpeg-2.jpg) The Chandrayaan 3 spacecraft stack is seen here mounted in an acoustic chamber. The stack comprises the lander and the propulsion module for co-flight until lunar orbit. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan%5F3%5FModule%5FDynamic%5FTests.html) As part of an ongoing series of standard [space simulating tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/), India’s [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-3-prelaunch-info/) Moon lander successfully [completed its launch survival testing](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan%5F3%5FModule%5FDynamic%5FTests.html) early March. This test checks in a special acoustic chamber if the spacecraft structure can withstand the intense, sustained sounds and vibrations of its rocket launch. At the [4th Indian Planetary Science Conference](https://www.prl.res.in/ipsc2023) (IPSC) last month, ISRO Chief S. Somanath said that the agency is targeting Chandrayaan 3’s launch by July. Somanath added that the joint Indo-Japanese [LUPEX Moon mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-111/) will launch in the 2026–2028 timeframe. The mission’s ISRO-developed lander will deliver JAXA’s \~350-kilogram, drill-capable rover to the Moon’s south pole to study [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). LUPEX, similarly to NASA’s [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/), aims to help scientists unravel the physical and chemical nature of the Moon’s water ice deposits, assess their resource potential, and determine how accessible they really are to help us plan future crewed missions. Related updates: - ISRO [organized a workshop](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan-3%5FData%5FAnalysis%5FWorkshop%5Ffor%5FNational%5FAcademia%5Fand%5FInstitutes.html) on March 28–29 to train students and researchers on lunar science and data analysis, especially for the expected in-situ measurements from the instruments on the Chandrayaan 3 lander and rover respectively. - Rishitosh Sinha from the Physical Research Laboratory said in his IPSC talk that Chandrayaan 3’s alternate landing site is at [69.49](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=-37.7466453%2C-70.2182775%2C-1.9181073%2C-67.7917566&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=-17.33078313%2C-69.48997805%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Alternate+landing+site+for+Chandrayaan+3%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFaaKBJ-Im64NOZFkRdi5KjwpA&proj=17)[°](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=40.2145798%2C44.1202909%2C48.4074855%2C48.7594362&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=44.40014864%2C47.49964213&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFaaKBJ-Im64NOZFkRdi5KjwpA&proj=16)[ S, 17.33](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=-37.7466453%2C-70.2182775%2C-1.9181073%2C-67.7917566&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=-17.33078313%2C-69.48997805%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Alternate+landing+site+for+Chandrayaan+3%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFaaKBJ-Im64NOZFkRdi5KjwpA&proj=17)[°](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=40.2145798%2C44.1202909%2C48.4074855%2C48.7594362&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=44.40014864%2C47.49964213&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFaaKBJ-Im64NOZFkRdi5KjwpA&proj=16)[ W](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=-37.7466453%2C-70.2182775%2C-1.9181073%2C-67.7917566&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=-17.33078313%2C-69.48997805%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Alternate+landing+site+for+Chandrayaan+3%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFaaKBJ-Im64NOZFkRdi5KjwpA&proj=17). Also see: [Chandrayaan 3’s primary landing site](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-3-prelaunch-info/) ## On India and Artemis In an interview with Interstellar News, ISRO Chief S. Somanath [said](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BPOQFxpfts0&t=927s) that the agency has submitted an internal report to the Indian government regarding possible stances the country could take on the US-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords). However, Somanath also mentioned that “signing the Accords is a prerequisite for participating in Artemis.” This, in the eyes of his team, complicates the decision-making process for India to [collaborate on Artemis lunar missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-116/). But said condition may not be true, or is at least murky, because Marcia Smith [reported](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/two-african-countries-join-artemis-accords-bringing-total-to-23) in December 2022 that the U.S. is pushing for broad international acceptance of the Accords independent of a nation’s desire to collaborate with NASA on Artemis itself. Relatedly, a talk during the [54th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/index.shtml) last month demonstrates such a collaborative end. Wes Patterson [described](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/pdf/2397.pdf) how his team is using complementary radar data from NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html) and ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) to uniquely characterize the [13 candidate lunar south polar landing zones](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-91/) for NASA’s historic return of humans to our Moon with [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-iii) by mid-decade. The output from this work includes getting valuable information on landing hazards within those sites, better access to their [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) than optical imagers for [lunar water](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/)\-related mission goals, and gaining a broad sense of the physical states of the regions from inferred physical properties. It effectively illustrates how a NASA-ISRO collaboration for Artemis [represents an untapped opportunity](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-116/). --- *Many thanks to the [Takshashila Institution](https://takshashila.org.in) and [SkyServe](https://skyserve.ai) for sponsoring this month’s Indian Space Progress report.* *Thanks also to [James Tuttle Keane](https://www.jamestuttlekeane.com) for supporting my independent writing.* --- ## Upcoming mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fbde900ff-6f72-4735-9032-cfe7e0bb81bf_1200x834-jpeg.jpg) An artist’s impression of the joint NASA-ISRO NISAR radar satellite. [Credit: NASA](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/nasa-isro-synthetic-aperture-radar-nisar/) - ISRO is targeting launch of Singapore’s 750-kilogram [TeLEOS 2](https://www.aircosmosinternational.com/article/singapore-launches-development-of-teleos-2-earth-observation-satellite-1654) synthetic aperture radar (SAR) satellite on a PSLV rocket [end of April](https://www.reddit.com/r/ISRO/comments/12cfkvi/pslvc55teleos2%5Fnotam%5Fis%5Fout%5Fenforcement%5Fduration). Several other smallsats, including a 3D-printed [PILOT](https://www.reddit.com/r/ISRO/comments/1249aw8/comment/jdys7n3/?context=3) payload, will fly as rideshares. - On March 6, NASA [air-delivered](https://www.isro.gov.in/NISAR%5FSatellite%5FUpdate.html) to ISRO the integrated SAR payloads for the [NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar](https://nisar.jpl.nasa.gov) (NISAR) Earth observation satellite. This completes a major milestone for the [joint project](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasa-isro-science-instruments-arrive-in-india-ahead-of-2024-launch), which is among the most expensive at [$1.5 billion](http://syntheticapertureradar.com/nasa-isro-sar-project-nisar). NISAR’s L-band SAR is being provided by NASA JPL while the S-band SAR is from ISRO. Next up, ISRO will integrate the payloads and associated NASA-provided avionics into the homegrown satellite bus. Over the course of its three-year primary mission post-launch in Q1 2024, NISAR’s first-of-its-kind dual-frequency radar imaging system will observe nearly our entire planet every 12 days to reveal ongoing changes in Earth’s crust, polar ice, climatic processes, biomass, agricultural regions, and more. The satellite will also be used for disaster management, whereby its data will be available only a few hours after observations. ISRO and NASA have said that all science data from the mission will be in the public domain. - Contrary to [earlier reports](https://www.republicworld.com/science/space/isro-aditya-l-1-launch-of-indias-maiden-solar-mission-slips-to-december-2023-articleshow.html) of a launch delay, ISRO Chief S. Somanath said during his [IPSC](https://www.prl.res.in/ipsc2023) talk that ISRO has received [all instruments](https://www.isro.gov.in/Aditya%5FL1.html) of the [Aditya-L1](https://jatan.space/isro-space-science-missions-2020-2025/) solar observatory, and that the mission’s launch is still targeted for mid-year. That does align with [a response in the Indian Parliament](https://pqals.nic.in/annex/1711/AU4702.pdf), which says the PSLV rocket after the one launching TeLEOS2 is designated for Aditya-L1. - In his talk, Somanath also mentioned that ISRO is considering the 2028 launch window for its upcoming Venus orbiter mission [Shukrayaan](https://jatan.space/isro-venus-orbiter-launch-2024/). He was concerned about the science aspect of Gaganyaan: “I haven’t seen many good scientific objectives coming out of Gaganyaan. We need to work on this.” ## Engines for human spaceflight ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fccff03af-f609-427f-812f-85eaab2470f2_1350x900-jpeg.jpg) Test firing of a Vikas engine modified for human spaceflight launches. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/Vikas%5Fengine%5Ftest%5Fcampaign.html) As ISRO works towards the ambitious inaugural [Gaganyaan mission](https://www.isro.gov.in/Gaganyaan.html) to indigenously send humans to space, advances continue on qualifying technologies needed to achieve said feat. On April 6, ISRO [completed](https://www.isro.gov.in/Vikas%5Fengine%5Ftest%5Fcampaign.html) human-rating the [liquid-fueled Vikas engine](https://www.isro.gov.in/Vikas.html), two of which power the core stage of the GSLV Mk III. The qualification campaign, which took place over 3 years, comprised several long duration hot fire tests of a modified Mk III Vikas engine, which has higher structural margins, better health monitoring, and redundancy in many of its associated systems. These tests also had intentionally off-nominal fuel ratios and thrust levels to broaden safety limits. So that was the lift end of the Gaganyaan equation, but the agency has been progressing on the earthly descent phase as well. On April 5, ISRO [successfully tested](https://www.isro.gov.in/System%5FDemonstration%5FModel%5Ftest.html) a full 650-second burn of the twelve 100-Newton thrusters which will power the Crew Module during Gaganyaan missions to provide controlled atmospheric descent. ISRO also [continued parachute deployment tests](https://www.isro.gov.in/Rail%5FTrack%5FRocket%5FGaganyaan%5FPrachutes.html) last month, and [received](https://www.isro.gov.in/crew%5Fmodule%5Fstructure%5Fsimulated%5Fassembly.html) a simulated Crew Module structure for performing air-drop tests soon. ## The commercial push continues - IN-SPACe, a Department of Space entity created to promote, regulate, and authorize activities of private Indian space organizations, is [providing](https://www.inspace.gov.in/inspace?id=announcement%5Ffor%5Fopportunities) up to \~$120,000 in seed funding to innovative new startups. Relatedly, IN-SPACe is also [establishing a Design Lab](https://www.inspace.gov.in/inspace?id=inspace%5Fdlinfo), where space startups can access comprehensive, high-performance space simulation suites without having to own their own. - As part of the growing Indian-Australian collaboration in space, the Australian Space Agency is providing a total of [$20.7 million in funding](https://www.industry.gov.au/news/international-space-investment-india-projects-grants-now-open) to Aussie businesses and research organizations for specifically conducting joint projects with Indian space entities anywhere across the space technology spectrum. - On March 31, private firm Skyroot Aerospace [successfully hot fired](https://www.financialexpress.com/business/defence-in-another-first-indias-skyroot-successfully-tests-3d-printed-cryogenic-engine-3033698) a 3D-printed cryogenic second stage engine for their upcoming [Vikram-II](https://skyroot.in/launch-services.html) launch vehicle. Here’s the [video](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bjDIE-XV5VY). ## More Indian space - On April 2, ISRO [successfully conducted](https://www.isro.gov.in/Reusable%5Flaunch%5Fvehicle%5Fautonomous%5Flanding%5Fmission.html) the first autonomous, runway landing demonstration of an indigenously developed spaceplane, whose larger version will be part of a future [Reusable Launch Vehicle](https://www.isro.gov.in/RLVTD.html). The spaceplane was dropped from a 4.5-kilometer altitude with initial conditions that simulate a reentry from space starting from that point. ISRO will now prepare to conduct a landing test with [an actual orbital flight](https://www.wionews.com/india-news/exclusive-india-lands-unmanned-spaceplane-with-pin-point-accuracy-next-destination-is-space-578210), but its timeline remains utterly unknown. - Scientists at the Raman Research Institute, in partnership with ISRO, [successfully demonstrated](https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/raman-research-institute-researchers-demonstrate-ground-to-satellite-secure-communication-quantum-key-distribution-qkd/article66687197.ece) secure quantum communications between a stationary source and a moving receiver. Previously, ISRO [demonstrated](https://www.isro.gov.in/DeptofSpace.html) such communications between stationary ends last year. The ultimate goal it to have the technology on satellites. - To accelerate the realization of \~100 specific space technology products ISRO needs for its upcoming missions, the agency has put out [an open invite](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/Tenders/2023/EOI%5FDTDI23323.pdf) to the national industry to bid for the same. This move should enhance ISRO’s supplier network while also being a good opportunity for new private players. - As a demonstration of safe space debris disposal, ISRO [carefully de-orbited](https://www.isro.gov.in/mt1-rentry-successful.html) the 12-year old Megha-Tropiques-1 satellite on March 7\. Related: Here’s a [neat overview](https://www.isro.gov.in/Indian%5FSpace%5FSituational%5FAssessment%5F2022.html) of progress on the Indian Space Situational Awareness front during 2022. ## Presented at the Indian Planetary Science conference I presented this poster at the [4th Indian Planetary Science Conference](https://www.prl.res.in/ipsc2023) last month. Really, for *civil* space exploration missions, why is it that despite being an Indian citizen I have easy formal access to U.S. government space agency officials (NASA) but not ISRO? With this poster, I’ve tried to get the word out there more formally, and to more relevant people. Progress in public awareness of science is the progress of science, and that of a nation. Let us solve this. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f2404b84a-96aa-4cdf-8fb3-2b268bc86688_2000x1922-jpeg.jpg) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2faef89c36-c432-45a0-8fd9-18c1f5ecf174_2500x2500-jpeg.jpg) --- **→ [Sponsor Indian Space Progress](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-indian-space-progress) | [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Moon Monday #121: NASA announces crew for Artemis II, centralizes its lunar exploration efforts, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-121/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:12.000Z ## The astronauts who will fly around our Moon soon In what felt like an [Apple-esque presentation](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mua1Lysc%5FJQ), NASA [announced](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) today the four astronauts who will travel around our Moon and back as part of the 10-day [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to) mission: - [Reid Wiseman](https://www.nasa.gov/astronauts/biographies/g-reid-wiseman/biography) (Commander) - [Victor Glover](https://www.nasa.gov/astronauts/biographies/victor-j-glover/biography) (Pilot) - [Christina Hammock Koch](https://www.nasa.gov/astronauts/biographies/christina-hammock-koch/biography) (Mission Specialist) - [Jeremy Hansen](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronauts/canadian/active/bio-jeremy-hansen.asp) (Mission Specialist) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fb513360a-6614-4650-aeea-53b86a5cae0d_2000x1800-jpeg.jpg) Artemis II crew; left to right: Christina Hammock Koch, Reid Wiseman (seated), Victor Glover, and Jeremy Hansen. [Credit: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) NASA is aiming to launch these astronauts on the [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) atop the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) in November 2024 at the earliest. Hansen is a Canadian astronaut, flying in return for CSA contributing the [Canadarm3](https://asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/canadarm3/about.asp) robotic servicing system to the [Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway), which is an upcoming NASA-led international crewed lunar orbital station. If Artemis II is successful, the stage will be ripe for NASA to land humans on our Moon again with [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-iii) mid-decade. Tangent: SpaceX’s similar [dearMoon](https://dearmoon.earth) mission, purchased by Japanese billionaire Yusaku Maezawa, aims to [carry 9 people](https://spacenews.com/japanese-billionaire-selects-crew-for-circumlunar-starship-flight) around Luna. There’s a chance that SpaceX could fly humans around the Moon before NASA launches crew on [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to), especially when considering that the evolution of [the same Lunar Starship system](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) is supposed to land astronauts on the Moon for NASA with Artemis III. This isn’t a competition—more the merrier!—but the optics of it to that end are interesting. Relatedly, NASA has [selected Jon Olansen](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-s-jon-b-olansen-to-serve-as-new-gateway-program-manager) as the new manager of [Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway). Olansen previously managed the development of [Habitation and Logistics Outpost](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-northrop-grumman-finalize-moon-outpost-living-quarters-contract) (HALO) module, where Artemis astronauts will initially live in while at the Gateway for Artemis missions. The same agency release tells us that Gateway’s launch is in 2025, meaning it’s been delayed [from end of 2024](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-contract-to-launch-initial-elements-for-lunar-outpost) as originally targeted. ## NASA centralizes Artemis planning after all Catalyzed by the [2022 NASA Authorization Act](https://spacenews.com/nasa-authorization-included-in-chips-act), the U.S. Congress has approved the creation of a new [Moon to Mars Program Office](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/new-program-office-leads-nasa-s-path-forward-for-moon-mars) at NASA HQ. This office centralizing various related as well as disparate elements of Artemis, and residing within the agency’s *Exploration Systems Development Mission Directorate* ([ESDMD](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/exploration-systems-development)), is being led by Amit Kshatriya and his deputy Lakiesha Hawkins. Centrally managing Artemis is bound to improve safety, transparency, responsibility, and accountability in this unprecedented crewed space endeavor that can now finally be considered a program rather [than a campaign](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-90/)! Less reported but ESDMD is also getting a new *Strategy and Architecture Office* sitting parallel to the *Moon to Mars* one. It will lead the development of an integrated master plan based on the agency’s [Moon to Mars Objectives](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/moon-to-mars-objectives-.pdf), which were [recently updated](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-96/). Here’s the new ESDMD organization chart: ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fa3adc380-e7f5-4b3f-aeac-bb28f293c4e5_936x611-jpeg-1.jpg) New organization chart for NASA ESDMD, as of April 3, 2023\. [Credit: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/exploration-systems-development), annotations by me, Jatan. Relatedly, in its [2022 annual report](https://oiir.hq.nasa.gov/asap/documents/ASAP%5F2022%5FAnnual%5FReport.pdf), the Aerospace Safety Advisory Panel (ASAP) [applauded NASA](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-114/) for making “impressive strides in \[Artemis\] program management,” chief of which includes NASA aligning and centrally listing all Artemis engineering elements to ensure traceability of requirements as well as their systematic integration and interoperability. The agency has now also has an “Artemis master schedule”, which is reviewed every month to identify lingering areas and disconnects. --- *Many thanks to [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io), [Open Lunar Foundation](https://www.openlunar.org) and [The Orbital Index](https://orbitalindex.com) for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## Mission updates - Jeff Foust [reports](https://spacenews.com/h3-failure-could-delay-japanese-science-missions) that the launch of JAXA’s [SLIM](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/home/slim/SLIM/technology.html) lunar lander on the homegrown H-2A rocket has been delayed from May. Since the H-2A upper stage engine is similar to the one that [failed to ignite](https://spacenews.com/japans-h3-rocket-launch-fails-after-second-stage-malfunction) on the H3 rocket’s debut flight last month, JAXA has put SLIM’s launch on hold until the investigation at least clears the H-2A for flight. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2faf2c1bb8-6a1b-47b7-960d-f9072bd0dc5e_2002x1339-jpeg.jpg) Field testing of a terrestrial prototype of the FLEX lunar rover with two astronauts. [Credit: Astrolab](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=79fAZKI6FJ8) - Astrolab is aiming to have their first [Flexible Logistics and Exploration](https://astrolab.space/flex) (FLEX) rover deployed on the Moon’s south pole [by a SpaceX Starship](https://astrolab.space/news/blog/145) launch & landing system in 2026\. This is intriguing because it’s essentially the same rover design Astrolab will pitch to NASA as the agency requests proposals this May for a versatile [Lunar Terrain Vehicle](https://jatan.space/what-we-know-about-artemis-ltv/), which will be used across Artemis missions starting end of decade for at least 10 years. Astrolab has [been testing](https://astrolab.space/news/blog/1) FLEX’s [fully-functional terrestrial prototype](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SfT6HIc9OPw) for mobility, crewed and remote operations, and for deploying a variety of large payloads. - As part of the [ongoing community input phase](https://jatan.space/nasa-taps-top-scientist-for-crewed-moon-return/), NASA is holding a virtual [Lunar Surface Science Workshop](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/Artemis%5FIII%5F2023) on April 4–5 for U.S. scientists [to help](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/Artemis%5FIII%5F2023/technical%5Fprogram) the agency downselect from the [13 candidate polar landing zones](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-91/) of the [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-iii) crewed Moon mission mid-decade. With the mission planning for four astronaut excursions up to 2 kilometers from the lander, finding a scientifically impressive site while balancing engineering constraints isn’t easy. ## Lockheed Moonlights Crescent Space ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f75f4584e-5006-4174-8d56-d4e24f6b4468_1400x975-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of a Crescent Space *Parsec* communications & navigation satellite in lunar orbit. [Credit: Lockheed Martin](https://www.lockheedmartin.com/en-us/news/features/2021/lunar-communication-and-navigation-network.html) Lockheed Martin has established [Crescent Space](https://www.crescentspace.com), a subsidiary dedicated to providing lunar infrastructure services starting with [Parsec](https://www.lockheedmartin.com/en-us/news/features/2021/lunar-communication-and-navigation-network.html), an [interoperable](https://spacenews.com/lockheed-martin-subsidiary-to-offer-commercial-lunar-communications-and-navigation-services) commercial communications and navigation service for a variety of hardware on and around the Moon. Lockheed plans to build and launch [the first two satellites](https://news.lockheedmartin.com/2023-03-28-Crescent-Space-to-Deliver-Critical-Services-to-a-Growing-Lunar-Economy) of the Parsec constellation in 2025, after which Crescent will take over their ownership and operations. Parsec’s satellite bus is the same one as Lockheed has used in NASA’s upcoming [Lunar Trailblazer](https://jatan.space/nasa-lunar-trailblazer/) orbiter. Marcia Smith [notes](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/lockheed-martin-to-offer-communications-navigation-services-on-the-moon) that in a [FCC filing](https://fcc.report/IBFS/SAT-LOA-20230315-00060), Lockheed is seeking permission to also deploy 230 compatible lunar surface stations. The most viable competitor to Crescent in this space is ESA, whose [Moonlight plans](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-98/) literally set in motion with the [launch](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-picks-firefly-aerospace-for-robotic-delivery-to-far-side-of-moon) of the [Lunar Pathfinder](https://jatan.space/nasa-esa-collaborate-on-lunar-pathfinder/) orbiter in 2026\. There are other navcom services being planned as well globally, [from China](https://spacenews.com/china-to-build-a-lunar-communications-and-navigation-constellation) to the likes of [ArkEdge Space](https://spacenews.com/japans-arkedge-space-closes-18-7-million-series-a-for-nanosatellite-projects), [Aquarian Space](https://spacenews.com/another-startup-joins-race-to-provide-high-speed-lunar-communications) and [Plus Ultra](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=2515). ## More Moon - Studies of lunar samples collected by China’s [Chang’e 5](https://jatan.space/change-5-landing-site/) mission in 2020 have [found water](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-023-01159-6) trapped in glass beads. Most of these beads formed over 3 billion years ago as part of heated lunar material ejected by asteroid and cometary impacts. Scientists think said water is primarily created due to [the solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) interacting with the Moon’s surface, and is then [getting diffused](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-023-01159-6/figures/4) into the glass beads through a series of processes. Scientists estimate this mechanism allows 270 trillion kilograms of water to exist in the top 12 meters across all of Luna. If confirmed, this would be great news but just for contrast, [Lake Superior](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake%5FSuperior)—Earth’s largest freshwater lake—alone hosts over 11,000 trillion kilograms of water. - In an interview with Interstellar News, ISRO Chief S. Somanath [said](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BPOQFxpfts0&t=927s) that the agency has submitted an internal report to the Indian government regarding possible stances the country could take on the U.S.-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords). However, Somanath also mentioned that “signing the Accords is a prerequisite for participating in Artemis.” This, in the eyes of his team, complicates the decision-making process for India to [collaborate on Artemis lunar missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-116/). But said condition may not be true, or is at least murky, because Marcia Smith [reported](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/two-african-countries-join-artemis-accords-bringing-total-to-23) in December 2022 that the U.S. is pushing for broad international acceptance of the Accords independent of a country’s intentions to collaborate with NASA on Artemis itself. - NASA’s ultra-sensitive [ShadowCam](https://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/about) imager onboard South Korea’s first lunar orbiter [KPLO](https://jatan.space/kplo/) dazzles once again with [a nightime image](http://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/images/1297) of the [Aristarchus crater](https://jatan.space/glorious-aristarchus/), illuminated by Earthshine! The latter is 10 to 100 times fainter than even the [secondary illumination](http://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/images/1288) ShadowCam typically uses to image [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s poles. Related: Because secondary illumination can have light coming from all directions, interpreting landforms and their geology [is tricky](http://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/images/1293) with such images. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f82123b63-9cf5-4ef4-9085-fc7de9d4ee86_1100x800-jpeg.jpg) The central peak of Aristarchus crater (left), and the surrounding crater floor, as imaged by the KPLO orbiter’s ShadowCam. [Credits: NASA / KARI / ASU](http://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/images/1297) --- **→ [Sponsor Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) | [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### On NASA’s announcement of the Artemis III Science Lead and more URL: https://jatan.space/nasa-taps-top-scientist-for-crewed-moon-return/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:13.000Z NASA’s [Artemis Town Hall](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/technical%5Fprogram/?session%5Fno=421) briefing at the 54th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference (LPSC) on March 15 [announced](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-appoints-lunar-science-leads-for-artemis-iii-artemis-iv-missions) Dr. Noah Petro as the Science Lead for [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-iii). The historic mission aims to land humans back on the Moon by mid-decade. Petro is currently the project scientist for NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html) (LRO). The satellite’s observations have helped space agencies plan for recent lunar touchdown attempts, and are critical for the success of Artemis as well. ## How we got here NASA’s selection of [SpaceX Lunar Starship](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) and [Axiom spacesuits](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-taps-axiom-space-for-first-artemis-moonwalking-spacesuits), over and above the standard [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) and [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) present in every Artemis mission, largely represent the technology stack to be used for Artemis III. The science end has been catching up since the mission’s [Science Definition Team](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/Artemis/) laid out [their priorities](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-defines-science-priorities-for-first-crewed-artemis-landing-on-moon) in December 2020\. In March 2022, NASA revealed the [Artemis science structure](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-112/), which comprises: - an internal NASA Science Team - an external Geology Team - Participating Scientists (which will have international researchers) - and an Instruments Team The latter three will be [competitively selected](https://science.nasa.gov/researchers/solicitations/roses-2022/amendment-86-c25-artemis-iii-geology-team-final-text). For Artemis III, Petro will coordinate and interface between each of these teams, as well as between the collective Science Team and Mission Ops. Likewise, Dr. Barbara Cohen will be the science lead for [Artemis IV](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-101/). ## Where will the astronauts land? ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9f39387a-f722-4e39-bdd1-245cbf451518_2300x1300-jpeg-1.jpg) The 13 candidate landing zones for NASA’s Artemis III crewed Moon mission on the Moon’s south pole. [Credits: NASA / LRO](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-identifies-candidate-regions-for-landing-next-americans-on-moon) | [Browse them on a map](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/layers?extent=-123.1287296%2C-80.2286323%2C62.2044887%2C-76.8446639&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4XyA&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypOOKWbJYZdAJgQWfyJqv5JwDGKIQp0ADgCcWRL2LkBSikA&proj=17) In August 2022, NASA chose [13 candidate landing zones](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-identifies-candidate-regions-for-landing-next-americans-on-moon) on the Moon’s south pole for Artemis III. Since then, the agency has been soliciting community input to downselect from said sites later this year. To that end, [three](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/technical%5Fprogram/?session%5Fno=251) [dedicated](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/technical%5Fprogram/?session%5Fno=401) [sessions](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/technical%5Fprogram/?session%5Fno=503) at LPSC 2023 saw various scientists present geologic merits of each of the 13 Artemis III candidate zones. *(Here’s an [example for Malapert](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/pdf/2399.pdf).)* One of the Artemis III talks at LPSC saw Wes Patterson [describe](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/pdf/2397.pdf) how his team is using complementary radar data from NASA’s LRO and ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) to uniquely characterize the Artemis III candidate sites. This includes getting valuable information on landing hazards within those sites, better access to their [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) than optical imagers, and gaining a broad sense of the physical states of the regions from inferred physical properties. It illustrates how a NASA-ISRO collaboration for Artemis [represents an untapped opportunity](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-116/). On the other side of the equation of selecting Artemis III’s landing site will be more precise engineering constraints coming from the still-in-development Lunar Starship. In particular, the [rocky south polar terrain](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/SPole%5FSRidgemap%5FLOLA-Slope5m%5Fv20190515.pdf) and the forever near-horizon Sun render few sufficiently flat and lit areas for safe touchdown. Any science planning has to work around that. ## What about the rovers? Unlike Apollo, NASA plans on having a single, unpressurized [Lunar Terrain Vehicle](https://jatan.space/what-we-know-about-artemis-ltv/) across Artemis missions for at least ten years. The LPSC 2023 Artemis briefing confirmed the rover being on the delivery manifest of Artemis V end of decade. NASA is also planning on delivering an even more advanced, pressurized habitable rover, likely [from JAXA](https://global.jaxa.jp/press/2019/03/20190312a.html), on Artemis VII. ## What else? Some more patience Sadly, pristine samples that astronauts will collect by venturing into some of the Moon’s [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) won’t be stored in cryogenic freezers until at least Artemis VI. Earlier Artemis surface missions will still collect such samples—they just won’t come to Earth as frigid as they’ve existed. On the flip side, even mission flight controllers will get basic geology training to streamline key science-gathering phases, such as sample collection during excursions. *Originally published on [Payload](https://payloadspace.com/nasa-taps-top-scientist-for-crewed-moon-return), extended and tweaked for my blog.* --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### Moon Monday #120: A lunarbound ispace craft, Chandrayaan 3 liftoff in sight, an Aussie lunar outpost, a Sino-Russian station, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-120/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:13.000Z *I’m thrilled to share that my writing is now also published on Payload Space! Read my first story for them [on Artemis science](https://payloadspace.com/nasa-taps-top-scientist-for-crewed-moon-return), which is also featured up top in [their newsletter today](https://newsletter.payloadspace.com/p/shoot-moon-32723):* [NASA Announces Artemis Science Leads 🌗](https://payloadspace.com/nasa-taps-top-scientist-for-crewed-moon-return) *I’ve had nice interactions with [Ryan](https://www.linkedin.com/in/rfduffy), [Ari](https://www.linkedin.com/in/ari-lewis-🚀-5b2b82140), and [Rachael](https://www.linkedin.com/in/rachaelzisk) for a while now, and each of them have been kind readers of Moon Monday and my articles since 2021\. I too have been reading Payload since I knew about it since around then. As such, this development feels particularly nice, and I’m excited to be working with the Payload team on more stories going ahead.* ## Mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fc5454993-126a-4b21-8d0c-dc177b581f56_1800x1300-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of ispace’s Hakuto-R lunar lander reversing its attitude so it can fire its engines to brake and get captured by our Moon’s gravity. [Credit: ispace](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L53Pjh5o1XA) - On March 21, ispace Japan’s [Hakuto-R lunar lander](https://jatan.space/ispace-japan-m1-moon-mission/) successfully fired its engines to enter [orbit around our Moon](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4460). This makes ispace the second private company to have hardware orbit Luna, following Israel-based SpaceIL’s said feat with the [Beresheet lander](https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/beresheet/in-depth) in 2019\. ispace will target an autonomous landing attempt of Hakuto-R in April end to the chosen landing site of [47.5°N, 44.4°E](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=40.2145798%2C44.1202909%2C48.4074855%2C48.7594362&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=44.40014864%2C47.49964213&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFaaKBJ-Im64NOZFkRdi5KjwpA&proj=16), which lies within the Atlas crater. However, the company hasn’t disclosed the parameters of the lander’s current roughly circular orbit, or how Hakuto-R will lower its perilune right until the descent begins for landing. - Eric Berger [mentions](https://arstechnica.com/science/2023/03/dream-chaser-is-delayed-again-raising-questions-about-vulcan-launch-plans) that Astrobotic has completed testing the main engine of its [first lunar lander](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-awarded-79-5-million-contract-to-deliver-14-nasa-payloads-to-the-moon) part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), awaiting launch soon on a ULA Vulcan rocket. He adds that minor hiccups in preparing the brand new rocket is likely going to prevent ULA from flying Vulcan on the [recently set](https://spacenews.com/ula-announces-may-launch-of-first-vulcan) 4-day launch window starting May 4\. The next lunar launch window for Astrobotic comes in June. - At the [4th Indian Planetary Science Conference](https://www.prl.res.in/ipsc2023) last week, ISRO Chief S. Somanath said that ISRO is targeting launch of the [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-3-prelaunch-info/) Moon landing mission by July. He added that the joint Indo-Japanese [LUPEX mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-111/) will launch in the 2026–2028 timeframe. The mission’s ISRO-developed lander will deliver JAXA’s \~350-kilogram, drill-capable rover to the Moon’s south pole (between 89–90°S) to study [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). LUPEX, similarly to NASA’s [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/), aims to help scientists unravel the physical and chemical nature of the Moon’s water ice deposits, assess their resource potential, and determine how accessible they really are to help us plan future crewed missions. - Tangent: Rishitosh Sinha from the Physical Research Laboratory said in his presentation at the conference that Chandrayaan 3’s alternate landing site is at [69.49](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=-37.7466453%2C-70.2182775%2C-1.9181073%2C-67.7917566&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=-17.33078313%2C-69.48997805%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Alternate+landing+site+for+Chandrayaan+3%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFaaKBJ-Im64NOZFkRdi5KjwpA&proj=17)[°](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=40.2145798%2C44.1202909%2C48.4074855%2C48.7594362&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=44.40014864%2C47.49964213&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFaaKBJ-Im64NOZFkRdi5KjwpA&proj=16)[ S, 17.33](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=-37.7466453%2C-70.2182775%2C-1.9181073%2C-67.7917566&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=-17.33078313%2C-69.48997805%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Alternate+landing+site+for+Chandrayaan+3%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFaaKBJ-Im64NOZFkRdi5KjwpA&proj=17)[°](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=40.2145798%2C44.1202909%2C48.4074855%2C48.7594362&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=44.40014864%2C47.49964213&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFaaKBJ-Im64NOZFkRdi5KjwpA&proj=16)[ W](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=-37.7466453%2C-70.2182775%2C-1.9181073%2C-67.7917566&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=-17.33078313%2C-69.48997805%40%40%7B%22label%22%3A%22Alternate+landing+site+for+Chandrayaan+3%22%7D&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFaaKBJ-Im64NOZFkRdi5KjwpA&proj=17). Also see: [Chandrayaan 3’s primary landing site](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-3-prelaunch-info/) - NASA has [assembled the core stage structure](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/nasa-connects-all-major-structures-of-artemis-ii-moon-rocket-core-stage.html) of the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) which will launch the [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to) mission, which aims to send four astronauts around the Moon and back in late 2024\. The core stage assembly includes joining of the engine section. The four [RS-25 engines](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/sls%5Frs25%5Fengine%5Ffs%5F508.pdf) are up next for integration. ## Australia blazing ahead on its lunar rover mission ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fa374045c-4515-422d-8555-6ef5c58f1513_600x470-jpeg.jpg) An illustration of an Australia-made lunar rover with its sampling arm. [Credit: AROSE](https://www.uwa.edu.au/news/Article/2023/March/Australia-a-step-closer-to-a-moon-landing) On March 20, the Australian Space Agency [announced](https://www.crn.com.au/news/two-consortia-to-build-aussie-designed-lunar-rover-592334) that it has competitively selected two national industry consortia—[AROSE](https://www.uwa.edu.au/news/Article/2023/March/Australia-a-step-closer-to-a-moon-landing), and the [EPE & Lunar Outpost Oceania](https://lunaroutpost.com/lunar-outpost-oceania-epe-consortium-selected-to-participate-in-the-australian-space-agencys-moon-to-mars-trailblazer-initiative)—to build a prototype of [the country’s first lunar rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-97/) by June 2024\. Each consortia will get [$4 million](https://www.minister.industry.gov.au/ministers/husic/media-releases/head-nasa-visit-australia-highlights-space-partnership) in funding for the same. Post that point, the winning consortium will build the actual semi-autonomous rover for delivery to the Moon’s south pole on a NASA-funded [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) lander in [2026](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-australia-sign-agreement-to-add-rover-to-future-moon-mission). The rover will retrieve lunar soil for the lander, where a NASA-operated system will practice extracting oxygen from it as a technology precursor to eventually [sustaining human presence](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept) on the Moon. It’s worth noting that the consortia led by EPE involves Lunar Outpost Oceania, a wholly owned subsidiary of US-based company [Lunar Outpost](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-79/) which is providing rovers on two upcoming CLPS Moon missions—[one](https://lunaroutpost.com/nokia-and-intuitive-machines-select-lunar-outpost-for-first-rover-mission-at-lunar-south-pole) to the south pole and [another](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-mission-to-reiner-gamma/) to the swirl of Reiner Gamma. Lunar Outpost also has [an office in Europe](https://lunaroutpost.com/lunar-outpost-eu-opens-in-luxembourg), over at Luxembourg. This office, funded by the Luxembourg government through an ESA Contract, focuses on developing thermal technologies to enable rovers to survive the frigid lunar nights. --- *Many thanks to [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io) for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* *Thanks also to [James Tuttle Keane](https://www.jamestuttlekeane.com) for supporting my independent writing.* --- ## More on the Sino-Russian Moonbase ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f71ab6eb5-4e6c-477b-a682-892990155dfb_2500x1500-jpeg.jpg) An artist’s concept showing initial plans of the joint Sino-Russian scientific station at the Moon’s south pole. [Credit: CNSA / Roscosmos](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l2P5kFTBuOs) Zou Yongliao, head of the lunar and deep space exploration division at the Chinese Academy of Sciences, said that China and Russia have [finalized key scientific goals](https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202303/1287773.shtml) of their joint [International Lunar Research Station](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-32/) (ILRS), an envisioned long-term scientific base on the Moon’s south pole. These goals comprise the following: - Learning about [our Moon’s evolution & structure](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) - Conducting [lunar-based astronomy](https://jatan.space/radio-astronomy-from-the-moon/) for studying habitable exoplanets as well as cosmology - [Observing the Sun](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) and Earth from the scientifically unique vantage point of our Moon - Conducting lunar-based fundamental science & technology experiments such as [plant growth](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-77/) China wants ILRS to be operational starting 2028 with Chang’e 8 delivering cargo at the selected site to begin setting up basic infrastructure. It will also test technologies to extract and use local resources for future mission needs, including for when humans start visiting the base circa 2035. Relatedly, Andrew Jones has previously reported how [China is looking for international partners](https://spacenews.com/china-seeks-new-partners-for-lunar-and-deep-space-exploration) for exploring the Moon. To that end, the Chang’e 7 lander launching mid-decade was supposed to [carry UAE’s second lunar rover](https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/CkjacBB3c4L%5FUbwNbeFPvA). But now the partnership [is apparently blocked](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3214396/us-tech-rules-bar-uae-moon-rover-chinas-change-7-mission-sources) by U.S. export control rules. ## More Moon - Estonia wants to [build an indigenous lunar rover](https://ut.ee/en/content/scientists-and-students-develop-first-estonian-lunar-rover), and several of its institutes have banded together to begin feasibility studies. - Trying to sustain a large, cooperative, and peaceful human presence on our Moon in the coming decade has policy implications right now. This is why *The Moon Dialogs* has released “[The Lunar Policy Handbook](https://www.moondialogs.org/lunar-policy-handbook)” as a high-level guide for governments as well as private space entities. It particularly explores potential policy implications of specific lunar activities (being) planned by organizations worldwide. - Relatedly, NASA’s Office of Technology, Policy, and Strategy [published a detailed report](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/lunar%5Flanding%5Fand%5Foperations%5Fpolicy%5Fanalysis%5Ffinal%5Freport%5F24oct2022%5Ftagged%5F0.pdf) last year to prompt the agency and its [international partners](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords) to plan for several policy and technical challenges that could stem from the increasing Moon landing missions by entities worldwide, especially those clustered at the relatively small but [water-rich](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) south pole. --- **→ [Sponsor Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) | [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Moon Monday #119: Mission updates, NASA’s wishlist for Luna, science galore, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-119/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:13.000Z *Okay, two things before we unpack some lovely lunar vibes:* 1. *So much happened in lunar exploration last week that this was one difficult edition to concisely contextualize. What an amazing problem to have! The immense pace with which we’re building for our Moon was unthinkable just a decade ago, and I hope that a sign of our desired success is reinforced in the form of many Moon-dedicated media publications cropping up over the decade.* 2. *Purchasing power parity renders me simply unable to afford to physically attend any international space conference. But thanks to the great leveler that is the Internet, and the fact that US conferences take virtual participation seriously, I was able to tune in on the* *[54th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/index.shtml) (LPSC)* *last week. For this Moon Monday I list all major mission-related takeaways from it, and I’m working on two highlight stories to also be served to a screen near you soon!* 1. *Relatedly, I look forward to physically attending the [4th Indian Planetary Science Conference](https://www.prl.res.in/ipsc2023) in Ahmedabad this week, where I’m also [presenting a poster](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-03/) on “Advancing the global reach of India’s space exploration activities”. If you’re around and want to meet to discuss Space, Science, or the Web, [get in touch](https://jatan.space/connect).* :) ## Mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f863dede6-7f70-4ebd-8eb9-ce8efd041f20_2700x1800-jpeg-3.jpg) The Chandrayaan 3 spacecraft stack, comprising the lander and the propulsion module for co-flight until lunar orbit, mounted in an acoustic chamber. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan%5F3%5FModule%5FDynamic%5FTests.html) As part of an ongoing series of standard [space simulating tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/), India’s [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-3-prelaunch-info/) Moon lander successfully [completed its launch survival testing](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan%5F3%5FModule%5FDynamic%5FTests.html) two weeks ago. This test checks in a special acoustic chamber if the spacecraft structure can withstand the intense, sustained sounds and vibrations of its rocket launch. The mission’s liftoff is targeted for H2 2023\. Relatedly, Intuitive Machines’ [first Moon lander](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/first-commercial-moon-delivery-assignments-to-advance-artemis) completed what the company considers to be [representative structural flight qualification](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/intuitive-machines-successfully-completes-launch-vibration-tests-in-preparation-for-lunar-mission) of its lander. The Mooncraft launches no earlier than June as part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). Firefly won a [$112 million NASA CLPS contract](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-picks-firefly-aerospace-for-robotic-delivery-to-far-side-of-moon) to deliver an orbiter and two surface payloads to the Moon in 2026\. Firefly will use a similar [lander design](https://fireflyspace.com/blue-ghost) as for [its first CLPS mission](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-firefly-aerospace-for-artemis-commercial-moon-delivery-in-2023) in 2024 but [add a transfer stage](https://spacenews.com/firefly-wins-second-nasa-clps-mission) to deliver the 280-kilogram [Lunar Pathfinder](https://jatan.space/nasa-esa-collaborate-on-lunar-pathfinder/) orbiter for ESA in lunar orbit. Pathfinder is a stepping stone towards [Moonlight](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-98/), ESA’s upcoming commercial navigation and communications constellation. The Firefly lander itself will attempt a touchdown on the Moon’s farside carrying [LuSEE-Night](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-department-of-energy-join-forces-on-innovative-lunar-experiment), a first of its kind instrument which will [measure faint but unique radio signals](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-118/) from our Universe’s ‘Dark Age’—a slice of time right before the first stars were born. The lander will also host the “User Terminal” payload to enable LuSEE-Night to communicate to and fro Earth via Lunar Pathfinder. NASA has [begun assembling](https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/ames/nasa-begins-building-its-first-robotic-moon-rover) the [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/), targeted for a CLPS delivery to the Moon’s south pole on November 10, 2024 to study local [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) deposits. The rover’s [mass spectrometer](https://www.nasa.gov/viper/rover#MSolo), which will identify escaped volatiles from drilled lunar samples that pass through it as well as gases in the lunar exosphere, has also [arrived](https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/msolo-science-instrument-for-viper-arrives-at-johnson-space-center) for later integration. VIPER will explore areas in and around [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) in [its landing region](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-s-artemis-rover-to-land-near-nobile-region-of-moon-s-south-pole), and use its drill and spectrometers to unravel the physical and chemical nature of the Moon’s water ice deposits, assess their resource potential, and determine how accessible they really are to help us plan future crewed missions. The [NASA HQ briefing](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/technical%5Fprogram/?session%5Fno=221) at the [54th LPSC](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/index.shtml) on March 14 revealed that [both the instruments](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/instruments.html) of the agency-funded [Lunar Trailblazer](https://jatan.space/nasa-lunar-trailblazer/) orbiter have now been delivered for spacecraft integration, which should be done by April. Launching alongside Intuitive Machines’ [second Moon lander](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-to-land-water-measuring-payload-on-the-moon) in October 2023, Trailblazer will provide us unprecedented, high-resolution global maps of the amount, distribution, and state of water across our Moon. ## NASA’s FY 2024 wishlist for Luna ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fbd936371-dbcf-4b9c-a5bc-fb24a3a6ad0e_2800x1600-jpeg.jpg) Graphic of Artemis missions I through V representing some of its defining elements. Credit: Jacob Bleacher / NASA The U.S. Presidential [FY 2024 budget request](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/fiscal%5Fyear%5F2024%5Fnasa%5Fagency%5Ffact%5Fsheet.pdf) seeks $27.2 billion in funding for NASA from the U.S. Congress, a 7% increase over the [$25.4 billion approved](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-109/) for FY 2023\. We’ll only find out later this year how much the U.S. Congress actually funds NASA with but here’s the gist of all notable lunar-related asks: - Full funding for [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to), which aims to send four astronauts around the Moon and back in late 2024. - $914 million for the NASA-led international [Gateway lunar orbital station](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway). NASA has previously [chosen SpaceX’s Falcon Heavy](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-contract-to-launch-initial-elements-for-lunar-outpost) rocket to launch the first two Gateway elements—the [propulsion](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-artemis-contract-for-lunar-gateway-power-propulsion) and [habitat](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-northrop-grumman-finalize-moon-outpost-living-quarters-contract) modules—in late 2024 in a pre-docked configuration. - \~$400 million more requested than FY 2023’s $1.5 billion for commercial crewed landing systems. Funding for this will be divided between NASA’s selection of SpaceX [Lunar Starship for Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon), an alternative provider for the same mission, an [upgraded Lunar Starship](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-spacex-second-contract-option-for-artemis-moon-landing-0) for [Artemis IV](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-101/), and the [previously discussed](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-95/) “sustainable” [lander proposals](https://payloadspace.com/sld-bidders) one of which will [bid against](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-provides-update-to-astronaut-moon-lander-plans-under-artemis) the upgraded Starship for all future crewed landings post Artemis V. - $459 million for NASA’s [Lunar Discovery and Exploration](https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/programs/lunar-discovery-exploration) (LDEP) program, particularly to ensure full funding for [CLPS lunar landings](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) enabling diverse surface science as well as technology demonstrations. LDEP is the organizational unit chiefly integrating and coordinating [Artemis science efforts](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-112/) across NASA as well as with the agency’s commercial and international partners. - $380 million for privately developed [lunar spacesuits](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-80/) and crewed lunar rovers, the latter chiefly targeting the upcoming selection of the Artemis [Lunar Terrain Vehicle](https://jatan.space/what-we-know-about-artemis-ltv/). Astronauts will explore the Moon’s south pole with this singular versatile rover across Artemis missions. - $109 million for continued Artemis architecture and lunar infrastructure planning leading to a [baseline sustainable habitat](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept). This includes privately developed lunar surface power systems the likes of [vertical solar arrays](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-92/) for the lunar poles and [nuclear fission units](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-announces-artemis-concept-awards-for-nuclear-power-on-moon) for, well, virtually anywhere. - An unspecified chunk of the $402 million requested for continuing NASA-wide investments in emerging technologies, including the CLPS payloads of the [PRIME-1 drill](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/game%5Fchanging%5Fdevelopment/projects/PRIME-1), the [Micro-Nova hopper](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/intuitive-machines-and-nasa-finalize-contract-for-extreme-lunar-mobility-spacecraft), and [Nokia’s 4G/LTE payload](https://www.nokia.com/networks/insights/network-on-the-moon) onboard Intuitive Machines’ [second CLPS Moon lander](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-to-land-water-measuring-payload-on-the-moon) as well as the agency’s [CADRE autonomous rovers](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/game%5Fchanging%5Fdevelopment/projects/CADRE) on Intuitive Machines’ [third CLPS lander](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-mission-to-reiner-gamma/). --- *Many thanks to [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io) for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## Lunar science galore at LPSC ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9f39387a-f722-4e39-bdd1-245cbf451518_2300x1300-jpeg-2.jpg) The 13 candidate south polar landing zones for NASA’s Artemis III crewed Moon mission. [Credits: NASA / LRO](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-identifies-candidate-regions-for-landing-next-americans-on-moon) | [Browse them on a map](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/layers?extent=-123.1287296%2C-80.2286323%2C62.2044887%2C-76.8446639&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4XyA&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypOOKWbJYZdAJgQWfyJqv5JwDGKIQp0ADgCcWRL2LkBSikA&proj=17) The [54th LPSC](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/index.shtml) last week provided many mission-related briefings primarily to event participants only. I’m able to note down some of those updates below, along with links to available public abstracts, to help provide a reasonable summary of key takeaways. NASA’s [Artemis Town Hall](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/technical%5Fprogram/?session%5Fno=421) meeting on March 15 had some notable announcements: - NASA [appointed](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-appoints-lunar-science-leads-for-artemis-iii-artemis-iv-missions) Dr. Noah Petro and Dr. Barbara Cohen as Project Scientists for [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-iii) and [IV](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-101/) respectively. Related: See the [Artemis science structure](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-112/). - The aforementioned [Lunar Terrain Vehicle](https://jatan.space/what-we-know-about-artemis-ltv/) is confirmed to be on Artemis V. - Sadly, cryogenic freezer storage of pristine lunar samples from [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) will not debut until at least Artemis VI. Earlier surface missions will of course collect such samples but they just won’t stay *as-is*. - On the flip side, even mission flight controllers will get basic geology training for Artemis missions! In [three](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/technical%5Fprogram/?session%5Fno=251) [dedicated](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/technical%5Fprogram/?session%5Fno=401) [sessions](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/technical%5Fprogram/?session%5Fno=503), scientists presented geologic merits of each of the [13 Artemis III candidate landing zones](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-91/) (here’s an [example for Malapert](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/pdf/2399.pdf)). This work is part of the ongoing community input phase to help NASA downselect from said sites later this year. Effectively illustrating how a NASA-ISRO collaboration for Artemis [represents an untapped opportunity](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-116/), Wes Patterson [described](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/pdf/2397.pdf) how his team is using complementary radar data from NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html) and ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) to uniquely characterize the Artemis III candidate sites. This includes getting valuable information on landing hazards within those sites, better access to their [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) than optical imagers, and gaining a broad sense of the physical states of the regions from inferred physical properties. Shyama Narendranath [informed](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/pdf/2191.pdf) that the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter’s [CLASS instrument](http://oro.open.ac.uk/29976/1/CLASS%5F2011%5FLunar%5FPlanetary%5FScience%5FConf.pdf) has conducted the largest mapping of elements on the Moon’s surface in X-rays, and so at the highest spatial resolution to date. Previously, CLASS provided us with the first ever [global-scale sodium maps](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-98/) of our Moon as well as [detection of Chromium](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2021/pdf/2230.pdf) in volcanic soil. Studying these datasets will unravel specifics of [how our Moon evolved](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). ## More Moon On March 15, Axiom [revealed](https://payloadspace.com/axiom-reveals-its-axemu-lunar-spacesuits) some more features of their [NASA-catalyzed](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-80/), [$228.5 million](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-taps-axiom-space-for-first-artemis-moonwalking-spacesuits) private lunar spacesuit called [AxEMU](https://www.axiomspace.com/axiom-suit), which astronauts will wear on the [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-iii) Moon landing mission. Axiom’s suits build over NASA’s own (recently shelved) [xEMU suits](https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/exploration-extravehicular-mobility-unit-xemu) by featuring enhanced mobility, upgraded insulation and cooling for the harsh lunar polar environment, a back hatch to climb into and close the spacesuit by oneself, a HD helmet cam, and a light band. The UK Space Agency is funding a team led by Rolls-Royce with £2.9 million to develop a lightweight and modular [autonomous nuclear micro-reactor](https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-space-agency-backs-rolls-royce-nuclear-power-for-moon-exploration), hoping for its initial demonstration on the Moon before 2030. --- **→ [Sponsor Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) | [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Moon Monday #118: NASA aims for future-defining science via CLPS, ispace to go public, mission updates, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-118/ Last updated: 2025-08-25T06:52:54.000Z ## NASA to push the boundaries of cosmology and Moonbound science with LuSEE-Night ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fd144bc00-c085-4ca6-af62-6f1f34e7cad3_1800x950-jpeg.jpg) This map shows radio frequency interference, or how radio-quiet it is, on the Moon’s farside versus the nearside, in decibel units. Areas within “-10 dB” face ten times lower noise on average than the nearside, -50 dB a hundred thousand times lower, and -90 dB a billion times. Yellow stars are places we think are most suitable overall for ultra-sensitive radio telescopes. [Credits: Burns et al. (2021) / NASA LRO](https://doi.org/10.3847/PSJ/abdfc3) NASA and the U.S. Department of Energy are co-developing [LuSEE-Night](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-department-of-energy-join-forces-on-innovative-lunar-experiment), a first of its kind instrument which will measure [faint but unique radio signals](https://jatan.space/radio-astronomy-from-the-moon/) from our Universe’s ‘Dark Age’, a slice of time right before the first stars were born. LuSEE-Night’s cosmological measurements—which can’t be taken from Earth due to our planet’s atmospheric interference—will be made from the Moon’s farside and specifically during (frigid) nighttimes, affording it pristine sensitivity free of radio noises from both Earth and the Sun. Notably, these observations will be distinct from daytime radio measurements made by the [three 5-meter antennae](http://epizodyspace.ru/bibl/inostr-yazyki/planetary-and-space-science/2018/Jia%5Fet%5Fal%5FThe%5FChang-E-4%5FMission%5FPlanetary%5Fand%5FSpace%5FScience%5Fin%5Fpress%5F%282017%29.pdf) on China’s [Chang’e 4](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/change-4) lander, which has been active [in a lunar farside region](https://jatan.space/change-4-landing-site-farside-von-karman-crater/) since over four years now. The [Queqiao satellite](https://www.planetary.org/articles/0519-change-4-relay-satellite) that relays communications for Chang’e 4 could’ve made better measurements than said lander, despite its halo orbit not rendering it blissfully free of noisy Terra, but two of its three antennae unfortunately [got stuck halfway at 2.5-meter lengths](https://room.eu.com/news/change-4-relay-satellite-now-a-radio-telescope) during deployment. NASA aims to have LuSEE-Night delivered to our Moon’s farside in 2025 on an as yet unannounced agency-funded private [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) lander. Note that [this same lander](https://www.sstl.co.uk/media-hub/latest-news/2022/houston-lunar-workshop) will be tasked with deploying the [Lunar Pathfinder](https://jatan.space/nasa-esa-collaborate-on-lunar-pathfinder/) orbiter for ESA in lunar orbit as a stepping stone towards [Moonlight](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-98/), ESA’s upcoming commercial navigation and communications constellation. In fact, the LuSEE-Night hardware, which will function independently of the lander, will communicate to and fro Earth [via Lunar Pathfinder](https://www.lusee-night.org/instruments). If successful, this single CLPS mission will: 1. Perform a prestigious lunar farside landing at low cost 2. Conduct unique and deeply impactful science while paving the way for more 3. Demonstrate the value of long-term lunar orbital relays as mission planning assets 4. Strengthen international relations Color me impressed and electrified. 📡 LuSEE-Night is the sister payload of [LuSEE-Lite](https://www.universityofcalifornia.edu/news/uc-berkeley-put-experiment-surface-moon-next-2-years), which will also fly to the Moon’s farside in 2025 but on a [different CLPS lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-87/). LuSEE-Lite will operate during the lunar day, which still being shielded from Earth’s radio noises makes it apt to study [the solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/)’s interactions with the Moon’s surface. Both LuSEE payloads will [help us characterize](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/bale4lusee.pdf) the Moon’s radio emissions for [future farside radio telescopes](http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/May21/radio-astronomy-from-Moon.html). ## ispace Japan shoots for IPO ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fa903495f-5c2b-4286-b4cc-97cd25525554_2400x1600-jpeg.jpg) ispace’s M1 lunar lander inside the Falcon 9 rocket’s fairing pre-launch. [Credit: SpaceX](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4020) ispace Japan is [going public](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4416) on the Tokyo Stock Exchange on April 12, 2023, under ticker code 9348\. Jack Kuhr [reports](https://payloadspace.com/japans-ispace-to-ipo-in-april) that the IPO will include 24.7 million shares out of 78.6 million, and that a $1.78 per unit share, the company might be valued at $138 million. Jeff Foust [notes](https://spacenews.com/japanese-lunar-lander-company-ispace-to-go-public) that of the [nearly $200 million](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=2533) ispace has privately raised thus far, the company has $0.7 million left in capital as of March 8 [per the exchange filing](https://www.jpx.co.jp/english/listing/stocks/new/dreu2500000028w3-att/04ispace-OutlineEN.pdf). If you want to get an overview of all of ispace’s lunar activities across its presence in Japan, Europe, and the US, [my article](https://jatan.space/ispace-japan-m1-moon-mission/) on its first Moon mission also covers the company’s future missions, technology building, and business ambitions. [ispace’s Moon missions and ambitions 🌗](https://jatan.space/ispace-japan-m1-moon-mission/) --- *Many thanks to* [*Epsilon3*](https://www.epsilon3.io)*,* [*The Orbital Index*](https://orbitalindex.com) *and* [*Open Lunar Foundation*](https://www.openlunar.org) *for kindly sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## Mission updates Detailed inspections of the [Orion spacecraft](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-107/)’s heat shield, from last year’s [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-i) Moon mission, have revealed only some [non-critical performance variations](https://spacenews.com/no-major-issues-found-with-artemis-1-mission), which NASA will address and account for in future missions. As such, NASA continues to target “late November” of 2024 to launch [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to), which aims to send four astronauts around the Moon and back. The FY2024 U.S. Presidential Budget released on March 9 [fully funds](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/fy24%5Fnasa%5Fchapter%5Ffinal%5F03%5F09%5F2023.pdf) the mission. Eric Berger has previously reported that Artemis II [will not launch until 2025](https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/12/artemis-i-has-finally-launched-what-comes-next) though “because of eight relatively small flight computers.” In the meanwhile, NASA has already [refurbished and integrated](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/analysis-confirms-successful-artemis-i-moon-mission-reviews-continue) several key avionics components from Artemis I’s Orion crew module into that of Artemis II. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f42c194dd-39f6-40ee-9d60-da24b80e8029_2000x1450-jpeg.jpg) The Orion spacecraft, part of NASA’s Artemis I mission, captured this view of our Moon and Earth in November 2022\. This vantage point in its lunar orbit lies roughly 70,000 and 430,000 kilometers away from the Moon and Earth respectively. The next time we see such a view, astronauts will be inside Orion! [Credit: NASA](https://images.nasa.gov/details-art001e000678) Debra Werner reports that [Lonestar has raised $5 million](https://spacenews.com/lonestar-raises-5-million-for-lunar-data-centers) in seed funding for its plan to establish data centers on the Moon. Lonestar aims to deploy [virtual as well as hardware-based data centers](https://spacenews.com/lonestar-emerges-from-stealth-with-plans-for-lunar-data-centers) on Intuitive Machines’ [first](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/first-commercial-moon-delivery-assignments-to-advance-artemis) and [second](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-to-land-water-measuring-payload-on-the-moon) CLPS Moon landing missions respectively. These are intended to be a [proof-of-concept](https://spacenews.com/lonestar-emerges-from-stealth-with-plans-for-lunar-data-centers) of the company’s future commercial services, which includes offering data storage and processing for commercial, government, and academia-led lunar missions. ## Redesigned RS-25 ignited for another test ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f03a331ed-ab88-4a51-aa13-cc15e98e7b4c_2000x1450-jpeg-1.jpg) A remote camera view of a redesigned RS-25 engine’s hot fire test on March 8, 2023\. [Credit: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/centers/stennis/news/release/2023/NASA-Continues-Test-Series-for-Redesigned-Artemis-Moon-Rocket-Engines) On March 8, NASA [performed the third hot fire test](https://www.nasa.gov/centers/stennis/news/release/2023/NASA-Continues-Test-Series-for-Redesigned-Artemis-Moon-Rocket-Engines) of the fully redesigned [RS-25](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/sls%5Frs25%5Fengine%5Ffs%5F508.pdf) engine to be used on future [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) lunar flights starting with Artemis V. NASA says the new RS-25 is built with advanced manufacturing techniques to reduce cost and build time, the former by over 30%. Given that the SLS currently costs [$2.2 billion per launch](https://oig.nasa.gov/docs/IG-22-003.pdf), and [each RS-25 a fiery $146 million](https://arstechnica.com/science/2020/05/nasa-will-pay-a-staggering-146-million-for-each-sls-rocket-engine/), any price reduction is welcome. NASA’s update on the test shares some interesting tidbits on the enhanced RS-25: > For redesigned RS-25 engines, a team focused on re-engineering every part of the nozzle. This included using precision machining to improve production of the more than 1,000 tubes that comprise the nozzle wall. These tubes are critical in flowing super-cold liquid hydrogen to keep the nozzle cool. > > \[…\] > > Upgrades to the nozzle include a new type and amount of insulation, which is a critical consideration since the RS-25 engines are exposed to more heat during SLS launches than previous space shuttle missions. SLS features four RS-25 engines instead of the three main engines used for the space shuttle and the proximity of the RS-25 nozzle to the SLS solid rocket boosters is closer than on the space shuttle. ## More Moon NASA’s [Lunar Trailblazer](https://jatan.space/nasa-lunar-trailblazer/) orbiter, launching alongside Intuitive Machines’ [second Moon lander](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-to-land-water-measuring-payload-on-the-moon) in October 2023, will give us unprecedented, high-resolution global maps of the amount, distribution, and state of water across the Moon. It’s to that end that the mission team has [an online interactive map](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/explore.html), which enables involved lunar scientists to better select observation targets for Trailblazer while enthusiasts can browse and learn about each one already selected. The team has [updated](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/news/moonExplorationToolUpgrade.html) the web app to show the size and shape of mapping targets alongside distinguishing ones selected by the mission’s science team from those by the community. It would be amazing if such a resource became a staple for all planetary missions. For enabling better testing of future lunar polar rovers starting with [VIPER](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/), NASA Ames has upgraded their “Lunar Lab and Regolith Testbeds” facility to [add a large sand pit](https://www.nasa.gov/ames/lunarlab-regolithtestbeds) filled with more than 20 tons of lunar rocky highland simulant to mimic the Moon’s polar soil. The testbed also comprises wide-ranging topography permutations based on actual orbital imagery. A set of adjustable, high-power lights recreate the [tricky lunar polar lighting conditions](https://www.nasa.gov/ames/feature/the-dark-side-of-the-crater-how-light-looks-different-on-the-moon-and-what-nasa-is-doing) caused by the forever near-horizon Sun coupled with the [rocky terrain](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/SPole%5FSRidgemap%5FLOLA-Slope5m%5Fv20190515.pdf). Relatedly, to train upcoming Artemis astronauts for moonwalking under such challenging conditions, last year NASA setup a 12-meter deep pool at its [Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory](https://youtu.be/NqeC0AnU-Ng) to [mimic lunar polar lighting](https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/dark-mode-activated). ### Moon Monday #117: Mission updates, humans to Luna, building infrastructure, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-117/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:13.000Z ## Mission updates ![Illustration shows a four-legged lander on a largely plain lunar landscape, with Earth hanging in the pitch black sky.](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fbb2a3a83-d473-430f-ad2b-7b2e79619a6f_2096x1078-jpeg-1.jpg) Illustration of the Hakuto-R lander on the Moon. [Credit: ispace](https://ispace-inc.com/project) - ispace Japan’s [first Moon lander](https://jatan.space/ispace-japan-m1-moon-mission/), launched on December 11 last year, is now approaching the Moon as part of its fuel-efficient trajectory for an orbital capture attempt in late March. I applaud the fact that ispace has provided an unusually detailed [per-subsystem lander status update](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4362), and hope that the upcoming wave of NASA-funded [CLPS landers](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) will do the same. - Relatedly, unlike continued insistence by several U.S. publications and popular tweeters that one of the two upcoming CLPS landers [of Astrobotic](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-awarded-79-5-million-contract-to-deliver-14-nasa-payloads-to-the-moon) and [Intuitive Machines](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/first-commercial-moon-delivery-assignments-to-advance-artemis) will be the first privately built spacecraft to touchdown on our Moon, ispace Japan’s landing attempt in end of April lends it the actual first shot. Now, I too am excited about both Astrobotic’s and Intuitive Machines’ respective missions but they aren’t even launching before [May](https://spacenews.com/ula-announces-may-launch-of-first-vulcan) and [June](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/nasa-redirects-intuitive-machines-first-mission-to-the-lunar-south-pole-region) respectively, and there were never any firm signs otherwise all these prior months, so let’s keep our facts in line please. - ispace Japan [began manufacturing the structural thermal model](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4370) of their second Moon lander in February for testing, post which the plan is for the flight model to be assembled in Germany from April. As part of the same update, ispace Japan also announced three lander payloads for this 2024 mission: a water-splitting experiment by Takasago, an algae-based food production module by Euglena, and a deep space radiation monitoring probe by Taiwan’s National Central University. - As Firefly gears up for [its first CLPS Moon landing mission](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-firefly-aerospace-for-artemis-commercial-moon-delivery-in-2023) in 2024, NASA has [delivered](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2023/nasa-delivers-hardware-for-commercial-lunar-payload-mission) one of its mission payloads, the Lunar GNSS Receiver Experiment (LuGRE), to the company for integration with the Blue Ghost lander. With this first-of-its-kind hardware, developed in collaboration with the Italian Space Agency, NASA aims to [demonstrate a GNSS fix](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2021/nasa-explores-upper-limits-of-global-navigation-systems-for-artemis) at the Moon. The lander will try getting a position lock using GPS and Galileo satellites, with signals millions of times fainter than those used by our phones. Tangent: I’ve covered [the mission’s landing site and science](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-70/) in Moon Monday #70. ## Crew to the Moon JAXA has [recruited two new astronaut candidates](https://www.jaxa.jp/press/2023/02/20230228-1%5Fj.html) out a pool of [4127](https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2022/04/05/national/jaxa-astronaut-applications-2): 46-year-old Makoto Suwa and 28-year-old Ayu Yoneda. Post their 2-year training starting in April, they will be eligible for missions to the International Space Station and the NASA-led international [Gateway lunar orbital station](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) as part of [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) missions. In return for [getting Gateway seats](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-japan-announce-gateway-contributions-space-station-extension) for Japanese astronauts, JAXA is providing two key technologies to sustain crewed and uncrewed operations at the station for long periods: - Critical life support systems and infrastructure components of the Gateway’s [International Habitation module](https://liquifer.com/gateway-i-hab) (i-HAB) for hosting astronauts - The advanced [HTV-X(G)](https://humans-in-space.jaxa.jp/en/htv-x) spacecraft for supplying the Gateway with cargo starting 2030. NASA and JAXA are also considering [having a Japanese astronaut land on the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-79/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fbd007c66-bc8e-45e3-97da-eda3497bec6c_1173x814-jpeg.jpg) Illustration showing Japan’s HTV-X(G) cargo supply spacecraft approaching the NASA-led Gateway station in lunar orbit. [Credit: JAXA](https://japan-forward.com/japan-developing-spacecraft-to-deliver-supplies-to-moon-orbiting-station) Andrew Jones reports that China has revealed [a staged descent lander](https://spacenews.com/china-unveils-lunar-lander-to-put-astronauts-on-the-moon) concept as part of its plans to land Chinese astronauts on the Moon before 2030\. This adds to what we know about China [building](https://spacenews.com/china-tests-engines-for-moon-mission-rocket) a new (and possibly reusable) super heavy-lift Moon rocket, [derived from its existing Long March 5](https://spacenews.com/chinas-new-rocket-for-crewed-moon-missions-to-launch-around-2026). A pair of these new launch vehicles would be able to push a crewed spacecraft and (separately) the landing system to lunar orbit, which would allow two astronauts to land on the Moon. Capable of launching up to 27,000 kilograms on a lunar trajectory, the launch vehicle would match the capacity of NASA’s current [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html), which aims to architecturally similarly enable astronauts to land on the Moon with [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-iii) mid-decade. --- *Many thanks to [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io) for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## Infrastructure, infrastructure, infrastructure If you read that in [Steve Ballmer’s chanting voice](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XxbJw8PrIkc), I’m sorry that it worked. Joking aside, some lunar infrastructure plans by humans have made progress recently, thereby giving them more realism, and us more excitement. - Last year ESA’s Ministerial Council, a meeting of government ministers from each of the agency’s 22 Member States, approved ESA’s [Moonlight plans](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-98/) to build a constellation of lunar satellites that will provide communications and navigation services to hardware on and around the Moon later this decade. ESA [will be Moonlight’s anchor customer](https://www.esa.int/Applications/Telecommunications%5FIntegrated%5FApplications/Wanted%5Ffirms%5Fto%5Fconnect%5Fand%5Fguide%5FMoon%5Fmissions) but expects companies to actively commercially provide NavCom services to public and private customers globally. To that end, ESA is now [inviting and funding space firms](https://esastar-publication-ext.sso.esa.int/ESATenderActions/details/54040) from member states who propose either direct viable involvement in Moonlight or ability to provide novel services up top. In the same vein, the UK space agency is [providing £51 million](https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-companies-to-provide-services-for-future-moon-missions) to UK companies. - Relatedly, Elizabeth Gibney has a great article on [how ESA is leading the efforts to give the Moon its own time](https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-00185-z), including talking about its challenges, where Moonlight comes in, and how solving said problem will let us adapt a solution for the entire Solar System. - Intuitive Machines’ [second Moon lander](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-to-land-water-measuring-payload-on-the-moon), aiming for launch in H2 2023, will deploy [a rover](https://lunaroutpost.com/nokia-and-intuitive-machines-select-lunar-outpost-for-first-rover-mission-at-lunar-south-pole) by partner [Lunar Outpost](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-79/) to test Nokia’s [4G/LTE network](https://www.nokia.com/networks/insights/network-on-the-moon) on the Moon. It will be the first such test to see if we can theoretically get high-throughput, long-range, and low-latency communications necessary for having a sustainable lunar presence in the future. But acquiring a license to operate this so-far-Earthbound 4G network on the Moon has been challenging precisely because it’s unprecedented. In a blog post, Nokia shares how it worked with several regulatory bodies both in the U.S. and worldwide to ultimately [get an experimental spectrum certification](https://www.bell-labs.com/institute/blog/who-controls-the-airwaves-on-the-moon) for the mission as of last year. - Astrobotic will use Redwire’s spaceflight-proven [Roll-Out Solar Arrays](https://redwirespace.com/newsroom/redwires-roll-out-solar-arrays-to-enable-lunar-power-infrastructure-for-astrobotic-vsat-program) (ROSA) for its [LunaGrid project](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-96/), which aims to commercially provide power to hardware on the Moon’s poles wanting to survive its [poorly lit terrain](https://arxiv.org/abs/1208.5587) and frigid nights. Notably, a variant of ROSA will also power the Gateway’s [Power and Propulsion Element](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-artemis-contract-for-lunar-gateway-power-propulsion). - After [funding](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-contracts-to-assess-near-space-communications-capabilities) KSAT USA and SpaceLink last year to [conduct studies](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/nnh16zcq001k%5Fcis%5Fbaa%5Fsource%5Fselection%5Fstatement%5F2022-09-08%5Ffe.pdf) on how they can enhance communications for future lunar missions via NASA’s [Near Space Network](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/heo/scan/services/networks/near%5Fspace%5Fnetwork/complexes) (NSN), the agency is [seeking by March 24](https://sam.gov/opp/c376df5c02634ecf9de253593c3ad25c/view) commercial provider applications who can enable either relay or direct-to-Earth communications for future lunarbound missions to and fro NSN. At the same time, NASA is broadening the NSN ground stations with more commercial antennae [like those of KSAT](https://www.ksat.no/news/news-archive/2022/ksat-to-invest-in-antenna-network-for-lunar-missions). Related fun fact: In addition to using the [Deep Space Network](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/heo/scan/services/networks/deep%5Fspace%5Fnetwork/about) (DSN), NASA [also utilized](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2020/artemis-i-demonstrating-the-capabilities-of-nasa-s-united-networks) NSN relays and satellites during the [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-i) mission last year to supplement and fill in transitions between DSN’s changing availability. - For the 2023 BIG Idea Challenge, called the [Lunar Forge](https://bigidea.nianet.org/2023-challenge), NASA is funding [7 university teams](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/game%5Fchanging%5Fdevelopment/University%5FTeams%5FForge%5FForward%5Fin%5FNASA%5FMoon%5FMetal%5FProduction%5FChallenge) to advanced [their concepts](https://bigidea.nianet.org/wp-content/uploads/2023-BIG-Idea-Finalist-Team-Synopses.pdf) related to metal production on the Moon with a total amount of $1.1 million. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f3eb9053d-605c-4e1b-936e-d02b07759999_750x500-jpeg-2.jpg) Illustration showing Lunar Outpost’s rover on the Moon with deployed antennae for 4G/LTE network testing. Intuitive Machines’ lander is seen in the background. [Credit: Nokia / Lunar Outpost](https://www.bell-labs.com/institute/blog/a-network-like-no-other-how-nokias-moon-network-differs-from-any-on-earth) ## More Moon The [54th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/index.shtml) begins next Monday! [The program](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/technical%5Fprogram) of this world’s largest planetary science conference lists, as expected, abundant lunar-related talks and posters. There’s also a special session on “[The Geology of the Artemis Exploration Zone](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/technical%5Fprogram/?session%5Fno=251)” for furthering the [Artemis III landing site selection](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-91/), which has me all psyched! 🪨 --- **→ [Sponsor Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) | [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Indian Space Progress #2: Success with SSLV, Chandrayaan 3 details, a new partnership with NASA, and more URL: https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-02/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:14.000Z *Thank you so much everyone for your immense interest in my Indian space newsletter, which is now more than 3,500 readers strong! After sitting on the idea for 2 years now, I’m glad to have finally found the inclination, time, and (financial) means to craft such reports. And it’s to that latter end that I’m excited to welcome [SkyServe](https://skyserve.ai) as the newsletter’s second sponsor!* 🚀 *SkyServe is an in-space edge computing company which enables geospatial analytics businesses to host their proprietary algorithms and AI models on Earth Observation satellites, the latter spanning optical, SAR and RF sensors.* *Personally, I like that their [EarthSIGHTS](https://earthsights.skyserve.ai/#/bengaluru/climate%5Fchange) interactive site provides free theme-based insights from satellite data. Both [Adithya](https://www.linkedin.com/in/adithya-k-b5066a48) and [Vishesh](https://www.linkedin.com/in/vishesh-vatsal-3b16ba15) have been long-time supporters of my work, and I’m happy to have their company onboard as an Indian Space Progress sponsor.* :) ## Electron, meet SSLV ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f2cc8a3ea-54f3-44cf-84ce-525a7ccde8b7_2400x1600-jpeg-1.jpg) The second launch of the SSLV rocket, on February 10, 2023\. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/mission%5FSSLV%5FD2%5FGallery.html) On February 10, ISRO [successfully placed](https://www.isro.gov.in/mission%5FSSLV%5FD2.html) a 154-kilogram Earth observation satellite and 2 smallsats into their intended 450-kilometer circular orbits with the second developmental flight of the homegrown SSLV rocket. The successful launch comes shortly after [the failure](https://www.isro.gov.in/mission%5FSSLV%5FD1%5Fsummary%5FD2.html) of SSLV’s [debut flight](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSLV-D1) last August. After another demonstration launch end of year, India intends to start commercially flying the SSLV for payloads up to 500 kilograms, putting it squarely against Rocket Lab’s Electron as well as new entrants like Firefly Alpha in terms of its mass class. It seems easy to brush off the SSLV as just another small satellite launcher, or a smaller PSLV, but take a moment to consider its salient features. The SSLV’s planned sticker price of [less than $4 million](https://www.firstpost.com/explainers/explained-what-is-isros-sslv-indias-smallest-launch-vehicle-and-why-do-we-need-it-11009251.html) per launch heavily undercuts Electron’s average of [$7 million](https://www.cnbc.com/2021/12/02/rocket-lab-reusable-neutron-rocket-update-competing-with-spacex.html). And the rocket’s highly modular and solid-fuel design allows it to be fully assembled in [no more than 4 days](https://www.wionews.com/science/isros-sslv-a-rocket-that-can-be-launched-anytime-from-anywhere-says-sdsc-director-504332), [compared to](https://www.strategicfront.org/the-future-of-indian-orbital-rockets) the 16 days needed for the liquid-fueled Electron and 60 for India’s own workhorse PSLV. Much of this efficiency boils down to ISRO heavily leveraging existing technologies, tooling, supply chains, and programmatic knowhow of its PSLV and GSLV rockets. Even if we were to assume considerable margins above these numbers for when the SSLV actually becomes operational, and throw in Electron booster recoveries, there’s still room left to outcompete, especially when coupled with India’s established commercial network from years of PSLV flights, which itself is now joined by the GSLV Mk III’s launching of OneWeb satellites. Of course, SpaceX’s Falcon 9 transporter flights could simply eat everyone’s lunch anyway, despite [its recent price hike](https://payloadspace.com/spacex-increases-rideshare-prices), but the Falcon 9’s exceptionally high demand means the 2-year average wait time to fly cheap will certainly not work for enough customers, thereby leaving room for other launchers. In any case, Electron is not the launch vehicle that should worry the most about SSLV’s existence. That burden falls on India’s own aspiring private launch companies such as Skyroot and Agnikul, who don’t have the systemic advantages that ISRO does. They might find themselves strapped for customers in an already [cut-throat market](https://europeanspaceflight.substack.com/p/more-vehicles-than-customers-1446755). ## Upcoming launches by ISRO It’s through New Space India Limited (NSIL), a relatively new Bengaluru-based Department of Space (DOS) company tasked with undertaking commercial activities for India, that ISRO won two contracts to launch OneWeb satellites from India. [ISRO lofted](https://www.isro.gov.in/LVM3M2MissionLandingPage.html) the first such batch of 36 satellites to the desired 600-kilometer circular low Earth orbit on October 23 last year. Preparations are ongoing for the next 36, which have been [integrated](https://twitter.com/OneWeb/status/1627605604264038401) onto the dispenser of their GSLV Mk III rocket ahead of a [mid-March launch](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/space-psu-nsil-to-get-office-in-gift-city-in-gujarat-has-4-missions-in-2023/articleshow/98194012.cms). Relatedly, [Chethan Kumar reports](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/space-psu-nsil-to-get-office-in-gift-city-in-gujarat-has-4-missions-in-2023/articleshow/98194012.cms) that NSIL will get another office, in [a special financial zone](https://www.thehindu.com/business/gift-city-explained-history-tax-incentives-of-indias-first-smart-city/article65736969.ece) near Ahmedabad, to leverage the presence of nearby ISRO-affiliated organizations and financial institutions so as to spur a commercial space ecosystem. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f39e66875-decb-4fed-b0e2-95b6cf2cc008_2400x1600-jpeg.jpg) OneWeb satellites on the GSLV Mk III dispenser, with the rocket’s fairings on the side. This image is from last year. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/mission%5Flvm3%5Fgallery.html) Harsh Vardhan reports that ISRO has [delayed the launch](https://www.republicworld.com/science/space/isro-aditya-l-1-launch-of-indias-maiden-solar-mission-slips-to-december-2023-articleshow.html) of its versatile [Aditya-L1](https://jatan.space/isro-space-science-missions-2020-2025/) solar observatory yet again, this time from Q2 to end of year. Adding to the frustration is the conveyance of said information in the unfortunately characteristic style of India’s premier space agency: no formal announcement *and* no explanation on any official channel. My guess for the latest delay is that the instruments aren’t ready. ISRO [received Aditya-L1’s coronagraph](https://www.isro.gov.in/IIA%5Fhandsover%5FVELC%5Fpayloadto%5FISRO.html) only in January, with the [rest of the 6 instruments](https://www.isro.gov.in/Aditya%5FL1.html) yet to be received. Well, we did get something formal instead: a somewhat pretty [mission handbook](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/Aditya%5FL1%5FBooklet.pdf). ## More Chandrayaan 3 details emerge, lander testing and landing site in sight ISRO, unannounced, finally updated [its official webpage](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan3%5FNew.html) on the [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-3-prelaunch-info/) Moon landing mission with new details, including a host of lander specifications such as the onboard sensors, the engine configuration, and the targeted touchdown velocity. The page’s mention of the landing site is particularly interesting. Launching later this year, the Chandrayaan 3 lander will attempt a lunar touchdown at the near-polar location of [69.37 S, 32.35 E](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=23.237904,-74.1545766,38.0219231,-64.0693701&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryFeature=0&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=32.34810585,-69.36768573@@{%22label%22:%22Chandrayaan+3+target+landing+site%22}&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFOOZLRfImqnioA&proj=17) (click the link to browse on an interactive map). That’s roughly just [100 kilometers east](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=-43.2663985,-76.9293749,40.7466262,-47.9179747&id=lroc&layerListFilter=&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=32.34810585,-69.36768573@@{%22label%22:%22Chandrayaan+3+target+landing+site%22}|22.67039939,-70.82998430@@{%22label%22:%22Chandrayaan+2+target+landing+site%22}|22.67065629,-70.83019811,32.34793832,-69.36759126&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0yioA&proj=17) of the Chandrayaan 2 landing site ([70.83 S, 22.67 E](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=-11.8402941,-78.6105899,39.8552444,-56.8712164&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4XyA&features=22.66621215,-70.82812301&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEoAsjYIHYFcA2vIBvAXwF1Siylw4oNEQBmOOR9RHfS870oA&proj=17)) lying in the same larger rocky highland region, which makes sense given the identical goals of the landing part of the two missions. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f1b75fe62-794b-4cba-b6f6-4e29f68a26a8_1920x1080-jpeg.jpg) The landing sites of Chandrayaan 2 and 3 are marked as CH-2 and CH-3 respectively in these orthographic views of the Moon’s nearside and south pole. [Credit: LROC Quickmap / Markings by Jatan Mehta](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=-43.2663985,-76.9293749,40.7466262,-47.9179747&id=lroc&layerListFilter=&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=32.34810585,-69.36768573@@{"label":"Chandrayaan+3+target+landing+site"}|22.67039939,-70.82998430@@{"label":"Chandrayaan+2+target+landing+site"}|22.67065629,-70.83019811,32.34793832,-69.36759126&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0yioA&proj=17) Like with other lunar highlands, the Chandrayaan 3 landing region might contain some material from the [ancient lunar crust](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) as well as materials ejected when nearby craters formed during the period of heavy bombardment by asteroids and comets roughly 3.8 to 4.1 billion years ago. Both these types of materials are great targets for the two spectrometers onboard Chandrayaan 3’s rover, which will explore the landed region for one lunar day i.e. 14 Earth days. In the meanwhile, lander and rocket tests are ongoing. The Chandrayaan 3 lander is undergoing the standard series of [space-simulating tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/) to ensure its nominal functioning during all mission phases. On February 2, the lander successfully [passed electromagnetic interference testing](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan3%5FEMI%5FEMC%5FTest.html), which checked in the foamy, pointy interiors of [a Faraday cage chamber](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FEngineering%5FTechnology/Test%5Fcentre/Electromagnetic%5Fcompatibility) if the lander’s electrical and radio emissions [affect any of its four key hardware mission elements](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-115/). On February 24, ISRO [completed flight acceptance testing](https://www.isro.gov.in/Flight%5FAcceptance%5FHot%5FTest%5FCE20%5FLVM3-M4%5FC3.html) of the third stage cryogenic engine part of Chandrayaan 3’s ride to space—the GSLV Mk III rocket. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f17f07193-e895-47a1-abb8-39cb55ff0467_1820x1200-jpeg.jpg) The Chandrayaan 3 lander being tested for electromagnetic interference in a Faraday cage chamber. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan3%5FEMI%5FEMC%5FTest.html) --- *Many thanks to the [Takshashila Institution](https://takshashila.org.in) and [SkyServe](https://skyserve.ai) for sponsoring this month’s Indian Space Progress report.* --- ## Steady towards human spaceflight As ISRO works towards the ambitious inaugural [Gaganyaan mission](https://www.isro.gov.in/Gaganyaan.html) that will make India only the world’s fourth country to indigenously send humans to space, it plans to [conduct two milestone abort tests](https://www.deccanherald.com/science-and-environment/isro-human-space-foray-set-for-next-step-1177994.html) this year, one by May and the other by August. For the first such test, called [TV-D1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TV-D1), ISRO [says](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/Monthly%5Fsummary/Monthly%5Fsummary%5Fjanuary%5F2023.pdf) they’ve qualified the Crew Module’s structure as of January, and successfully tested the mission’s deceleration system. On February 24, ISRO received from its contractor [one such unpressurized crew module](https://www.isro.gov.in/handing-over-scm-test-vehicle-mission.html) to be used for such abort tests. Starting with a test on February 7, ISRO also [commenced a series of sea recovery trials](https://www.isro.gov.in/Recovery%5Ftrials%5FGaganyaan%5FMission.html) of a representative crew module, which simulates the mass, center of gravity, outer dimensions, and externals of the actual Gaganyaan Crew Module. In parallel, ISRO is [in talks with the Australian Space Agency](https://www.isro.gov.in/DOSHeadAustralianSpace.html) to establish a ground station in the country to support Gaganyaan missions. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9bcf8040-328d-4fe2-a12e-e514cc9f5e2d_1280x960-jpeg.jpg) A representative Gaganyaan Crew Module structure for abort testing. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/handing-over-scm-test-vehicle-mission.html) ## India and the U.S. seek to strengthen space technology partnership As part of a new U.S.-India partnership in some “critical and emerging technologies”, the two nations [announced on January 31](https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2023/01/31/fact-sheet-united-states-and-india-elevate-strategic-partnership-with-the-initiative-on-critical-and-emerging-technology-icet) several notable upcoming collaborative areas in the space sector: - Strengthening cooperation on human spaceflight, which includes NASA’s Johnson Space Center providing advanced training for ISRO Gaganyaan astronauts. This is great as it simultaneously provides ISRO with redundancy in its similar deal with the Russian space agency. - Expanding STEM talent exchanges to include space sciences, Earth sciences, and human spaceflight - Identifying possible contributions from ISRO and Indian aerospace companies to NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), which aims to regularly, commercially send payloads, instruments, and hardware to the Moon on privately built U.S. landers. That last bit is an unexpectedly nice trajectory, but I was more surprised by the lacking mention of India’s [Chandrayaan 2 lunar orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/), which already exists in a highly desired polar lunar orbit as a remote-sensing reconnaissance machine. It was only further confounding then that when last week U.S. scientists [formally urged NASA](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-116/) to replace the gracefully aging, 2009-launched [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html) to support the slew of upcoming [robotic](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) & [crewed](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) Artemis Moon missions, their report recognized the abilities of India’s Chandrayaan 2 orbiter. To that end, I’ve argued how a NASA-ISRO collaboration for Artemis with said orbiter [represents an untapped opportunity](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-116/). Coupled with involvement in CLPS, such a move can positively affect India’s undecided stance on the U.S. led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords), which aims for globally cooperative lunar exploration. Related reads: - Pranav Satyanath, in his [opinion piece for The Hindu](https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/india-us-space-cooperation-from-handshake-to-hug/article66501143.ece), says that if India and the U.S. wish to sustain long-term civil space cooperation, they should collaborate on programs rather than just specialized projects like [NISAR](https://nisar.jpl.nasa.gov). - How NASA and India [collaborated on Chandrayaan 1](https://jatan.space/interviewing-isro-chandrayaan-1-mission-director/), and [co-discovered water on our Moon](https://jatan.space/how-nasa-and-chandrayaan-discovered-water-on-the-moon/) 🧊 ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f3dbeeb64-d2b0-433e-aff0-f9dd91128955_425x364.png) Illustration of the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter. Credit: ISRO ## More Indian Space - ISRO is adapting its workhorse liquid-fueled *Vikas* engine to gain the ability to throttle, which would enable India to make reusable launch vehicles. On January 30, ISRO conducted tests to [successfully throttle a Vikas engine](https://www.isro.gov.in/Successful%5Ftest%5FVikas%5FEngine.html) to 67% and 45% thrust levels respectively. This is significant because Vikas engine variants power a whole range of India’s operational rockets, from the core stage of the GSLV Mk III—which is also being human-rated for Gaganyaan—to the PSLV’s second stage as well as the second stage and liquid strap-on boosters of the GSLV Mk II. Related fun fact for non-Hindi readers: Vikas means *progress*. - Sandhya Ramesh has a [very nice article](https://theprint.in/features/bengaluru-firm-has-eyes-in-sky-to-fix-problems-on-ground-crops-insurance-claims-floods/1364852) on how Bengaluru-based SatSure has built a business based on (primarily) ESA and NASA public Earth observation data to uniquely solve agricultural and infrastructure problems in the country. - The [4th Indian Planetary Science Conference](https://www.prl.res.in/ipsc2023) will take place at the Physical Research Laboratory, Ahmedabad from March 22–24\. I’m happy to share that my abstract titled “Advancing the public reach of India’s planetary science and space exploration activities” has been selected for a poster presentation: ![](https://substack.com/img/attachment_icon.svg) Abstract for the 4th IPSC (2023) by Jatan Mehta 29.7KB ∙ PDF file [Download](https://blog.jatan.space/api/v1/file/10fced43-b66c-41b9-b0c1-28708ad1ffbc.pdf) [Download](https://blog.jatan.space/api/v1/file/10fced43-b66c-41b9-b0c1-28708ad1ffbc.pdf) --- **→ [Sponsor Indian Space Progress](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-indian-space-progress) | [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Moon Monday #116: Two dates with our Moon, replacing the venerable LRO, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-116/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:14.000Z ## US scientists urge NASA to plan LRO successor ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fd1a40ca9-10eb-4f32-afa4-fb366210ff4c_2032x1364-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of the LRO spacecraft orbiting our Moon. [Credits: NASA / GSFC / Chris Meaney](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/images/lithos/LRO%20litho1%5Ffinal.pdf) A specialized team of US scientists called [CLOC-SAT](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag/reports/220721%5FNESF%5FCLOC-SAT-Pieters.pdf), part of the Lunar Exploration Analysis Group (LEAG), has released [a report](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag/reports/CLOC-SAT%5FReport.pdf) urging NASA to plan a replacement for the 2009-launched [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html) (LRO) in order to support the increasingly important, upcoming NASA(-funded) [robotic](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) and [crewed](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) Moon missions part of Artemis. The report’s recommendations are part of LEAG’s wide-ranging formal support to NASA, which includes providing scientific, technical, commercial, and operational analysis of the agency’s lunar exploration objectives. In May 2022, NASA [extended LRO’s mission](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-extends-exploration-for-8-planetary-science-missions) for [3 more years](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2022/pdf/2326.pdf) so it can keep aiding planning of upcoming Moon missions with high-resolution imagery and related topographic datasets. But the gracefully aging orbiter’s Inertial Measurement Unit has degraded, and it can no longer map from its original polar orbit, which limits its performance. The [Final Report](https://science.nasa.gov/files/science-red/s3fs-public/atoms/files/PMSR22%20Final%20Report%20Package.pdf) on the LRO mission extension review backs such a limitation by highlighting a key issue: > Review Chairs agree with the Panel that uncertainty in spacecraft pointing is degrading resolution of LRO’s high-resolution digital elevation models. Assessing the magnitude of this issue and developing technical strategies for compensation should be a mission priority. Coordination across the Agency is needed to effectively estimate the number and quality of digital elevation models needed over EM5 to support landing site selections and operations during upcoming scientific and resource exploration. It’s worth remarking that even outside the US, LRO’s modern and comprehensive dataset, which at over 1.3 petabytes is the largest from any NASA planetary science mission, has been and continues to be critical for planning recent and upcoming Moon landing attempts such as India’s [Chandrayaan 2](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-2-moon-landing-mission/) and ispace Japan’s [Hakuto-R](https://jatan.space/ispace-japan-m1-moon-mission/). And yet there isn’t currently a planned NASA mission that can take over the baton from LRO. In fact, the CLOC-SAT team makes the case that meeting crucial, diverse [lunar science and exploration goals](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/), as [defined by the community](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/leag-gap-review-sat-2016-v2.pdf), necessitates having a slew of lunar orbiters—both long-lived ones like LRO and specialized ones like [Lunar Trailblazer](https://jatan.space/nasa-lunar-trailblazer/)—and that these be as standard and continually maintained as Earth observation satellites. To that end, the report asks NASA to continue supporting development and maturation of new and/or advanced remote sensing instruments for next-generation orbiters, and to do so rapidly by leveraging the increased risk appetite afforded by the upcoming high-volume of lunar flight opportunities. At the same time, CLOC-SAT scientists recognize that Artemis has growing momentum towards international cooperation, and recommend NASA to coordinate future lunar orbital measurements and capabilities with that in mind: > Meeting these goals will require multiple approaches involving several orbits and/or orbiters, but there are a large number of stakeholders in our return to the Moon, including commercial and international partners, whose resources can be shared and leveraged to meet diverse goals while minimizing cost. > > \[…\] > > NASA should establish a single office tasked with coordinating across space agencies and within NASA for sharing resources, such as communications networks and orbital strategies. For example, a spacecraft’s orbit altitude and orbit plane could be chosen partially based on the requirements of other orbiters. While NASA’s [ShadowCam](https://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/about) instrument on South Korea’s [KPLO](https://jatan.space/kplo/) lunar orbiter nicely [aids this collaborative end](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-110/), it caters but a specialized use case concerning [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s poles. This is where India’s [Chandrayaan 2 lunar orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) represents an untapped opportunity for NASA and ISRO to collaborate again like the [excellent example of Chandrayaan 1](https://jatan.space/interviewing-isro-chandrayaan-1-mission-director/). Not only is the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter a full-fledged reconnaissance mission like LRO with a similarly broad instruments set, having launched a decade later made it more capable in certain areas, such as having a best imaging resolution of [0.25 meters/pixel](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-51/)—twice LRO’s finest. The Chandrayaan 2 orbiter has enough fuel until at least 2027, and the CLOC-SAT team recognizes its capability in mission planning: > Additional imaging of the lunar surface at sub-meter scales (e.g., 30 cm) is highly desirable to facilitate identification of roughly m-scale hazards that are often relevant to finding safe landing sites. As an example, the Chandrayaan-2 Orbiter High Resolution Camera (OHRC) has a nominal pixel scale of 30 cm from a 62 km altitude orbit. NASA and ISRO should collaborate again to let the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter contribute observations and datasets for Artemis planning, at least as a way to fill key gaps left by the gracefully aging LRO. Such a move can also positively affect India’s undecided stance on the [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html), which aims for globally cooperative lunar exploration. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f3dbeeb64-d2b0-433e-aff0-f9dd91128955_425x364-1.png) Illustration of the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter. Credit: ISRO --- *Many thanks to [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io) for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## We have a launch date for Astrobotic’s Moon lander, and that of Russia’s Luna 25 ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f8f9e36c4-a320-4b0f-928a-beed9811da80_1950x1300-jpeg-4.jpg) Astrobotic’s first Moon lander, Peregrine. [Credit: John Thornton](https://www.linkedin.com/feed/update/urn:li:activity:6998697480980676609) ULA [announced](https://spacenews.com/ula-announces-may-launch-of-first-vulcan) that the inaugural flight of its [Vulcan rocket](https://www.ulalaunch.com/rockets/vulcan-centaur) is being targeted in a four-day window starting May 4\. This launch will loft [Astrobotic’s first Moon lander](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-awarded-79-5-million-contract-to-deliver-14-nasa-payloads-to-the-moon) to space, kicking off NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) aimed at regularly, commercially sending payloads, instruments, and hardware to the Moon on privately built US landers. Astrobotic’s lander will carry to our Moon [well over a dozen payloads from 8 countries](https://www.astrobotic.com/lunar-delivery/manifest). These include [11 NASA instruments](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/first-commercial-moon-delivery-assignments-to-advance-artemis), chief of which are four spectrometers to study and track the movements of water on the Moon’s surface. The lander will also [deploy a bevy of micro-rovers from 3 countries](https://jatan.space/lunar-rovers-launching-in-2020s/). Originally intended to touchdown in the lunar lava plain of [Lacus Mortis](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=18.913265,41.4506243,38.1404583,49.0745437&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&selectedFeature=3113,1077&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIgL5A&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFOOZLRfImqnioA&proj=10), NASA [changed Astrobotic’s target landing site](https://blogs.nasa.gov/clps/2023/02/02/new-landing-site-will-upgrade-science-returns-for-astrobotic-flight) this year to an unspecified lava plain just outside the [Gruithuisen volcanic domes](https://jatan.space/unique-volcanic-domes-of-gruithuisen/) in the northwest. In an unusual move, NASA [hasn’t yet laid out publicly](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-113/) the scientific rationale for this decision. *(I’ve updated my [CLPS missions page](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) with the latest information on all NASA selections.)* Roscosmos says the launch of its [Luna 25 robotic Moon lander](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2021/pdf/2032.pdf) is scheduled for [July 13](https://tass.com/science/1580885). Luna 25’s instruments include a robotic arm to sample material from 20 to 30 centimeters below the surface and then feed it to a laser spectrometer to determine elements and isotopes within. There’s also a neutron and a gamma ray spectrometer to identify the composition of the subsurface. The mission’s landing site, while not truly polar due to engineering constraints, is selected at about 70° South such that underground [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) could still be detected. ## More Artemis updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f5dc1c47b-d946-45b0-a27b-3331c3b20e38_1920x1080-jpeg.jpg) An illustration of the NASA-led international Gateway station in lunar orbit, with a SpaceX Dragon XL cargo craft approaching to dock. [Credit: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/content/about-gateway-deep-space-logistics) - Jeff Foust reports that [NASA will resume work](https://spacenews.com/nasa-plans-to-start-work-this-year-on-first-gateway-logistics-mission) with SpaceX this year on the company’s [Dragon XL contract](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-artemis-contract-for-gateway-logistics-services) for delivering supplies for astronauts at the upcoming NASA-led international [Gateway lunar orbital station](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway). The first delivery is being considered to be by 2027 in preparation for [Artemis IV](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-101/). NASA intends to expand the availability of such Gateway freighter crafts, one of which will be Japan’s advanced [HTV-X(G)](https://humans-in-space.jaxa.jp/en/htv-x) vehicle targeting first launch by 2030. - In an unsurprising move, NASA has awarded existing contractor Jacobs Technology a [$3.2 billion contract](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-consolidated-operations-management-engineering-contract) to manage & operate launch infrastructure and related things for Artemis Moon missions through 2033\. At least the contract isn’t the worst of the cost-plus kind since the guaranteed award period is of 3.5 years, with additional awards until 2033 being somewhat incentivized. ## More Moon - The excellent [Apollo in Real Time](https://apolloinrealtime.org) website has added transcripts of 11,000 hours worth of [Apollo 11 mission control audio recordings](https://apolloinrealtime.org/11), generated by OpenAI's Whisper AI model, to provide a new basis to understand decisions taken during the mission. The site also [hosts a forum](https://forum.apolloinrealtime.org) for people to discuss interesting moments from these largely unheard feeds. Here are two fun examples: - GUIDO Steve Bales (from mission control) [rejects the metric system](https://forum.apolloinrealtime.org/index.php?topic=302.0) - Michael Collins: [“If we’re late in answering you, it’s because we’re munching sandwiches.”](https://apolloinrealtime.org/11/?t=005:20:31&ch=6) - ESA is funding Norwegian company [Solsys Mining](https://solsysmining.com) with [€100000](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2023/02/Farming%5Fon%5Fthe%5FMoon) to further [develop its architecture](https://web.archive.org/web/20230222152104/https://activities.esa.int/enabling-lunar-situ-agriculture-producing-fertilizer-beneficiated-regolith) to efficiently extract desired mineral nutrients from lunar soil, and then dissolve them in water fed to hydroponic greenhouses for [growing plants](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-77/). The Solsys team has already demonstrated a proof of concept with simulated lunar soil that represented our Moon’s dominant rocky highlands. - Job alert: Lockheed Martin is [looking for a Senior Manager](https://www.lockheedmartinjobs.com/job/highlands-ranch/deep-space-business-development-sr-manager/694/43662516448) to semi-remotely lead the company’s Deep Space Exploration Business Development activities. --- **→ [Sponsor Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) | [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Moon Monday #115: Chandrayaan 3 testing, building for upcoming Moon missions, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-115/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:14.000Z *I’m unwell since a week now so this Moon Monday isn’t as detailed as the usual editions. As it turns out, the lunar news cycle too was unusually slow last week so it’s a missed opportunity to have had a feature section on an intriguing topic. In any case, every major new development is mentioned and linked to for your perusal so please bear with me for this edition.* --- ## Chandrayaan 3 Moon lander prepping for launch ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-3-prelaunch-info/) lunar lander is undergoing the standard series of [space-simulating tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/) to ensure its nominal functioning during all mission phases once its launches later this year. On February 2, the lander successfully [passed electromagnetic interference testing](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan3%5FEMI%5FEMC%5FTest.html), which checked in the foamy, pointy interiors of [a Faraday cage chamber](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FEngineering%5FTechnology/Test%5Fcentre/Electromagnetic%5Fcompatibility) if the lander’s electrical and radio emissions affect the following four key mission elements: 1. The lander’s own functioning 2. The working of the lander’s ride to space, the [GSLV Mk III](https://www.isro.gov.in/GSLVmk3%5FCON.html) rocket. The test also checked if the rocket’s emissions themselves would affect the lander’s systems. 3. Communications of the lander with the “propulsion module”, which will propel the lander to our Moon post-launch and put it into a 100-kilometer circular polar orbit. During and after landing, the module will relay communications between the lander and ground stations on Earth. (The lander can directly communicate with Earth as well.) 4. Communications of the lander with the six-wheeled Chandrayaan 3 rover ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f17f07193-e895-47a1-abb8-39cb55ff0467_1820x1200-jpeg-1.jpg) The Chandrayaan 3 lander being tested for electromagnetic interference in a Faraday cage chamber. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan3%5FEMI%5FEMC%5FTest.html) ## NASA and Boeing progress on SLS upper stage Jeff Foust reports that NASA has repurposed and dedicated a section of its Michoud Assembly Facility for Boeing to [build the envisioned enhanced second stage](https://spacenews.com/boeing-opens-sls-eus-production-facility) for the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html). Called the [Exploration Upper Stage](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/multimedia/rocket-to-the-moon-what-is-the-exploration-upper-stage.html) (EUS), it will fly end of decade starting with [Artemis IV](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-101/) and enable the SLS to push about 11,000 kilograms more cargo to lunar orbit than the current peak load of 27,000 kilograms. This will be particularly helpful to add a major element of the agency-led international [Gateway lunar orbital station](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) with each such initial launch, such as Artemis IV delivering the station’s ESA- and JAXA-developed advanced [habitation module](https://liquifer.com/gateway-i-hab) for astronauts. The first milestone task for Boeing at the new facility is to build an EUS test structure before 2025. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f513c0c68-802c-4ea1-86c4-8eb97f59dff1_2692x2019-jpeg.jpg) The SLS rocket’s planned Exploration Upper Stage compared to its current Interim Cryogenic Propulsion Stage. [Credit: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/multimedia/rocket-to-the-moon-what-is-the-exploration-upper-stage.html) NASA has [chosen SpaceX’s Falcon Heavy](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-contract-to-launch-initial-elements-for-lunar-outpost) rocket to launch the first two elements of the Gateway—the [propulsion](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-artemis-contract-for-lunar-gateway-power-propulsion) and [habitat](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-northrop-grumman-finalize-moon-outpost-living-quarters-contract) modules—in late 2024 in a pre-docked configuration. What I don’t understand is why wouldn’t NASA choose the Falcon Heavy to also deliver the rest of Gateway’s modules end of decade, or have SpaceX Starships do the job, a vehicle the agency is already trusting to land astronauts on the Moon with both [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-iii) and IV. This isn’t a point against the SLS rocket. Quite the contrary. I’m just saying using the seldom-flying SLS to push Gateway modules to Luna puts said task on the critical path of Artemis astronaut lunar surface missions, which likely limits the capabilities of those missions as well as NASA’s ability to evolve the crewed [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) to do things such as bring back more lunar samples. Surely I’m missing something? Are astronauts required to be present to integrate additional Gateway elements? --- *Many thanks to [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io) for kindly sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## More Moon - After [completing the commissioning](https://www.kari.re.kr/kplo/danuri/news/newsView.do?nttId=8623&pageIndex=1&searchCnd=&searchWrd=) and [testing](https://www.kari.re.kr/kplo/danuri/news/newsView.do?nttId=8597&pageIndex=1&searchCnd=&searchWrd=) phase of its instruments and subsystems on February 3, South Korea’s first lunar orbiter [KPLO](https://jatan.space/kplo/) formally started its one-year primary mission to study the Moon’s surface. Equipped with [four indigenously built instruments](https://space.skyrocket.de/doc%5Fsdat/kplo.htm) and the NASA-provided ultra-sensitive [ShadowCam](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-110/), KPLO will show us new views of Luna to help plan future missions, including crewed trips to the Moon’s south pole. The [$182 million](https://spacenews.com/south-koreas-first-lunar-orbiter-on-way-to-the-moon) mission comprises the first phase of South Korea’s Moon exploration program. In the second phase, the country plans to launch a [fully indigenous Moon lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-93/) in [2032](https://spacenews.com/134853-2). - A wide, relatively flat-topped mountain in [the landing region](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-s-artemis-rover-to-land-near-nobile-region-of-moon-s-south-pole) of NASA’s upcoming [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) mission at the Moon’s south pole has been [named ](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/moon-mountain-name-honors-nasa-mathematician-melba-mouton)*[Mons Mouton](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/moon-mountain-name-honors-nasa-mathematician-melba-mouton)* in honor of mathematician and computer programmer *Melba Mouton* who greatly contributed to NASA missions during the Apollo era. - On February 8, NASA [performed the second hot fire test](https://www.nasa.gov/centers/stennis/news/releases/2023/NASA-Conducts-First-2023-Test-of-Redesigned-Moon-Rocket-Engine) of the redesigned [RS-25](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/sls%5Frs25%5Fengine%5Ffs%5F508.pdf) engine to be used on future [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) lunar flights starting with Artemis V. In the first such test on December 14 last year, the engine had [shut down early](https://www.nasa.gov/centers/stennis/news/releases/2022/NASA-Conducts-First-Test-of-Redesigned-Moon-Rocket-Engine-at-Stennis) at 209.5 seconds instead of the desired, mission-emulating 500-second run due to an as yet undisclosed reason. NASA says this enhanced RS-25 is built with advanced manufacturing techniques to reduce cost and build time, the former by over 30 percent. Given that the SLS rocket currently costs [over $2 billion](https://arstechnica.com/science/2019/11/nasa-does-not-deny-the-over-2-billion-cost-of-a-single-sls-launch/) [per flight](https://oig.nasa.gov/docs/IG-22-003.pdf), and [each RS-25 a fiery $146 million](https://arstechnica.com/science/2020/05/nasa-will-pay-a-staggering-146-million-for-each-sls-rocket-engine/), any price reduction is welcome. - Blue Origin announced on February 10 that it has [made solar cells](https://www.blueorigin.com/news/blue-alchemist-powers-our-lunar-future) using silicon, iron, and aluminum extracted from a lunar soil simulant, something *Lunar Resources* [also says](https://www.theverge.com/2023/2/14/23599260/blue-origin-lunar-resources-solar-cells-moon-regolith) it has accomplished. [Eric Berger notes](https://arstechnica.com/science/2023/02/blue-origin-makes-a-big-lunar-announcement-without-any-fanfare) that this development comes from the Moon-dedicated “Advanced Development Program” at Blue Origin. While undeniably intriguing, the sheer complexity and scale of producing infrastructure *on the Moon* to power habitats means that at least for a decade from now, NASA’s plans for getting power—[solar](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/three-companies-to-help-nasa-advance-solar-array-technology-for-moon) and [nuclear](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-announces-artemis-concept-awards-for-nuclear-power-on-moon)—for surface activities continues to be through the annoying tradition of pulling hardware out of [Earth’s gruesome gravitational well](https://jatan.space/the-moon-as-a-rocket-platform/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f3c823d70-77cd-4d28-8c75-a3f8c03a0b6e_2400x1600-jpeg.jpg) A remote camera view of a redesigned RS-25 engine’s hot fire test on February 8, 2023\. [Credit: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/centers/stennis/news/releases/2023/NASA-Conducts-First-2023-Test-of-Redesigned-Moon-Rocket-Engine) ## Even more space creators I recommend In hopes of forging and enhancing direct connections between readers and individual voices, I recommended some space writers and creators [in Moon Monday #105](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-105/) and [#106](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-106/). Here are some more: - [SpacePolicyOnline](https://spacepolicyonline.com) by Marcia Smith: She comprehensively covers U.S. space policy and related missions & launches, with an inspiring consistency no less. She also maintains a related [Events Calendar](https://spacepolicyonline.com/events) of space happenings, streams, and media teleconferences. - The [NewSpace India podcast](https://newspaceindia.transistor.fm/episodes) by Narayan Prasad: He continually captures expert voices from across the Indian space landscape to provide deep perspectives on India’s space missions, projects, and policies. - [Mark Robinson](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts?author%5Fid=33) has been writing—for over a decade—intriguing blog posts on the geology of features on the Moon, features as imaged by NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter. --- **→ [Sponsor Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) | [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Moon Monday #114: Mission updates, ESA-catalyzed lunar landings, Artemis planning, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-114/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:14.000Z *Please consider supporting earthquake relief efforts in Turkey and Syria:* [Donate ♡](https://www.forbes.com/advisor/personal-finance/earthquake-relief-heres-how-to-donate-to-turkey-and-syria) ## Mission updates ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fa6b4b049-8b24-4c57-b066-bb0299e2fea5_2800x1600-jpeg.jpg) A 31-engine static fire test of a Starship Super Heavy launch vehicle. [Credit: SpaceX](https://twitter.com/SpaceX/status/1624150738447536128) - The NASA-funded and Advanced Space-led [CAPSTONE](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/small%5Fspacecraft/capstone) lunar orbiter was [unable to receive commands](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2023/02/08/capstone-to-test-technologies-after-recovery-from-communications-issue) from January 26\. An automatic command-loss timer rebooting the spacecraft on February 6 resolved the issue. All the while teams have been preparing to have the CubeSat cross-communicate with NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html) for demonstrating autonomous navigation in lunar orbit, that is, without relying on Earth’s ground stations. Such a capability will allow for efficient operations in the future when numerous satellites will be Moonbound. CAPSTONE is test-flying the same fuel-efficient [Near-Rectilinear Halo Orbit](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/a-lunar-orbit-that-s-just-right-for-the-international-gateway) that the NASA-led international [Gateway astronaut station](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) will be in later this decade, and the team is [publishing papers](https://advancedspace.com/subject/papers-presentations) to that end as the mission goes on. Advanced Space says CAPSTONE has about [56% of its fuel remaining](https://advancedspace.com/capstone-mission-resiliency-at-moon). - NASA’s 14-kilogram [Lunar Flashlight](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/cubesat/missions/lunar%5Fflashlight.php) CubeSat, intended to study [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s south pole, sadly [cannot enter lunar orbit anymore](https://spacenews.com/lunar-cubesats-encounter-technical-problems) since 3 of its 4 thrusters remain [underperforming](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/jpl/nasa-s-lunar-flashlight-team-assessing-spacecraft-s-propulsion-system). Instead, engineers will now attempt to put Flashlight in a very high Earth orbit that flies over the Moon’s south pole once a month, starting from June, hopefully allowing the spacecraft’s working four-laser reflectometer instrument to achieve at least some of its science goals. [LunaH-Map](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/lunah-map-university-built-cubesat-to-map-water-ice-on-the-moon), a NASA CubeSat launched last year to also study the Moon’s south pole, [couldn’t get into its desired lunar polar orbit](https://blogs.nasa.gov/lunah-map/2022/11/22/nasas-lunah-map-post-launch-update) either due to propulsion issues. :( - On February 9, SpaceX [successfully ignited 31 Raptor engines](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dLlLxzU1Mbo) on a Starship rocket’s Super Heavy first stage for the intended “full duration” of 15 seconds, clearing the final technical hurdle before a [launch attempt to Earth orbit](https://spacenews.com/spacex-performs-starship-static-fire-test) can be made. While SpaceX still needs a launch license from the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration before the world’s most powerful rocket flies for orbit, this is [another key milestone](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/starship-another-step-closer-to-launch-after-successful-engine-test) towards [landing the first Artemis astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) on our Moon since NASA has [so far](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-lays-out-revised-approach-for-future-human-lunar-landing-systems) selected the lunar variant of Starship as the primary lander. - Intuitive Machines’s [first Moon landing mission](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/first-commercial-moon-delivery-assignments-to-advance-artemis), part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), will launch no earlier than [June 2023](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/nasa-redirects-intuitive-machines-first-mission-to-the-lunar-south-pole-region). Jeff Foust [reports](https://spacenews.com/intuitive-machines-moves-landing-site-of-first-mission-to-lunar-south-pole) that the mission’s landing site—which NASA [relocated](https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/09/in-a-bid-to-expand-its-moon-business-intuitive-machines-will-go-public) last year from near(ish) the equator—is in the [Malapert A crater](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=-27.6167293,-80.9725683,9.6287046,-78.2434553&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIgL5A&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypOOKbRFdAJgQSfyJqt6XAMYiBCnrIsibsXLVgydAA4AnJNyEZlarIpA&proj=17) at 80° S. - Relatedly, *The Space Investor* [writes](https://mailchi.mp/c17f4c39c667/tsi%5Fwe%5F021023) that shareholders of Inflection Point [approved the company’s SPAC merger](https://www.sec.gov/ix?doc=/Archives/edgar/data/0001844452/000121390023009374/ea173031-8k%5Finflect.htm) with Intuitive Machines on February 8, with the merged public company’s ticker symbol on NASDAQ being $LUNR. I’ve listed all lunar missions and technologies that Intuitive Machines has been tangibly building in a dedicated section on [Moon Monday #95](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-95/). - Key elements of the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) needed to launch NASA’s [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to) mission, which aims to send astronauts around the Moon and back in late 2024, are in [final phases of their assembly](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/progress-underway-on-moon-rockets-for-nasa-s-crewed-artemis-missions.html). This includes the rocket’s [core stage](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/fs/core%5Fstage.html), [boosters](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/fs/solid-rocket-booster.html), [flight software](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/nasa-moon-rocket-flight-software-readied-for-artemis-i-launch.html), and the ULA-provided [second stage](https://www.ulalaunch.com/interim-cryogenic-propulsion-stage-%28icps%29). --- *Many thanks to [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io), [The Orbital Index](https://orbitalindex.com) and [Open Lunar Foundation](https://www.openlunar.org) for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## ESA forging a NASA CLPS-like program of its own ESA continues forging its own commercial lunar landing program inspired by [NASA CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), the latter of which aims to frequently send science instruments and technology demonstrations to the Moon onboard commercial landers at lower costs than traditional missions. Last week ESA announced [completing “Pilot Phase” studies](https://bsgn.esa.int/2023/02/10/potential-european-lunar-payload-deliverers) assessing the eligibility and technical feasibility of four lander providers: 1. OHB, a Germany-based major European company who has been [involved in several ESA Science missions](https://www.ohb.de/en/space-systems/exploration). Their lander design is licensed from the flight-proven [Beresheet lander](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/beresheet) by Israel-based SpaceIL. 2. ispace Europe, a subsidiary of ispace inc. Japan. The latter assembles its Series 1 landers [in Europe](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=2499). Relatedly, I’ve listed all major activities of ispace Europe in [Moon Monday #76](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-76/). 3. France-based Lunar Logistic Services, who is partnering with U.S. based CLPS vendor Astrobotic for its lander design. 4. Belgium-based Space Applications, who is likewise teaming up with CLPS vendor Intuitive Machines. If formally selected by ESA in the next phase, any or all of these landers would carry European payloads to the Moon starting as early as 2024\. An interesting note regarding the list’s inclusion of Astrobotic and Intuitive Machines is that NASA’s CLPS program itself has a similar vendor onboard. Draper, chosen by NASA to deliver agency-funded science & technology payloads [to the Moon’s farside in 2025](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-87/), is developing its lander based on an [ispace U.S.-led design](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=2531). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f0cfbf4c3-6288-402a-8449-81895f3ce69d_1864x1080-jpeg.jpg) **Left:** Technicians preparing ispace’s first lunar lander for launch; **Right:** The fully assembled lander at [IABG](https://www.iabg.de/en/business-fields/space) in Germany. Credits: ispace ([1](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=2499), [2](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=3682)) You can check out the 2022 [Lunar Economy Workshop slides](https://bsgn.esa.int/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Lunar-Economy-Workshop%5FLunar-Payload-Delivery-Services.pdf) for more details on the lunar lander proposals part of ESA’s pilot phase. ESA intends for these landers to be complementary to the agency’s own [Large Logistics Lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-94/) launching post-2030 to support crewed and large robotic explorations. In parallel, last year ESA began identifying payloads to be sent to the Moon. In June 2022, ESA expanded the scope of its [SciSpacE program](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Research/Drop%5Ffly%5Firradiate%5FESA%5Fs%5FSciSpace%5Fresearch%5Fprogramme) from Earth to our Moon by asking researchers across its member (and affiliated) states to [submit lunar science payload proposals](https://ideas.esa.int/servlet/hype/IMT?documentTableId=45087127246400699&userAction=Browse&searchTerm=SVNT&templateName=&documentId=a74341805c7f2c3197252cefbf332097) that can be developed for launch within 3 years of an identified flight opportunity. Winning proposals from a down-selected pool this year could launch starting 2024 either onboard an ESA-aided commercial lander from the aforementioned list or an international mission such as a CLPS delivery. Likewise in February 2022, ESA [solicited international payloads](https://bsgn.esa.int/2022/02/09/lsas-call-for-payloads) for 3 OHB Moon landing missions this decade. ## Centralizing Artemis planning On February 7, the Aerospace Safety Advisory Panel (ASAP)—a committee that reports to NASA and the U.S. Congress—issued its [2022 annual report](https://oiir.hq.nasa.gov/asap/documents/ASAP%5F2022%5FAnnual%5FReport.pdf). While the detailed panel recommendations can be found in the *Artemis Program Management* section on Page 15 of the report, I summarize some salient points below. The panel applauded NASA for making “impressive strides in program management”, in reference to their [critical 2021 recommendation](https://oiir.hq.nasa.gov/asap/documents/2021%5FASAP%5FReport-TAGGED.pdf) that the crewed [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) lunar campaign should be centrally managed to ensure safety, transparency, responsibility, and accountability. To that end, Marcia Smith reports that NASA is now [awaiting final approval](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-awaiting-congressional-approval-for-moon-to-mars-program-office) from the U.S. Congress for establishing a “Moon to Mars Program Office” and an Artemis Director within, a plan catalyzed by the [2022 NASA Authorization Act](https://spacenews.com/nasa-authorization-included-in-chips-act). In line with the panel’s 2021 recommendations, NASA has aligned and centrally listed all engineering elements of Artemis to improve traceability of requirements, and to ensure their systematic integration and interoperability. NASA has also developed an “Artemis master schedule” that’s reviewed every month to identify lingering areas and disconnects. Moreover, starting this year the agency will undertake annual Artemis architecture reviews. Having said that, the panel reiterated several concerns from last year, chief of which is lack of clarity on how NASA plans to “operationalize” Artemis missions, like the agency has done the International Space Station. This concern exists because all currently planned Artemis missions are ever evolving in capabilities, each requiring critical new technologies. They also have an irregular cadence. ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f06a04636-9cd8-4e9e-a787-956644f57ab7_1100x950-jpeg.jpg) A first-of-its-kind, 4.4-kilometer wide image of an unnamed, permanently shadowed crater on the Moon’s north pole, as snapped by the KPLO orbiter’s ShadowCam imager. The crater floor is seen (in the image bottom) while small deposits of dark material are seen sliding downslope (from top of the image). [Credits: NASA / KARI / ASU](http://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/images/1288) - NASA’s ultra-sensitive [ShadowCam](https://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/about) imager onboard South Korea’s first lunar orbiter [KPLO](https://jatan.space/kplo/) has provided us with [another unique peek](http://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/images/1288) into a [permanently shadowed crater](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) on the Moon, this time on the north pole. ShadowCam’s high resolution mapping of our Moon’s eternally shaded polar terrain over this year and beyond will [enable planning of future resource prospecting missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-110/) within such regions. - **Job alert:** The Lunar and Planetary Institute is seeking applications for a [postdoctorate](https://workforcenow.adp.com/mascsr/default/mdf/recruitment/recruitment.html?cid=f03960f2-20cd-4828-9ae5-415eefc7072e&ccId=19000101%5F000001&lang=en%5FUS&jobId=466244&jobId=466244) in remote-sensing lunar research. The work involves high-priority science investigations of the Moon’s south pole, to be used as input for planning future surface missions. - [How NASA and India discovered water on our Moon 🧊](https://jatan.space/how-nasa-and-chandrayaan-discovered-water-on-the-moon/) --- **→ [Sponsor Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) | [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Moon Monday #113: A volcanic dome for NASA CLPS, a crusty site for Chandrayaan 3, Pangaea for astronauts, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-113/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:14.000Z ## NASA really wants to visit our Moon’s volcanic Gruithuisen Domes NASA has [changed the target landing site](https://blogs.nasa.gov/clps/2023/02/02/new-landing-site-will-upgrade-science-returns-for-astrobotic-flight) for Astrobotic’s [first Moon lander](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-awarded-79-5-million-contract-to-deliver-14-nasa-payloads-to-the-moon)—launching this year as part of the agency’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/)—from the northeastern lunar lava plain of [Lacus Mortis](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=18.913265,41.4506243,38.1404583,49.0745437&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&selectedFeature=3113,1077&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIgL5A&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFOOZLRfImqnioA&proj=10) to an unspecified lava plain just outside the [Gruithuisen volcanic dome pair](https://jatan.space/unique-volcanic-domes-of-gruithuisen/) in the northwest. [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f012c2155-1a4e-41c1-a2f5-82e132cbd6c7_1098x770-jpeg.jpg)](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=-42.3484515,34.9435608,-37.7027458,37.6337023&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4XyA&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEoAsjYIHYFcA2vIBvAXwF1Siylw4oNEQBmOOR9RHfS87pFAJjT0EIAaHbQAdAE5InAiR6LSQA&proj=16) The unique volcanic domes of Gruithuisen (Gamma and Delta), each more than 15 kilometers across. [Credit: NASA LRO](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/184) | [Explore on a map](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=-42.3484515,34.9435608,-37.7027458,37.6337023&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4XyA&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEoAsjYIHYFcA2vIBvAXwF1Siylw4oNEQBmOOR9RHfS87pFAJjT0EIAaHbQAdAE5InAiR6LSQA&proj=16) NASA says in the announcement that this relocation would increase the scientific return from the [11 agency-enabled instruments](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/first-commercial-moon-delivery-assignments-to-advance-artemis) onboard but doesn’t specify how so, other than stating that the mission science would now complement a [future CLPS landing](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-new-instruments-for-priority-artemis-science-on-moon) mission to one of the two domes in 2026\. Since CLPS is managed by NASA’s [Science Mission Directorate](https://science.nasa.gov/about-us/science-strategy), I hope we can learn more about the scientific gains due to this relocation in future communications, especially how it improves upon the previous location’s [suitability](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2021/07/The%5Fheart%5Fof%5Fa%5Flunar%5Fsensor) to study [how water gets transported](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasa-study-highlights-importance-of-surface-shadows-in-moon-water-puzzle) from the Moon’s equator to [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) on the poles where it can remain [preserved for billions of years](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). You see, 5 of the 11 NASA-enabled instruments onboard Astrobotic’s lander are supposed to collectively detect various forms of lunar water and other such volatiles, including [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) traces underground as well as gases released by [the solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) striking the lunar soil. Astrobotic’s previous landing site at 45° N presented a good equator-pole transition point for said purpose but its unclear how the regions in and around Gruithuisen domes lying roughly at 36° N are apt. While, yes, the [silicic nature](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/1271) of the two domes may make them relatively water-rich, it’s not clear if and how well that translates to the unspecified nearby lava plain. Relatedly, NASA [also relocated](https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/09/in-a-bid-to-expand-its-moon-business-intuitive-machines-will-go-public) the landing site of Intuitive Machines’ [first CLPS lander](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/first-commercial-moon-delivery-assignments-to-advance-artemis) last year, from near the equator to the Moon’s south pole. Along the same line of thought, the absence of volatile-measuring [NASA-funded instruments](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/first-commercial-moon-delivery-assignments-to-advance-artemis) onboard the lander is even more puzzling based on publicly available information. We hope to see a formal post from NASA on the rationale behind this relocation as well. NASA’s newly launched [CLPS Blog](https://blogs.nasa.gov/clps) is going to be intriguing to follow to such ends. In any case, the [to-be-selected](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-new-instruments-for-priority-artemis-science-on-moon) NASA-funded CLPS lander descending on the summit of one of the Gruithuisen Domes in 2026 will be something to look forward to. The mission’s lander & rover instrument suite called [Lunar-VISE](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2023/pdf/2152.pdf), selected as part of an [enhanced science phase](https://science.nasa.gov/researchers/solicitations/roses-2021/amendment-22-payloads-and-research-investigations-surface-moon-prism-draft-text-released-community) for CLPS, will measure the composition of the domes and its thicker, silica-rich ancient lava flows, letting scientists compare them to the thin basaltic flows most common on our Moon. This will greatly expand our knowledge of the Moon’s volcanic past. On Earth, such formations need significant water content and plate tectonics to form but with the Moon lacking both, [lunar scientists have been wondering](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/972) how these features formed and evolved. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fb79682be-6bad-4889-97be-98e1f9dc1de3_1100x650-jpeg-1.jpg) The 600-plus-meter tall silicic volcano of Mairan T on our Moon. Image is about 6.6 kilometers across. [Credits: NASA / GSFC / ASU](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/1271) Tangent: Eric Berger reports that with the pending installation of [the engines](https://www.astrobotic.com/frontier-aerospace-selected-for-nasa-award-to-develop-deep-space-thruster-using-mon-25-mmh-propellant) on Astrobotic’s first CLPS lander, and [much work ahead](https://www.ulalaunch.com/rockets/vulcan-centaur/countdown-to-vulcan) for the mission’s launch provider ULA to ready the Vulcan rocket, the launch [may not happen before May](https://arstechnica.com/science/2023/02/when-will-united-launch-alliances-vulcan-rocket-fly). ## Chandrayaan 3’s crusty landing site ISRO, unannounced, finally updated [its official webpage](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan3%5FNew.html) on the [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-3-prelaunch-info/) Moon landing mission with new details, including a host of lander specifications such as the onboard sensors, the engine configuration, and the targeted touchdown velocity. The page’s mention of the landing site is particularly interesting. Launching later this year, the Chandrayaan 3 lander will attempt a lunar touchdown at the near-polar location of [69.37 S, 32.35 E](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=23.237904,-74.1545766,38.0219231,-64.0693701&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryFeature=0&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=32.34810585,-69.36768573@@{"label":"Chandrayaan+3+target+landing+site"}&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFOOZLRfImqnioA&proj=17) (click the link to browse on an interactive map). That’s roughly just [100 kilometers east](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=-43.2663985,-76.9293749,40.7466262,-47.9179747&id=lroc&layerListFilter=&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=32.34810585,-69.36768573@@{"label":"Chandrayaan+3+target+landing+site"}|22.67039939,-70.82998430@@{"label":"Chandrayaan+2+target+landing+site"}|22.67065629,-70.83019811,32.34793832,-69.36759126&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0yioA&proj=17) of the Chandrayaan 2 landing site ([70.83 S, 22.67 E](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=-11.8402941,-78.6105899,39.8552444,-56.8712164&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4XyA&features=22.66621215,-70.82812301&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEoAsjYIHYFcA2vIBvAXwF1Siylw4oNEQBmOOR9RHfS870oA&proj=17)) lying in the same larger rocky highland region, which makes sense given the identical goals of the landing part of the two missions. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f1b75fe62-794b-4cba-b6f6-4e29f68a26a8_1920x1080-jpeg-1.jpg) The landing sites of Chandrayaan 2 and 3 are marked as CH-2 and CH-3 respectively in these orthographic views of the Moon’s nearside and south pole. [Credit: LROC Quickmap / Markings by Jatan Mehta](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=-43.2663985,-76.9293749,40.7466262,-47.9179747&id=lroc&layerListFilter=&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=32.34810585,-69.36768573@@{"label":"Chandrayaan+3+target+landing+site"}|22.67039939,-70.82998430@@{"label":"Chandrayaan+2+target+landing+site"}|22.67065629,-70.83019811,32.34793832,-69.36759126&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0yioA&proj=17) Like other lunar highlands, the Chandrayaan 3 landing region is expected to contain material from the [ancient lunar crust](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) as well as materials ejected when nearby craters formed during the period of heavy bombardment by asteroids and comets roughly 3.8 to 4.1 billion years ago. Both of these types of materials are great targets for the two spectrometers onboard Chandrayaan 3’s rover, which will explore the landed region for one lunar day i.e. 14 Earth days. --- *Many thanks to [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io) for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## ESA is “turning astronauts into Moon explorers” ESA’s [Pangaea campaign](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/CAVES%5Fand%5FPangaea/What%5Fis%5FPangaea) to coach future lunar astronauts in geology—a highly valuable skill when exploring our Moon and collecting samples—has trained 10 astronauts from 3 space agencies over 5 expeditions since 2016\. Now that the program has matured, its director [Francesco Sauro](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2018/11/22/meet-the-instructors-francesco-sauro) and his colleagues have [published a paper](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2022.12.034) describing how they designed the efficient and modern lunar field training course [as a way to prepare astronauts](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2023/02/01/turning-astronauts-into-moon-explorers) for future mission-specific training the likes of [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis). They hope that Pangaea will serve as a useful astronaut training model for other space agencies and also promote international cooperation. The last Pangaea batch saw European astronaut [Andreas Mogensen](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2021/11/17/back-to-the-future), European engineer [Robin Eccleston](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2021/09/09/robin-the-gadget-master) and NASA astronaut [Kathleen Rubins](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2021/09/16/kate-and-the-moon) explore various strikingly Moon-like geological sites across Europe: the [Italian Dolomite](https://www.bletterbach.info/en) mountains, the [Ries impact crater](https://www.geopark-ries.de/en/entstehung-rieskrater/) in Germany, the Spanish [volcanic island of Lanzarote](https://geoparquelanzarote.org/en/), and the [Norwegian fjords of Lofoten](https://norskbergverksmuseum.no/silvermines). In September 2022, ESA [began training](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Training%5Fastronauts%5Fto%5Fbe%5Fscientists%5Fon%5Fthe%5FMoon) the next batch of two astronauts—ESA’s [Alexander Gerst](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Astronauts/Alexander%5FGerst) and NASA’s [Stephanie Wilson](https://www.nasa.gov/astronauts/biographies/stephanie-d-wilson/biography). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fbb5fe607-6642-4f25-b336-9dc5e9a9d26d_2100x1300-jpeg.jpg) ESA Pangaea trainees reach the top of the crater Montaña Blanca in the Spanish volcanic landscapes of Lanzarote. [Credits: ESA / A. Romeo](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2018/11/Pangaea%5Fexpedition%5Fto%5FMontana%5FBlanca) ## More Moon - As part of a new U.S.-India partnership to collaboratively build some “Critical and Emerging Technologies”, the two nations [announced on January 31](https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2023/01/31/fact-sheet-united-states-and-india-elevate-strategic-partnership-with-the-initiative-on-critical-and-emerging-technology-icet) that one such upcoming initiative will identify possible contributions from ISRO and Indian aerospace companies to NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), which aims to regularly, commercially send payloads, instruments, and hardware to the Moon on privately built U.S. landers. This is an unexpectedly nice trajectory but I was more surprised by the lacking mention of India’s [Chandrayaan 2 lunar orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/), which [represents an untapped opportunity](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-75/) for NASA and ISRO to have the polar orbiter contribute observations and datasets for Artemis planning to fill in gaps left by NASA’s gracefully aging Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter. Combined, these moves can positively affect India’s undecided stance on the U.S. led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords), which aims for globally cooperative lunar exploration. - On January 16, technicians at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center [completed installing](https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/progress-continues-on-orion-s-service-module-for-artemis-ii) the main engine nozzle and heat shield of the [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft)’s power-and-propulsion-providing [European Service Module](https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/space/esm). This hardware will be used for NASA’s [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to) mission to send astronauts around the Moon and back. - The Solar X-ray Monitor (XSM) on India’s Chandrayaan 2 orbiter has a [dedicated website](https://www.prl.res.in/ch2xsm) where you can see a graph of the instrument-measured high-resolution X-ray spectrum of [our Sun and its atmosphere](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/). The plot is autoupdated daily and you can input date ranges to check the Sun’s measured X-ray activity during that period. If that *flared* your interest, check out [my article](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-orbiter-is-also-a-sun-watcher/) on how the instrument is uniquely aiding the study of our Sun’s flares. ## Jobs and events - The Open Lunar Foundation is hiring an “[Innovation Program Coordinator](https://recruit.openlunar.org/innovation-program-coordinator)” to lead organization-wide project development and community engagement. The position provides flexibility in time zones, and is remote. - The Lunar and Planetary Laboratory at the University of Arizona is seeking candidates for the position of [Researcher/Scientist III](https://arizona.csod.com/ux/ats/careersite/4/home/requisition/13478?c=arizona), with the job profile including working and collaborating on projects involving lunar sample analyses. - The Royal Society is hosting an in-person & online meeting on February 13–14 titled “[Astronomy from the Moon: the next decades](https://royalsociety.org/science-events-and-lectures/2023/02/astronomy-moon)” to discuss our Moon’s potential as [a platform for astronomical observations](https://jatan.space/radio-astronomy-from-the-moon/) and its related policy implications. Attending the event is free. - Relatedly, the Royal Society published [a special journal issue](https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2019.0560) in 2020, whose papers explore how deploying various kinds of telescopes on our Moon—from radio to infrared and optical—can improve our understanding of the Universe’s origins at a level beyond the reach of any planned telescopes on Earth or in orbit. I’ve shared *Open Access* links to said papers in [Moon Monday #3](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-03/). --- **→ [Sponsor Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) | [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### What we know about India’s Chandrayaan 3 Moon landing mission URL: https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-3-prelaunch-info/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:14.000Z **July 20, 2023 update: This post is now old, and kept online for archival purposes. Please read my [new and more detailed article](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) on Chandrayaan 3 instead.** --- After India’s [Chandrayaan 2 lander](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-2-moon-landing-mission/) unfortunately [failed](http://www.planetary.org/blogs/jason-davis/vikram-apparently-crash-lands.html) to land on the Moon in 2019 during its final mission phase, the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) undertook building a repeat mission with Chandrayaan 3\. It is currently undergoing final tests and is slated for launch in mid 2023\. Originally slated for launch in the first half of 2023, Chandrayaan 3 was [robbed of its ride to space](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-100/) as ISRO prioritized two GSLV Mk IIIs for commercial OneWeb launches. To increase the chances of sticking the landing this time around, ISRO has made [several upgrades](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/chandrayaan-3-targeted-this-year-corrections-in-progress-hardware-realisation-almost-done/articleshow/89322779.cms) to the Chandrayaan-2-like lander such as software improvements to accommodate failure, strengthened legs, a couple of new sensors for enhanced and redundant navigation-related measurements, and better power and communication systems. The host of sensors on the lander, its engine configuration and the gentle touchdown specifications are listed on ISRO’s [official Chandrayaan 3 page](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan3%5FNew.html). The mission will also have a 2148-kilogram orbiter that will propel the 1752-kilogram lander to the Moon post-launch and put it into a 100-kilometer circular polar orbit. During and after landing, the orbiter will relay communications between the lander and Earth. It will also host the [SHAPE Earth-observing experiment](https://old.reddit.com/r/ISRO/comments/vweeu5/report%5Fon%5Fspace%5Fresearch%5Fin%5Findia%5Ffor%5F44th%5Fcospar/ifpfurp), which is a near-infrared spectro-polarimeter made to observe the full Earth disc from the Moon to get a sense of what signatures of habitable Earth-like exoplanets would look like. The [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) will serve as a backup (and secondary) relay provider. Being a repeat of the Chandrayaan 2 landing attempt, the mission will last a maximum of one lunar day i.e. 14 Earth days. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f211dcd3b-64db-493f-a025-cdb92dd234ca_1500x1000-jpeg-1.jpg) An artist’s impression of Chandrayaan 2’s lander and rover on the Moon. Chandrayaan 3 hardware is expected to look similar. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=--8ORixBXQE) ## The landing site The Chandrayaan 3 lander will attempt a lunar touchdown at the near-polar location of [69.37 S, 32.35 E](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=23.237904,-74.1545766,38.0219231,-64.0693701&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryFeature=0&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=32.34810585,-69.36768573@@{"label":"Chandrayaan+3+target+landing+site"}&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFOOZLRfImqnioA&proj=17) (click the link to browse on an interactive map). That’s roughly just [100 kilometers east](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=-43.2663985,-76.9293749,40.7466262,-47.9179747&id=lroc&layerListFilter=&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=32.34810585,-69.36768573@@{"label":"Chandrayaan+3+target+landing+site"}|22.67039939,-70.82998430@@{"label":"Chandrayaan+2+target+landing+site"}|22.67065629,-70.83019811,32.34793832,-69.36759126&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0yioA&proj=17) of the Chandrayaan 2 landing site ([70.83 S, 22.67 E](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=-11.8402941,-78.6105899,39.8552444,-56.8712164&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4XyA&features=22.66621215,-70.82812301&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEoAsjYIHYFcA2vIBvAXwF1Siylw4oNEQBmOOR9RHfS870oA&proj=17)) lying in the same larger rocky highland region. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f1b75fe62-794b-4cba-b6f6-4e29f68a26a8_1920x1080-jpeg-2.jpg) The landing sites of Chandrayaan 2 and 3 are marked as CH-2 and CH-3 respectively in these orthographic views of the Moon’s nearside and south pole. [Credit: LROC Quickmap / Markings by Jatan Mehta](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=-43.2663985,-76.9293749,40.7466262,-47.9179747&id=lroc&layerListFilter=&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=32.34810585,-69.36768573@@{"label":"Chandrayaan+3+target+landing+site"}|22.67039939,-70.82998430@@{"label":"Chandrayaan+2+target+landing+site"}|22.67065629,-70.83019811,32.34793832,-69.36759126&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0yioA&proj=17) Like other lunar highlands, the Chandrayaan 3 landing region is expected to contain material from the [ancient lunar crust](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) as well as materials ejected when nearby craters formed during the period of heavy bombardment by asteroids and comets roughly 3.8 to 4.1 billion years ago. Both of these types of materials are great targets for the two spectrometers onboard Chandrayaan 3’s rover. ## The lander ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f17f07193-e895-47a1-abb8-39cb55ff0467_1820x1200-jpeg-2.jpg) The Chandrayaan 3 lander being tested for electromagnetic interference in a Faraday cage chamber. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan3%5FEMI%5FEMC%5FTest.html) The lander will carry [payloads similar to Chandrayaan 2](https://www.isro.gov.in/chandrayaan2-payloads). It will insert a thermal probe about 10 centimeters into the lunar soil to measure its thermal properties and learn about the Moon’s interior. A seismometer onboard will detect moonquakes, like NASA’s [Apollo missions](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/celebrating-apollo-at-50) did. If a strong enough moonquake occurs during the mission, it could provide additional clues about the Moon’s interior, particularly its core. Vikram will also carry a Langmuir probe to determine the amount, distribution and properties of hot, ionized particles on the lunar surface created by [the solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/), and a radio occultation experiment that will measure electron density in the Moon’s thin but persistent atmosphere. NASA is contributing a retroreflector, an upgraded version of the [ones left on the Moon by Apollo missions](https://www.nasa.gov/mission%5Fpages/LRO/multimedia/lroimages/lroc-20100413-apollo15-LRRR.html), which scientists will bounce laser pulses off to better understand the gravitational dynamics of the Earth-Moon system. ## The rover ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f343f4255-acce-44d0-9387-42f37a86776d_773x598-jpeg.jpg) A model of the Chandrayaan 2 rover being tested at ISRO’s simulated lunar soil facility. [Credit: ISRO](http://www.planetary.org/explore/the-planetary-report/chandrayaan-2-india-lunar-exploration.html) The six-wheeled, 26-kilogram Chandrayaan 3 rover, essentially the same design as the one on Chandrayaan 2 but [with enhanced software](https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/science/chandrayaan-3-launch-in-june-next-year-says-isro-chairman/articleshow/94992898.cms), will study the geology of the landing region. An X-ray spectrometer will study what the region’s rocks and lunar soil are made of. A high-power laser will shoot and vaporize target material and analyze radiation emitted from it to determine the material’s composition using a (different) spectrometer. Both spectrometers are expected to find pristine materials from the [ancient lunar crust](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). *Aside: Reddit user u/ravi\_ram has compiled a nice [list of research papers](https://www.reddit.com/r/ISRO/comments/104t56j/chandrayaan%5Frover%5Fpragyan%5Frelated%5Fpapers) related to the Chandrayaan 2 rover.* ## ISRO’s lunar soil simulant For testing the Chandrayaan landers and rovers, ISRO [developed a lunar soil simulant](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0032063320303299) called LSS-ISAC-1\. To make the simulant, ISRO sourced naturally occurring anorthosite rocks fragments from the [Sittampundi Anorthosite Complex](https://www.mindat.org/loc-194805.html) in southern India, which aids the simulant’s fidelity. The bulk chemistry, mineralogy and physical & mechanical properties of the final LSS-ISAC-1 simulant [are similar to Apollo 16 highland soil samples](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0032063321001938), in part because Chandrayaan 2’s [target landing site](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-landing-site-in-the-southern-highlands/) was in a lunar highland too. ## Communications support ISRO and NASA signed an agreement in February 2022 to use the latter’s [Deep Space Network](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/heo/scan/services/networks/deep%5Fspace%5Fnetwork/about) (DSN) to support communications for Chandrayaan 3\. It was shared as but a small note in the [February monthly summary](https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/article-files/monthly-summary-of-department-of-space-last-1-year/february-2022-monthly%5Fsummary.pdf) of India’s Department of Space. [ESA will also provide backup communications](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Operations/ESA%5FGround%5FStations/ESA%5Fsupports%5FIndian%5Flunar%5Fand%5Fsolar%5Fmissions) via their [Estrack network](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Operations/ESA%5FGround%5FStations/Estrack%5Fground%5Fstations) for Chandrayaan 3, as one of the first benefits of a [broader technical support agreement](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Operations/ESA%5FGround%5FStations/ESA%5Fand%5FIndian%5Fspace%5Fagency%5FISRO%5Fagree%5Fon%5Ffuture%5Fcooperation) signed in July 2021 between ESA and ISRO. ISRO uses its own [Indian Deep Space Network](https://www.isro.gov.in/indian-space-science-data-centre-issdc-gateway-to-indias-space-science-data) as a primary means for communicating with its planetary spacecraft but partners with other space agencies for backup and secondary options. India’s [Chandrayaan 1](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/) orbiter had DSN support too. ## ISRO’s lack of mission information *Update: Many of the concerns below, which were written in June 2022, have been addressed by ISRO’s [official Chandrayaan 3 webpage](https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan3%5FNew.html) as of February 2023\. However, I’m keeping this section in tact for now because it was true at the time of publishing and for months after.* All of this information has been put together by following minor developments and tracking multiple sources consistently for over a year. For such a critical mission, it’s frustrating as an Indian to see ISRO not even have a one-pager on their website about Chandrayaan 3, and no official mechanism to provide major updates. If anything, ISRO has continued to withhold any substantial information on the mission. When Twitter user @frustratedpluto [submitted several questions](https://twitter.com/frustratedpluto/status/1443622557643468801) to ISRO under the Indian Right to Information Act in September 2021, nearly all the responses read as follows. > The information sought is exempted from disclosure under Section-8(1)(a) of RTI Act as it would prejudicially affect the scientific, technical and strategic interest of the state/country. ISRO, a tax-payer-funded civilian space agency, has been outright refusing to provide the public any asked-for substantial information on Chandrayaan 3’s configuration, tests, and more. Even the purely scientific question of “Provide me with the location of the NASA’s LRA payload onboard the Vikram lander on Chandrayaan 2” was given the same response. Indians who have submitted questions to ISRO before are unfortunately familiar with this dreaded statement. It almost makes one think of Chandrayaan 3 as a cold-war-era lunar defense mission rather than a robotic explorer. For an organization that’s supposed to help inculcate scientific thinking and aspiration in hundreds of millions of Indians, this is a dreadful state of affairs. --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### Indian Space Progress #1: Looking back at 2022 and forward to 2023 URL: https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-01/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:16.000Z Welcome to the first edition of *Indian Space Progress,* the world’s only newsletter dedicated to covering the entire (civil) Indian space landscape—from space technology, launch & exploration to astrophysics & planetary science to commercial & policy developments and more. To be published monthly by me, [Jatan Mehta](https://blog.jatan.space/about), on this space blog of mine, the newsletter aims to track the progress—or lack thereof—of all major pieces driving India’s increasingly relevant space capabilities in the global arena. To that end, the newsletter’s name abbreviates to ISP, which should give rocket science enthusiasts a good chuckle while metaphorically representing said purpose. I have two key motivations to launch this newsletter: 1. There’s a lot happening lately in Indian space, and increasingly so, but both availability of relevant information and access to it remain scattered, fragmented, and opaque. As such, my baseline goal with the newsletter is to consolidate everything in one place for convenience, with tons of links of course, and get a sense of the bigger picture. Ideally, I wish to provide valuable analysis and commentary up top. If you’re familiar with my flagship [Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/s/moon-monday/archive) newsletter, *Indian Space Progress* aims to deliver similar value, except monthly. 2. I genuinely believe my country has a key role to play in space this century, especially from the perspective of being Earth’s largest democracy and a somewhat geopolitically neutral nation. I hope India can help shape global polices for sustainable, cooperative, and peaceful space exploration. However, ensuring that is the duty of its own citizens, and that’s why I wish to contribute a tiny bit by expanding [my writings on Indian space](https://blog.jatan.space/indian-space) with this newsletter. For this inaugural *Indian Space Progress* edition, I’m starting with a review of all major Indian space activities from last year so it’s easy to feed forward that context for the next editions, all of which will be monthly reviews. --- *Before we begin, I’d like to gladly acknowledge and thank [The Takshashila institution](https://takshashila.org.in) for being the first and enabling sponsor of the Indian Space Progress newsletter!* *Takshashila is an independent center for research and education in public policy based out of Bengaluru, India. Among its many areas of work as a non-partisan, non-profit organization, Takshashila tracks outer space affairs, especially as they pertain to India, and provides regular inputs to policymakers and the public at large. Personally, I’m inspired by the fact that the organization’s [work on space](https://takshashila.org.in/research/tag/Space) played a low-key, background but instrumental role in liberalizing India’s space policy.* *Related note for my readers: I have published a more formal [Editorial Independence Policy](https://blog.jatan.space/ethics) to transparently convey the specific ways in which I ensure editorial independence of [my space writings](https://blog.jatan.space/about) as well as the exact way I run sponsorships.* --- 2022 was a bittersweet year for the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) as well as the country’s space ecosystem at large. While ISRO launched its own rockets only five times, one of them was a globally recognized commercial [loft of OneWeb satellites to orbit](https://www.isro.gov.in/LVM3M2MissionLandingPage.html). The agency made substantial progress in technology testing for a future crewed mission but its planetary and space science endeavors took big hits. The [new ISRO Chief](https://www.isro.gov.in/Secretaryisro.html) is thankfully more candid and available than the last one but the agency as whole remains characteristically opaque in its communications. ISRO continued advances in realizing several core space technologies but private space capabilities, aimed to be catalyzed by commercial reforms, are still brewing. Let’s unpack it all. ## ISRO’s launches in 2022 ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fde8b9d54-bf53-4b20-b1c7-b68364c2ccb2_1630x1080-jpeg.jpg) Top left: [Launch](https://www.isro.gov.in/mission%5FPSLV%5FC52%5FGallery.html) of the PSLV-C52 mission; Top right: [OneWeb satellites](https://www.isro.gov.in/mission%5Flvm3%5Fgallery.html) inside a GSLV Mk III’s rocket fairing; Bottom left: PSLV’s strap-on [solid rocket boosters](https://www.isro.gov.in/mission%5FPSLV%5FC52%5FGallery.html); Bottom right: [People cheering](https://www.isro.gov.in/mission%5FPSLV%5FC53%5Fgallery.html) a PSLV launch from ISRO’s Launch View Gallery. Credits: ISRO On February 14, 2022, ISRO’s PSLV-XL rocket [launched the 1710-kilogram EOS-04 radar imaging satellite](https://www.isro.gov.in/mission%5FPSLV%5FC52.html) into its intended sun-synchronous polar Earth orbit at 529-kilometer altitude. The rocket also deployed [INSPIRESAT-1](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=2022-013B), an ionosphere-studying satellite jointly built by India, the U.S., Taiwan, and Singapore. On June 22, a European Ariane 5 rocket [launched](https://www.arianespace.com/press-release/first-ariane-5-launch-of-2022-is-a-success-supporting-two-loyal-clients-of-arianespace-measat-malaysia-and-nsil-india/) [GSAT-24](https://space.skyrocket.de/doc%5Fsdat/gsat-24.htm), an ISRO-made [$48 million](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/space-psu-nsil-to-launch-sat-for-tatasky/articleshow/81081943.cms) communications satellite funded, owned, and operated by New Space India Limited (NSIL), a relatively new Department of Space (DOS) company tasked with undertaking end-to-end commercial activities for India, including wholly operating satellites. To that end, NSIL leased GSAT-24’s entire capacity to [Tata Play](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata%5FPlay) for the latter’s Direct-to-Home consumer business. Another NSIL launch followed shortly on June 30, with India’s workhorse PSLV [lofting 3 distinct Singapore-made satellites](https://www.nsilindia.co.in/sites/default/files/Press%20Release%20-%20PSLV%20C-53%20DS-EO%20Mission.pdf) to low Earth orbit. Dhruva Space, a private company based out of Hyderabad, [successfully tested](https://www.dhruvaspace.com/news/dhruva-space-satellite-orbital-deployer-successful-space-qualification-isro-pslv-c53) their satellite deployment system onboard this PSLV’s spent fourth stage [POEM](https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/everyday-explainers/explained-what-is-isros-poem-platform-8001754), which is a unique ISRO-provided stabilized orbital platform apt for post-mission technology demonstrations. The August 7 [debut flight](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSLV-D1) of the SSLV rocket—which once operational is supposed to provide “launch on demand” capability for sub-500-kilogram payloads—unfortunately failed. The rocket was carrying an ISRO-made infrared Earth observation satellite and a privately developed small satellite. SSLV’s fourth and final stage [failed to attain a circular 356-kilometer orbit](https://web.archive.org/web/20220807091754/https://twitter.com/isro/status/1556208112138215424) due to a [lingering anomaly](https://www.isro.gov.in/mission%5FSSLV%5FD1%5Fsummary%5FD2.html) from the second stage separation. The final stage and satellites onboard were ultimately destroyed upon atmospheric reentry. ISRO is targeting [SSLV’s second launch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSLV-D2) in [late February](https://www.andhrajyothy.com/2023/andhra-pradesh/foreign-satellites-arriving-at-shaar-bbr-999330.html). On October 23, space enthusiasts around the world cheered as a *GSLV Mk III*, ISRO’s most powerful rocket, [successfully launched and deployed](https://www.isro.gov.in/LVM3M2MissionLandingPage.html) 36 of OneWeb’s internet-providing 150-kilogram satellites into a 600-kilometer circular low Earth orbit. The next such batch of OneWeb satellites were [delivered to India](https://www.andhrajyothy.com/2023/andhra-pradesh/foreign-satellites-arriving-at-shaar-bbr-999330.html) late January, and are being prepared for [launch in March](https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/science/isros-rocket-to-take-onewebs-36-satellites-to-orbit-in-march/articleshow/97369816.cms). Lastly, on November 26, a PSLV-XL successfully launched and deployed the [ocean-studying EOS-06](https://www.isro.gov.in/mission%5FPSLV%5FC54.html) satellite, an advanced replacement of ISRO’s 2009-launched [Oceansat-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceansat-2). The rocket also lofted 8 nano-satellites, comprising four CubeSats from US-based Spaceflight Inc, two of Dhruva Space’s sub-1-kilogram [Thybolt](https://www.dhruvaspace.com/pslv-c54-thybolt-mission) technology demonstrators, Pixxel Space’s [Anand](https://www.geospatialworld.net/news/indian-pixxel-hyperspectral-satellite-anand-pslv-c54-rocket) hyperspectral imaging nano-satellite, and Bhutan’s first satellite [INS-2B](https://space.skyrocket.de/doc%5Fsdat/ins-2b.htm) (developed in collaboration with India). ## Space science progress, or lack of it ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f3ba8f1a9-a026-4b6d-b12a-3f4ed1f8c9fb_1500x1000-jpeg.jpg) An artist’s impression of Chandrayaan 2’s lander and rover on the Moon. Chandrayaan 3 hardware will look similar. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=--8ORixBXQE) At the start of 2022, ISRO seemed set to launch during the year at least a couple of its [upcoming space science missions](https://jatan.space/isro-space-science-missions-2020-2025/): a reattempt of the prestigious Moon landing prize with [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-3-prelaunch-info/), and the versatile [Aditya-L1](https://www.isro.gov.in/Aditya%5FL1.html) observatory to study [the Sun’s surface, atmosphere, and its wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/). As things turned out, the Chandrayaan 3 lander has been [robbed of its ride to space](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-100/), twice, as ISRO prioritized two GSLV Mk IIIs for commercial OneWeb launches. Since India produces a Mk III [roughly once every 8 months](https://spacenews.com/oneweb-launch-sign-of-greater-role-for-india-in-commercial-launch-market), the wait to see the lander blast off to our Moon will be at least until end of year. On the other hand, Aditya-L1 [received its key coronagraph instrument](https://www.isro.gov.in/IIA%5Fhandsover%5FVELC%5Fpayloadto%5FISRO.html) only this January, and so is now being targeted for launch [no earlier than Q2 2023](https://theprint.in/science/a-rocket-launcher-you-can-recycle-isro-chief-says-rlv-landing-demo-this-week/1332727). In contrast, when India’s first Mars orbiter Mangalyaan [reached end of life](https://www.isro.gov.in/MOM%5FNationalMeet%5F2022SEP.html) in April 2022 as a highly successful [technology demonstration mission](https://jatan.space/reviewing-mission-mangalyaan/), ISRO went on to also label it a “scientific feat in the history of planetary exploration”. But the truth of the matter is [Mangalyaan has a huge vacuum of scientific results](https://jatan.space/missing-science-from-mangalyaan/) simply because it was never designed to be a science mission. Forcibly calling Mangalyaan more than what it was [isn’t just wrong but dangerous](https://jatan.space/how-to-honor-mangalyaan/) since it conditions a large population to have subpar expectations of scientific progress from future missions. India’s space science successes can be found in [AstroSat](https://www.isro.gov.in/AstroSat.html), the country’s first dedicated multi-wavelength space telescope that [completed 7 years in Earth orbit](https://www.isro.gov.in/Twodays%5Fconference%5Fon%5FAstroSat.html) in September 2022 and whose data has led to [more than 150 cited works](https://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/heasarc/missions/biblio/astrosat%5Fbiblio%5Frefereed.html) in reputed international journals. While AstroSat doesn’t get the same limelight as Mangalyaan, Ritesh Singh nevertheless [celebrates the mission’s successes](https://doi.org/10.1093/astrogeo/atac051) with a nice journal article in the Oxford University Press. Much the same can be said for India’s [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/), whose data has continued to generate significant new scientific results, from creating [the first ever global-scale sodium maps](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-98/) of our Moon to [uniquely characterizing plasma](https://doi.org/10.1093/mnrasl/slac058) in the lunar exosphere, and even uniquely [studying our Sun](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-orbiter-is-also-a-sun-watcher/)! ## Gaganyaan, preparing for India’s Yuri Gagarin moment ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f52a71f95-0b41-4184-a312-db25c17e6d66_960x640-jpeg-1.jpg) Pad-abort ejection test of a dummy Gaganyaan crew module, followed by descent under parachutes, as conducted on July 5, 2018\. [Credits: ISRO](https://web.archive.org/web/20181122034003/https://www.isro.gov.in/update/05-jul-2018/successful-flight-testing-of-crew-escape-system-technology-demonstrator) With the ambitious [Gaganyaan mission](https://www.isro.gov.in/Gaganyaan.html), India aims to be the world’s fourth nation to indigenously send humans to space, following Russia, the U.S., and China. The first crewed demonstration flight of Gaganyaan will send 3 astronauts to a 400-kilometer low Earth orbit for 3 days and bring them back home safely. Despite [roadblocks](https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/human-space-flight-mission-off-isro-priority-list-531828) and [delayed funding](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Spaceflight-stuck-due-to-budget-CAG/articleshow/12860797.cms), ISRO [inched towards some baseline technologies](https://jatan.space/astronauts-begin-training-for-gaganyaan-in-russia/) necessary to even plan such a massive feat for well over a decade before the Indian government [formally green-lit](https://theprint.in/india/governance/govt-clears-rs-10000-crore-gaganyaan-mission-to-send-3-astronauts-to-space-by-2022/170348) the country’s human spaceflight program in 2018\. Progress on technological components has been faster ever since, with 2022 doubling down on that with a successful [test of the crew capsule’s abort system](https://www.isro.gov.in/Gaganyaan%5FLEM.html) and an integrated parachute test [demonstrating safe capsule splashdown](https://www.isro.gov.in/Gaganyaan%5FParachute%5FSystem%5FTest.html) in the event one of the three main chutes fail to open. ISRO also advanced further in qualifying the [liquid-fueled Vikas core stage engine](https://www.isro.gov.in/Vikas.html) and the [third stage cryogenic engine](https://www.isro.gov.in/QualificationTesting.html) for the human-rated variant of the GSLV Mk III rocket. ISRO is planning to [conduct two abort tests](https://www.deccanherald.com/science-and-environment/isro-human-space-foray-set-for-next-step-1177994.html) this year, one by May and the other by August, followed by a uncrewed Gaganyaan flight. If all goes well, a repeat set of these test missions will follow next year, after which the first astronauts will launch from Indian soil. 👩🏽‍🚀 ## Technology building Last year ISRO continued building core space technologies with a good pace. In January 2022, DOS researchers [demonstrated secure quantum-entanglement-based communications](https://www.isro.gov.in/DeptofSpace.html) over 300 meters, with the ultimate aim being to demonstrate the same on satellites. In September, India opened up in Bengaluru [a dedicated facility](https://www.isro.gov.in/inaugurationICMF.html) for manufacturing cryogenic engines. ISRO’s work on [hybrid rocket motors continued to scale up](https://www.isro.gov.in/30kNHybridMotorSuccessfully.html) in 2022, with the intention being to use them in future, more powerful launch vehicles. Relatedly, a key test ISRO will conduct this year is the first landing demonstration of its [Reusable Launch Vehicle](https://www.vssc.gov.in/Reusable%5Flaunch%5FVehicle.html) spaceplane prototype. On December 8, ISRO successfully conducted the first [blow-down](https://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/k-12/airplane/tunblow.html) test in its newly inaugurated [Trisonic Wind Tunnel](https://www.isro.gov.in/First%5FBlow%5FTrisonic.html), which can simulate flight conditions from 0.2 times to 4 times the speed of sound. This will help India adequately test atmospheric re-entires of future, large reusable spacecraft and rockets with subscale analogs. ## Commercial and private space, policy reforms and more ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f21e96b36-00c5-44dd-a2b5-ddbdda03f54b_1200x917-jpeg.jpg) A GSLV Mk II rocket transporter. Credit: ISRO While ISRO’s 2022 launch of OneWeb satellites was the country’s commercial space highlight of the year, many long-term significant developments also took place. Other than its aforementioned launches, NSIL continued to grow in 2022\. In June, India’s Union Cabinet [approved the transfer of 10 in-orbit communication satellites](https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1832160) from the Indian government to NSIL so as to catalyze their commercialization. Also tasked with commercializing India’s launch vehicles, NSIL awarded a [$104 million contract](https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/indl-goods/svs/engineering/hal-lt-to-build-five-pslv-rockets-bags-rs-860-crore-deal-from-nsil-for-the-project/articleshow/93980649.cms?utm%5Fsource=contentofinterest&utm%5Fmedium=text&utm%5Fcampaign=cppst) in September to a consortium led by major PSLV contractors HAL and L&T. The goal is to [have fully industry-built PSLVs](https://www.nsilindia.co.in/sites/default/files/Press%20Release-%20Contract%20signed%20for%20production%20of%2005%20nos%20PSLV-XL.pdf) starting 2025 to better commercialize India’s workhorse rocket. On November 18, Skyroot [launched test mission ](https://www.isro.gov.in/mission%5Fprarambh.html)*[Prarambh](https://www.isro.gov.in/mission%5Fprarambh.html)*, which made it India’s first privately developed rocket to go suborbital. The company aims for an orbital launch sometime later this year. Its competitor Agnikul itself [made substantial progress](https://www.isro.gov.in/first%5Fprivate%5Flaunch%5Fmission%5Fcontrol.html) in 2022, including a [hot-fire test](https://www.isro.gov.in/ISRO%5FAgnilet%5FEngine.html) of its semi-cryogenic 3D-printed engine to work towards [a suborbital launch](https://www.isro.gov.in/flight%5Ftermination%5Fsystem.html) of their Agnibaan rocket sometime this year. On the satellite front, long-time ISRO contractor Ananth Technologies [opened India’s largest private spacecraft manufacturing facility](https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/bengaluru-news/indias-first-private-spacecraft-manufacturing-facility-launched-in-bengaluru-101654174898334.html) in Bengaluru in mid-2022, which can simultaneously assemble, integrate and test 4 large satellites. Pixxel Space, which [raised $25 million](https://techcrunch.com/2022/03/28/pixxel-takes-orbital-imagery-hyperspectral-with-25m-a-round) in March 2022, [says](https://www.pixxel.space/blogs/launching-towards-pixxels-hyperspectral-vision) it will launch 6 commercial hyperspectral imaging satellites this year in a sun-synchronous 550-kilometer orbit. Just yesterday, the Indian government released the country’s [FY 2023–24 budget](https://www.indiabudget.gov.in/doc/OutcomeBudgetE2023%5F2024.pdf), which starts from April, and it [looks bleak for space](https://www.thehindu.com/business/budget/budget-2023-department-of-space-gets-12500-crore-8-less-than-previous-year/article66458858.ece), with a $133 million cut for space technology building and roughly $8 million cut for space sciences than last year. I’ve attached the DOS budget document below for your perusal. ![](https://substack.com/img/attachment_icon.svg) Indian Space Budget FY 2023–242.93MB ∙ PDF file[Download](https://blog.jatan.space/api/v1/file/eccac17e-6982-41d6-aaa1-87e747b12c0a.pdf)[Download](https://blog.jatan.space/api/v1/file/eccac17e-6982-41d6-aaa1-87e747b12c0a.pdf) In all, India’s sprawling space capabilities seem to be on promising trajectories in some areas but not so much in some others. Here’s hoping for more progress. --- *Do you like my new project to continually provide a comprehensive overview of progress across the entire (civil) Indian space landscape? If so, please consider sponsoring my writings:* [Sponsor Indian Space Progress ♡](https://jatan.space/sponsor-indian-space-progress/) **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Moon Monday #112: Planning Artemis science, exciting mission updates, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-112/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:16.000Z ## Planning the science on NASA’s first Artemis crewed Moon landing mission NASA aims to land astronauts on the Moon mid-decade with [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-iii). While the agency’s [selection of SpaceX’s Starship lunar lander](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) and [commercial spacesuits](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-80/)—along with the standard Artemis mission inclusions of the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) and [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft)—largely culminate the technology stack to be used for this historic return of humans to the Moon after Apollo, the science end has been catching up. In December 2020, Artemis III’s [Science Definition Team](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/Artemis/) laid out [the mission’s science priorities](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-defines-science-priorities-for-first-crewed-artemis-landing-on-moon). Then, NASA revealed the [Artemis science structure](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-68/) in March 2022\. The agency announced [13 candidate landing zones](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-identifies-candidate-regions-for-landing-next-americans-on-moon) for Artemis III in August 2022, which were [chosen meticulously](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-91/) using data from NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html) while keeping in mind decades of lunar science findings as well as the uniquely challenging engineering constraints presented by the Moon’s south pole. On January 24, NASA released a [request for proposals for the ](https://science.nasa.gov/researchers/solicitations/roses-2022/amendment-86-c25-artemis-iii-geology-team-final-text)*[Artemis III Geology Team](https://science.nasa.gov/researchers/solicitations/roses-2022/amendment-86-c25-artemis-iii-geology-team-final-text)*, with submissions being due by February 24. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9f39387a-f722-4e39-bdd1-245cbf451518_2300x1300-jpeg-3.jpg) The 13 candidate south polar landing zones for NASA’s Artemis III crewed Moon mission. [Credits: NASA / LRO](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-identifies-candidate-regions-for-landing-next-americans-on-moon) | [Browse them on a map](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/layers?extent=-123.1287296%2C-80.2286323%2C62.2044887%2C-76.8446639&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4XyA&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypOOKWbJYZdAJgQWfyJqv5JwDGKIQp0ADgCcWRL2LkBSikA&proj=17) The competitively selected \~10-member Geology Team will specify Artemis III’s science objectives, help plan the crew’s scientific activities and [optimize traverses](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Exploration/Mapping%5Fthe%5FMoon), provide sampling strategies for [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and [other key materials](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) of interest, and be involved in pre- and post-mission activities such as astronaut training, initial studies of returned samples as well as making of preliminary mission science reports. Note that the Geology Team is different from the existing *Artemis Science Team*, which consists of several NASA researchers common across [all Artemis missions](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) to ensure that high-level lunar science goals of the U.S. scientific community are being kept in mind at every stage of Artemis planning. They also interface between each *Artemis Geology Team* and the rest of NASA. Moreover, joining the respective Geology Team per Artemis mission will be *Participating Scientists*, also competitively chosen. This call will be open to international researchers. NASA is currently collaborating with ESA, JAXA and CSA for the same. Artemis III will have roughly 10 participating scientists. Lastly, each Artemis mission will also feature an *Instruments Team*, who propose autonomous surface payloads to be deployed at the Moon’s south pole to chiefly study local geophysical and environmental conditions. For Artemis III, the proposed instruments must specifically address [identified science priorities](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-defines-science-priorities-for-first-crewed-artemis-landing-on-moon). The call for proposing the mission’s instruments is [coming up in February 2023](https://science.nasa.gov/researchers/solicitations/roses-2022/amendment-87-f12-artemis-deployed-instruments-program-deferred-roses-2023). --- *Many thanks to [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io) for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## Mission updates - China’s [Yutu 2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yutu-2) rover, part of the [Chang’e 4](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/change-4) mission, woke up from its lunar-night-sleep mode on January 15, and began its 51st lunar day by sending over [some nice pictures](https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202301/22/WS63cce93fa31057c47ebab0b4.html). Over the last 4 years, its ground penetrating radar has been helping [uncover the recent history](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2021.117062) of its landed region in the 180-kilometer-diameter [Von Kármán crater](https://jatan.space/change-4-landing-site-farside-von-karman-crater/) on the Moon’s farside. The radar has detected a host of features such as [thicker lunar regolith](https://doi.org/10.1029/2020JE006564) than the nearside, [evidence of a buried crater](https://doi.org/10.1109/TGRS.2021.3090528), a [thick, ancient regolith layer](https://doi.org/10.1029/2021GL095133) sandwiched between two now-solidified lava flows, and [more](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2020.114046). *(Related paper: The [complex, layered history](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2020.114086) of the Chang’e 4 landing region.)* - As of January 25, Astrobotic’s [first Moon lander](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-awarded-79-5-million-contract-to-deliver-14-nasa-payloads-to-the-moon) part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) has [successfully completed](https://www.astrobotic.com/peregrine-tvac-testing-successful) a series of [space environmental tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/), which qualifies it for launch due to demonstrated nominal functioning during all simulated mission phases. The last of these tests was in a thermovac chamber to prove that the lander can survive and operate in the extreme thermal conditions and vacuum of space and our Moon. Astrobotic now awaits a green light for delivering the lander to its launch provider ULA, which is busy [completing the assembly](https://www.ulalaunch.com/rockets/vulcan-centaur/countdown-to-vulcan) of the mission’s Vulcan rocket ahead of fueling and hot-fire tests needed pre-launch. While Astrobotic hopes for a Q1 2023 liftoff, the second quarter seems likelier. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f533e046b-d82d-4dc4-be1a-099f9a4efb75_1200x870-jpeg.jpg) Astrobotic’s first CLPS lander Peregrine in a thermovac test chamber. Some of the team members are seen in the foreground. [Credit: Astrobotic](https://www.astrobotic.com/peregrine-tvac-testing-successful) - On January 23, SpaceX successfully [loaded 4.5 million kilograms of super-chilled propellants](https://twitter.com/SpaceX/status/1617676629001801728) into a fully stacked [Starship](https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/starship) launch vehicle. The company is now preparing for a full blown 33-engine static fire test of the rocket’s monstrous first stage in February—the final technical hurdle before an attempt to launch to Earth orbit can be made. While SpaceX still needs to acquire a launch license from the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration before a Starship flies to go orbital, the successful wet dress rehearsal is yet another milestone in working towards [landing the first Artemis astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) on the Moon since NASA has [so far](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-lays-out-revised-approach-for-future-human-lunar-landing-systems) selected the lunar variant of Starship as the primary lander. - Intuitive Machines’ [second CLPS Moon lander](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-to-land-water-measuring-payload-on-the-moon), launching in H2 2023 on a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket, [will carry and deploy](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/intuitive-machines-announces-agreement-to-deliver-astroforge-asteroid-mining-payload-to-deep-space) AstroForge’s asteroid-observing spacecraft to deep space before itself heading to lunar orbit. Relatedly, [another customer](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/im-2-south-pole-mission-adds-secondary-rideshare-spaceflight-inc) spacecraft is known to be onboard the lander since 2021: Spaceflight inc.’s Sherpa Orbital Transfer Vehicle. ## More Moon - NASA’s [further evaluation](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/data-from-the-first-sls-flight-to-prepare-nasa-for-future-artemis-missions.html) of the SLS rocket’s debut launch performance on November 16 during the [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-i) Moon mission reveals that the extreme temperatures and sounds experienced by the rocket, its propellant mixture ratios as well as internal pressures were all within margins of expected values. In all, engineers collected more than 4TB of onboard data and imagery, and roughly 31TB of launch imagery from across ground, rocket, and aerial cameras. - NASA is collaborating with the U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency on the latter’s [DRACO](https://www.darpa.mil/program/demonstration-rocket-for-agile-cislunar-operations) program to [design a small nuclear reactor system](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-darpa-will-test-nuclear-engine-for-future-mars-missions) that will be used to propel a satellite *[in](https://twitter.com/jeff%5Ffoust/status/1617909378006360064?s=61&t=ysuXzRGVueXzH3E8naNouw)*[ Earth orbit](https://twitter.com/jeff%5Ffoust/status/1617909378006360064?s=61&t=ysuXzRGVueXzH3E8naNouw) by 2027\. Thanks to the higher thrust and the [2 to 5 times greater efficiency](https://spacenews.com/general-atomics-wins-darpa-contract-to-design-nuclear-reactor-to-power-missions-to-the-moon) of such a system compared to traditional chemical rockets, the U.S. eventually aims to build a spacecraft that can efficiently monitor the space between Earth and our Moon as countries around the world [mount an increasing number of lunar missions](https://jatan.space/lunar-rovers-launching-in-2020s/). - China’s lunar program director, Wu Weiren, [has said](http://keji.smartjx.com/zx/2023/0124/253020512.html) that the country’s upcoming [Long March 9](https://spacenews.com/china-scraps-expendable-long-march-9-rocket-plan-in-favor-of-reusable-version) super heavy-lift reusable rocket will launch by 2035\. It will launch lunar crew as well as help deliver large amounts of cargo to the joint [Sino-Russian long-term scientific base](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-32/) on the Moon’s south pole. Note that China is building another relatively smaller rocket to [begin crewed lunar missions](https://spacenews.com/china-tests-engines-for-moon-mission-rocket) by 2030 anyway. - The [Lunar Crater Calculator](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/tools/lunarcratercalc) by the Lunar and Planetary Institute lets you input detailed physical properties of an impacting asteroid, comet, or a spacecraft as well as that of the exact lunar surface type being hit, which then gives you a detailed crater profile, complete with [a visual](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/tools/lunarcratercalc/images/complex.jpg). For fun, try increasing impactor size, density, and velocity gradually to see [how Moon mountains form](https://jatan.space/exploring-moon-mountains/)! - The [Lunar-L](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/captem/lunar-list-server) community of planetary scientists, engineers, and executives now hosts more than 1100 people in its mailing list. If you work in space exploration, I suggest considering dropping a request via the site to join the group. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f8f4b0a56-6b89-4ca2-ab35-311023d39ea7_390x143.gif) A central mountain forming in a large lunar crater after being impacted by a big, fast asteroid or comet. [Credit: Nick Strobel](http://www.astronomynotes.com/solarsys/s8b.htm#) --- **→ [Sponsor Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) | [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Moon Monday #111: An Indo-Japanese rover, China’s 4th lunar leap, Artemis collaborations, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-111/ Last updated: 2025-04-05T11:44:38.000Z *Dear readers, I have 3 exciting things to share with you today:* 1. **Moon Monday crossed 4,000 subscribers last week*, with the majority gratifyingly continuing to be planetary scientists and engineers, personnel at national space agencies, executives at space companies, and fellow writers & journalists from around the world! If your company or organization wants to sponsor Moon Monday,* [*get in touch*](https://jatan.space/connect)*. 🚀* 2. **I’m launching an Indian space newsletter next month!* Published monthly on this space blog of mine, it will be the world’s only newsletter dedicated to covering the entire (civil) Indian space landscape. I’m looking for launch sponsors for the first edition, which will go out on February 2\.* [*Get in touch*](https://jatan.space/connect) *this week to benefit from lower pre-launch pricing and get visibility among my established global audience. 🇮🇳* 3. *I hope you enjoy the highlight coverage in today’s Moon Monday below of an exciting Moon mission that’s ripening with international collaboration.* 🌗 ## JAXA and ISRO pressing ahead with joint rover mission to study water on the Moon’s south pole **April 2025 update:** [*New and updated mission details*](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/) The [5th “Lunar Polar Area Exploration Workshop”](https://www.exploration.jaxa.jp/news/20221025.html) held by JAXA on January 17 provided an update on the joint Japanese-Indian [LUPEX mission](https://www.exploration.jaxa.jp/e/program/lunarpolar). Launching no earlier than 2025 on a Japanese H3 rocket, the mission comprises an ISRO-developed \~6000-kilogram lander which will deliver a JAXA-built \~350-kilogram rover to the Moon’s south pole (between 89–90°S) to study [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fda72fa16-93ed-42a2-89c2-32d3c0d6a01f_1477x1000-jpeg.jpg) ****Top left:** Illustration of the ISRO lander having delivered the stowed JAXA-built LUPEX rover on the Moon; ****Top right and bottom left:** The LUPEX rover traversing the lunar south pole; ****Bottom right:** A LUPEX rover prototype testing drive system performance in a simulated lunar soil pit. Credits: [JAXA](https://www.exploration.jaxa.jp/e/program/lunarpolar) / [Mitsubishi](https://www.yomiuri.co.jp/stream/2/20729) The drill-capable LUPEX rover will explore the Moon’s south pole for at least 6 months, including venturing inside 100-meter scale [permanently shadowed areas](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/), so as to help scientists determine the exact nature and accessibility of lunar water ice and other such volatile resources. This makes LUPEX fundamentally similar to NASA’s [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/), which is targeting a late 2024 launch. While LUPEX is yet to be formally approved by the Indian government, JAXA and ISRO have finalized the rover instruments, and preliminary design reviews for the mission are underway. The rover will feature not only Indo-Japanese instruments but one contribution each from NASA and ESA as well. A defining capability of the LUPEX rover—and one distinguishing it from VIPER—will be the ISRO-provided ground penetrating radar, which will inform scientists of the Moon’s polar underground structure up to 3 meters below the rover with high resolution and map water ice within it. And, like VIPER, a NASA-led neutron spectrometer will be onboard LUPEX to detect hydrogen—an indirect sign of water—up to a meter below the surface. Together, the two instruments will help mission scientists identify the most favorable drill locations for water/volatile-abundant samples, which will be analyzed by at least 5 complementary spectrometers in total from JAXA and ISRO—compared to two on VIPER. Since volatiles evaporate even at moderately warm temperatures, some of them would escape the soil and samples before LUPEX’s spectrometer suite can detect them. To that end, ESA is [contributing](https://twitter.com/AschbacherJosef/status/1511091280327200773) a [mass spectrometer](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2020/08/Sensing%5Fthe%5FMoon) onboard the rover to identify escaped volatiles that pass through it. It will also study the Moon’s exosphere. Lastly, JAXA is assessing the feasibility of attaching an ISRO-provided thermal probe to the rover for it to help quantify local water ice within lunar polar soil. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fa111e2ba-ec88-4c73-aa46-2c060100f801_950x1070-jpeg.jpg) A screengrab from ISRO’s February 2022 talk at NSSS 2022 listing the LUPEX mission instruments. All of them but the thermal probe have been finalized as of January 2023\. [Credits: ISRO / S. Megala](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E81SoGhVNe8&t=5454s) There are some interesting implications connected to the LUPEX mission: - It’s critical for ISRO to stick the lunar landing with its [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-3-prelaunch-info/) spacecraft launching later this year. Two back-to-back touchdown failures with [Chandrayaan 2](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-2-moon-landing-mission/) and 3 respectively would reduce JAXA’s confidence in the ISRO-provided lander for LUPEX, especially when the Japanese space agency itself is launching the [SLIM demonstrator lander](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/home/slim/SLIM/technology.html) this year and also considering flying a LUPEX-class lander end of decade primarily to deliver cargo for NASA’s crewed [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) missions. - The success of NASA’s VIPER rover is critical to the agency’s planning of [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-iii), the first crewed surface mission under the Artemis campaign. And yet there’s greater risk involved than its other such decisive missions since VIPER is being delivered to the Moon non-traditionally using a [5900-kilogram lander](https://www.astrobotic.com/griffin) being built by a commercial company, Astrobotic, [selected](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-astrobotic-to-fly-water-hunting-rover-to-the-moon/) competitively as part of the agency’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). Despite NASA’s confidence in Astrobotic, the inherently difficult mission ultimately made the agency [take a more conservative approach](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-87/) with VIPER by asking the company to perform more (paid for) tests and delay the launch by a year to late 2024\. If VIPER still fails, LUPEX stands to provide NASA a second chance to obtain the desired crucial data about the Moon’s polar water without pursuing another time-consuming mission. That’s especially so because Japan is not only a [key partner](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-79/) of NASA in the Artemis campaign but the country has also signed the [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html). Both mechanisms encourage scientific data sharing. Of course, the best case scenario is for both VIPER and LUPEX to be successful so we get anchored results as well as complementary datasets. - LUPEX mission planners and scientists are using the [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter instruments](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) to analyze and downselect from over a dozen candidate landing sites. This is interesting because it demonstrates part of the next layer of self-sufficiency in India’s [budding planetary science endeavors](https://jatan.space/isro-space-science-missions-2020-2025/). With [Chandrayaan 1](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/) and [2](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-2-moon-landing-mission/), and [Mangalyaan](https://jatan.space/reviewing-mission-mangalyaan/), India demonstrated being able to completely indigenously build and launch planetary spacecraft. With LUPEX, India approaches the ability to independently plan lunar missions from scratch too. --- *Many thanks to* [*Epsilon3*](https://www.epsilon3.io) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* *Thanks also to* [*Stéphane Leclair*](https://www.linkedin.com/in/stephaneleclair) *for supporting my independent writing.* --- ## 3 Moon launches in the next 3 years for China ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f6ddf454d-214e-4ee4-a3b5-45ef0f223696_924x631-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of the Chang’e 5 spacecraft on the Moon with its sample collector. Chang’e 6 is expected to have a similar spacecraft configuration for its mission to bring samples from the Moon’s South Pole-Aitken basin. [Credit: CGTN](https://astronomycommunity.nature.com/posts/the-moon-s-last-gasp-dating-the-youngest-lunar-sample) Kickstarting [the 4th phase of China’s lunar exploration project](https://www.space.com/china-upcoming-moon-missions-details), CNSA will [launch the ](https://spacenews.com/china-to-launch-relay-satellite-next-year-to-support-moon-landing-missions)[*Queqiao 2*](https://spacenews.com/china-to-launch-relay-satellite-next-year-to-support-moon-landing-missions)[ lunar satellite](https://spacenews.com/china-to-launch-relay-satellite-next-year-to-support-moon-landing-missions) next year, Andrew Jones reports. Queqiao 2 will relay communications between Earth and China’s Chang’e 6 and Chang’e 7 Moon landers launching in 2025 and 2026 respectively. Chang’e 6 aims to bring about two kilograms of lunar samples to Earth, with a similar mechanism and mission profile to [Chang’e 5](https://jatan.space/change-5-landing-site/) but with an [improved sampler](https://hksar.org/hong-kong-team-behind-chang-e-5-moon-rock-sampling-set-sights-on-chang-e-6). While the mission’s landing site hasn’t yet been finalized, or announced, it will be somewhere within the largest and deepest lunar crater, the farside [South Pole-Aitken basin](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2008/pdf/1626.pdf). Since this ancient crater holds clues to what was happening in [our Solar System about 4 billion years ago](https://jatan.space/solar-system-history-101/), a sample return mission from here has been assessed as [a top priority](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-74/) in the [latest Planetary Decadal Survey](https://nap.nationalacademies.org/resource/26522/interactive)—a report produced every 10 years by the U.S. scientific community to guide future NASA missions. The Chang’e 6 lander will also [carry 3 European scientific instruments](https://news.cgtn.com/news/2022-11-25/China-offers-int-l-cooperation-opportunity-via-Chang-e-lunar-missions-1ff6P0b2L7O/index.html) whereas the orbiter will carry a Pakistani CubeSat called “ICUBE-Q”—making it the country’s first Moon mission. Chang’e 7 will consist of an orbiter and a lander, the latter of which [will deploy](https://weibo.com/6618567819/KcpftkBxA?type=comment#%5Frnd1619422059900) a rover and a mini-flying probe to map resources in one of the few [key identified regions](https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/EGGNRR4jfK5J8978aH8ing) on the Moon’s south pole—particularly inside the region’s [permanently shadowed areas](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) in much the same vein as the VIPER and LUPEX missions. The Chang’e 7 lander will also [carry UAE’s second lunar rover](https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/CkjacBB3c4L%5FUbwNbeFPvA), which will sport high-resolution [CASPEX cameras](https://presse.cnes.fr/en/rashid-rover-heading-moon-carrying-three-caspex-cameras-developed-cnes) from the French space agency. CNSA [will finalize](https://news.cgtn.com/news/2022-11-25/China-offers-int-l-cooperation-opportunity-via-Chang-e-lunar-missions-1ff6P0b2L7O/index.html) more international payloads to be onboard Chang’e 7 later this year. The Chang’e 7 orbiter and some of the upcoming Russian Luna missions will help select a suitable site for the joint Sino-Russian long-term scientific base on the Moon’s south pole, called the [International Lunar Research Station (ILRS)](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-32/). ## Artemis collaborations NASA has [handed over](https://blogs.esa.int/orion/2023/01/20/first-radiation-checks-on-female-phantoms-after-moon-ride) to the German space agency the latter’s two dummies that flew inside the [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) on the agency’s [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-i) mission around the Moon and back. As part of the [MARE experiment](https://www.dlr.de/content/en/missions/mare.html), a total of more than 10,000 passive crystal sensors and 34 active radiation detectors embedded inside these [anatomically accurate female torso analogues](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Orion/Radiation%5Ffor%5Fdummies) measured deep space radiation over the entire mission length of 26 days. Researchers will now analyze these measurements to develop adequate protective measures for future female crews on Moon missions as well as to better protect astronauts at large starting with the crewed [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to) mission for which NASA is targeting a late 2024 launch. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fa09b17aa-a745-4832-8289-b7601b226b61_1920x1080-jpeg.jpg) The installed locations of the two female torso analogues within the Orion spacecraft, which flew to the Moon and back on the Artemis I mis­sion. One of the dummies flew unprotected while the other had a [Israel-provided](https://stemrad.com/astrorad-4) radiation protection vest. [Credits: NASA / Lockheed Martin / DLR](https://www.dlr.de/content/en/missions/mare.html) NASA’s Office of Inspector General (OIG), in a [relatively benign report](https://oig.nasa.gov/docs/IG-23-004.pdf) released on January 17, recommended the agency to leverage the strong international interest in [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) to reduce the overall cost of the crewed lunar campaign. International partners currently bear only 6% of the cost of missions Artemis I–III, which the OIG says is because NASA lacks an overarching (partnerships) strategy and a structured intergovernmental agreement for Artemis like it does for the International Space Station. Curiously, an intergovernmental agreement exists for the NASA-led [Gateway international lunar orbital station](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) but not the surface Artemis missions. This, coupled with [limitations due to U.S. export control regulations](https://spacenews.com/reports-calls-on-nasa-to-improve-coordination-of-artemis-international-partnerships) as highlighted by Jeff Foust, is inhibiting international contributions from both existing and potential partners. ## More Moon NASA researchers are using detailed slope and topographic data from the LOLA altimeter on the agency’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html) to allow future lunar astronauts to [know their location down to less than 9 meters](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/steering-by-landmarks-on-the-moon) with just a handheld device. This system, which correlates known topographic and geologic features to snapped images, will build on NASA Goddard’s [GIANT optical navigation tool](https://software.nasa.gov/software/GSC-18758-1) previously used to verify navigation data for the agency’s [OSIRIS-REx](https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/osiris-rex/in-depth) asteroid sample collection mission. Relatedly, ESA is making the [Electronic Field Book](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2021/11/11/to-all-moonwalkers-update-your-space-tablet) for future Artemis astronauts, with the aim of getting it ready for use before end of decade. The U.S. Green Bank Observatory, the world’s largest fully steerable radio telescope, led a project to [produce the sharpest Earth-based image](https://www.raytheonintelligenceandspace.com/news/2023/01/16/the-moon-is-a-sight-for-scientific-eyes) of the [Tycho crater](https://jatan.space/tycho-crater-mountain/) and its floor. Using the Moon as a calibration ground, the team [plans to](https://public.nrao.edu/news/successful-test-new-planetary-radar) develop an even more sensitive planetary radar system which will image not just other Solar System objects, all the way up to Neptune, but more importantly be used for early detection and imaging of [potentially threatening asteroids](https://jatan.space/when-to-worry-about-an-asteroid-strike/) passing by Earth. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fbe5fb31a-59cd-42c8-ab3c-38800978b423_1600x900-jpeg.jpg) A partially processed view of the Tycho Crater, captured by the U.S. Green Bank Radio Telescope and antennas in the Very Long Baseline Array.. [Credits: NRAO / GBO / Raytheon / NSF / AUI](https://www.raytheonintelligenceandspace.com/news/2023/01/16/the-moon-is-a-sight-for-scientific-eyes) --- **→** [**Sponsor Moon Monday**](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) **|** [**Browse the Blog**](https://blog.jatan.space/start) **|** [**About**](https://blog.jatan.space/about) ### Moon Monday #110: A spacecraft that sees lunar shadows, Saudi Arabia’s withdrawal from The Moon Treaty, mission updates, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-110/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:16.000Z *I’m excited to launch a new writing product next month! Any guesses on what it might be? Hint: Like Moon Monday, it will be the only one of its kind in the world. 🚀* ## A glimpse of the Moon’s actual dark side While South Korea’s first lunar orbiter [KPLO](https://jatan.space/kplo/) prepares to formally begin its one-year primary mission of studying the Moon’s surface from February, some of its instruments have started [warm up sessions](https://www.kari.re.kr/kplo/danuri/news/newsView.do?nttId=8597&pageIndex=1&searchCnd=&searchWrd=) already. Among those is [ShadowCam](http://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/about), a NASA-provided ultra-sensitive camera designed to literally see inside the Moon’s [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) by detecting incredibly faint light reflected off of them from surrounding sunlit terrain. ShadowCam has [snapped the permanently shadowed wall and floor](http://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/images/1284) of [Shackleton crater](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/layers?extent=-122.2359052%2C-88.870235%2C63.1932245%2C-88.8693236&id=lroc&showGraticule=true&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4XyA&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEoAsjYIHYFcA2vIBvAXwF1Siyk44oNEQBmFAJgQXp30vJ6XFoxECJjUbpEXAiV4zSQA&proj=27) in never before seen detail. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f65260a02-7b34-4f03-a079-5b543937343d_1000x1000-jpeg.jpg) A 2-kilometer wide portion of the Shackleton crater, showing the base of its wall up top in the image and a hummocky crater floor below. [Credits: NASA / KARI / ASU](http://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/images/1284) Now this image may look like any other picture of our Moon but isn’t. While it’s true that both NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html) (LRO) and ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) can [see](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/psr/NP%5F794550%5F3214780) [inside](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2020/pdf/2412.pdf) permanently shadowed regions, their cameras aren’t sensitive enough at the 1-2 meter scale needed to meticulously plan resource prospecting missions within such regions. ShadowCam now enables that scale of observation. As [the KPLO mission](https://jatan.space/kplo/) progresses, ShadowCam will map shadowed polar terrain with a very high resolution of [up to 1.7 meters per pixel](http://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/about), and help locate [water ice deposits](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other such resources. This will [aid planing](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-021-25882-z/figures/5) of near-future missions, including NASA’s upcoming robotic [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) and the crewed [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-iii) mission, and also provide us with hints on how abundant and accessible these resources really are—a crucial knowledge gap needed to be filled before [safely and affordably planning long-term future missions](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/library/skg.html) to the lunar poles and building sustainable habitats there. This isn’t to say that LRO and the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter won’t be helpful in this specific regard. An AI algorithm called [HORUS](https://www.mps.mpg.de/peering-into-the-moon-s-shadows-with-ai), developed by European and U.S. researchers and trained on over 70,000 LRO images, [removes excessive noise](https://openaccess.thecvf.com/content/CVPR2021/html/Moseley%5FExtreme%5FLow-Light%5FEnvironment-Driven%5FImage%5FDenoising%5FOver%5FPermanently%5FShadowed%5FLunar%5FRegions%5FCVPR%5F2021%5Fpaper.html) to let us see shadowed regions with 3-meter resolution. Researchers using LRO’s vast dataset as well as members of the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter’s imaging team have been using HORUS’ datasets in some capacity. I wonder what HORUS paired with ShadowCam can do! ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f2dc1bfc7-399f-4bf4-98a1-7b85bbe0e9c0_2341x852-jpeg.jpg) **Left:** An LRO picture of a small, kilometer-scale permanently shadowed region located on the Leibnitz plateau on the Moon. **Right:** The same view post processing with HORUS for higher resolution. [Credits: NASA / ASU / MPS](https://www.mps.mpg.de/peering-into-the-moon-s-shadows-with-ai) ## More mission updates - ispace Japan’s [first lunar lander](https://jatan.space/ispace-japan-m1-moon-mission/), launched on December 11, is now roughly [1.34 million kilometers away from Earth](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4247) as of January 11, and remains healthy while on its fuel-efficient trajectory to the Moon targeting orbital capture in April. - Related fun fact: The UAE’s [Rashid rover](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirates%5FLunar%5FMission) onboard the lander features [4 material samples](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FEngineering%5FTechnology/ESA%5Fto%5Ftouch%5FMoon%5Ffrom%5Fwheels%5Fof%5FUAE%5FRashid%5Frover) from ESA, a couple of which contain simulated lunar soil. These distinctly engineered sample panels are bonded to the outer rims of the rover’s four magnesium alloy wheels to test how each material degrades due to the abrasive lunar surface. The rover’s [high-resolution cameras](https://presse.cnes.fr/en/rashid-rover-heading-moon-carrying-three-caspex-cameras-developed-cnes) provided by the French space agency will inspect the materials over time to help researchers on Earth analyze their wear-resistantance. - NASA’s 14-kilogram [Lunar Flashlight](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/cubesat/missions/lunar%5Fflashlight.php) CubeSat, intended to study [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s south pole, is facing problems as 3 of its 4 thrusters [are underperforming](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/jpl/nasa-s-lunar-flashlight-team-assessing-spacecraft-s-propulsion-system). The mission team is triaging the issue, which they think is caused by obstructions in the fuel lines limiting propellant flow in their [novel system](https://www.nasa.gov/mission%5Fpages/tdm/green/index.html). The team hopes that firing the thrusters for longer durations would clear out any obstructions while also performing several trajectory correction maneuvers needed next month to keep the spacecraft on its planned trajectory to the Moon. - Adam Schrader has a [good article on NASA’s ongoing planning](https://www.upi.com/Science%5FNews/2023/01/06/nasa-artemis-program-2023/6161671857764) for the crewed [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to) Moon mission, targeting launch in late 2024. - On January 9, SpaceX [completed fully stacking](https://www.flickr.com/photos/spacex/52621303187) a [Starship](https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/starship) launch vehicle, and will soon begin a series of tests to ensure the rocket’s nominal functioning before attempting a launch to Earth orbit [no earlier than March](https://spacenews.com/spacex-edges-closer-to-first-starship-orbital-launch-attempt) at best. While SpaceX still needs to acquire a launch license from the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration before an orbital attempt with Starship, this is yet another milestone in working towards [landing the first Artemis astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) on the Moon as NASA has [so far](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-lays-out-revised-approach-for-future-human-lunar-landing-systems) selected the lunar variant of Starship as the primary lander. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f373d3853-85a8-471a-848e-018db01b93b8_750x500-jpeg.jpg) Material sample panels bonded to Rashid rover’s wheels. [Credit: MBRSC](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2022/12/Samples%5Fon%5Frover%5Fwheels) --- *Many thanks to [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io), [The Orbital Index](https://orbitalindex.com) and [Open Lunar Foundation](https://www.openlunar.org) for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* *Thanks also to [Arun Raghavan](https://arunraghavan.net) for supporting my independent writing.* --- ## Saudi Arabia withdraws from the Moon Treaty On January 5, the Secretary General of the United Nations announced that Saudi Arabia is exercising its right to [withdraw](https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/CN/2023/CN.4.2023-Eng.pdf) from the [1979 Moon Treaty](https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/moon-agreement.html). The withdrawal will officially be effective on January 5, 2024\. It would seem Saudi Arabia’s move is intended to not put it [at odds](https://mideastspace.substack.com/p/saudi-arabias-moon-ambitions) with its own signing of the U.S.-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html) as the middle east kingdom plans future lunar exploration missions. The Accords, [controversially](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/do-nasas-lunar-exploration-rules-violate-space-law), intend to set precedence for local resource extraction on the Moon, which might—but doesn’t yet—put its signatories [in objection](https://www.lawfareblog.com/artemis-accords-step-toward-international-cooperation-or-further-competition) of the [1967 Outer Space Treaty](https://unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/introouterspacetreaty.html). In any case, the Accords most certainly doesn’t gel along with the highly idealistic non-sovereignty principles central to The Moon Treaty. France and India are the only major space powers to have signed The Moon Treaty whereas the crewed spacefaring nations of the U.S., China and Russia haven’t and [don’t plan to](https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/presidential-actions/executive-order-encouraging-international-support-recovery-use-space-resources). India hasn’t yet decided if it wants to sign the Accords, whereas France and Australia are signatories. While France’s cooperation with the U.S. on lunar exploration is largely via ESA, Australia’s case as [a founding Accords signatory](https://web.archive.org/web/20201024145430/https://usa.embassy.gov.au/news/australia-signs-nasas-artemis-accords) is more curious. As NASA grows its robotic and human presence at the Moon leading to [Artemis Base Camp](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept), Australia intends to provide lunar services in areas where they have strong expertise, such as remotely operating large-scale terrestrial mining systems. This symbiotic possibility is what convinced NASA to partner with Australia in the first place starting with the latter’s [first Moon mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-97/) involving a sub 20-kilogram, semi-autonomous rover targeting a [2026 launch](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-australia-sign-agreement-to-add-rover-to-future-moon-mission) to demonstrate lunar resource-fetching. Australia intends to find a way that doesn’t involve backing off from its commitments to either the Moon Treaty or the Accords but that might prove increasingly difficult with time. There have been proposals to [amend The Moon Treaty](https://www.thespacereview.com/article/3975/1) to remove some of its widely accepted flaws so as to encourage wider adoption but the needle isn’t moving. Will Australia and France be next to withdraw from The Moon Treaty? ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9fc19b6a-24a8-4770-8172-0f70e1617304_4000x2250-jpeg.jpg) The 23 signatories of the U.S.-led Artemis Accords as of December 2022\. [Credit: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html) ## More Moon - India’s [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) doesn’t just [study the Moon’s surface](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-44/) but also observes the Sun, particularly to advance the [long unsolved problem](https://science.nasa.gov/news-articles/the-mystery-of-coronal-heating) of why the Sun’s atmosphere is heated to a million degrees Celsius while the surface remains a scant 6,000 degrees. Scientists have previously used the orbiter’s high resolution *[Solar X-ray Monitor](https://arxiv.org/pdf/1910.09231.pdf)* (XSM) to [study the Sun’s micro-flares](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-orbiter-is-also-a-sun-watcher/) as a plausible significant contributor to coronal heating. Now Indian scientists have published the orbiter’s [nano-flare related observations](https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/aca078) as well, studying which is helping unravel some more heating mechanisms. - As part of the [NASA Innovative Advanced Concepts](https://www.nasa.gov/content/niac-overview) program, the agency is providing $175,000 each to [develop two promising early stage lunar technologies](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-experimental-space-technology-concepts-for-initial-study). The first intends to flesh out a [robotically constructed and repairable oxygen pipeline](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/niac/2023/Lunar%5FSouth%5FPole%5FOxygen%5FPipeline) for future lunar habitat needs, proposing a lower cost and more energy efficient solution than rover transport. The second is an [X-ray or gamma-ray flashlight](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/niac/2023/EmberCore%5FFlashlight), which rovers can use to map local surface and subsurface regions on the Moon—or any airless body for that matter—to enable better prospecting of [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other volatile resources. The high-energy flashlight can also be used to study volcanic rock layers within [pits and lava tubes](https://jatan.space/underground-lava-tubes-on-the-moon-marius-hills/) on the Moon. - NASA has [appointed A. C. Charania](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-new-agency-wide-chief-technologist) as its new agency-wide chief technologist, whose job is to align NASA’s technology investments with mission needs across six agency directorates. Charania has previously particularly worked at Blue Origin, including on the [Blue Moon](https://www.blueorigin.com/blue-moon) lunar lander program. He has also served on the [Commercial Advisory Group](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag/cab) of the Lunar Exploration Analysis Group (LEAG), which supports NASA by providing scientific, technical, commercial, and operational analysis of the agency’s lunar exploration objectives. - General Atomics [will build and test](https://www.ga.com/ga-awarded-contract-from-advanced-space-for-cislunar-spacecraft-for-afrl-oracle-program) the Oracle spacecraft for Advance Space, who won a [$72 million U.S. Air Force contract](https://spacenews.com/advanced-space-wins-72-million-air-force-contract-for-lunar-experiment) last year for a cislunar patrolling craft. - As of December 2022, ISRO finally [has an official page](https://www.isro.gov.in/chandrayaan3%5Fscience.html) on India’s Chandrayaan 3 Moon landing mission. However, even [my own blog post](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-3-prelaunch-info/) on the mission from last year has way more details than ISRO’s eerily brief page, which is not good. :/ - Relatedly, the mission will feature a six-wheeled rover nearly identical to the one on Chandrayaan 2, albeit [with enhanced software](https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/science/chandrayaan-3-launch-in-june-next-year-says-isro-chairman/articleshow/94992898.cms). Equipped with spectrometers and a laser, the rover will study the geology of a [near-polar highland](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-landing-site-in-the-southern-highlands/) with the aim of finding pristine materials from the [ancient lunar crust](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). Reddit user u/ravi\_ram has compiled a [nice list of research papers](https://www.reddit.com/r/ISRO/comments/104t56j/chandrayaan%5Frover%5Fpragyan%5Frelated%5Fpapers) related to the Chandrayaan 2 rover Pragyan. ## More Moon in more countries Moon Monday has readers in more than 65 countries now but since I cover *global* lunar exploration updates, the metric I really care about is having at least 5 readers each in 50 countries. Help me get there by sharing my one-of-a-kind newsletter with a fellow space buff in another country? 🌍 ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f1220821b-987b-474d-8fd6-28f8c0c17c39_1880x1036-jpeg.jpg) Relative geographical distribution of Moon Monday readers. --- **→ [Sponsor Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) | [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Moon Monday #109: Seven lunar landing attempts this year, and NASA’s budget for Luna URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-109/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:16.000Z *Welcome back to Moon Monday! :D* *2023 promises to treat us lunatics with seven robotic Moon landing attempts, with possibly three of them from the U.S., two from Japan, and one each from India and Russia. Below are the latest available updates on them all.* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f8f9e36c4-a320-4b0f-928a-beed9811da80_1950x1300-jpeg-5.jpg) Astrobotic’s first Moon lander, Peregrine. [Credit: John Thornton](https://www.linkedin.com/feed/update/urn:li:activity:6998697480980676609) ## Moon landing mission updates ### Japan ispace Japan’s [first lunar lander](https://jatan.space/ispace-japan-m1-moon-mission/), launched on December 11, successfully [completed its second orbital maneuver](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4225) on January 2 to stay on its fuel-efficient trajectory to the Moon for an orbital capture event in April. The second maneuver required a much longer engine firing than [the first one](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4186) on December 15. JAXA’s compact [SLIM lander](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/home/slim/SLIM/technology.html) is targeting [an April 2023 launch](https://nextspaceflight.com/launches/details/5135) to demonstrate *pinpoint lunar touchdown* (\~100-meter accuracy) with a low mass spacecraft. To that end, SLIM [will land](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/feature/forefront/220928.html) somewhere within the 300-meter wide [Shioli crater](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=25.1369017%2C-13.3775317%2C25.3103066%2C-13.279343&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=25.23250488%2C-13.32525147&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFaaKBJ-Im64NOZFkRdi5KjwpA&proj=16)’s ejecta, which lies amid rocky terrain. Orbital data suggests that studying the crater’s ejecta using SLIM’s near-infrared, multi-band spectroscopic camera could enhance our knowledge about [the Moon’s mantle and its formation](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). *(Thanks to [Elizabeth Tasker](https://www.elizabethtasker.com) for this news tip!)* ### The U.S. Astrobotic’s [first Moon lander](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-awarded-79-5-million-contract-to-deliver-14-nasa-payloads-to-the-moon), targeting a Q1 2023 launch as part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), is undergoing a series of [space environmental tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/) to ensure its nominal functioning during all mission phases. Last month, the lander [passed electromagnetic interference testing](https://www.astrobotic.com/peregrine-emi-testing-a-success-ahead-of-schedule), which checks if the lander’s radiation emissions aren’t affecting its own functioning or that of its ride to space—the ULA Vulcan rocket. The test similarly checks for the rocket’s electromagnetic emissions not affecting the lander systems too. While [Intuitive Machines’ first CLPS mission](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/first-commercial-moon-delivery-assignments-to-advance-artemis), carrying [six NASA payloads](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/first-commercial-moon-delivery-assignments-to-advance-artemis), is supposed to launch in Q1 2023 on a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket, the company is [yet to complete](https://www.linkedin.com/posts/intuitive-machines%5Fwe-are-in-the-final-integration-and-test-activity-7016053034023600128-pX0F) their spacecraft assembly. Moreover, NASA requested Intuitive Machines last year to change their landing site from near the equator to the Moon’s south pole, which necessitated more planning. Throw in an entire suite of [space environmental tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/) to go through before heading to the launchpad and it becomes clear that Q1 is not feasible for the mission’s launch. NASA [completed testing](https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/mass-spectrometer-destined-for-the-moon-finishes-testing-at-kennedy) a mass spectrometer late last year that will be onboard Intuitive Machines’ [second CLPS Moon lander](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-to-land-water-measuring-payload-on-the-moon) launching in H2 2023 on a Falcon 9\. NASA’s [PRIME-1 drill](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/game%5Fchanging%5Fdevelopment/projects/PRIME-1) on the lander, while [at the Moon’s south pole](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-intuitive-machines-announce-landing-site-location-for-lunar-drill), will dig up soil up to a meter below the surface for the mass spectrometer to analyze it for [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other such volatiles. - Relatedly, launching alongside the Intuitive Machines lander is NASA’s [Lunar Trailblazer](https://jatan.space/nasa-lunar-trailblazer/) orbiter, which will give us unprecedented, high-resolution global maps of the amount, distribution, and state of water across the Moon. Last month, [JPL delivered](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/moon-water-imager-integrated-with-nasas-lunar-trailblazer) Trailblazer’s sensitive, wide-range infrared spectrometer to Lockheed Martin for integration with the spacecraft. Trailblazer’s second instrument—which will measure lunar surface temperatures to correctly calibrate the infrared spectrometer’s water detections—is expected to be delivered next in Q1 2023 by the University of Oxford. - Also related: The Japanese company Dymon has [moved the launch](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/intuitive-machines-adds-commercial-lunar-rover-to-its-second-mission-to-the-moon) of its 0.5-kilogram, single-axis rover [Yaoki](https://dymon.co.jp/en/yaoki) from Astrobotic’s first lunar lander to Intuitive Machines’ second one. ### Russia Roscosmos is targeting the launch of its [Luna 25 robotic Moon lander](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2021/pdf/2032.pdf) in [July–August 2023](https://tass.com/science/1553637). Luna 25’s instruments include an arm to sample material from 20 to 30 centimeters below the surface and then feed it to a laser spectrometer to determine elements and isotopes within. There’s also a neutron and a gamma ray spectrometer to identify the composition of the subsurface. The mission’s landing site, while not truly polar due to engineering constraints, is selected at about 70° South such that underground [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) could still be detected. Relatedly, on November 25, 2022, Russia and China [signed a formal agreement](https://tass.com/science/1557333) for bilateral cooperation in space activities through 2023–2027, which includes collaborating on the [International Lunar Research Station](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-32/), a long-term scientific base at the Moon’s south pole. Relatedly, Andrew Jones reports that China is [expanding its Wenchang spaceport](https://spacenews.com/china-is-expanding-its-wenchang-spaceport-to-host-commercial-and-crewed-moon-launches) for a faster launch cadence and to accommodate crewed lunar launches [by end of decade](https://spacenews.com/chinese-crewed-moon-landing-possible-by-2030-says-senior-space-figure). ### India After ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 2 lander](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-2-moon-landing-mission/) unfortunately [failed](http://www.planetary.org/blogs/jason-davis/vikram-apparently-crash-lands.html) to touchdown on the Moon in 2019 during its final mission phase, the agency has been more serious and cautious about a landing re-attempt with Chandrayaan 3. While [the mission’s technological and scientific objectives](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-3-prelaunch-info/) haven’t changed, ISRO has made [several upgrades](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/chandrayaan-3-targeted-this-year-corrections-in-progress-hardware-realisation-almost-done/articleshow/89322779.cms) to the Chandrayaan-2-like lander such as software improvements, strengthened legs, a couple of new sensors, and better power and communication systems to increase the likelihood of sticking the landing. The trouble is the lander now awaits a GSLV Mk III rocket being available for its ride to space, as two of those rockets were [prioritized for OneWeb satellite launches](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-100/). Since India can produce a Mk III [roughly once every 8 months](https://spacenews.com/oneweb-launch-sign-of-greater-role-for-india-in-commercial-launch-market), it might well be August or even later before we see the lander blast off to our Moon. ## NASA’s FY 2023 budget for Luna ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9ccb6cf9-7172-4db9-a722-bb6faf29d5c9_2260x1260-jpeg.jpg) [Credit: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/fy23%5Fnasa%5Fbudget%5Frequest%5Fsummary.pdf) On December 23, 2022, the U.S. Congress passed consolidated FY 2023 funding appropriations for all U.S. federal agencies. As part of it, NASA gets [$25.4 billion](https://www.planetary.org/space-policy/nasas-fy-2023-budget), a roughly 5.8% budget increase over FY 2022’s $24 billion but less than the [Presidential request of nearly $26 billion](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-71/). ![](https://substack.com/img/attachment_icon.svg) FY 2023 NASA Budget Document6.91MB ∙ PDF file[Download](https://blog.jatan.space/api/v1/file/63dd92a1-d402-4cf8-9be5-095589cbc6ad.pdf)[Download](https://blog.jatan.space/api/v1/file/63dd92a1-d402-4cf8-9be5-095589cbc6ad.pdf) Given below are the [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) and lunar-related highlights. - The [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) and the [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/orion/about/index.html) continue to be funded at roughly the same levels as NASA requested. - NASA’s [Lunar Discovery and Exploration](https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/programs/lunar-discovery-exploration) (LDEP) program gets fully funded at the requested [$486 million](https://planetary.s3.amazonaws.com/assets/pdfs/FY2023-Omnibus-CJS-Appropriations-Conference-Report-NASA-Section.pdf), particularly to ensure full funding for commercial [CLPS lunar landings](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) enabling surface science, which includes the [VIPER rover mission](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/). LDEP is the organizational unit chiefly integrating and coordinating Artemis science efforts across the agency as well as with NASA’s commercial and international partners. Their recent work includes formulating the [Science Definition report](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-defines-science-priorities-for-first-crewed-artemis-landing-on-moon) as well as the [Artemis science structure](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-68/) for the [first crewed landing](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) with Artemis III. - NASA had requested $48 million to begin meticulous infrastructure planning for future Artemis missions leading to a [baseline sustainable habitat](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept). As part of that, the agency is getting $40 million for commercially developing lunar surface power systems, which primarily includes [vertical solar arrays](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-92/) for the lunar poles and [nuclear fission units](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-announces-artemis-concept-awards-for-nuclear-power-on-moon). - NASA gets the requested $1.49 billion for the development of crewed lunar landers by U.S. companies, compared to last fiscal year’s $1.2 billion. This is rather modest because the funding would be divided between NASA’s selection of SpaceX [Lunar Starship for Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon), an alternative provider for the same mission, an [upgraded Lunar Starship](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-spacex-second-contract-option-for-artemis-moon-landing-0) for [Artemis IV](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-101/), and the [previously discussed](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-95/) “sustainable” [lander proposals](https://payloadspace.com/sld-bidders), one of which will [bid against](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-provides-update-to-astronaut-moon-lander-plans-under-artemis) the upgraded Starship for all future crewed Artemis landings after Artemis V. - NASA gets $281.4 million for the [Mobile Launcher 2](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/final%5F-%5Fmobile%5Flauncher%5F2%5Ffact%5Fsheet.pdf), an infrastructure element required to launch the SLS rocket’s [Block 1B](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/sls%5Flift%5Fcapabilities%5Fand%5Fconfigurations%5F508%5F08202018%5F0.pdf) variant starting with the crewed [Artemis IV](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-101/) mission targeting a 2028 launch. However, the amount is only half of what NASA asked for, with the U.S. Congress expecting the agency to fund the other half on their own. This is a (perplexing) response to the [scathing June 2022 report](https://oig.nasa.gov/docs/IG-22-012.pdf) by NASA’s Office of Inspector General (OIG) detailing the launcher’s [poor progress and ballooning cost](https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/06/nasas-second-mobile-launcher-is-too-heavy-years-late-and-pushing-1-billion). --- *Many thanks to [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io) for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* *Thanks also to [Ryan Duffy](https://www.linkedin.com/in/rfduffy) of [Payload Space](https://payloadspace.com), [Daniel Verberne](https://ruminations569587166.wordpress.com) and [Chris](https://vmac.ch) for supporting my independent writing.* --- ## Korean craft preps to snap the Moon After its the [third and last major orbital maneuver](https://www.kari.re.kr/kplo/danuri/news/newsView.do?nttId=8591&pageIndex=1&searchCnd=&searchWrd=) on December 26, South Korea’s [KPLO](https://jatan.space/kplo/) spacecraft has [circularized its lunar orbit](https://www.kari.re.kr/kplo/danuri/news/newsView.do?nttId=8580&pageIndex=1&searchCnd=&searchWrd=) to an altitude of about 100 kilometers. KPLO is now circling our Moon roughly once every two hours. The estimated fuel remaining on the orbiter is [93 kilograms](https://www.kari.re.kr/kplo/danuri/news/newsView.do?nttId=8593&pageIndex=1&searchCnd=&searchWrd=), which is sufficient to fulfill its [one-year primary mission](https://jatan.space/kplo/) of studying the Moon’s surface, the observations of which will begin in February. In the meanwhile, KPLO has already sent us [amazing Earth & Moon pictures](https://www.kari.re.kr/kplo/danuri/news/newsView.do?nttId=8597&pageIndex=1&searchCnd=&searchWrd=) using its high-resolution black & white camera. Imagery from the same camera will be used to select a landing site for the country’s [fully indigenous Moon lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-93/), intended to be launched in [2032](https://spacenews.com/134853-2). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f2e5eb60d-a4a3-4070-a03c-e4a42f7bf3e8_1000x710-jpeg.jpg) Our Earth on the Moon’s horizon as imaged by South Korea’s KPLO lunar orbiter. [Credit: KARI](https://www.kari.re.kr/kplo/danuri/news/newsView.do?nttId=8597&pageIndex=1&searchCnd=&searchWrd=) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f71c17592-eafc-4183-8ac2-2f03a6691806_1000x706-jpeg.jpg) [Credit: KARI](https://www.kari.re.kr/kplo/danuri/news/newsView.do?nttId=8597&pageIndex=1&searchCnd=&searchWrd=) ## More Moon - Eliana Sheriff has a great [Behind the Scenes video](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bwYXsz4B0JA) on Firefly’s testing of its [first Moon lander](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-firefly-aerospace-for-artemis-commercial-moon-delivery-in-2023), launching in 2024 as part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). - Check out the “[Res Luna](https://www.openlunar.org/resluna)” project led by the Open Lunar Foundation (a Moon Monday sponsor), which gathered and analyzed various ways in which natural resources are governed on Earth and what from it we could apply at the Moon in the future as resource-utilizing missions mount. - [Walter Cunningham](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/apollo-astronaut-walter-cunningham-dies-at-90), who flew on [Apollo 7](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/apollo-7) as the lunar module pilot, passed away on January 3. - The [first ever workshop on “Ices in the Solar System”](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/ices2023), which starts today, includes discussing water ice on the Moon as well as [some specific and proposed future missions](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/ices2023/pdf/ices2023%5Fprogram.htm#sess103) to study its properties. - Relive NASA’s Artemis I Moon Mission via [some of its best pictures](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/view-the-best-images-from-nasa-s-artemis-i-mission) --- [My best space writings from 2022 🌗](https://jatan.space/best-of-2022/) **→ [Sponsor Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) | [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### My best space writings from 2022 URL: https://jatan.space/best-of-2022/ Last updated: 2024-02-24T10:32:24.000Z Dear readers, In my [lifelong mission](https://jatan.space/my-science-writing-journey/) to write about the exploration of space and our Moon, 2022 turned out to be very productive and satiating. I published 51 editions of my one-of-a-kind [Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/s/moon-monday/archive) newsletter, and wrote [25+ articles](https://blog.jatan.space/s/articles/archive) on space exploration at large. I also took a major step forward in sustaining Moon Monday, thanks to the generous, [no-strings-attached](https://blog.jatan.space/ethics) sponsorship from [*Epsilon3*](https://www.epsilon3.io)*,* [*The Orbital Index*](https://orbitalindex.com) and [*Open Lunar Foundation*](https://www.openlunar.org). Here are some of my most notable space writings from 2022. ## 🦠 Life beyond Earth 3 new additions to [my articles on our search for alien life](https://jatan.space/search-for-life/): - [Is life possible on rogue planets and moons?](https://jatan.space/is-life-possible-on-rogue-planets/) - [Are planets with two stars promising places for life?](https://jatan.space/is-life-possible-around-two-stars/) - [When will we explore Saturn’s moon Enceladus to find alien life?](https://jatan.space/when-will-we-explore-enceladus-to-find-life/) ## 🪐 Our Solar System - [Recipes to make moons](https://jatan.space/how-moons-form/) - [How we test spacecraft before launch](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/) - [Rings in our Solar System can come and go](https://jatan.space/exploring-the-changing-rings-of-our-solar-system/) - [The two-faced Moon](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) - [How Uranus and Neptune are key to unlocking how planets form](https://jatan.space/why-explore-uranus-and-neptune/) - [When to worry about an asteroid hitting Earth](https://jatan.space/when-to-worry-about-an-asteroid-strike/) ## 🚀 Space launches - [KPLO, South Korea’s first Moon mission](https://jatan.space/kplo/) - [Artemis I launches the world’s ambitions and hopes for the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-104/) - [ispace Japan’s lander launches for the Moon](https://jatan.space/ispace-japan-m1-moon-mission/) ## 🛰️ Upcoming missions - [Space science missions ISRO will launch in the near future](https://jatan.space/isro-space-science-missions-2020-2025/) - [NASA CLPS Moon landing missions](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) - [The bevy of rovers heading for the Moon](https://jatan.space/lunar-rovers-launching-in-2020s/) - [Lunar Trailblazer, NASA’s Moon water mapper](https://jatan.space/nasa-lunar-trailblazer/) - [NASA eyes prestigious farside Moon landing in boldest CLPS bet yet](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-87/) - [A look at Australian efforts to explore our Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-97/) ## 🤔 Retrospectives - [Past mistakes to avoid in our grand return to the Moon this decade](https://jatan.space/past-lunar-mission-mistakes-to-avoid/) - [Looking back at Chandrayaan 1 and forward to Artemis](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/) - [Looking back at Pathfinder as the start of modern Mars exploration](https://jatan.space/nasa-mars-pathfinder-mission/) - [How the Apollo missions transformed our understanding of the Moon’s origin](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/) - [The time NASA figured out that our Moon is cratered all the way down](https://jatan.space/its-craters-all-the-way-down/) ## 💛 Space for inspiration - [Kids in South Korea and a Moon mission](https://jatan.space/moon-moment-for-south-korea/) - [Poem: An ode to Artemis I](https://jatan.space/an-ode-to-artemis-i/) - [Luna Sights](https://blog.jatan.space/lunasights) ## 🌙 Moon Monday I can’t figure out which might be some of the most notable editions of [Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/s/moon-monday?no%5Fcover=true) because it’s the growing momentum of global lunar exploration as a whole that’s so exciting and full of hope and push for the future. As such, it only makes sense to link to the whole searchable archive of worldwide lunar developments below, which documents our progress towards sustainable exploration of our cosmic companion. [Moon Monday Archive 🌗](https://jatan.space/s/moon-monday/archive) ## Like what you read? All my writings are absolutely free to access, and I never display any ads. If you find value in my work, kindly consider supporting my independent writing. [Support my work ♡](https://jatan.space/support) Thank you so much to everyone who reads my work and supports it. It really means the Moon to me. I’m excited to write even more about space and Luna through all of 2023\. :D --- **→** [**Browse the Blog**](https://blog.jatan.space/start) **|** [**About**](https://blog.jatan.space/about) ### Moon Monday #108: A lunarbound KPLO, many mission updates, future foundations, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-108/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:17.000Z *I’ll be taking my year end break from publishing Moon Monday for two weeks, and get the much needed free time to rest, refresh, and reflect. The next edition will be out on January 9, 2023 and cover all updates between now and then. I hope you enjoy the end of the year doing whatever you love.* *Relatedly, a major reason my space blog is called “*[Jatan’s Space](https://blog.jatan.space)*” and not some media brand name is to highlight that I’m an independent writer publishing in individual capacity. Even though my newsletter and articles go out regularly—I’ve never missed a single Monday for Moon Monday—I hope the name reflects I’m not a machine.* ## KPLO now Moonbound! On December 17, the [Korea Pathfinder Lunar Orbiter](https://jatan.space/kplo/) (KPLO) successfully [entered lunar orbit](https://www.kari.re.kr/kplo/danuri/news/newsView.do?nttId=8583&pageIndex=1&searchCnd=&searchWrd=), making it South Korea’s first such spacecraft. By December 31, KPLO will [circularize its lunar orbit](https://www.kari.re.kr/kplo/danuri/news/newsView.do?nttId=8580&pageIndex=1&searchCnd=&searchWrd=) to a roughly 100 kilometers altitude with various timely and precise engine burns. Equipped with [four indigenously built instruments](https://space.skyrocket.de/doc%5Fsdat/kplo.htm) and the NASA-provided ultra-sensitive [ShadowCam](http://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/about), KPLO will show us new views of the Moon’s surface starting from January 2023, which will help us plan future missions, including landing humans on the Moon’s south pole. The [$182 million](https://spacenews.com/south-koreas-first-lunar-orbiter-on-way-to-the-moon) mission comprises the first phase of South Korea’s lunar exploration program. In the second phase, the country plans to launch a [fully indigenous Moon lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-93/) in [2032](https://spacenews.com/134853-2). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f98f62a2c-bf0a-43e3-9e36-339448fd29f4_1370x1000-jpeg.jpg) An artist’s impression of South Korea’s KPLO spacecraft orbiting the Moon. Inset image shows how KPLO will circularize its orbit over time. Credits: KARI ([1](https://tv.naver.com/v/19332464), [2](https://www.kari.re.kr/kplo/danuri/news/newsView.do?nttId=8580&pageIndex=1&searchCnd=&searchWrd=)) We now have 8 orbiters at the Moon! 1. NASA’s venerable [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html) 2. NASA’s [THEMIS-ARTEMIS](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2019/artemis-meet-artemis-pursuing-sun-science-at-the-moon) pair of spacecraft, orbiting the Earth-Moon Lagrangian points 3. China’s [Queqiao](https://www.planetary.org/articles/0519-change-4-relay-satellite)relay satellite for Chang’e 4, halo orbiting Earth-Moon Lagrangian point #2 4. ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) 5. China’s [Chang’e 5](https://jatan.space/change-5-landing-site/) *service module,* in a [Distant Retrograde Orbit](https://skyriddles.wordpress.com/2022/01/25/change-5-returns-to-the-moon) 6. The Advanced Space-led and NASA-funded [CAPSTONE](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/small%5Fspacecraft/capstone) CubeSat, in a [Near-Rectilinear Halo Orbit](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/a-lunar-orbit-that-s-just-right-for-the-international-gateway) 7. [KPLO](https://jatan.space/kplo/) :D ## Statuses of secondary Artemis I payloads We have some more updates on the [independent science & technology missions](https://jatan.space/science-on-artemis-i/) that launched alongside the [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/orion/about/index.html) on NASA’s [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-i) Moon mission. - The biological experiment onboard [BioSentinel](https://www.nasa.gov/ames/biosentinel) was [turned on](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/first-deep-space-biology-experiment-begins-follow-along-in-real-time) by the mission team on December 5 while the CubeSat was more than 1 million kilometers away from Earth. Over the next six months, the experiment will measure the impact of deep space radiation on yeast from a solar orbit. The researchers chose yeast because their cells and human cells have many similar DNA damage and repair mechanisms. Terrestrial facilities can’t fully simulate the unique radiation environment of deep space so this study will provide us new insights on its effects on biological life as NASA seeks to establish [long-term human presence](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept) on the Moon. NASA [selected a similar lunar surface mission](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-new-instruments-for-priority-artemis-science-on-moon) for launch in 2026 as part of its [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). - A few weeks ago, the [LunaH-Map](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/lunah-map-university-built-cubesat-to-map-water-ice-on-the-moon) CubeSat [successfully demonstrated autonomous optical navigation](https://blogs.nasa.gov/lunah-map/2022/12/07/nasas-lunah-map-captures-image-of-auriga-constellation), an important ability for small satellites. Now the team is preparing to heat up the propulsion system to free a stuck valve. If that works, the mission can still be carried out late next year. Considering that the CubeSat is supposed to map hydrogen—an indicator of [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/)—in [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s south pole as well as a meter below the surface in high resolution, I really hope the long shot works. - The Team Miles CubeSat [established contact](https://twitter.com/MilesSpace/status/1601424119085805568) after all, with more information on future plans to follow soon. It’s a citizen science project aiming to autonomously travel at least 96 million kilometers in deep space [using plasma propulsion](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/centennial%5Fchallenges/cubequest/team%5Fmiles), as a precursor to larger and more efficient spacecraft in the future. - Contact was lost with the [CuSP](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2016/heliophysics-cubesat-to-launch-on-nasa-s-sls) CubeSat just an hour after deployment on Artemis I launch day, November 16, due to an unexplained [spike in battery temperature](https://blogs.nasa.gov/sunspot/2022/12/08/artemis-i-payload-cusp-cubesat-mission-update). The mission was supposed to study [the solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) from a solar orbit closer in than Earth’s so as to eventually vouch for a network of small solar weather monitoring stations spread across the inner Solar System that would give us a better three-dimensional understanding of [our Sun’s activity](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) and its threats to future human exploration of deep space. ## More mission updates - The [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-i) Orion capsule is now being returned to NASA’s Kennedy Space Center to know exactly how well its heat shield worked during its [fiery reentry](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-107/) into Earth’s atmosphere. Before departing for the Kennedy Space Center, teams [unloaded](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/12/14/artemis-i-update-orion-offloaded-from-uss-portland-in-preparation-for-transport-to-kennedy-space-center) the [Biology Experiment-1](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/small-samples-with-big-mission-on-first-orion-flight-around-the-moon) payload, part of the [many radiation experiments](https://jatan.space/science-on-artemis-i/) onboard, for scientists to study the effects of deep space radiation exposure on the experiment’s plant seeds, fungi, yeast, and algae during the 26-day mission. - ispace Japan’s [first lunar lander](https://jatan.space/ispace-japan-m1-moon-mission/), launched on December 11, successfully [completed the first orbital maneuver](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4186) using its propulsion system on December 15 to stay on its fuel-efficient, four-month trajectory to the Moon. ispace also [completed payload checks](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4201) last week, and they all seem to be healthy. [Here’s a picture of Earth](https://ispace-inc.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/Canadensys%5F1.jpg) taken by the Canadensys camera onboard. - The launch of Russia’s [Luna 25 robotic Moon lander](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2021/pdf/2032.pdf) was delayed from earlier this year to 2023 because its Doppler distance and velocity sensors [underperformed](https://tass.com/science/1481613) during testing. [TASS reports](https://tass.com/science/1550209) that working, qualified units of the same have now been installed on the lander. Luna 25’s instruments include an arm to sample material from 20 to 30 centimeters below the surface and then feed it to a laser spectrometer to determine elements and isotopes within. There’s also a neutron and a gamma ray spectrometer to identify the composition of the subsurface. The mission’s landing site, while not truly polar due to engineering constraints, is selected at about 70° South such that underground [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) can still be detected. - NASA has [completed testing](https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/mass-spectrometer-destined-for-the-moon-finishes-testing-at-kennedy) a mass spectrometer that will soon be installed onboard Intuitive Machines’ [second lunar lander](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-to-land-water-measuring-payload-on-the-moon), which will launch in 2023 as part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) to [the Moon’s south pole](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-intuitive-machines-announce-landing-site-location-for-lunar-drill). NASA’s [PRIME-1 drill](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/game%5Fchanging%5Fdevelopment/projects/PRIME-1) on the lander will dig up soil up to a meter below the surface and the mass spectrometer will analyze it for water ice and other such volatiles. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f04dd4ac3-b72b-4bb7-9698-f69272f33f60_950x649-jpeg-1.jpg) Russia’s Luna 25 Moon landing spacecraft as pictured during its assembly. [Credits: Sergey Bobylev / TASS](https://tass.com/science/1393447) --- *Many thanks to [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io) for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## Future foundations - To prepare for future [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) lunar surface missions starting with [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon), NASA recently completed a multi-week test campaign with crews in pressurized suits doing [Moonwalks and sampling operations](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/moonwalking-test-mission-daily-field-log) in the lunar-like landscapes of Arizona. Another such campaign involved crew—including 3 JAXA astronauts—[operating a prototype pressurized rover](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-practices-rover-operations-in-simulated-lunar-environment) in a lunar-like terrain to inform the development of such a vehicle Japan intends to contribute as an asset for Artemis missions next decade. Relatedly, with the [Lunar LTE Studies project](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/glenn/2022/nasa-tests-lunar-communications-network-in-lava-field), NASA is testing 4G and 5G connections in lunar-like terrestrial environments to inform designs for having [said technology on the Moon](https://www.nokia.com/networks/insights/network-on-the-moon). - Sarwat Nasir reports that the UAE, in partnership with Boeing, is in talks with NASA to [provide an airlock](https://www.thenationalnews.com/uae/2022/12/13/uae-exploring-possibility-of-contributing-an-airlock-module-on-nasas-lunar-gateway) for the NASA-led international [Gateway lunar orbital station](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway). Russia was originally supposed to provide the airlock, per a [joint statement](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-roscosmos-sign-joint-statement-on-researching-exploring-deep-space) in 2017, but the country later pulled out. An airlock would allow future Artemis astronauts on Gateway to do spacewalks—while around the Moon! With such a contribution, the UAE hopes to get the same deal from NASA as ESA, CSA and JAXA have—[seats for their astronauts](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-79/) on the Gateway to prestige. - Last week Nigeria and Rwanda [became the first African countries](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-welcomes-nigeria-rwanda-as-newest-artemis-accords-signatories) to sign the NASA-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html) for cooperative lunar exploration, bringing the total number of signee nations to 23\. [Marcia Smith reports](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/two-african-countries-join-artemis-accords-bringing-total-to-23) how the U.S. is pushing for a broad, veto-less international participation in the Accords that’s independent of a country’s intentions to collaborate with NASA on Artemis missions. Relatedly, considering that South Africa is aiding NASA with an [Artemis ground station deal](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/NASA-SANSA-Renew-Lunar-Exploration-Partnership), it might be interested in signing the Accords. - Quantum Space, [intending to develop](https://spacenews.com/quantum-space-unveils-plans-for-cislunar-platforms) serviceable spacecraft platforms in cislunar space, has [raised $15 million](https://spacenews.com/quantum-space-raises-15-million-for-cislunar-spacecraft). The company’s first commercial lunar satellite, QS-1, will launch in October 2024 on a 3-year mission to [scan and track hardware](https://spacenews.com/quantum-space-announces-first-cislunar-mission) in cislunar space using a high-resolution optical imager. Such a capability would’ve certainly been helpful to track the rocket body that [smashed on the Moon’s farside](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/1261) earlier this year. Rachael Zisk reports that the company [intends to build a network](https://payloadspace.com/quantum-space-raises-15m) of such satellites. The spacecraft are to be made by Blue Canyon, the same company providing two communications satellites for [Draper’s farside Moon landing mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-87/) part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). - The first hot fire test of the redesigned [RS-25](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/sls%5Frs25%5Fengine%5Ffs%5F508.pdf) engine to be used on future flights of NASA’s [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html), starting with the Artemis V mission, took place on December 14\. The engine was [shut down early](https://www.nasa.gov/centers/stennis/news/releases/2022/NASA-Conducts-First-Test-of-Redesigned-Moon-Rocket-Engine-at-Stennis) at 209.5 seconds instead of the desired 500-second run. NASA and SLS’ lead engine contractor Aerojet Rocketdyne are analyzing the data to determine the reason for the early cutoff. - In Phase 2 of the $3 million [Break the Ice Lunar Challenge](https://breaktheicechallenge.com), NASA has [selected 15 teams](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/centennial%5Fchallenges/nasa-announces-newest-winners-in-break-the-ice-lunar-challenge.html) to design and build prototypes capable of efficiently extracting and transporting icy regolith on the Moon. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f1799dd1f-0fa4-4fcc-8593-0f149e5952df_3200x1800-jpeg.jpg) An old illustration of the NASA-led international Gateway lunar orbital station showing which space agencies would build each module. [Credit: ESA](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/European%5FGateway%5Fmodule%5Fto%5Fbe%5Fbuilt%5Fin%5FFrance%5Fas%5FThomas%5FPesquet%5Freadies%5Ffor%5Fsecond%5Fspaceflight) --- Every writer has a flagship article, the iPhone to their Apple. Here is mine, updated throughout for 2023 with all the latest developments: [Why explore our Moon 🌗](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) If you’ve found value in [this year’s archive](https://blog.jatan.space/sitemap/2022) of my 50 Moon Monday editions and 25+ articles on space exploration at large, please [consider donating](https://jatan.space/support) to support my work. As an independent writer, it really would mean the Moon to me. If you or your organization would like to sponsor Moon Monday instead, [get in touch](https://jatan.space/connect)! [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support) **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### KPLO, South Korea’s first Moon mission URL: https://jatan.space/kplo/ Last updated: 2024-06-24T10:35:11.000Z **Update in January 2024:* KPLO has not only been successfully capturing* [*beautiful high resolution images*](https://www.kari.re.kr/kplo/danuri/news/newsView.do?nttId=8650&pageIndex=1&searchCnd=&searchWrd=) *of the Moon’s surface but* [*uniquely studying it*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-159/#science-observations-by-south-korean-lunar-orbiter-going-strong) *for various scientific purposes.* On August 5, 2022 (KST), a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket launched the [Korea Pathfinder Lunar Orbiter](https://www.kari.re.kr/kplo), or KPLO, to the Moon. On December 17, KPLO successfully [entered lunar orbit](https://www.kari.re.kr/kplo/danuri/news/newsView.do?nttId=8583&pageIndex=1&searchCnd=&searchWrd=), making it South Korea’s first such spacecraft. With KPLO, South Korea has forayed into planetary exploration, begun its lunar exploration program, and found a collaborator in NASA. Equipped with 4 indigenously built instruments and a NASA-provided camera, KPLO will show us new views of the Moon’s surface and help us plan future missions there, including landing humans on its poles. ## How will KPLO study the Moon? KPLO was launched on a [ballistic lunar trajectory](https://www.kari.re.kr/eng/kariimg/view.do?idx=1523&mno=sub05%5F01&img%5Fgbn=PHO), which allowed it to reach the Moon in a fuel-efficient manner over four months. After entering a roughly 100-kilometer circular lunar orbit, KPLO will study the Moon for [at least a year](https://www.shadowcam.asu.edu/KPLO%5Fenglish%5Fpress%5Fkit.pdf) with [its 5 scientific instruments](https://space.skyrocket.de/doc%5Fsdat/kplo.htm) starting in January 2023. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f07289667-c0ca-4b34-9dc7-b82de7c2b7b2_1897x1336.png) A rendering of the Korea Pathfinder Lunar Orbiter (KPLO), slated to launch to the Moon in 2022\. Credit: KARI KPLO sports two indigenously built cameras, one of which will image the Moon’s surface at a high resolution of 2.5 meters per pixel. The other is a wide-angle polarimetric camera which can determine the type of surface materials based on the way light reflects and scatters off them. This will help us better understand the Moon’s surface composition and the nature of its varied volcanic deposits. KPLO also has a gamma-ray spectrometer, which will look at highly energetic gamma rays released from the Moon. The energy levels of these rays are linked to the elements that produce them, allowing scientists to determine the elemental makeup of specific Moon materials. Together with the polarimetric camera, KPLO will better help understand the Moon’s mineral composition, and how its terrain has evolved over four billion years. The last of KPLO’s indigenous instruments is a magnetometer. While the Moon has [lost its global magnetic field](https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.1700207), it does have localized magnetic features such as [“swirls.”](https://jatan.space/swirls-on-the-moon/) By measuring their weak magnetic fields from orbit, KPLO will help us understand the extent of protection they offer from harmful space radiation, and the nature of the Moon’s leftover magnetic areas as hints of its past. KPLO’s final instrument, [ShadowCam](http://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/about), is an ultra-sensitive camera provided by NASA to see inside [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) on the Moon. It will provide critical information about the terrain and water in such regions to help plan future crewed and robotic missions there. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fe5d76ea2-c863-46be-b944-747fac25fe1a_2413x1606-jpeg.jpg) An artist’s impression of the Korea Pathfinder Lunar Orbiter mapping a permanently shadowed region on the Moon. [Credit: KARI](https://tv.naver.com/v/19332464) ## How will ShadowCam see inside permanently shadowed regions? On the Moon’s poles, the Sun sits very close to the horizon, so even small features like rocks cast very long shadows. Likewise, large craters with terraced edges block sunlight from entering the craters. Scientists call such places “permanently shadowed regions” because they’re eternally dark. They are thought to [host water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other resources that are central to future [lunar exploration plans](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) by space entities worldwide. While sunlight doesn’t reach and thus directly reflect from the Moon’s permanently shadowed regions, a minute amount of sunlight does scatter into them from nearby terrain. This light reflected back into space is incredibly dim but [detectable by current orbiters](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/979) such as NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html) and ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/). However, their cameras aren’t sensitive enough to peer into the darkness and help meticulously plan landing and roving missions in and around such regions. That’s where ShadowCam comes in. ShadowCam’s camera is at least 200 times more sensitive than the one on the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter. This will allow it to see a shadowed region on the Moon as if it was sunlit! ShadowCam will map the terrain inside permanently shadowed regions with a very high resolution of [up to 1.7 meters per pixel](http://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/about), and help locate their water ice deposits and other such volatile resources based on how they reflect light. This will tell us how abundant and accessible these resources are—a crucial step towards [safely and affordably planning future missions](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/library/skg.html) to the lunar poles and building sustainable habitats. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f7e2e19ad-449d-42dc-8180-b7ce83513d20_2143x1011-jpeg.jpg) ****Left:** NASA’s ShadowCam instrument that will be onboard the Korea Pathfinder Lunar Orbiter. It’s wrapped in an orange-colored thermal blanket to protect it from the harsh space environment. The rings inside the sunshade reduce stray light from entering and overexposing the sensitive camera, which needs to capture dim light coming from the Moon’s permanently shadowed regions. ****Right:** Components of ShadowCam. [Credits: NASA](http://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/about) ## How are NASA and South Korea collaborating to explore the Moon? ShadowCam isn’t the only NASA contribution to KPLO. In March 2021, NASA selected [nine scientists to join KPLO’s science team](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-selects-nine-scientists-to-join-korea-pathfinder-lunar-orbiter-mission) to help enhance the mission’s scientific output. NASA is also providing technical assistance on mission design, deep space communications, and navigation technologies. In November 2022, KPLO [successfully demonstrated](https://spacenews.com/south-koreas-danuri-orbiter-demonstrates-space-internet-en-route-to-moon) a kind of [space internet](https://space.skyrocket.de/doc%5Fsdat/kplo.htm) that’s resistant to disruptions in communications. KPLO sent media files, including popular South Korean band BTS’ music video, from more than 1.2 million kilometers away. On May 24, South Korea [signed the Artemis Accords](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vzu7pTS1Ok0), which [NASA calls](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html) “a practical set of principles to guide cooperation among nations participating in NASA’s 21st century lunar exploration plans.” This means scientific data can be easily shared between the two countries, and that there will be several opportunities for both countries to continue cooperating on future missions. ## What’s next for South Korea in lunar exploration? The [$182 million](https://spacenews.com/south-koreas-first-lunar-orbiter-on-way-to-the-moon) KPLO mission comprises the first phase of South Korea’s lunar exploration program. In the second phase, the country plans to launch a [fully indigenous Moon landing mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-93/) in [2032](https://spacenews.com/134853-2). --- *Special thanks to Eunhyeuk Kim of KARI and Mark Robinson of Arizona State University for reviewing the initial version of this article.* *Originally published at* [*The Planetary Society*](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/kplo)*.* *I also wrote a follow-up post on* [*how this mission will inspire kids and students*](https://jatan.space/moon-moment-for-south-korea/) *in South Korea, and how India's Chandrayaan 1 did the same for me.* *Following a* [*public contest*](https://www.hani.co.kr/arti/science/science%5Fgeneral/1037408.html)*, the South Korean space agency has nicknamed the mission as* [*Danuri*](https://en.yna.co.kr/view/AEN20220523006900320)*, a blend of the Korean words “Moon” and “enjoy”.* --- **→** [**Browse the Blog**](https://blog.jatan.space/start) **|** [**About**](https://blog.jatan.space/about) **|** [**Donate ♡**](https://jatan.space/support) ### Kids in South Korea and a Moon mission URL: https://jatan.space/moon-moment-for-south-korea/ Last updated: 2024-08-23T13:52:18.000Z South Korea’s [Korea Pathfinder Lunar Orbiter](https://jatan.space/kplo/) (KPLO) entered orbit around our Moon on December 17, 2022\. The orbiter will show us new views of the Moon’s surface, and provide critical information about its polar terrain and water deposits to help plan future missions. The mission reminds me strongly of [Chandrayaan 1](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/), India’s first Moon mission, in technical as well as inspirational ways. Both projects are each nation’s first planetary mission, are lunar orbiters, and have significant contributions coming from NASA. Both of its spacecraft were conceptualized and realized after each country gained experience making satellites for geostationary orbits, a necessary precursor. But it’s the inspirational element that’s perhaps more striking. Chandrayaan 1 launched over a decade ago in 2008\. I was in school then, just 14, and remember reading newspapers who were reporting that India is foraying into planetary exploration. Now, I always liked to read about NASA’s dashing planetary missions but this one felt different. My own country was sending a spacecraft to the Moon! I’m no nationalist but this was simply about being able to relate better. It’s also perhaps why I saw people around me take interest in space for the first time. Because it was an Indian mission, they felt included. As the mission launched and progressed, I remember the flurry of headlines reporting that Chandrayaan 1 had [discovered water on the Moon](https://jatan.space/how-nasa-and-chandrayaan-discovered-water-on-the-moon/). It really inspired me. It was, for a young me, a realization that countries new to planetary exploration with humble budgets can still contribute big results to our collective pool of scientific knowledge. Since the water-discovering instrument was from NASA, Chandrayaan 1 [demonstrated a fine collaborative way](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/) for young space nations to increase mission science without increasing cost while also leveraging the partnership to expand their own expertise. With KPLO, South Korea is following the very collaboration model of Chandrayaan 1, starting with onboarding NASA’s [ShadowCam](http://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/about) instrument, an ultra-sensitive camera to see inside the Moon’s [permanently shadowed areas](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) and provide critical information about its terrain and water deposits to help plan future crewed and robotic missions. Not only that, South Korea is even extending the Chandrayaan model in a way it sees fit: by [signing the Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-selects-nine-scientists-to-join-korea-pathfinder-lunar-orbiter-mission) for enhancing future collaborations, [inviting nine NASA scientists onboard](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-selects-nine-scientists-to-join-korea-pathfinder-lunar-orbiter-mission) the core KPLO science team to further improve mission science, and more. In over a decade since Chandrayaan 1, I’m now in the profession of [writing about space exploration](https://blog.jatan.space/about). As part of it, I uniquely cover Indian space science missions, including [Chandrayaan 2](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/), [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-3-prelaunch-info/) and [Mangalyaan](https://jatan.space/missing-science-from-mangalyaan/). Likewise, I know many people who pursued STEM interests in technical as well as non-technical ways because of the impact Indian space missions have had on them growing up. And so when KPLO shows us great new views of our cosmic neighbor, I’m hopeful that it will have much the same lasting effect on people, kids and students in South Korea. Space inspires, and lets us aspire to do things beyond the clouds. And the more countries that can have that effect felt nationwide, the better. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f1f56020a-b89a-4f31-82bf-dd4e75304622_1600x1100-jpeg.jpg) China’s Long March 2F rocket lifting off. Credit: Xinhua ### Poem: An ode to our Moon URL: https://jatan.space/an-ode-to-our-moon/ Last updated: 2026-08-20T04:34:14.000Z *A blaze aloft at night* *sent a glimmer of hope* *flying past the desolation* *It ignites around Moonshine,* *so we can all dazzle* *at the suspended blue marble* *It twinkles again across the void* *for a blistering comeback,* *and a tactful splash* *Let’s keep the path glowing* *for these engines of progress,* *so we can ferociously return* *To our cosmic companion,* *like never before.* ![An inclined view of our Moon which is more than half lit.](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/10/the-moon-by-galileo-wide.jpg) Our Moon as imaged by the Galileo spacecraft flying past it on December 7, 1992\. [Image: NASA](https://www.flickr.com/photos/nasacommons/9458193857) **Poem notes:** The [success](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-107/) of NASA’s [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-i/) Moon mission, and the [amazing views of our Moon](https://images.nasa.gov/album/Artemis%5FI) from its Orion spacecraft, inspired me to write a poem. The poem was featured on [Nature’s newsletter](https://mailchi.mp/nature/daily-briefing-13896088). ![The white, elongated Artemis I Orion spacecraft sporting various thrusters and NASA & ESA logos captured a view of our Moon and Earth in 2022 from a little distance away from the Moon such that our natural satellite appears larger than our planet due to apparent size differences.](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/10/orion-space-earth-moon-us.jpg) The Orion spacecraft, part of NASA’s Artemis I mission, captured this view of our Moon and Earth in November 2022\. This vantage point in its lunar orbit lies roughly 70,000 and 430,000 kilometers away from the Moon and Earth respectively. [Image: NASA](https://images.nasa.gov/details-art001e000678) --- *Part of* [***Seven uni-verses***](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/)*, my globally published poetry pamphlet.* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/11/share-seven-universes-poetry-qr-3.jpeg) #### Seven uni-verses (booklet) By [****Jatan Mehta**](https://jatan.space/about). Poetry on all that space evokes. [About & Read →](https://jatan.space/seven-uni-verses-poetry/) ### Moon Monday #107: NASA’s Orion spacecraft splashes on Earth while ispace Japan launches for the Moon URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-107/ Last updated: 2026-04-06T15:49:49.000Z ## Orion comes back home with dreams of a crewed Moon landing Like the skip of a stone on water, NASA’s crew-capable Artemis I [Orion capsule](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) incoming [from the Moon](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-i) performed an autonomously guided [bounced reentry](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/orion-spacecraft-to-test-new-entry-technique-on-artemis-i-mission) into Earth’s atmosphere on December 11, subsequently [descending](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2022/12/Orion%5Fsplashdown) with aid from its [mighty parachutes](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/orion%5Fparachutes.pdf) and [splashing down](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/splashdown-nasa-s-orion-returns-to-earth-after-historic-moon-mission) at the intended fairly gentle speed of \~30 kilometers per hour in the Pacific ocean west of Baja California at 5:40 PM UTC. The bounced atmospheric reentry enables Orion to more precisely touchdown in the ocean compared to Apollo while also letting future astronauts experience lower g-forces by spreading one high acceleration event into two relatively lower ones. And indeed, the splashdown was [within 3.9 kilometers](https://spacenews.com/orion-splashes-down-to-end-artemis-1) of the target—the mission requirement was to be within 10 kilometers. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ff2ec5ae7-e63e-41cb-93fd-986fdad7daf0_1920x1080-jpeg-1.jpg) The Artemis I Orion capsule [during](https://images.nasa.gov/details-KSC-20221211-PH-KLS01-0010) and [after](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/12/11/artemis-i-update-orion-secured-inside-uss-portland-ahead-of-return-to-shore) splashdown in the Pacific ocean. Credits: NASA During reentry, Orion slammed our atmosphere at 40,000 kilometers/hour, with its [heat shield](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/after-15-years-1000-tests-orion-s-heat-shield-ready-to-take-the-heat) enduring temperatures of about 2700° Celsius, roughly half the Sun’s surface heat and at least two times hotter than spacecraft reentering from low Earth orbit. The heat shield working as designed is a big relief because there was [no other way to test it](https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/12/nasas-orion-spacecraft-is-about-to-face-its-final-test-and-its-a-big-one) at a relevant scale. Orion will now be returned to NASA’s Kennedy Space Center to first unload its many [deep space radiation payloads](https://jatan.space/science-on-artemis-i/), and then to analyze its heat shield to know exactly how well it performed. The [European Service Module](https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/space/esm) (ESM)—which [proved to be a reliable powerhouse](https://blogs.esa.int/orion/2022/12/01/artemis-i-flight-day-15-go-for-leaving-moon-orbit) for Orion and propelled it [to lunar orbit](https://blogs.esa.int/orion/2022/11/26/artemis-i-enters-moon-orbit) and [back](https://blogs.esa.int/orion/2022/12/06/artemis-lunar-flyby-orion-is-coming-home)—separated from the capsule several minutes before Orion entered Earth’s atmosphere, and itself safely burned up on a separate, non-interfering trajectory as intended. While Orion plus ESM were on its way to Earth last week, NASA went on to complete more [secondary mission objectives](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/additional-artemis-i-test-objectives-to-provide-added-confidence-in-capabilities-0), including [re-testing propellent sloshing](https://blogs.esa.int/orion/2022/12/08/artemis-i-flight-day-22-homeward-bound-slosh) in the tanks to pin down how it affects the capsule’s trajectory and orientation, and [characterizing](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/12/10/artemis-i-flight-day-25-orion-in-home-stretch-of-journey) how plumes from Orion’s reaction control system thrusters affect the solar panels. (Related nice read from ESA: [How to fly Orion, safely](https://blogs.esa.int/orion/category/how-to-fly-orion)) Now that Orion has returned safely to Earth, it feels so amazing to talk about Artemis I as *the past*. The thankfully nominal [$4.1 billion](https://oig.nasa.gov/docs/IG-22-003.pdf) mission has infused monumental hope of returning humans to the Moon mid-decade with [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon). It also inspired me to [write a poem](https://jatan.space/an-ode-to-our-moon/). ## ispace Japan launches privately built Moon lander On December 11, ispace Japan [launched](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4128) its [first ever Moon mission](https://jatan.space/ispace-japan-m1-moon-mission/) on a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket. It carries several commercial payloads, including the UAE’s Rashid rover. If the Hakuto-R spacecraft successfully lands on the Moon in April 2023, ispace will become the first private entity and only the fourth organization in the world to achieve the feat. My article below covers *nearly everything* on the mission and its payloads as well as the company’s future ambitions, with tons of links as usual: [ispace’s M1 mission & more ambitions 🌗](https://jatan.space/ispace-japan-m1-moon-mission/) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2facc502d4-c109-461a-bc46-8a730d64fc92_1502x1030-jpeg.jpg) ****Left:** [Launch](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4128) of ispace’s M1 lunar lander on a Falcon 9 rocket; ****Top right:** The [M1 lander](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4020) inside Falcon 9’s fairing pre-launch; ****Bottom right:** M1 [after being deployed](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lLmnMO2LHx0&t=5742s) on a lunar-ward trajectory by the Falcon 9’s second stage. Credits: SpaceX --- *Many thanks to* [*Epsilon3*](https://www.epsilon3.io)*,* [*Open Lunar Foundation*](https://www.openlunar.org) *and* [*The Orbital Index*](https://orbitalindex.com) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## More human lunar-flight progress - With Artemis I now successful, NASA is [targeting](https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2022/12/ml-rollback-mod-timelines) sending 4 astronauts on a journey around the Moon onboard Orion for the [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to) mission in late 2024\. Jeff Foust reports that the mission crew will be [selected in early 2023](https://spacenews.com/orion-splashes-down-to-end-artemis-1). The crew will include one Canadian astronaut, in return for Canada providing the NASA-led [Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) lunar orbital habitat’s highly autonomous [Canadarm3](https://asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/canadarm3/about.asp) robotic servicing system. Eric Berger reports that Artemis II [will not launch until 2025](https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/12/artemis-i-has-finally-launched-what-comes-next) though “because of eight relatively small flight computers.” - Japanese billionaire Yusaku Maezawa [revealed](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9-XXSdcsBLU) his 8 primary and 2 backup crew members for his purchased crewed [SpaceX Starship](https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/starship) flight around the Moon. One of the members is [Tim Dodd](https://everydayastronaut.com/about-us), the Everyday Astronaut! Jeff Foust has [more details and commentary](https://spacenews.com/japanese-billionaire-selects-crew-for-circumlunar-starship-flight) on the selection. There’s a chance that SpaceX could fly humans around the Moon before NASA launches crew on [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to). This isn’t a competition but the optics of it to that end can’t be ignored. - NASA has finalized a [$3.2 billion contract](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-commits-to-future-artemis-moon-rocket-production) with Boeing for it to continue manufacturing the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html)’s core and upper stages for the agency’s [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) and [IV](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-spacex-second-contract-option-for-artemis-moon-landing-0) Moon missions as well as to procure critical long-lead materials, components and tooling for producing the same for Artemis V and VI. In the meanwhile, NASA is [optimizing SLS’ assembly](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/nasa-advances-artemis-moon-rocket-production-for-future-missions.html) by moving some of it from Michoud to the Kennedy Space Center in Florida, beginning with Artemis III. - Blue Origin- and Dynetics-led teams [have submitted](https://payloadspace.com/sld-bidders) their [“sustainable” lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-95/) proposals to NASA to bid [against SpaceX’s Lunar Starship](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-provides-update-to-astronaut-moon-lander-plans-under-artemis) on all future crewed Artemis landings after Artemis V. NASA will announce the winning proposal in June 2023 after thorough evaluation. When previously competing for [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon), Blue Origin teamed up with Lockheed Martin, Northrop Grumman, and Draper. This time Blue has onboarded Boeing, Astrobotic, and Honeybee Robotics as well whereas Northrop Grumman switched sides to work with Dynetics. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9ea3c25d-c6c0-4121-a8b3-2e064478c7c8_1874x1000-jpeg.jpg) A brief summary of NASA’s baseline high-level requirements for a “sustainable” lander performing a crewed lunar excursion mission. [Credit: NASA](https://sam.gov/api/prod/opps/v3/opportunities/resources/files/49365fa938584255853066b4f86cd8e6/download?&token=) ## More Moon - Astrobotic’s [first Moon lander](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-awarded-79-5-million-contract-to-deliver-14-nasa-payloads-to-the-moon), targeting launch in Q1 2023 as part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), is undergoing a string of [space environmental tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/) to ensure its nominal functioning during all parts of the mission. Last week it successfully [completed launch vibration and acoustic testing](https://www.astrobotic.com/peregrine-aces-vibration-acoustics-testing-for-upcoming-lunar-journey). - I was planning on writing a concise overview of China’s future lunar missions in this very edition but The Orbital Index [beat me to it](https://orbitalindex.com/archive/2022-12-07-Issue-197). So here are just some additional tidbits instead based on the latest available updates. - Chang’e 6 [will carry](https://news.cgtn.com/news/2022-11-25/China-offers-int-l-cooperation-opportunity-via-Chang-e-lunar-missions-1ff6P0b2L7O/index.html) three European scientific instruments on the lander. Due to engineering constraints, the landing is expected to be at a similar latitude to Chang’e 4’s [Von Kármán crater](https://jatan.space/change-4-landing-site-farside-von-karman-crater/) landing site. The Chang’e 6 orbiter will carry a Pakistani CubeSat called “ICUBE-Q”, which would be the country’s first Moon mission. - Last week China’s space agency revealed [more Chang’e 7 mission details](https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/EGGNRR4jfK5J8978aH8ing), including candidate south polar landing sites, and has put out a proposal call for international scientific payloads to be onboard. Chang’e 7 will [also carry](https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/CkjacBB3c4L%5FUbwNbeFPvA) UAE’s Rashid 2 lunar rover. - Russia and China are expected to [soon sign the formal agreement](https://tass.com/science/1545809) for collaborating on the [International Lunar Research Station](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-32/), a long-term scientific base at the Moon’s south pole. The South China Morning Post [reports](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3200569/china-developing-new-nuclear-system-power-moon-base-expected-be-and-running-2028) that China is working on a new nuclear power system for the station’s long-term, high power needs. Relatedly, a megawatt-level reactor designed by the Chinese Academy of Sciences [passed a key review](https://spacenews.com/chinese-megawatt-level-space-nuclear-reactor-passes-review/) in August. - Findings from [this year’s annual meeting](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/leag2022) of the Lunar Exploration Analysis Group (LEAG) are [now available](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag/reports/LEAG2022AnnualMeetingFindings%5FFINAL.pdf). LEAG supports NASA by providing scientific, technical, commercial, and operational analysis of the agency’s lunar exploration objectives. - The Moon Village Association and Japanese space agency are hosting a webinar on December 14 on “[Moon surface mobility in the decades to come](https://moonvillageassociation.org/event/webinar-moon-surface-mobility-in-the-decades-to-come)”. Relatedly, Japan is developing a [crewed pressurized rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-79/) for future Artemis missions. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fd0e6c477-0182-4068-b386-a1b0142054e6_2300x1300-jpeg.jpg) This kind of crushable aluminum-honeycomb (left) is what gets compressed (right) within legs of Moon landers during touchdown to absorb impact forces. Think of that when you see [an armada of spacecraft landing on our Moon](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) this decade! ### ispace Japan’s lander launches for the Moon, carrying UAE’s rover and hopes for its future lunar ambitions URL: https://jatan.space/ispace-japan-m1-moon-mission/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:17.000Z *Edit on May 29, 2023: The lander [failed to touchdown](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-129/).* :( --- Today, December 11, private Japanese company ispace inc. [launched](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4128) its [first ever Moon mission](https://ispace-inc.com/m1) *M1* on a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket. ispace’s robotic “Hakuto-R” spacecraft is now on a low-energy, fuel-efficient trajectory to the Moon, after four months of which it will propel itself into lunar orbit. Subsequently, after system checkouts, the mission team will remotely command the start of an autonomous landing attempt end of April 2023 to the meticulously chosen landing site within Atlas crater, at [47.5°N, 44.4°E](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=40.2145798%2C44.1202909%2C48.4074855%2C48.7594362&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=44.40014864%2C47.49964213&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFaaKBJ-Im64NOZFkRdi5KjwpA&proj=16). (The Falcon 9 launching ispace’s lander [also lofted and deployed](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/jpl/nasa-s-lunar-flashlight-has-launched-follow-the-mission-in-real-time) NASA’s polar [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/)\-mapping [Lunar Flashlight](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/cubesat/missions/lunar%5Fflashlight.php) CubeSat on a Moon-ward trajectory.) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2facc502d4-c109-461a-bc46-8a730d64fc92_1502x1030-jpeg-1.jpg) **Left:** [Launch](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4128) of ispace’s M1 Moon lander on a Falcon 9 rocket; **Top right:** The [M1 lander](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4020) inside Falcon 9’s fairing pre-launch; **Bottom right:** M1 [after being deployed](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lLmnMO2LHx0&t=5742s) on a lunar-ward trajectory by the Falcon 9’s second stage. Credits: SpaceX ispace’s M1 mission is carrying the following key payloads to the Moon. 1. The UAE’s [Rashid rover](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirates%5FLunar%5FMission), which sports three [high-resolution cameras](https://presse.cnes.fr/en/rashid-rover-heading-moon-carrying-three-caspex-cameras-developed-cnes) from the French space agency and an ESA-backed plasma sampler. 2. A [solid-state battery technology demonstration](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=2585) by NGK SPARK PLUG to test a safer, more compact power storage option for future, longer duration Moon missions. 3. A 250-gram [tennis-ball-sized rover](https://global.jaxa.jp/press/2021/05/20210527-1%5Fe.html) led by the Japanese space agency, which after being deployed by the lander on the Moon’s surface will split in half to use its two hemispheres as wheels. 4. Three [imaging & navigation related payloads and services](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=2587) funded by the Canadian space agency under the country’s [LEAP initiative](https://asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/funding-programs/programs/leap/default.asp). One of these involves Canadensys, which has a set of cameras on the lander to capture 360° views of the mission’s descent and landing as well as post-landing views of the lunar surface and payload deployments. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fa6152e4e-351b-4a7d-ba94-8b84ab23500d_2560x1440-jpeg.jpg) Milestone of ispace’s M1 Moon landing mission as identified and set by the company. [Credit: ispace](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4128) If ispace successfully lands the Hakuto-R spacecraft on the Moon, it will be the first private entity as well as the fourth organization in the world to achieve the feat. Israel-based SpaceIL’s [Beresheet](https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/beresheet/in-depth) lunar lander unfortunately crashed during its attempt to achieve the same goal in 2019\. In any case, it’s impressive already that ispace managed to [raise money for the mission](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=2533) and bag truly varied international commercial customers, three of which directly involve national space agencies. While western coverage on commercial lunar landers has largely only highlighted NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) and its vendors, ispace—which is also helping partner CLPS vendor Draper [with a lunar farside mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-87/)—seems to have been underrated all this while. [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ff144f07d-1738-4082-bfc0-d98b8330bd1a_1565x1000-jpeg.jpg)](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=40.2145798%2C44.1202909%2C48.4074855%2C48.7594362&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=44.40014864%2C47.49964213&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFaaKBJ-Im64NOZFkRdi5KjwpA&proj=16) Landing site of ispace Japan’s first Moon mission within the Atlas crater, marked in the image. Click the image to explore the location on an interactive map. [Credit: LROC Quickmap](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=40.2145798%2C44.1202909%2C48.4074855%2C48.7594362&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=44.40014864%2C47.49964213&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFaaKBJ-Im64NOZFkRdi5KjwpA&proj=16) ## The robotic Rashid rover Once ispace’s lander deploys the UAE’s 10-kilogram [Rashid rover](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirates%5FLunar%5FMission) on the Moon’s surface, the robotic micro-rover [will study](https://www.thenationalnews.com/uae/uae-in-space/2022/12/09/rashid-rover-everything-you-need-to-know-about-uaes-moon-mission) the local geology, dust and environment for 8–10 Earth days. ispace’s lander will act as the wireless communications link between the rover and Earth, which means the rover’s traverse paths have been primarily chosen such that they avoid losing line of sight to the lander. The Canadian company *Mission Control* has a $3-million [AI flight computer on the lander](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=2591) to enable the Rashid rover to recognize geological features as it drives around. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fec92853a-1e95-4382-8570-086622a9c42e_1763x1450-jpeg.jpg) The UAE’s Rashid rover as pictured pre-launch, shown here with its mast not deployed. [Credit: Airbus / MBRSC](https://www.linkedin.com/posts/airbus-defence-and-space%5Fairbus-space-spaceindustry-activity-7007638642399531008-r7Uc) The rover sports [three high-resolution “CASPEX” cameras](https://presse.cnes.fr/en/rashid-rover-heading-moon-carrying-three-caspex-cameras-developed-cnes) provided by the French space agency. It’s a smartphone-like camera adapted for space, and flown [on NASA’s Perseverance](https://mars.nasa.gov/mars2020/spacecraft/instruments/supercam) Mars rover as well as on OneWeb satellites. A CASPEX pair on the rover’s mast will provide panoramic views of the Moon and aid navigation while the third camera will be rear-mounted to analyze drive tracks and infer wheel sinkage, and from it the mechanical properties of the local lunar soil. The rover is also carrying a Norwegian, ESA-backed instrument to [sample the local plasma environment](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FEngineering%5FTechnology/ESA%5Fplasma%5Fsampler%5Fheaded%5Fto%5Fthe%5FMoon%5Fand%5FISS) created from interactions of the lunar soil with sunlight and [the solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/). ## Beyond instruments and payloads ispace’s M1 mission is also notable for some of its partnerships that go beyond the traditional norm of carrying of instruments and payloads to space. The involvement of Canadian company NGC Aerospace in the mission serves as a good example. NGC has a deal with ispace to use one of the lander’s cameras to test their planetary navigation software, which would identify craters and other features during descent on the Moon to help the lander autonomously determine its position and navigate accordingly. As part of the deal, ispace will transfer several sets of mission telemetry and images to NGC, setting in motion ispace’s [lunar data business](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=2599) ambitions. Moreover, ispace’s lander will [collect lunar soil samples](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=3829) from its footpad and [transfer its ownership](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-companies-to-collect-lunar-resources-for-artemis-demonstrations) to NASA, a move by the U.S. space agency intended to set precedence for future resource use under the U.S.-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html). ispace Japan and its subsidiary [ispace Europe](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-76/) were two of [the four companies](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-companies-to-collect-lunar-resources-for-artemis-demonstrations) selected by NASA in 2020 to that effect, with each to be awarded a total of $5000 for their tokenistic yet historic demonstrations. ispace Europe’s said demonstration will be performed by its micro-rover flying on ispace Japan’s second Moon mission *M2*. ## Future Moon missions by ispace ispace’s M2 mission will launch in 2024, featuring the same lander design as M1 but iteratively improved based on lessons from the M1 mission. A mission highlight will be the indigenously built [agile micro-rover](https://web.archive.org/web/20220928204752/https://ispace-inc.com/team-hakuto/en/technology/index.html) for exploring the Moon’s surface, which will also perform the aforementioned demonstration to [collect lunar soil](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=3696) and transfer its ownership to NASA. [ispace Europe](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-76/) is [developing the rover](https://ispace-inc.com/news/?p=2259), aided by funding from the Luxembourg Space Agency under an ESA contract. Israeli company Helios intends to have its [(claimed) scalable technology](https://www.timesofisrael.com/making-oxygen-from-moon-sand-startup-eyes-long-term-life-in-space/) of extracting oxygen from lunar soil [to be onboard](https://www.calcalistech.com/ctech/articles/0,7340,L-3912810,00.html) the M2 mission. Interestingly, ispace has been claiming [since July 2022](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=2499) that all of the M2 mission’s payload slots have been booked. But the company hasn’t yet revealed who those customers are. The most intriguing Moon mission involving the company started development after ispace raised [$46 million](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=2533) in August 2021, bringing their then cumulative funding to almost $200 million. The funding allowed ispace’s U.S. subsidiary to start work on a [larger, more capable](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=2531) lunar lander called *Series 2* in partnership with General Atomics and Draper. The latter company has [provided](https://spacenews.com/falcon-9-launches-ispace-lander-and-nasa-cubesat-to-the-moon) ispace with guidance, navigation and control software for M1 and M2. As it turns out, Draper pitched a lander based on the Series 2 design in a NASA-solicited [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) bid for commercially delivering the agency-funded science and technology payloads to the Moon and won a [$73 million](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-draper-to-fly-research-to-far-side-of-moon) contract. As such, [Draper’s first Moon mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-87/) is now targeting landing on the Moon’s farside in 2025, a feat achieved only by China’s [Chang’e 4](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/change-4) mission thus far. The Draper lander will carry 95 kilograms of NASA-funded scientific instruments. The landing region chosen by NASA for the mission is no less impressive—the 312 kilometers wide [Schrödinger crater](https://jatan.space/the-crowned-crater-of-schrodinger/), a pristine destination [long asked for](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-52/) by the global scientific community. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f4e7fea3d-6ed3-4156-9b4e-f99505ee3af3_1024x768-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of ispace’s Series 2 lander on the Moon. It’s capable of delivering up to 500 kilograms of instruments on the Moon’s surface, or up to 2,000 kilograms to lunar orbit. [Credit: ispace](https://ispace-inc.com/news/?p=2042) Later this decade, ispace’s Series 2 landers will also [deploy](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=2515) Spanish-German startup Plus Ultra’s commercial [communications and navigation satellites](https://spacenews.com/plus-ultras-lunar-comsats-to-hitch-rides-on-ispace-moon-landers) in lunar orbit. Such a continuous, high-speed communications relay service for hardware on and around the Moon is inspired in part by ESA’s ongoing [Moonlight plans](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-98/). ispace itself hopes to use Plus Ultra’s services as a communications relay for their farside lunar hardware. ## A novel commercial model for planetary missions Landing on the Moon is hard. Only three countries have accomplished this feat so far—the U.S., the Soviet Union and China. The fact that several space agencies globally, and NASA in particular via their [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), are entrusting commercial companies to carry their instruments and payloads to the Moon in order to meet crucial science and technology objectives shows the growing confidence in building a commercial ecosystem around [lunar exploration](https://jatan.space/our-moon/). All of ispace’s Moon landing attempts and NASA’s CLPS program [invert the tradition](https://www.planetary.org/space-advocate/january-2022-space-advocate) of having only custom-built planetary missions to meet specific scientific and technological goals. If enough of these missions stick the landing, it would open up frequent, periodic and more globally accessible low-cost flights to the Moon in ways never possible before for any planetary body. A notable development on the risk end of this spectrum is that ispace secured the world’s first [Lunar Insurance policy](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=3952) via Mitsui Sumitomo for the M1 mission. It covers several possible failures from launch through landing and even surface operations. While the insurance doesn’t cover the payloads onboard, including the Rashid rover, it’s still a great step as private companies and space agencies globally increasingly mount [landing](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) and [roving missions](https://jatan.space/lunar-rovers-launching-in-2020s/) to the Moon this decade, not without [substantial risk](https://jatan.space/past-lunar-mission-mistakes-to-avoid/). --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### Moon Monday #106: Orion is on its way back to Earth while other craft prep their Moonshot URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-106/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:17.000Z ## Orion blazes past the Moon to head back home ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f7e8389cc-8dcd-4fe9-aec3-637efddad475_1697x973-jpeg.jpg) Artemis I mission, flight day 20: The Earth-ward Orion spacecraft, the Moon, space, crescent Earth, and us. [Credit: NASA](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ppxaKK9papQ) Today, December 5, the uncrewed [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) part of NASA’s [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-i) Moon mission precisely propelled itself [on a trajectory to Earth](https://blogs.esa.int/orion/2022/11/26/artemis-i-flight-day-ten-distant-retrograde-orbit), a minute after flying 127 kilometers above the Moon at its closest. Orion’s powerhouse [European Service Module](https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/space/esm) has been performing exceptionally well, delivering [15% more power](https://blogs.esa.int/orion/2022/12/01/artemis-i-flight-day-15-go-for-leaving-moon-orbit) than expected while consuming lesser fuel as well as lesser power for needs such as heating or cooling parts of the spacecraft. The bottomline is that when future [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) astronauts head to and fro our Moon on Orion, Artemis I proves there should be a good amount of margin and redundancy in the system to safely handle non-nominal scenarios. NASA completed some more [secondary Orion objectives](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/additional-artemis-i-test-objectives-to-provide-added-confidence-in-capabilities-0) last week, including [testing Orion’s thermal endurance](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/11/29/artemis-i-flight-day-14-deep-space-testing-continues) to prolonged non-optimal Sun pointing, performing [longer than planned thruster burns](https://blogs.esa.int/orion/2022/12/01/artemis-i-flight-day-15-go-for-leaving-moon-orbit) to test the capsule’s operational constraints and structural stability, and testing a [specific thruster configuration](https://blogs.esa.int/orion/2022/12/04/artemis-i-flight-day-18-back-to-moon-influence) to be used during the crewed [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to) flight. Also, NASA and ESA finally did provide an update on the numerous [deep space radiation experiments](https://jatan.space/science-on-artemis-i/) onboard Orion, if [only to say](https://blogs.esa.int/orion/2022/12/03/artemis-i-flight-day-17-downloading-data) that all the hardware are collecting data as expected, most of which will be received for review after Orion splashes on Earth. For those keenly following Artemis I, ESA’s [Orion Blog](https://blogs.esa.int/orion) consistently has more details, links, pictures and diagrams than NASA’s [official Artemis Blog](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis)! Here’s an [example](https://blogs.esa.int/orion/2022/12/01/artemis-i-flight-day-15-go-for-leaving-moon-orbit). *And numbers have metric units.* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f18dc3922-239a-45f7-a033-36c7f533f5f5_2000x1450-jpeg.jpg) Artemis I mission, flight day 13: The lunar-ward Orion spacecraft, space, the Moon, Earth, and us. [Credit: NASA](https://images.nasa.gov/details-art001e000678) ## UAE’s Rashid rover must wait some more for its Moonshot ispace Japan’s [first Moon landing mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-99/) and NASA’s [Lunar Flashlight](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/cubesat/missions/lunar%5Fflashlight.php) CubeSat orbiter now await a new launch date as SpaceX [troubleshoots](https://spaceflightnow.com/2022/11/30/spacex-rocket-trouble-postpones-japanese-moon-lander-launch) an unrevealed issue with the Falcon 9 rocket, which was originally supposed to launch these spacecraft late last month. If the Falcon 9 takes off by mid-December, ispace’s lander will [continue to target](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4075) its originally planned landing in April 2023 otherwise there will be necessary operational changes such as targeting an alternate landing site. The delay also means that UAE’s 10-kilogram [Rashid rover](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirates%5FLunar%5FMission) might have to wait longer to study the Moon’s surface for its planned 8–10 Earth days. The robotic micro-rover sports [three high-resolution “CASPEX” cameras](https://presse.cnes.fr/en/rashid-rover-heading-moon-carrying-three-caspex-cameras-developed-cnes) provided by the French space agency. It’s a smartphone-like camera adapted for space, and flown [on NASA’s Perseverance](https://mars.nasa.gov/mars2020/spacecraft/instruments/supercam) Mars rover and OneWeb satellites. A CASPEX pair on the rover’s mast will provide panoramic views and aid navigation while the third camera will be rear-mounted to analyze drive tracks and infer wheel sinkage as well as mechanical properties of the lunar soil from it. UAE’s second lunar rover, to fly [onboard China’s Chang’e 7 lander](https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/CkjacBB3c4L%5FUbwNbeFPvA), will [also have CASPEX cameras](https://presse.cnes.fr/en/rashid-rover-heading-moon-carrying-three-caspex-cameras-developed-cnes). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f42bdba60-cf51-446c-8481-f7176d0695e9_800x450-jpeg.jpg) UAE engineers and the Rashid rover pictured inside the clean room on June 15, 2022\. [Credit: MBRSC](https://www.thenationalnews.com/uae/uae-in-space/2022/10/08/rashid-rover-everything-you-need-to-know-about-uaes-moon-mission) --- *Many thanks to [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io) for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* *Thanks also to [Nitin Pai](https://www.nitinpai.in) of [Takshashila](https://takshashila.org.in)* *for supporting my independent writing.* --- ## Upcoming mission updates - France [will provide](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/us-vice-president-french-president-visit-nasa-headquarters) one of the two distinct [lunar-night-surviving seismometers](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2022/pdf/1576.pdf) on [Draper’s first lunar lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-87/), which is targeting touchdown on the Moon’s farside in 2025 as part of NASA’s [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) program. Based on the [excellent seismometer](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/jpl/nasa-s-insight-records-monster-quake-on-mars) on NASA’s [InSight](https://mars.nasa.gov/insight/mission/overview) Mars mission, the France-provided instrument on Draper’s lander will be one of the most sensitive seismometers sent to space. Over at least four months of operations, the two seismometers will help us better understand [the Moon’s internal structure and how it evolved](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/), and know the amount and rate of [micrometeorite impacts](https://jatan.space/the-tiniest-of-impact-craters/) on the farside to help us plan future crewed missions. - Andrew Jones reports that China’s Chang’e 6 sample return and Chang’e 7 south polar robotic missions [are now targeting a 2026 launch](https://spacenews.com/china-outlines-pathway-for-lunar-and-deep-space-exploration) instead of 2025. - NASA has awarded a [$57 million contract](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-icon-advance-lunar-construction-technology-for-moon-missions) to ICON for [continuing to develop](https://www.nasa.gov/centers/marshall/news/releases/2020/nasa-looks-to-advance-3d-printing-construction-systems-for-the-moon.html) construction technologies to [build surface infrastructure](https://www.iconbuild.com/projects/project-olympus) on the Moon using lunar regolith, with a test structure build targeted as early as 2026\. Rachael Zisk [has more details](https://payloadspace.com/icon-wins-nasa-contract-for-lunar-3d-printing). - Sisoo Park reports that South Korea [will form a dedicated space agency](https://spacenews.com/134853-2) next year called the Korea Aerospace Administration (KASA), which will be distinct from the already existing Korea Aerospace Research Institute (KARI) leading the country’s first lunar orbiter [KPLO](https://jatan.space/kplo/). South Korea’s [fully indigenous Moon landing mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-93/) is now targeting a 2032 launch instead of 2031. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ffc961476-a814-46ab-b85d-41426a333e91_1545x1000-jpeg-1.jpg) Illustration of ICON’s lunar construction technology in action on the Moon. [Credits: ICON / BIG-Bjarke Ingels Group](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-icon-advance-lunar-construction-technology-for-moon-missions) ## More Moon - NASA [is building three new ground stations on Earth](https://esc.gsfc.nasa.gov/news/Expanding%5FDirect-To-Earth%5FCommunications%5FCapabilities%5Ffor%5FArtemis) to ensure continuous, high bandwidth communications for the growing number of [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/) crewed lunar missions starting with the [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) landing, and also to reduce load on the [Deep Space Network](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/heo/scan/services/networks/deep%5Fspace%5Fnetwork/about). These Lunar Exploration Ground Sites (LEGS) will each provide high-data-rate radio communications for Artemis human landings, multiple lunar missions as well as the crewed NASA-led [Gateway lunar orbital station](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway). One of these has [begun being built](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/NASA-SANSA-Renew-Lunar-Exploration-Partnership) in South Africa with support from their national space agency. - In honor of the 50th launch anniversary of [Apollo 17](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo%5F17) this December 7, NASA has released a freely reusable, educational [public presentation](https://moon.nasa.gov/resources/516/apollo-17-presentation), which has an excellent visual summary of the mission and plenty of resources linked in the slide notes. - NASA is hosting a [technically intense](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/clps2022/pdf/clps2022%5Fprogram.htm) workshop titled “[CLPS Survive the Night Technology](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/clps2022)” through December 6–8, wherein government entities and the U.S. industry will share and brainstorm technology development efforts for landers, rovers, and payloads to survive and operate through the frigid lunar nights. Doing so would not only enable sustainable exploration of our Moon but open up exploration of thermally challenging environments across the Solar System. - The [amazing views of our Moon](https://www.flickr.com/photos/nasa2explore/albums/72177720303788800) from NASA’s Artemis I Orion spacecraft inspired me to enhance my special page of curated Moon views called **[Luna Sights](https://blog.jatan.space/lunasights)**. I hope its ample resources keep you happily browsing for weeks, marveling at our lovely cosmic neighbor. [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f6a114358-654a-449e-b904-adca06d3fb5c_2190x1500-jpeg-1.jpg)](https://blog.jatan.space/lunasights) **[Browse an inspiring world of craters, mountains, lava channels, and much more!](https://blog.jatan.space/lunasights)** ## More space blogs I recommend In last week’s Moon Monday, I [recommended some other independent space writers](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-105/) whose work is important and inspiring. Considering these got more than 100 link clicks, it seems like a good idea to continue sharing more such voices I like at large: - **[Space coverage](https://payloadspace.com/author/rachael-zisk)** by Rachael Zisk. If you like your space crisp and fun while not losing valuable information, very few pull that off as good as Zisk does. - **[Space essays](https://briankoberlein.com/blog)** by Brian Koberlein, who crafts palpably intriguing stories to distill some notable latest results in Astrophysics research. - **[The Space Investor](https://thespaceinvestor.com)** by Nick, a curated weekly newsletter focused on investing in space. I like how every edition has crisp updates and serves the facts straight. - **[Europe in Space](https://europeanspaceflight.substack.com/archive)** by Andrew Parsonson, who not only deeply analyzes the European space technology industry but is punny with his headings. --- There’s nothing quite as bold and beautiful as committing to exploring the brutal colossal desolation that is space. We humans really are special that way. I hope we can always preserve that. **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### Luna Sights – Browse an inspiring world of craters, mountains, lava channels and more! URL: https://jatan.space/lunasights/ Last updated: 2026-04-29T11:21:24.000Z *The* [*amazing views of our Moon*](https://www.flickr.com/photos/nasa2explore/albums/72177720303788800) *from the* [*Orion spacecraft*](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) *part of NASA’s* [*Artemis I*](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-i) *mission inspired me to enhance this special page of curated Moon views with more resources.* ## Moon gallery Partly inspired by NASA’s [Astronomy Picture of the Day (APOD)](https://apod.nasa.gov/apod/astropix.html), *Luna Sights* is my project to showcase interesting places on [our Moon](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/). It’s a curated gallery series touring pretty sights on our cosmic neighbor, as imaged by various lunar orbiters and other spacecraft over decades. Each image within the galleries below links to a brief post, usually self-written, which explains the geological importance of said lunar feature and why there’s value in exploring it. **Note:* You can click on the images to view each gallery.* *(Since this is visual browsing page, image credits are provided in the links.)* [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f929b93af-0376-4e85-b08a-fdbabae502fa_949x700-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-lunar-craters/) [****Gallery: Our Moon’s captivating craters**](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-lunar-craters/) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/moon-mountains.jpg)](https://jatan.space/exploring-moon-mountains/) [****How Moon mountains form instantly**](https://jatan.space/exploring-moon-mountains/) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fbe5620e8-7b18-4e2d-b406-8668a51ec5ff_1641x985-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-moon-mountains/) [****Gallery: Our Moon's marvelous mountains**](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-moon-mountains/) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9a2aed45-3ee6-4aea-972a-2d7c0152fb9f_2995x1426-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-lunar-lava-channels/) [****Gallery: Our Moon's lovely lava channels**](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-lunar-lava-channels/) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f13a494c5-8458-45d2-b571-ce045dd05561_2000x1600-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-weird-lunar-features/) [****Gallery: Just some weird yet wonderful features on our Moon**](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-weird-lunar-features/) ## Watch and browse the Moon in 3D! [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f40277168-3330-4834-a3bb-2d3b9fdd376c_600x600.png)](https://jatan.space/the-moon-in-3d/) [****Watch the Moon in 3D**](https://jatan.space/the-moon-in-3d/) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/lroc-quickmap-logo-1-1.png)](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/) ****Explore our Moon like Google maps with** [****LROC QuickMap**](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/) **| Browse the** [****fantastic LROC Blog**](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts) **full of high-resolution images** ## Explore Moon rocks! [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/apollo-16-rock-virtual-microscope.jpg)](https://www.virtualmicroscope.org/collections/apollo) [****Explore Apollo Moon rocks in a virtual microscope**](https://www.virtualmicroscope.org/collections/apollo) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/astromaterials-3d-logo-1-1.png)](https://ares.jsc.nasa.gov/astromaterials3d/apollo-lunar.htm) ****View Moon rocks in 3D and dissect them with the** [****Astromaterials Lunar Sample Collection**](https://ares.jsc.nasa.gov/astromaterials3d/apollo-lunar.htm) **| Browse the** [****Lunar Sample Compendium**](https://curator.jsc.nasa.gov/lunar/lsc) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/luna-16-basalt-sample-thin-section-2.jpg)](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/samples/#lunas) [****Browse Soviet Luna core samples**](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/samples/#lunas) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/change-5-moon-sample-1.jpg)](https://moon.bao.ac.cn/moonSampleMode/index.html) ****Browse China’s** [****Chang’e 5 and 6 lunar samples**](https://moon.bao.ac.cn/moonSampleMode/index.html) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2025/07/chang-e-6-basalt-sample-under-a-polarizing-microscope-2.jpg)](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-233/) [****Visualize a new Moon based on scientific discoveries by Chang’e 6**](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-233/) ## More visual tours [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f2ab9bc33-047e-47a0-954d-da61bde4233b_2000x1430-jpeg-1.jpg)](https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/Gallery/apollo.html#section3-id) [****Views from Apollo**](https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/Gallery/apollo.html#section3-id) **|** [****Apollo landing sites from orbit**](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/featured%5Fsites#ApolloLandingSites) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f895cd4e9-e1dc-42c7-a226-c5fbc74ad5f0_468x467-1.png)](https://apolloinrealtime.org/) ****Experience** [****Apollo in real time**](https://apolloinrealtime.org) **| Browse the** [****Lunar Sample Compendium**](https://curator.jsc.nasa.gov/lunar/lsc) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f1e90e239-0a5a-4a49-a70c-f7fb36e76152_3150x2100-jpeg-1.jpg)](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/resources/lunarorbiter) ****Pre-Apollo: Lunar photographs from** [****Lunar Orbiter**](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/resources/lunarorbiter)****,** [****Ranger**](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/resources/ranger) **and** [****Surveyor**](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/resources/mapcatalog/Surveyor/press%5Freleases) --- ## Like my creation and curation? *The curated Luna Sights and all* [*my Moon projects and articles*](https://jatan.space/moon-projects/) *are completely free to access by everyone and regularly updated. If you like my labor of lunar love, you can* [*sponsor my work*](https://jatan.space/support)*. It would mean the Moon to me.* [Support my Moon projects ♡](https://jatan.space/support) ### Moon Monday #105: An Orion around Luna, CubeSat quests, ESA’s lunar ambitions, future mission updates, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-105/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:18.000Z ## NASA’s crew-capable Orion spacecraft now orbiting the Moon In what seems to be a very successful [Artemis I mission](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-i), NASA’s uncrewed [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) entered its desired [Distant Retrograde Orbit](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/orion-will-go-the-distance-in-retrograde-orbit-during-artemis-i) (DRO) around our Moon as of [November 25](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/11/25/flight-day-10-orion-enters-distant-retrograde-orbit). Upon completing about half an orbit on December 1 at an unconventionally high altitude of roughly 64,000 kilometers, Orion will [propel itself](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/fired-up-engines-and-motors-put-artemis-mission-in-motion.html) to exit DRO and, on December 5, fly close to the Moon for a powered [outward slingshot](https://blogs.esa.int/orion/2022/11/26/artemis-i-flight-day-ten-distant-retrograde-orbit) towards Earth. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f29fc8ea4-515a-41f2-885c-9a4e5ffee2e8_2100x1200-jpeg.jpg) Artemis I mission trajectory for the Orion spacecraft. [Credit: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/orion-will-go-the-distance-in-retrograde-orbit-during-artemis-i) Despite the fact that future [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) astronauts flying to the Moon won’t be using this orbit, NASA chose DRO for Artemis I since it offers a highly stable, fuel-efficient trajectory to thoroughly test Orion’s systems, a critical element in the safety and success of all Artemis missions. To that end, NASA has been progressing through [Orion’s many secondary objectives](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/additional-artemis-i-test-objectives-to-provide-added-confidence-in-capabilities-0), including testing [propellent sloshing](https://blogs.esa.int/orion/2022/11/24/artemis-i-flight-day-eight-loss-of-lunar-influence-and-signal) in the tanks and how it’s affecting Orion’s trajectory and orientation, [better calibrating star trackers](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/11/27/flight-day-12-orion-star-trackers-tested) for more precise navigation, testing navigation with [an alternate thruster configuration](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/11/24/artemis-i-flight-day-nine-orion-one-day-away-from-distant-retrograde-insertion) for when the primary set somehow doesn’t work, and even working through [some non-critical issues](https://spacenews.com/orion-enters-lunar-distant-retrograde-orbit) faced in the flight so far. Relatedly, the [fiery launch](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/liftoff-nasa-s-artemis-i-mega-rocket-launches-orion-to-moon) of the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) for the mission [damaged](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/teams-assess-mobile-launcher-and-pad-after-successful-artemis-i-launch) parts of its mobile launch tower, including breaking the elevator and some pneumatic gas lines. It will take several months to complete all repairs. While some of the damage was greater than expected, NASA says most of these were accounted for in the planning and budget to launch the crewed [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to) mission in 2024. ## Statuses of secondary Artemis I payloads Updates on the [independent science & technology missions](https://jatan.space/science-on-artemis-i/) launched on Artemis I continue to be bittersweet. - Japan’s [EQUULEUS](https://www.space.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp/equuleus/en) CubeSat [successfully flew past the Moon](https://global.jaxa.jp/press/2022/11/20221126-1%5Fe.html) on November 22 and is on the right trajectory to reach the Earth-Moon Lagrangian Point L2—where the Earth’s and Moon’s gravitational pulls roughly balance—in 18 months. EQUULEUS will study phenomena and changes in Earth’s plasmasphere due to [the solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/), the radiation particles and magnetic fields streaming from the Sun. It will also measure meteor impact flashes and the dust environment around the Moon, providing additional insights to best protect our future astronauts. - Chris Gebhardt has [an article](https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2022/11/callisto-orion-demonstration) on how Lockheed Martin, Amazon, and Cisco have been working through Orion’s [Callisto](https://news.lockheedmartin.com/2022-01-05-Lockheed-Martin,-Amazon-and-Cisco-to-Bring-Voice-Technology-and-Video-Collaboration-to-the-Moon) system, which is a video-conferencing and voice assistant demonstration that could assist future Artemis astronauts. - [LunaH-Map](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/lunah-map-university-built-cubesat-to-map-water-ice-on-the-moon)’s propulsion system failed to put it in the desired lunar polar orbit. The team is now [heating the system](https://blogs.nasa.gov/lunah-map/2022/11/22/nasas-lunah-map-post-launch-update) to get it to work properly. Considering that the CubeSat is supposed to map hydrogen—as an indicator of [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/)—in [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/), in the variably lit south polar surface, and a meter below both in the highest resolution to date by flying just 12 kilometers above the lunar south pole, I really hope the mission stays on. - Japan’s [OMOTENASHI](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/home/omotenashi/service.html) CubeSat continued to not be in communications with Earth, and the mission team thus [couldn’t send it the necessary commands](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/home/omotenashi/JHRCweb/jhrc.html) to execute a semi-soft lunar landing. The team is hoping that the CubeSat will get enough sunlight to power up in March 2023, which might provide an opportunity to establish contact. If that does happen, the team won’t attempt a lunar landing with the CubeSat anymore but instead try to carry out the mission’s secondary objectives, which includes measuring deep space radiation with its miniature active dosimeter to better inform us on how to protect future lunar astronauts. --- *Many thanks to [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io) for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* *Thanks also to [Kris Zacny](https://www.linkedin.com/in/kris-zacny-8a71ba1) of [Honeybee Robotics](https://www.honeybeerobotics.com) and [Michael Palank](https://macventurecapital.com/team/michael-palank) for supporting my independent writing.* *A thank you to Louis Burtz as well, who wishes me to link to [GiveWell](https://www.givewell.org) instead. :)* --- ## ESA Moonlights its lunar ambitions ESA’s Ministerial Council, a meeting of government ministers from each of the agency’s 22 Member States, has [approved $17.5 billion](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/esa-gets-big-increase-commits-to-iss-through-2030-and-exomars-rover-in-2028) for the next 3 years, a 17 percent funding increase compared to the 2019 budget, not counting inflation. Most notably, the council has approved ESA’s [Moonlight plans](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-98/) to build a constellation of lunar satellites that will provide communications and navigation services to hardware on and around the Moon. The ambitious and versatile [European Large Logistics Lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-94/), primarily designed to supplement crewed missions post-2030 with cargo flights, is also green-lit for development. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f67a92330-6f19-4aba-b535-ef8985c1c2d7_3000x1800-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of the cargo variant of the European Large Logistics Lander descending on the Moon. [Credit: ESA](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2019/11/European%5FLarge%5FLogistics%5Flander%5Flanding) The Council also continued support for ESA’s involvement in NASA’s [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) campaign, which sees the agency provide the critical [service module](https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/space/esm) of NASA’s [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/orion/about/index.html) already and later this decade provide the NASA-led [Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) lunar orbital station’s [i-HAB](https://liquifer.com/gateway-i-hab) habitation module and the [ESPRIT](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/European%5FGateway%5Fmodule%5Fto%5Fbe%5Fbuilt%5Fin%5FFrance%5Fas%5FThomas%5FPesquet%5Freadies%5Ffor%5Fsecond%5Fspaceflight) communications & refueling module. These ongoing and upcoming contributions has allowed Europe to [bag at least three seats](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Positive%5Fsigns%5Ffor%5FEurope%5Fas%5FESA%5Fgoes%5Fforward%5Fto%5Fthe%5FMoon) for their astronauts on Gateway. ## The U.S. commits to using lunar resources, at scale On November 17, the U.S. [released](https://www.whitehouse.gov/ostp/news-updates/2022/11/17/fact-sheet-first-national-cislunar-science-technology-strategy) its first “National Cislunar Science and Technology Strategy” to address how it intends to support sustainable exploration and use of our Moon, including the space around it. [The document](https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/11-2022-NSTC-National-Cislunar-ST-Strategy.pdf) has a good summary of the major objectives so I’ll instead quote bits that stood out to me: > The U.S. government will support the development of orbital and Lunar surface technologies and other scalable capabilities that support an enduring human presence on planetary surfaces. > > \[…\] > > The United States government will support Lunar resource assessments, as well as the advancement of research, development, and demonstration of capabilities for using materials sourced from the Moon and other celestial bodies. Such capabilities include resource characterization and surveys, manufacturing of components from in-situ materials, autonomous assembly of structures, construction of structures that maximize the use of in-situ materials, and processing of useful molecules such as water and oxygen. > > \[…\] > > U.S. government organizations will leverage collaborations with private entities to enable capabilities for large-scale ISRU and advanced manufacturing at the Moon, consistent with the U.S. National Strategy for In-space Servicing, Assembly, and Manufacturing. > > \[…\] > > \[The U.S. government will\] support social science research related to crewed exploration and permanent inhabitation of deep space to support enduring human presence in space. ## More Moon - ispace Japan is now [targeting November 30](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=3994) for launching its [first Moon landing mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-99/) on a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket. The lander will be on a low-energy trajectory to the Moon, after [four months](https://spacenews.com/japanese-lunar-lander-slated-to-launch-nov-28-at-the-earliest) of which it will enter lunar orbit and subsequently target landing in April 2023\. The launch can be viewed on [ispace’s YouTube channel](https://www.youtube.com/@ispace9464). Here’s a [great picture of the lander](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=4020) inside Falcon 9’s fairing. - SpaceX’s [26th commercial cargo mission](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/moon-microscope-solar-arrays-launch-on-nasa-s-spacex-cargo-ship) for NASA, which launched to the International Space Station on November 26, carried a [Moon Microscope](https://www.nasa.gov/mission%5Fpages/station/research/experiments/explorer/Investigation.html?#id=8821). It’s an integrated kit for blood sample staining and its microscopic imaging to accelerate assessing of astronaut health and food & water quality by remote experts on Earth, as preparation for future Moon missions. - China’s space agency [revealed last week](https://news.cgtn.com/news/2022-11-25/China-offers-int-l-cooperation-opportunity-via-Chang-e-lunar-missions-1ff6P0b2L7O/index.html) that their robotic Chang’e 6 mission, aiming to return at least 2 kilograms of [lunar farside](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) samples in 2025, will carry three European scientific instruments on the lander. The Chang’e 6 orbiter will carry a Pakistani CubeSat called “ICUBE-Q”, which would be the country’s first Moon mission. ## Space blogs I recommend Now seems to be a great time for forging and enhancing direct connections between readers and creators, that is, without any social platforms or algorithms in between. I recommend following these indie, independent blogs and/or newsletters. - **[The Orbital Index](https://orbitalindex.com)**: I’ve been saying this before Andrew & Ben started sponsoring Moon Monday, and it stands: The Orbital Index is my favorite curated, technical space newsletter. In fact, it was my part inspiration for starting Moon Monday. - **[Pradeep's Space Newsletter](https://pradx.substack.com/archive)**, a sporadic newsletter providing a good, neutral-toned overview of India’s space technology progress. - **[Space and planetary science articles](http://alexandrawitze.com/)** by Alexandra Witze: She brings out a great diversity of viewpoints and highlights some key ongoing and upcoming challenges in space exploration. - **[Planetocracy](https://planetocracy.substack.com/archive)** by Peter Hague: He frequently has uniquely thought provoking, large-picture takes on some notable happenings and trends in space exploration. This is obviously far from an exhaustive list, even among writings I really love, and so maybe I will keep recommending curated space resources every now and then. 🚀 ## A Moon Monday update One of my goals when starting [Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/s/moon-monday/archive) was to reach a truly global audience, including people at space agencies, companies, research institutions, and publications. Here’s the relative distribution of my 3500+ readers by country, work roles, and (common) employment organizations. I’m proud of this. 🙂 ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fb4aa6f8b-c4af-4596-adc3-c493aff773d0_1830x1000-jpeg.jpg) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f36125c5f-6300-4f9f-9be8-7c299a4183d5_810x520-jpeg.jpg) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9a30aabd-65f3-4d15-bda3-7ddacd71244e_1506x496-jpeg.jpg) If your organization would like to sponsor Moon Monday while increasing your visibility among this unique newsletter’s highly enthusiastic audience, [get in touch](https://jatan.space/connect). --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Fun with serious SLS rocket headlines URL: https://jatan.space/fun-with-serious-sls-rocket-headlines/ Last updated: 2025-01-26T12:07:31.000Z I've been having some fun writing eerily reflective headlines on my [Moon Monday newsletter](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday) about the clumsy progress of NASA’s [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) that cost [$23 billion](https://www.planetary.org/articles/why-we-have-the-sls). - [NASA’s Moon rocket crawls to the launchpad](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-69/) - [NASA’s Moon rocket just won’t move fast enough](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-72/) - [The SLS rocket’s wet dress rehearsal comes out dry](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-73/) - [NASA tightens its grip on SLS](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-77/) - [The launch tower that’s still an artist’s render](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-81/) - [NASA is sticking with the SLS rocket for Artemis IX and beyond](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-86/) - [NASA wants a SLS rocket to liftoff every year, eventually](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-88/) - [Artemis I Moon launch palpable at last](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-89/) - [The Sun isn’t rising for the SLS just yet](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-92/) - [A notorious hydrogen leak stops brimming SLS rocket from blasting off of Earth](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-93/) - [NASA wants the SLS rocket and its teams to withstand a storm](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-96/) - [NASA’s SLS rocket is on the launchpad again, hopefully for the last time](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-102/) - [NASA’s SLS rocket faced yet another storm](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-103/) The SLS finally [did launch](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-104/) the much-awaited [Artemis I Moon mission](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-i), and that’s amazing, but my job as a space writer isn’t to be a blind cheerleader for whatever space agencies and research institutes say about their missions and programs. I also need to assess and inform people at large about if and how things are progressing, especially when taxpayer money is involved. I love NASA’s [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) Moon plans overall but for a crufty rocket that’s not only [years late but also billions of dollar over budget](https://www.planetary.org/articles/why-we-have-the-sls), some harsh reality checks are warranted. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/11/nasa-sls-rocket-at-the-launchpad-final-test.jpg) NASA’s SLS rocket, standing atop its mobile launcher, at Launch Pad 39B at the agency’s Kennedy Space Center on March 18, 2022\. [Image: NASA / Kim Shiflett](https://flickr.com/photos/nasakennedy/51954827811) ### Moon Monday #104: Reflecting on Artemis I and our future at Luna, a robotic lander launch, new lunar contracts and mission updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-104/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:18.000Z ## Artemis I launches the world’s ambitions and hopes for the Moon In a collective sigh of relief felt across the global space community, NASA [finally launched](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/liftoff-nasa-s-artemis-i-mega-rocket-launches-orion-to-moon) the 1.6-million-kilogram [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) on November 16, perfectly per the [post-liftoff timeline](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-i-press-kit/img/launch.jpg), setting in motion the historic [Artemis I mission](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-i) to send an uncrewed [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) on a 25.5-day deep space journey around the Moon and back. After Orion separated from the [second stage](https://www.ulalaunch.com/interim-cryogenic-propulsion-stage-%28icps%29), the latter [deployed](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/11/16/orion-begins-checkouts-completes-first-service-module-course-correction-burn) 10 CubeSats to be on their [independent science & technology missions](https://jatan.space/science-on-artemis-i/). Today Orion flew 130 kilometers above the Moon’s farside at its closest, just before which [it precisely propelled itself](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/11/21/orion-successfully-completes-lunar-flyby-re-acquires-signal-with-earth) using its Europe-built [propulsion](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/fired-up-engines-and-motors-put-artemis-mission-in-motion.html) and [service module](https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/space/esm) to target getting into its desired highly stable [Distant Retrograde Orbit](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/orion-will-go-the-distance-in-retrograde-orbit-during-artemis-i) (DRO) around the Moon. After a final engine burn on November 25 to enter orbit, Orion will circle our cosmic neighbor for about a week at an unconventionally high altitude of roughly 64,000 kilometers. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ff1dc66f2-9779-4d02-9219-e152d2ddd20e_1024x768-jpeg.jpg) Clockwise from top left to bottom left: Launch of the SLS rocket for Artemis I; Orion spacecraft en route to the Moon; Orion and Earth; Orion, the Moon, and the Pale Blue Dot. Credits: NASA ([1](https://images.nasa.gov/details-NHQ202211160200), [2](https://images.nasa.gov/details-cmasaw1%5F20221118204608%5F034), [3](https://images.nasa.gov/details-art001e000095%20FD1%20Earth1), [4](https://youtube.com/watch?v=BvWtNx3VOUA)) Make no mistake, Artemis I is a monumental launch of hardware and hope. If its [$4.1 billion](https://oig.nasa.gov/docs/IG-22-003.pdf) hardware is successful at achieving all mission objectives, including the fiery [bounced atmospheric reentry](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/orion-spacecraft-to-test-new-entry-technique-on-artemis-i-mission), the stage will be ripe for NASA to send humans around the Moon with [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to) in 2024 followed by a crewed surface landing mid-decade with [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon), both monumental feats lost since [Apollo](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/celebrating-apollo-at-50). Despite its [controversial](https://www.planetary.org/articles/why-we-have-the-sls), [nearly $50-billion](https://www.planetary.org/space-policy/cost-of-sls-and-orion) embodiment as [uncannily old-looking](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/then-and-now-apollo-to-artemis) SLS, Orion and related systems [bound by law](https://www.supercluster.com/editorial/the-ugly-bargain-behind-nasas-sls-rocket), Artemis I is a key foundational technology stack NASA will use for ferrying future lunar astronauts [through this decade and next](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept). Rather, it’s [precisely because of said embodiment](https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/08/the-sls-rocket-is-the-worst-thing-to-happen-to-nasa-but-maybe-also-the-best) that the U.S. Congress backs the [Artemis campaign](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis), giving us all an otherwise modern deep space exploration program and our first hope of extending humanity’s reach in space for non-fleeting moments. Since Artemis I is among the most well-covered space missions to date, including [by NASA itself](https://www.nasa.gov/content/artemis-i-media-resources), it’s unnecessary for me to delve into specifics beyond the summary and perspectives above so I’ll instead close this section with a few lesser known tidbits and some interesting reading. - In addition to using the [Deep Space Network](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/heo/scan/services/networks/deep%5Fspace%5Fnetwork/about) (DSN) as usual, NASA is [also utilizing](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2020/artemis-i-demonstrating-the-capabilities-of-nasa-s-united-networks) relays and satellites of its [Near Space Network](https://esc.gsfc.nasa.gov/projects/NSN) for Artemis I to supplement and fill in transitions between the DSN’s changing availability. Further, if communications are lost during the mission, Orion can [autonomously navigate and return home](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/lasers-stars-and-sensors-will-guide-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) by repeatedly imaging the Moon and Earth, a technology [derived from](https://www.nasa.gov/mission%5Fpages/station/research/experiments/explorer/Investigation.html?#id=1794) the International Space Station. - [Artemis I Mission Control overview](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-i-mission-control-at-a-glance) - [Nice technical details on ESM](https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2022/09/airbus-discusses-esm) by NASASpaceflight - [Fun with serious SLS rocket headlines](https://jatan.space/fun-with-sls-headlines/) - [List of secondary objectives for Orion](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/additional-artemis-i-test-objectives-to-provide-added-confidence-in-capabilities-0), several of which NASA has [progressed through already](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/11/19/artemis-i-flight-day-four-testing-wifi-signals-radiator-system-go-for-outbound-powered-flyby) - Great op-ed: [Make each of the sporadic Artemis launches a celebration and recommitment](https://spacenews.com/op-ed-artemis-launches-need-to-set-the-world-on-fire) ### **Statuses of secondary Artemis I payloads** - Doug Messier [provided statuses](https://parabolicarc.com/2022/11/17/status-report-on-artemis-i-secondary-cubesat-payloads) of the 10 Artemis I CubeSats: - 6 CubeSats are operational: [LunaH-Map](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/lunah-map-university-built-cubesat-to-map-water-ice-on-the-moon), [Lunar IceCube](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2019/lunar-icecube-mission-to-locate-study-resources-needed-for-sustained-presence-on-moon), [ArgoMoon](https://blogs.esa.int/orion/2022/05/20/argomoon-cubesat-a-personal-photographer-for-orions-boost-to-the-moon), [BioSentinel](https://www.nasa.gov/ames/biosentinel), [CuSP](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2016/heliophysics-cubesat-to-launch-on-nasa-s-sls) and [EQUULEUS](https://www.space.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp/equuleus/en). They were able to retain sufficient charge to boot and deploy solar arrays. (ArgoMoon beamed back [nice pictures](https://www.asi.it/en/2022/11/artemis-1-argomoon-captured-photos-of-the-earth-and-moon) of Earth and our Moon.) - There is a weaker than expected signal from [LunIR](https://terranorbital.com/missions/lunir). - Sadly, there has been no contact yet with [NEA Scout](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/nea-scout) and [Team Miles](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/centennial%5Fchallenges/cubequest/team%5Fmiles). - The [OMOTENASHI](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/home/omotenashi/service.html) team [shared today](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/home/omotenashi/JHRCweb/jhrc.html) that due to no communications with the spacecraft they can’t execute the semi-soft landing. They have one final chance tonight for a non-ideal lunar free fall attempt so let’s hope at least that works. :( - The [Callisto](https://news.lockheedmartin.com/2022-01-05-Lockheed-Martin,-Amazon-and-Cisco-to-Bring-Voice-Technology-and-Video-Collaboration-to-the-Moon) system inside Orion has been [activated](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/11/17/orion-continues-toward-moon-callisto-activated), which is a video-conferencing and voice assistant technology demonstration from Lockheed Martin, Cisco and Amazon that could assist future Artemis astronauts. - There hasn’t been any news so far on the status of the [deep space radiation experiments](https://jatan.space/science-on-artemis-i/) onboard Orion. It would be great if NASA’s near real-time [Artemis I mission tracker](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/trackartemis) web app included statuses of all these secondary missions as well. NASA’s otherwise excellent [official Artemis blog](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis) has also been lacking in such updates. --- *A whole-hearted thank you to Moon Monday’s sponsors, whose support helps sustain this one-of-a-kind newsletter: [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io), [The Orbital Index](https://orbitalindex.com) and [Open Lunar Foundation](https://www.openlunar.org)* --- ## ispace’s Moon lander to launch on November 28 ispace Japan is [targeting November 28](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=3939) for the launch of its [first Moon landing mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-99/) on a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket. The lander will be on a low-energy trajectory to the Moon, after [four months](https://spacenews.com/japanese-lunar-lander-slated-to-launch-nov-28-at-the-earliest) of which it will enter lunar orbit and subsequently target landing in April 2023\. The primary landing site lies within Atlas crater, at 47.5°N, 44.4°E ([see on interactive map](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=40.2145798%2C44.1202909%2C48.4074855%2C48.7594362&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=44.40014864%2C47.49964213&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFaaKBJ-Im64NOZFkRdi5KjwpA&proj=16)). [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f5f86ab71-3dc6-453f-8039-c4fd9636bfd8_1565x1000-jpeg.jpg)](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=40.2145798%2C44.1202909%2C48.4074855%2C48.7594362&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=44.40014864%2C47.49964213&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFaaKBJ-Im64NOZFkRdi5KjwpA&proj=16) Landing site of ispace Japan’s first Moon mission (marked) within the Atlas crater. [Credit: LROC Quickmap](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/query?extent=40.2145798%2C44.1202909%2C48.4074855%2C48.7594362&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4IgLghgRiBcIBMKRAXyA&features=44.40014864%2C47.49964213&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFaaKBJ-Im64NOZFkRdi5KjwpA&proj=16) ispace [also announced](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=3952) that they’ve secured the world’s first “Lunar Insurance” policy via MSI, which covers mission risks from launch through landing and surface operations. While the insurance doesn’t cover the onboard payloads, including UAE’s [Rashid rover](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirates%5FLunar%5FMission), it’s still a great step as private companies and space agencies globally increasingly mount [lander](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), [orbiter](https://jatan.space/kplo/), and [rover missions](https://jatan.space/lunar-rovers-launching-in-2020s/) to our Moon. Lifting off [alongside the lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-101/) is NASA’s [Lunar Flashlight](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/cubesat/missions/lunar%5Fflashlight.php) CubeSat orbiter, which will help identify locations and abundances of [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s south pole. ## Strengthening Japan’s contributions to Artemis The U.S. and Japan [formalized](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-japan-announce-gateway-contributions-space-station-extension) their [previous intention](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-government-of-japan-formalize-gateway-partnership-for-artemis-program) that NASA will provide an astronaut seat to JAXA on the NASA-led international [Gateway lunar station](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) in a future [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) mission. The agencies are [also considering](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-79/) having a Japanese astronaut land on the Moon by end of decade. JAXA is set to [recruit new astronaut candidates](https://spacenews.com/japan-to-recruit-first-new-astronauts-in-13-years-to-support-artemis-program) later this year, a couple of which might visit the Moon. In return for getting seats for Japanese astronauts, JAXA will provide critical life support systems and infrastructure components to the station’s [International Habitation module](https://liquifer.com/gateway-i-hab) (i-HAB), which includes space for crew to live, work, and conduct research in. Moreover, Japan is developing the advanced [HTV-X(G)](https://humans-in-space.jaxa.jp/en/htv-x) spacecraft to supply cargo to the Gateway starting no later than 2030\. These capabilities will allow the station to sustain crewed and uncrewed operations for long periods. Canada has a [similar arrangement](https://www.canada.ca/en/space-agency/news/2020/12/a-canadian-astronaut-will-fly-to-the-moon.html) with NASA to get one seat on Gateway and one on [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to) for Canadian astronauts in return for the country providing the Gateway’s highly autonomous [Canadarm3](https://asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/canadarm3/about.asp) robotic servicing system. Similarly, Europe has [bagged at least 3 Gateway seats](https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-55906695) for their astronauts in return for ESA contributing the [Orion](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/orion/about/index.html) spacecraft’s critical [service module](https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/space/esm) and Gateway’s [ESPRIT communications and refueling module](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/European%5FGateway%5Fmodule%5Fto%5Fbe%5Fbuilt%5Fin%5FFrance%5Fas%5FThomas%5FPesquet%5Freadies%5Ffor%5Fsecond%5Fspaceflight). ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f8f9e36c4-a320-4b0f-928a-beed9811da80_1950x1300-jpeg-6.jpg) Astrobotic’s first Moon lander, Peregrine. [Credits: John Thornton](https://www.linkedin.com/feed/update/urn:li:activity:6998697480980676609) - Earlier this month South Korea’s [KPLO](https://jatan.space/kplo/) spacecraft, on its way to the Moon, [successfully demonstrated](https://spacenews.com/south-koreas-danuri-orbiter-demonstrates-space-internet-en-route-to-moon) a kind of [space internet](https://space.skyrocket.de/doc%5Fsdat/kplo.htm) that’s resistant to disruptions in communications. KPLO sent media files, including popular South Korean band BTS’ music video, from more than 1.2 million kilometers away. - Astrobotic has [completed assembling](https://www.astrobotic.com/peregrine-spacecraft-on-the-move) their [first Moon lander](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-awarded-79-5-million-contract-to-deliver-14-nasa-payloads-to-the-moon), part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). The lander is now headed for [space environmental tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/) to ensure its functioning during launch, in space, and on the Moon. If the lander aces the extensive tests, Astrobotic intends to launch it in Q1 2023. - As part of the $150 million [LEAP initiative](https://asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/funding-programs/programs/leap/default.asp), Canada is [awarding $43 million](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronomy/moon-exploration/first-canadian-rover-to-explore-the-moon.asp) to Canadensys to develop [the country’s first lunar rover](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronomy/moon-exploration/first-canadian-rover-to-explore-the-moon.asp), which will launch to the Moon’s south pole on a NASA-funded CLPS lander in 2026\. The rugged rover will carry [six payloads](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronomy/moon-exploration/first-canadian-rover-to-explore-the-moon.asp), chiefly to study [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/), and be able to enter [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) for up to an hour as well as survive frigid lunar nights. - NASA [awarded an extended $1.15 billion contract](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-spacex-second-contract-option-for-artemis-moon-landing-0) to SpaceX, which calls for the company’s Lunar Starship to land astronauts on the Moon for [Artemis IV](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-101/) in addition to [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon). The former will involve an [upgraded Lunar Starship](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-provides-update-to-astronaut-moon-lander-plans-under-artemis) carrying 4 astronauts to the surface, as opposed to 2 on Artemis III, and could include surface stays of at least 33 Earth days, compared to the 7 on Artemis III. As [previously discussed](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-101/), Artemis IV including a Moon landing is a much bigger deal than it may seem despite any delays. - A reminder that I regularly update information on upcoming Moon missions as evergreen pages on my blog. The latest of these are [upcoming lunar rovers](https://jatan.space/lunar-rovers-launching-in-2020s/) and [NASA CLPS lunar landers](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). --- One issue with our grand return to the Moon is that I’m too excited nearly all the time. Constantly writing about it doesn’t help. **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### Moon Monday #103: A CAPSTONE around the Moon, and updates on craft to follow soon URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-103/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:18.000Z ## CAPSTONE enters lunar orbit On November 13, the NASA-funded and Advanced Space-led [CAPSTONE](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/small%5Fspacecraft/capstone) spacecraft [successfully executed](https://advancedspace.com/capstone-initial-lunar-arrival) a 16-minute burn of 0.44 Newtons at the right time as it flew by the Moon and entered into its intended unique [Near-Rectilinear Halo Orbit](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/a-lunar-orbit-that-s-just-right-for-the-international-gateway). This is the same orbit that the NASA-led international [Gateway station](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) for astronauts will be in later this decade. CAPSTONE will execute two small correction maneuvers this week to ensure being on the precise intended orbit. Over the next 6 months, CAPSTONE will help refine our mathematical models of this fuel-efficient orbit based on the exact propellant and power needed to maintain said orbit. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fdb6a72e4-128b-4fc4-a0c5-2d6486427320_1620x1080-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of the CAPSTONE spacecraft orbiting the Moon in its intended Near-Rectilinear Halo Orbit (shown in the inset image). Credits: [Advanced Space](https://advancedspace.com/capstone-initial-lunar-arrival) / [NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/a-lunar-orbit-that-s-just-right-for-the-international-gateway) The [CAPSTONE team](https://advancedspace.com/capstone-mission-team) deserves the fruits of this success, for they practically [fully recovered](https://advancedspace.com/capstone-mission-recovery-success-update) a failing spacecraft and managed to have it enter the intended lunar orbit despite a faulty valve in one of the spacecraft’s eight thrusters. Relatedly, Advanced Space recently won a [$72 million U.S. Air Force contract](https://spacenews.com/advanced-space-wins-72-million-air-force-contract-for-lunar-experiment) for a cislunar patrolling craft. We now have five orbiters at the Moon: 1. NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html) 2. China’s [Queqiao](https://www.planetary.org/articles/0519-change-4-relay-satellite)relay satellite for Chang’e 4, halo orbiting Earth-Moon L2 3. ISRO’s [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) 4. China’s [Chang’e 5](https://jatan.space/change-5-landing-site/) *service module,* in a [Distant Retrograde Orbit](https://skyriddles.wordpress.com/2022/01/25/change-5-returns-to-the-moon) 5. CAPSTONE :) Next up, NASA’s Artemis I [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) will orbit the Moon briefly sometime end of November or early December. South Korea’s [KPLO](https://jatan.space/kplo/) will try breaking into lunar orbit on December 16 to then study our Moon for at least a year, and possibly more as ample fuel is expected to be available. ## NASA’s SLS rocket faced yet another storm NASA is targeting launch of its SLS rocket on [November 16](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/11/13/managers-proceed-toward-nov-16-launch-to-meet-monday) during a two-hour window starting at 06:04 UTC for the much-awaited [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-i) mission to send an uncrewed [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) around the Moon and back. There was [much concern](https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/11/nasas-artemis-i-rocket-just-endured-hours-of-hurricane-like-wind-gusts) last week about hurricane Nicole damaging the fully stacked rocket on its launchpad—not just because rockets are typically designed to face more vertical winds than horizontal ones but also because of the prolonged time the hurricane-induced beating would continue with winds near or possibly above the rocket’s design limits. NASA’s [gamble](https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/11/nasas-artemis-i-rocket-just-endured-hours-of-hurricane-like-wind-gusts) to keep the rocket at the launchpad instead of rolling it back to its assembly building in an attempt to not delay launch for another month appears to have paid off. [NASA says](https://twitter.com/JimFree/status/1590815556659081216) the winds missed crossing [the rated limits](https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20210024522/downloads/SLS-SPEC-159%20Cross-Program%20Design%20Specification%20for%20Natural%20Environments%20%28DSNE%29%20REVISION%20I.pdf) of the rocket at respective heights, and estimates that there’s [roughly 25% margin](https://spacenews.com/nasa-moving-ahead-with-nov-16-artemis-1-launch-attempt) over those limits based on previous [structural](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/nasa-completes-artemis-sls-structural-testing-campaign.html) and [modal testing](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/modal-testing-infographic.html). The post-hurricane inspection shows only [minor damages](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/11/11/teams-conduct-check-outs-preparations-ahead-of-next-artemis-i-launch-attempt) to the rocket, much of which teams have resolved with the rest being worked on. If ongoing work and analysis related to a loose seal on Orion’s [launch abort system](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/orion%5Freference%5Fguide%5F090622.pdf) delay liftoff, NASA could target launching SLS on November 19. --- *Many thanks to [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io) for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## The first ever lunar soil ownership transfer coming up On November 4, the Japanese government [approved a license](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=3829) for ispace Japan’s [first Moon lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-99/) launching November end to collect lunar soil on its footpad and transfer its ownership to NASA. NASA selected [four companies](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-companies-to-collect-lunar-resources-for-artemis-demonstrations) in 2020 to collect lunar material (*collect*, not return to Earth) and transfer its ownership to the agency so as to set precedence for resource use under the U.S.-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html). ispace Japan and its subsidiary ispace Europe were two of the selectees; each will be awarded a total of $5000 post their tokenistic yet milestone demonstration. In September 2022, NASA [already paid the interim milestone amount](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=3696) to ispace Europe, whose micro-rover on ispace Japan’s [second Moon mission](https://ispace-inc.com/hakuto-r/eng) in 2024 will collect lunar soil to then transfer ownership to NASA. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fb57b9aa0-d0e9-4bb8-97aa-f981ef7acdc1_2096x1078-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of the Hakuto-R lander to be used for ispace’s first two Moon landing missions. [Credit: ispace](https://ispace-inc.com/spacecraft) Relatedly, with growing interest from space nations around the world to acquire and use lunar resources, and [increasingly varied interpretations](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/do-nasas-lunar-exploration-rules-violate-space-law/) of what is and isn’t allowed by the [1967 Outer Space Treaty](https://unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/introouterspacetreaty.html), the Open Lunar Foundation (a Moon Monday sponsor) led the creation of [a lunar resources trust](https://breakingground.space). As part of that, Orbit Fab will purchase a small amount of lunar soil from another company—presumably from one of the four NASA selectees—[and transfer it to the trust](https://breakingground.space/library/m158985x86dp26otgrhmv5g1ubi7ca) to set precedence for sustainable lunar resource management for all. ## NASA delivers tech demo payload to ESA for Lunar Pathfinder NASA has [delivered a retroreflector array](https://www.esa.int/Applications/Navigation/NASA%5Flaser%5Freflector%5Ffor%5FESA%5Fsatnav%5Fon%5FLunar%5FPathfinder) to ESA for integrating into the UK-based SSTL’s [Lunar Pathfinder](https://jatan.space/nasa-esa-collaborate-on-lunar-pathfinder/) spacecraft launching in 2025 on a NASA-funded [CLPS lander](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). The retroreflector array is an advanced version of [the one on NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://earth-planets-space.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40623-020-01243-w). Other than being used for [laser ranging](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar%5FLaser%5FRanging%5Fexperiment), the retroreflector array will be part of a technology demonstration. The ESA-provided *NaviMoon* receiver onboard Pathfinder will be regularly oriented towards Earth to [demonstrate a GPS fix at the Moon](https://www.esa.int/Applications/Navigation/The%5FMoon%5Fwhere%5Fno%5Fsatnav%5Fhas%5Fgone%5Fbefore) using terrestrial satellite signals millions of times fainter than those used by our phones. Positioning fixes from the receiver will be compared with conventional radio ranging methods as well as the retroreflector measurements to know how well it works. If successful, the demonstration could help validate ESA’s [Moonlight navigation service](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-98/), which seeks to reduce costs of future lunar missions. NASA itself will be [testing a similar GPS fix](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2022/nasa-moon-mission-set-to-break-record-in-navigation-signal-test) from the Moon’s surface on [Firefly’s 2024 CLPS mission](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-firefly-aerospace-for-artemis-commercial-moon-delivery-in-2023). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f48de7019-d3d9-4928-8b7a-b0bb8a1bb481_1379x920-jpeg.jpg) The NASA-provided retroreflector array to be onboard the Lunar Pathfinder orbiter. [Credit: SSTL](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2022/11/Laser%5FRetroreflector%5FArray) ## More Moon - Jeff Foust reports that NASA has [decided to continue](https://spacenews.com/nasa-to-continue-lunar-trailblazer-despite-cost-overrun) the Lunar Trailblazer orbiter mission despite costing $72 million, roughly 30% more than the [$55 million mission cap](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/small-satellite-concept-finalists-target-moon-mars-and-beyond) of its SIMPLEx mission class. [Launching in mid-2023](https://spacenews.com/nasa-moves-up-lunar-trailblazer-launch) on a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket, Lunar Trailblazer will give us unprecedented, high-resolution global maps of the amount, distribution, and state of water across the Moon. When considering that Trailblazer would provide this specific scientific data at a quality comparable to NASA’s Discovery-class missions that cost at least seven times more, this spacecraft [critical to the lunar water story](https://jatan.space/nasa-lunar-trailblazer/) making it to the launchpad after all feels great. - Andrew Jones reports that China has scrapped its idea of having an SLS-like expendable Long March 9 rocket for major future Moon missions [in favor of a reusable design](https://spacenews.com/china-scraps-expendable-long-march-9-rocket-plan-in-favor-of-reusable-version) while still aiming for first launch around 2030\. Note that China is making another relatively “smaller” rocket to [begin crewed lunar missions](https://spacenews.com/china-tests-engines-for-moon-mission-rocket) before the Long March 9 is ready anyway. - The Lunar Commerce and Economics Working Group of the Moon Village Association has released the first version of the [“Lunar Commerce Portfolio” document](https://moonvillageassociation.org/download/the-lunar-commerce-portfolio-first-edition-november-2022), which [they say](https://moonvillageassociation.org/press-release-moon-village-association-releases-the-lunar-commerce-portfolio) realistically and transparently assesses the range of possible commercial outcomes for nine inter-related market offerings on and around the Moon. The breakdown of those offerings and their value chains mid-document is worth checking out. - NASA said in July that it was [preparing to award a contract](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-prepares-for-space-launch-system-rocket-services-contract) for future SLS rocket launches to Deep Space Transport LLC, a joint venture between two major SLS contractors Boeing and Northrop Grumman. In hopes to reduce SLS’s cost of [$2.2 billion](https://oig.nasa.gov/docs/IG-22-003.pdf) per launch, NASA will [transfer the ownership of its production and associated facilities](https://spacenews.com/nasa-prepares-to-award-sls-launch-services-contract-to-boeing-northrop-joint-venture) into a single launch service contract. The baseline contract would be for Artemis V–IX missions, and likely extend to Artemis X–XIV later. In yet another great report, Jeff Foust details NASA’s [formally provided justification](https://spacenews.com/nasa-outlines-case-for-making-sole-source-sls-award-to-boeing-northrop-joint-venture) for this sole-source award, and notes that the previously mentioned option for awarding Deep Space up to 10 non-Artemis SLS launches has been removed. - [From Chandrayaan to Artemis,](https://jatan.space/talk-from-chandrayaan-to-artemis/) highlighting collaboration in our return to the Moon; this was my [International Moon Day](https://internationalmoonday.org/imd-world-events/india-mva-india-international-moon-day-celebration-2022) talk for the Moon Village Association India earlier this year that’s now available online. - [Past mistakes to avoid in our grand return to the Moon this decade](https://jatan.space/past-lunar-mission-mistakes-to-avoid/) --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### Talk: From Chandrayaan to Artemis, highlighting collaboration in our return to the Moon URL: https://jatan.space/talk-from-chandrayaan-to-artemis/ Last updated: 2024-02-24T10:28:09.000Z I was invited by the [Moon Village Association](https://moonvillageassociation.org) India to give a talk on [the 2022 International Moon Day](https://internationalmoonday.org/imd-world-events/india-mva-india-international-moon-day-celebration-2022). **Topics discussed in** [**From Chandrayaan to Artemis**](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BTlybZlNijg)**:** *(In addition to the video timestamps below, find links to several articles for more information)* - 2:37 - [Chandrayaan 1](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/) - 7:55 - [Renewed global interest](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) in exploring our Moon - 13:05 - [South Korea’s first Moon mission](https://jatan.space/kplo/) - 20:15 - An example of how writers can help with lunar exploration - 25:25 - Possibility of [partnership between NASA’s LRO and ISRO’s Chandrayaan 2 orbiters](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-75/) respectively - 30:25 - Q&A ### Past mistakes to avoid in our grand return to the Moon this decade URL: https://jatan.space/past-lunar-mission-mistakes-to-avoid/ Last updated: 2025-06-12T15:10:47.000Z The last two decades mark the beginning of a true return to [exploring our Moon](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/). The 2000s saw Europe, Japan, China and India launch their successful lunar orbiters [SMART-1](https://sci.esa.int/web/smart-1/-/31407-summary), [SELENE](https://global.jaxa.jp/projects/sas/selene), [Chang’e 1](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=2007-051A) and [Chandrayaan 1](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/chandrayaan-1) respectively. The 2010s can be defined by roller coaster Moon landing attempts, with China succeeding with [Chang’e 3](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=2013-070A) & [Chang’e 4](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/change-4) while Israel and India faced heartbreaking crashes of their [Beresheet](https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/beresheet/in-depth) and [Chandrayaan 2](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-2-moon-landing-mission/) landers respectively. In the meantime, the U.S. had various successful missions in the form of the [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html), [LCROSS](https://www.nasa.gov/ames/lcross), [GRAIL](https://www.nasa.gov/mission%5Fpages/grail/main/index.html) and [LADEE](https://www.nasa.gov/mission%5Fpages/ladee/mission-overview), and forged a goal of returning humans to the Moon with [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis). Space agencies, companies, and enthusiasts around the world hope for the 2020s to be marked by a string of successful [commercial lunar landers](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), many first of its kind orbiters like [KPLO](https://jatan.space/kplo/), a [bevy of lunar rovers](https://jatan.space/lunar-rovers-launching-in-2020s/), humans exploring the surface again, and [much more](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-98/). While our lunar ambitions have clearly risen, the sheer difficulty of orchestrating hundreds to thousands of people and spacecraft parts in any space mission hasn’t changed. And so as we mount a grand return to our Moon, let’s take a look at some of the mistakes in past lunar missions that we could learn from. ## Destroying your broadcast from the Moon Apollo 12, the world’s second human lunar landing, carried a color camera instead of Apollo 11’s monochrome but the world never saw the mission’s television footage. When setting up the camera, astronaut Alan Bean accidentally pointed it directly to the Sun, which destroyed its [Secondary Electron Conduction (SEC) tube](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo%5FTV%5Fcamera#Westinghouse%5FLunar%5FColor%5FCamera). With only an audio feed of the mission available, several television networks switched to showing actors in spacesuits in studios simulating moonwalks, [which unfortunately fueled conspiracy theories](https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20191108-the-switch-that-saved-a-moon-mission-from-disaster) about the Apollo landings. To [avoid video footage failure](https://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a12/a12.tvtrbls.html#1161412) on Apollo 14 and beyond, NASA added lens caps to the color cameras while also flying backup black & white models in case color cameras get damaged. NASA also replaced their SEC tubes with the less sensitive Electron Bounded Silicon (EBS) tubes, which wouldn’t get instantly destroyed by direct exposure to bright sunlight. A similarly less sensitive tube than the SEC was used on the color cameras mounted on the [Apollo Lunar Rovers](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/apollo%5Flrv.html). The risk of damaging cameras on the Moon hasn’t withered away with time but is more serious now. The [discovery of water ice](https://jatan.space/how-nasa-and-chandrayaan-discovered-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s poles is driving space agencies and companies globally to the south pole for the majority of their upcoming robotic landers and rovers, and for all crewed missions under NASA’s Artemis campaign. Here the Sun is [perpetually near the horizon](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/), encircling it over the lunar day. Explorers of all kinds will have to be careful about inadvertently rotating their cameras Sunward whereas engineers and mission operators will have to devise ways and procedures that avoid such exposure or damage from it. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f866fb5fc-4a20-4425-83a9-b1dc052de21c_2400x1500-jpeg.jpg) NASA’s Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory set to mimic lighting conditions on the Moon’s poles, which present a tricky, disorienting environment for humans and robots to operate in. [Credits: NASA / Lauren Maples](https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/dark-mode-activated) ## Losing your first lunar orbiter to a miscalculation India’s first Moon orbiter [Chandrayaan 1](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/) earned a worldwide recognition in space history due to its [discovery of lunar water](https://jatan.space/how-nasa-and-chandrayaan-discovered-water-on-the-moon/). However, the spacecraft didn’t live up to its full scientific potential as it stopped operating after just 10 months in lunar orbit instead of the intended lifetime of at least 2 years. It turns out that the spacecraft and its components faced [much higher temperatures than expected](https://web.archive.org/web/20090722074303/http://www.hindu.com/2009/07/19/stories/2009071958920900.htm) in lunar orbit, both from the Sun and the reflected infrared radiation from the Moon. This caused mission operators to [rotate the spacecraft and turn instruments off](http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south%5Fasia/7748611.stm), and later even [raise the orbit](https://web.archive.org/web/20090827084622/http://isro.gov.in/pressrelease/scripts/pressreleasein.aspx?Jul17%5F2009) from 100 to 200 kilometers altitude, all to manage the heat. Ultimately both the power units controlling Chandrayaan 1 [succumbed to the heat](https://web.archive.org/web/20090902100254/http://www.hindu.com/2009/08/31/stories/2009083157910100.htm) and the spacecraft was dead. Later investigations found that the [DC-to-DC converters](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DC-to-DC%5Fconverter) used throughout the spacecraft were part of a faulty production batch, particularly being more susceptible to heat and thus adding to ISRO’s miscalculation of the lunar thermal environment. ISRO [fixed the former issue](https://indianexpress.com/article/india/dr-m-annadurai-project-director-chandrayaan-1-chandrayaan-2-isro-moon-5805873) for its future missions like the [Mangalyaan](https://jatan.space/reviewing-mission-mangalyaan/) Mars orbiter and the [Chandrayaan 2 lunar orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) by making its own DC-to-DC converters. Chandrayaan 1 faced another issue during its mission. Exposure to extreme solar radiation combined with other factors caused its star sensor [to fail](https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/Chandrayaan-falters-as-lsquostar-sensorsrsquo-fail/article16557878.ece), shortly followed by [the backup star sensor failing](https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/ldquoChandrayaanrsquos-first-sensor-failed-much-earlierrdquo/article16558594.ece) as well. Despite losing the crucial precise pointing ability due to the loss of star sensors, mission operators combined the [use of gyroscopes](http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/ldquoChandrayaanrsquos-first-sensor-failed-much-earlierrdquo/article16558594.ece) and commands from Earth to not just keep the spacecraft functional for as long as it did but even view [a solar eclipse from the Moon](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1-captures-solar-eclipse/)—a first for a space mission. When considering everything we had learnt about the Moon from decades of prior lunar missions, the miscalculations about the thermal and radiation environments that killed Chandrayaan 1 could’ve been avoided. With many countries and companies launching their first Moon missions this decade, Chandrayaan 1 should serve as a good reminder of technical oversight prematurely killing missions. ## Killing your rover with one wrong drive ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fef67911b-f680-4f3d-9ace-3805d198415a_1440x1200-jpeg.jpg) Rendering of the Soviet Lunokhod Moon rover. [Credit: NASA](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1973-001A) (Public domain) In 1970, the Soviet Union successfully remotely drove [Lunokhod 1](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1970-095A), the world’s first planetary rover, on the Moon for 11 months, 7 more than planned. The scientific expectations from [Lunokhod 2](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1973-001A) in 1973 were even higher but it [faced a premature death](https://www.smithsonianmag.com/air-space-magazine/the-other-moon-landings-6457729) just 4 months into its mission when its operators on Earth were driving the rover towards a geologically interesting place just ahead. With the Sun close to the horizon and behind the rover, views from Lunokhod 2’s navigation cameras masked much of the troublesome landscape in shadows, making it seem like a smooth patch. The operators ended up driving the rover into a small crater. Lunokhod’s open lid touched the crater wall and the solar panels on the lid were covered in lunar dust. Operators did get the rover out of the crater but the mission’s end was set in stone. For the rover to survive the freezing lunar night, its lid had to be closed to preserve heat. But doing so dumped the dust—a good insulator—onto the rover’s radiator. Soon after the lid was opened the next morning, the rover could therefore not get rid of the excess daytime heat and died. What the operators should’ve done was to recognize the tricky lighting conditions the previous day and stop the rover to better assess traverse routes based on more data. Again, with the Sun [perpetually near the horizon](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) presenting a tricky landscape for all upcoming missions at the Moon’s south pole, operators will have to be extremely careful about inadvertently damaging their hardware, ultimately costing the mission. ## Losing your lander under pressure ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f8444104d-c3bc-4028-a78c-c6872432ffa9_2327x1700-jpeg.jpg) The privately made Israeli **Beresheet* lander prior to its 2019 launch. [Credit: SpaceIL](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/spaceil-lander) Israel-based SpaceIL became the first private company in the world to put an orbiter around the Moon with the [Beresheet](https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/beresheet/in-depth) spacecraft in 2019\. Unfortunately, Beresheet [crashed](https://www.planetary.org/articles/beresheet-comes-close-crashes) soon after during its lunar landing attempt. [The investigation](https://davidson.weizmann.ac.il/en/online/sciencepanorama/what-happened-beresheet) revealed that during the final descent phase, one of the lander’s two Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs)—a sensor that tracks the spacecraft’s acceleration and angular velocity over time—failed. This wasn’t critical as the other IMU was functioning, and Beresheet only needed one IMU at a time. But fearing the other IMU could fail too, the team sent a command to restart the first one. However, the switching time between the IMUs caused Beresheet’s computer to think the navigation system had malfunctioned, and so it rebooted, after which point a separate issue with its auxiliary software not loading caused it to enter a boot loop, leading to the lander being unable to keep the engine on and ultimately crashing into the Moon. Ettay Nevo has a [great deep dive](https://davidson.weizmann.ac.il/en/online/sciencepanorama/what-happened-beresheet) into this grim series of events. The investigation also found that in order to make the mission feasible at a low cost, Beresheet used relatively inexpensive components, including the IMUs, which weren’t previously space-tested. This caused several issues during its mission. While not certain, it’s possible that barring the IMU failure and the retrospectively wrong decision to restart it under pressure Beresheet could’ve landed. The nature of those two things are exactly what the many commercial companies [attempting their first Moon landings](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) this decade will have to be conscious about. ## An early crippling of a Moon rover When China’s [Chang’e 3](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=2013-070A) touched down on the Moon in 2013, it became the world’s third organization to achieve the feat. The lander deployed the [Yutu rover](https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/yutu/in-depth) on the surface, making it the third ever robotic lunar rover. But Yutu’s intended 3-month exploration of our Moon was cut short by 6 weeks due to the wheel drive failing. The [initial investigation](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/1486425/last-ditch-efforts-salvage-mission-chinas-stricken-jade-rabbit-lunar) revealed that Yutu faced considerably lower temperatures than estimated, which freeze-jammed some electrical components and ultimately led to the failure of the power circuitry driving the wheels. While Yutu had plenty of redundant electrical components, they had common weaknesses, that is, redundancy is only good here if dissimilar! This pointed to a core design issue in the mission. In the six weeks Yutu did explore the lunar surface, it traveled roughly only 100 meters. This was partly due to a more stern local terrain than orbital data suggested. The [final investigation](https://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/1556916/lunar-rover-likely-became-crippled-after-hitting-rock-expert-panel-says) revealed another possible design-phase cause of the wheel drive failing—that Yutu likely hit a large enough rock during a commanded traverse. China learned from the incident, and their second lunar rover [Yutu 2](https://phys.org/news/2022-01-yutu-rover-side-moon.html) has been exploring [a farside region](https://jatan.space/change-4-landing-site-farside-von-karman-crater/) for almost four years now. In the context of the upcoming wave of ambitious lunar missions, the case of Yutu reminds us that even well-funded space agencies with great track records can lose their missions to fundamental design issues and operational oversight. --- Our increasingly complex Moon missions combined with the unforgiving nature of spaceflight is partly why the general industry direction of late has been to reduce human errors by reliably automating as many parts of missions as possible, taking advantage of modern software. This is especially true for mission operations, a major element still heavily reliant on humans being in the loop. So when humans [explore our Moon](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) again, the mission control center would look and operate very differently. --- *This article’s theme was chosen by* [*Epsilon3*](https://www.epsilon3.io/)*, a sponsor of my* [*Moon Monday*](https://blog.jatan.space/s/moon-monday/archive) *newsletter. The topic itself was chosen by me, and the article has been written without editorial input from Epsilon3\. The piece benefitted from their technical review.* *This is the third article in a series exploring space missions suffering from mistakes and how we adapt from thereon. Part 1 looked at* [*space mission failures and successes due to space-grade electronics*](https://jatan.space/space-grade-electronics/) *while Part 2 lays out* [*a brief history of space missions lost to human errors*](https://jatan.space/space-missions-lost-to-human-errors/)*.* ### Moon Monday #102: CAPSTONE and SLS prep for rendezvous with Luna, and a load of exciting future mission updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-102/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:19.000Z *A *public service announcement* since Moon Monday is my most read space (pun intended): With everything happening at Twitter, many people are flocking to Mastodon and/or other platforms. As an open Web enthusiast who is on Mastodon and similar socials since years, I think that’s great but misses the point. As a writer who professionally depends on, benefits from, and leverages much more of what the open Web has to offer, I’m confident the only way to [truly own your digital thoughts](https://reflections.jatan.space/p/start-a-blog-and-get-a-domain) and the [connection to your audience](https://reflections.jatan.space/p/avoid-blogging-platform-silos) is to have a blog, which complements your digital social spaces by being a portable home for your longform, notable or curated thoughts. I’m familiar with nearly all modern blogging platforms so if you’d like to get started, I’m [happy to help](https://jatan.space/connect) based on your needs and goals.* ## CAPSTONE gets ready to orbit the Moon On October 3, the NASA-funded and Advanced Space-led [CAPSTONE](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/small%5Fspacecraft/capstone) spacecraft [completed its fourth trajectory correction maneuver](https://advancedspace.com/capstone-tcm4-success-update) when approaching the Moon from about 111,400 kilometers away. With two more maneuvers to follow soon, the spacecraft is on track for lunar orbital capture on November 13. CAPSTONE’s last such maneuver was in early September, near the end of which the spacecraft [started tumbling](https://advancedspace.com/capstone-12sep22-update) and [put itself in safe mode](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/09/10/capstone-spacecraft-in-safe-mode-teams-working-to-resolve-issue). Over the next couple of weeks, teams [recovered the spacecraft](https://advancedspace.com/capstone-15sep22-update), determined a partially open valve in one of the eight thrusters to be the issue’s root cause, and uploaded new commands to ignore that thruster which successfully helped CAPSTONE [regain full, 3-axis attitude control](https://advancedspace.com/capstone-mission-recovery-success-update). Teams are operating the spacecraft keeping in mind the faulty valve so here’s hoping for a successful lunar orbital capture. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f6c17b702-ac58-4ae8-b1ad-3bb328640eee_782x451-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of the CAPSTONE spacecraft approaching the Moon. [Credit: Advanced Space](https://advancedspace.com/capstone-tcm4-success-update) ## NASA’s SLS rocket is on the launchpad again, hopefully for the last time NASA transported the fully stacked [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) to its launchpad [on November 4](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/11/04/artemis-i-moon-rocket-arrives-at-launch-pad-ahead-of-historic-mission-2). The agency is targeting launching SLS [on November 14](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/10/12/nasa-sets-date-for-next-launch-attempt-for-artemis-i-moon-mission) for the much-awaited [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-i) mission to send an uncrewed [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) around the Moon and back. As part of the [maintenance and repairs](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/10/06/inspections-underway-for-rocket-spacecraft-before-setting-launch-date) while the rocket stack was at its assembly building, NASA recharged batteries of several elements of the rocket and its payloads. However, in an email following a media briefing last week NASA said that only four of the [10 CubeSats onboard Artemis I](https://jatan.space/science-on-artemis-i/)—[BioSentinel](https://www.nasa.gov/ames/biosentinel), [NEA Scout](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/nea-scout), [EQUULEUS](https://www.space.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp/equuleus/en) and [OMOTENASHI](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/home/omotenashi/service.html)—have been recharged. Orion’s Stage Adapter structure prevents access to the other CubeSats, rendering them less likely to complete their missions since they were last charged last year. In retrospect, clearly it would’ve been better if NASA had accommodated these 14-kilogram CubeSats as secondary rideshares on other lunar missions just like the agency most recently did [for Lunar Flashlight](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/jpl/nasa-s-lunar-flashlight-ready-to-search-for-the-moon-s-water-ice). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ffbcf9b2e-e5d9-488b-b02e-c58d7466e559_1600x1200-jpeg.jpg) Only 4 out of 10 Artemis I CubeSats, all shown installed here on the Orion Stage Adapter ring above the connected SLS second stage, are guaranteed to attempt their missions nominally. [Credits: NASA / Kevin O’Brien](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/launching-science-and-technology-on-nasa-s-artemis-i-mission.html) --- *Many thanks to [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io) for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* *Thanks also to [Andrea Battisti](https://planet3.eu) and [Henry Throop](https://www.linkedin.com/in/henry-throop-a47a6a7) for supporting my independent writing.* --- ## Astrobotic’s first Moon landing mission past key preparation milestone One of the most pressing causes of delay for Astrobotic’s [first Moon landing mission](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-awarded-79-5-million-contract-to-deliver-14-nasa-payloads-to-the-moon) part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) has been its ride to space—the ULA Vulcan rocket—not being ready on time. Years later than expected, Blue Origin [shipped the twin BE-4 engines](https://www.blueorigin.com/news/blue-origin-completes-the-delivery-of-flight-engines-to-ula-for-vulcan-initial-launch) to ULA in October, which together with the also [recently received](https://blog.ulalaunch.com/blog/vulcan-srbs-delivered-to-power-first-launch) twin side boosters will power Vulcan’s first stage during the mission’s launch targeting Q1 2023. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fb5920316-2476-48b2-9537-4ae4415f7e52_1956x1470-jpeg.jpg) Blue Origin’s BE-4 engines and the Vulcan rocket core stage. [Credit: Tory Bruno](https://twitter.com/torybruno/status/1587152163750322177) Now the major source holding back the launch could be Astrobotic’s lander itself, which though [almost assembled](https://spacenews.com/lander-companies-prepare-to-shoot-for-the-moon) is yet to go through the extensive [space environmental testing](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/) process. Considering that [ispace Japan’s similar first lunar lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-99/) targeting launch this month took about four months to complete its equivalent testing, the timeline looks pretty tight for a Q1 2023 launch. Relatedly, Astrobotic announced last week that they have [validated their terrain mapping and navigation system](https://www.astrobotic.com/landing-tech-terrain-relative-navigation-validated-ready-for-spaceflight) on Earth by mounting relevant hardware on a plane during a week-long lunar-like flight. Astrobotic is incorporating lessons from the test to better operations of its actual first Moon landing as well as to upgrade hardware on their [second (CLPS) Moon mission](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-astrobotic-to-fly-water-hunting-rover-to-the-moon) which will deliver NASA’s water-studying [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) to the Moon’s south pole in 2024. ## Exciting progress on future missions ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f70d30c96-08d4-4828-9379-bf010f6bbf72_1600x1100-jpeg.jpg) China’s Long March 2F rocket lifting off. Credit: Xinhua Like the early days of forging and acting towards an ambitious goal, progress on pieces that will be part of future lunar missions intrigues and excites. Last week saw many such developments unfold. - Andrew Jones reports that China has [successfully conducted a series of hot fire tests](https://spacenews.com/china-tests-engines-for-moon-mission-rocket) of engines that will power an upcoming super heavy-lift rocket designed to enable lunar landing. [Derived from China’s existing, venerable Long March 5](https://spacenews.com/chinas-new-rocket-for-crewed-moon-missions-to-launch-around-2026), a pair of these new rockets would be able to launch a crewed spacecraft and (separately) a landing system to lunar orbit, which would allow two astronauts to land on the Moon. Capable of launching up to 27,000 kilograms on a lunar trajectory, the rocket would match the capacity of NASA’s current [SLS Moon rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html). While China hasn’t yet formally approved a human lunar landing project, it has long begun building many of its necessary elements. - Intuitive Machines, the company that currently has three Moon landings being lined up for NASA as part of the agency’s [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) program, [opened its “Flame Range” facility](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/intuitive-machines-opens-houston-s-first-engine-verification-facility) in Houston last week for the development, testing and qualification of its own [methalox lunar spacecraft engines](https://arstechnica.com/science/2021/05/for-lunar-cargo-delivery-nasa-accepts-risk-in-return-for-low-prices). Intuitive is also nearing construction of its [Lunar Production and Operations Center](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/the-leader-in-the-space-race-intuitive-machines-breaks-ground-on-new-lunar-production-operations) over there. - Eric Berger [has an excellent report](https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/11/spacex-is-now-building-a-raptor-engine-a-day-nasa-says) on NASA’s recent briefing concerning SpaceX’s [HLS Starship](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) that will land the first Artemis astronauts on the Moon mid-decade. Now that SpaceX is manufacturing one Starship Raptor 2 engine a day, NASA says SpaceX has done “very well” in alleviating that as one of the three top risks with the rocket. Pending an FAA license, SpaceX is currently targeting early December for the first Starship flight to Earth orbit but Q1 2023 is more likely. Eric’s report also touches on SpaceX’s plan to have a pre-filled Starship propellant depot in Earth orbit to optimize its [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) and other flights. - Rocket Lab has [delivered the 70-kilowatt solar panels](https://www.rocketlabusa.com/updates/rocket-lab-delivers-final-solar-panels-for-nasa-gateways-power-and-propulsion-element) for the [Power and Propulsion Element](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-artemis-contract-for-lunar-gateway-power-propulsion) of the upcoming NASA-led international [Gateway lunar orbiting station](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) launching in 2024\. The company [acquired SolAero](https://www.rocketlabusa.com/updates/rocket-lab-closes-acquisition-of-space-solar-power-products-company-solaero-holdings-inc) earlier this year who were originally contracted for the panels. - NASA [completed the critical design review](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/nasa-progresses-design-of-more-powerful-sls-rocket.html) of the upcoming [Block 1B configuration](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/sls%5Flift%5Fcapabilities%5Fand%5Fconfigurations%5F508%5F08202018%5F0.pdf) of the SLS rocket, which sports an [enhanced upper stage](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/multimedia/rocket-to-the-moon-what-is-the-exploration-upper-stage.html) capable of lifting an additional 10,000 kilograms cargo to the Moon than the current SLS variant launching the first three Artemis missions. The Block 1B, debuting on [Artemis IV](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-101/), will be able to [launch virtually any day](https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20205004470) of the month due to its enhanced performance. - NASA has released the [draft “request for proposals”](https://sam.gov/opp/9120303c833248669b16d303f4081863/view) for the [advanced crewed rover](https://jatan.space/what-we-know-about-artemis-ltv/) that Artemis astronauts will drive on the Moon later this decade and next. The agency is accepting industry feedback until December 1\. NASA plans to release the final request for proposals for companies to bid on in early 2023. --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### The bevy of rovers heading for the Moon URL: https://jatan.space/lunar-rovers-launching-in-2020s/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:19.000Z The next five years of exploring our Moon will not just be marked by the upcoming [armada of robotic landers](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) but also the sheer diversity of mobile explorers they’ll deploy. Here’s a look at all the mobile robots from many countries that will explore the Moon’s surface soon, from micro-rovers to hoppers, and sophisticated scientific explorers to crewed vehicles. ## A small army of mobile explorers Astrobotic’s first [lunar lander](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-awarded-79-5-million-contract-to-deliver-14-nasa-payloads-to-the-moon) in Q1 2023, part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), will touchdown in a lunar lava plain and then deploy a small army of rovers. There’s the 0.5-kilogram single-axis rover [Yaoki](https://dymon.co.jp/en/yaoki) from Japanese company Dymon, designed to keep running even if it falls over. Then there’s the 1.3-kilogram [Asagumo](https://spacebit.com/) spider-like walking robot from UK-based Spacebit, and the 1.8-kilogram [Iris rover](https://irislunarrover.space/index.html) designed by students at Carnegie Mellon University. Astrobotic’s lander will also deploy five tiny autonomous rovers collectively called [COLMENA](https://www.dgcs.unam.mx/boletin/bdboletin/2022%5F087.html), representing Mexico’s first Moon mission. Weighing about 60 grams and spanning 12 centimeters across each, they really are tiny. COLMENA aims to demonstrate how such small robots working in tandem can survive and navigate the harsh lunar environment. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9445a044-15b3-43d8-8100-3421146adbe2_3619x2500-jpeg.jpg) Closeup image of a COLMENA rover. [Credits: UNAM / AEM](https://www.dgcs.unam.mx/boletin/bdboletin/2022%5F087.html) The most crucial contributions from these small rovers won’t be the images they take but rather how their traverses will help us better understand the mechanical properties of the lunar soil, something critical for both future missions and lunar science. ## Rovers by Japan, UAE and India ispace Japan’s [first Moon landing mission](https://ispace-inc.com/hakuto-r/eng) launching at the end of this year will deploy two rovers. One of them is a [tennis-ball-sized 250-gram rover](https://global.jaxa.jp/press/2021/05/20210527-1%5Fe.html) built by Japanese space agency JAXA. Once on the Moon’s surface, the spherical robot will split in half to use its two hemispheres as wheels. JAXA aims to use information learnt about the mechanics of the lunar soil from this rover’s traverses to aid the design of an [autonomous, crewed pressurized rover](https://global.jaxa.jp/press/2019/03/20190312a.html), which they’re jointly researching with Toyota. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f0a4fbaf8-d140-4755-a367-8b1964afd6f5_999x385-jpeg.jpg) JAXA’s tennis-ball-sized transformable lunar robot. [Credit: JAXA / TOMY Company / Sony / Doshisha](https://global.jaxa.jp/press/2021/05/20210527-1%5Fe.html) The other mobile explorer ispace’s lander [will deploy](https://ispace-inc.com/news/?p=1874) is the UAE’s 10-kilogram [Rashid rover](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirates%5FLunar%5FMission). The French space agency will [provide two high-resolution cameras](https://www.khaleejtimes.com/news/uaes-lunar-rover-to-have-french-cameras) for the rover. One camera will be on the rover’s mast to provide panoramic views while the other will be rear-mounted to analyze drive tracks as well as infer wheel sinkage and mechanical properties of the soil. UAE [might send](http://www.parabolicarc.com/2021/10/25/israel-uae-agree-to-collaborate-on-lunar-earth-observation-missions) [another rover](https://www.thenationalnews.com/uae/science/uae-reveals-long-term-moon-exploration-plan-at-global-space-conference-1.1242597) on Israeli company SpaceIL’s [second Moon landing attempt](https://www.iai.co.il/launching-beresheet-2-project) or [onboard China’s Chang'e 7 lander](https://twitter.com/MBRSpaceCentre/status/1570732792916635651) in 2024. ispace’s [second Moon landing mission](https://ispace-inc.com/news/?p=2168) in 2024 will feature their indigenously built micro-rover to explore the Moon’s surface. ispace’s European arm is developing the rover, aided by funding from the Luxembourg Space Agency under an ESA contract. [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-3-prelaunch-info/), India’s second attempt to land on the Moon after [Chandrayaan 2](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-2-moon-landing-mission/)’s surface mission [failed](https://jatan.space/finding-the-chandrayaan-2-lander/) in 2019, will launch in 2023\. It will have a similar lander and rover, and the landing region is expected to be [a near-polar lunar highland too](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-landing-site-in-the-southern-highlands/). As such, the rover will have a pair of spectrometers to determine what the ancient lunar crust is made of. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fe4996f28-4d70-44f2-ad4f-3aa408796904_1200x598-jpeg.jpg) A model of the Chandrayaan 2 rover being tested at ISRO’s simulated lunar soil facility. [Credit: ISRO](http://www.planetary.org/explore/the-planetary-report/chandrayaan-2-india-lunar-exploration.html) ## Testing promising technologies Intuitive Machines’ [second Moon landing mission](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-to-land-water-measuring-payload-on-the-moon), launching in 2023 and also part of NASA’s CLPS program, will deploy two mobile explorers [on the Moon’s south pole](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-intuitive-machines-announce-landing-site-location-for-lunar-drill). The first is a rover [built by Lunar Outpost](https://lunaroutpost.com/nokia-and-intuitive-machines-select-lunar-outpost-for-first-rover-mission-at-lunar-south-pole) to test the first [4G/LTE communications system on the Moon](https://www.nokia.com/networks/insights/network-on-the-moon/). The aim is to see if we can get high-throughput, long-range, and low-latency communications on the lunar surface necessary for having a sustainable presence in the future. The mission’s second mobile explorer will be a hopper called [Micro-Nova](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/intuitive-machines-and-nasa-finalize-contract-for-extreme-lunar-mobility-spacecraft), supported by a [$41.6 million](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/solicitations/tipping%5Fpoints/2020%5Fselections) NASA contract. It will jump around on the Moon taking high-resolution images of the surface under its flight path. In future missions, Micro-Nova can potentially also fly into [lava tubes](https://jatan.space/underground-lava-tubes-on-the-moon-marius-hills/), [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/), and other such areas practically inaccessible by traditional landers and rovers. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fdb01688b-4fab-46e4-afcc-5dba4cb5e9b8_2145x1429-jpeg.jpg) **Background image:** Illustration of Intuitive Machines’ Micro-Nova hopper on the Moon. **Inset:** A close look at Micro-Nova. Not to scale with the background image. [Credits: Intuitive Machines](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/intuitive-machines-and-nasa-finalize-contract-for-extreme-lunar-mobility-spacecraft) ## The lunar water studying VIPER NASA’s [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) landing on the Moon’s south pole in November 2024 as part of NASA’s CLPS program will explore areas in and around [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) for over 100 days. It will use a drill and three instruments to unravel the nature of the Moon’s [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) deposits, assess their resource potential, and determine how accessible they are. This will help us plan future [sustainable](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept) crewed missions. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f78f0330f-2ba2-46e7-a3b3-bdbc3392fc66_2233x1597-jpeg-1.jpg) NASA’s VIPER rover (shown in the inset image) and its reference traverse path in its landing region on the Moon’s south pole near Nobile crater. The water ice and other volatile deposits it could explore are depicted in blue. [Credit: NASA](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bd7ekqMrHkg) Before VIPER launches however, NASA aims to reduce the mission’s risk by sending versions of its instruments on prior missions. One such case is Astrobotic’s suitcase-sized 13-kilogram [MoonRanger](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotics-moonranger-moves-into-final-production/) rover, which boasts autonomous navigation and mapping capabilities. NASA is leveraging the same by putting onboard a variant of VIPER’s [neutron spectrometer](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/where-s-the-water-two-resource-hunting-tools-for-the-moon-s-surface) to detect signs of water ice below the Moon’s surface. Originally scheduled to be delivered on a Masten CLPS lander, the rover will need to find another ride with [Masten recently filing for Chapter 11 bankruptcy](https://spacenews.com/masten-space-systems-files-for-bankruptcy). Information about the exact nature of water on the Moon’s poles is so crucial from both a scientific and exploratory standpoint that other nations are also planning missions like VIPER, the earliest one being the joint Japanese-Indian [LUPEX rover](https://www.exploration.jaxa.jp/e/program/lunarpolar/) targeting a post-2024 launch. JAXA is building the 350-kilogram rover, and India’s space agency ISRO is developing the lander which will deliver LUPEX to the Moon’s south pole. China will launch the Chang’e 7 mission around 2024\. It will consist of an orbiter and a lander, the latter of which [will likely deploy](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=CHANG-E-7) a rover and hopper to map resources on the Moon’s south pole near the landed region. ## Exploring a magnetic swirl Intuitive Machines’ [third (CLPS) Moon mission](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-mission-to-reiner-gamma/) will land in the magnetic [swirl of Reiner Gamma](https://jatan.space/swirls-on-the-moon/) in 2024\. The mission’s primary payload suite [Lunar Vertex](https://www.jhuapl.edu/NewsStory/211018b-lunar-vertex) is a collection of spectrometers and magnetometers on the lander and a rover. The rover will drive up to two kilometers over 13 Earth days, exploring at least one bright and dark section of Reiner Gamma. It will study the swirl’s composition and map the strength & direction of magnetic fields on the surface. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fe765e037-d425-436b-98f7-4756208fa9c3_2189x1440-jpeg.jpg) Artist’s impression of the solar-powered rover exploring Reiner Gamma on the Moon with NASA-funded Lunar Vertex instruments. The cylindrical structure on top is the mast for the magnetometer. [Credits: JHU APL / Lunar Outpost / Ben Smith](https://www.jhuapl.edu/NewsStory/211018b-lunar-vertex) The mission will help us [better understand](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/decadal/leag/GeorgianaYKramer.pdf) the Moon’s past magnetic field as well as the effects of [solar wind](https://www.planetary.org/worlds/the-sun) and [bombarding micrometeorites](https://jatan.space/the-tiniest-of-impact-craters/) on planetary bodies across the solar system. The lander will also deploy NASA’s four small [CADRE rovers](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/game%5Fchanging%5Fdevelopment/projects/CADRE), which will autonomously navigate the landed region and collectively better map it than a single rover can. ## First Canadian and Australian Moon rovers After [requesting proposals](https://buyandsell.gc.ca/procurement-data/tender-notice/PW-ST-048-39535) in 2021 from Canadian companies to [build a rugged lunar rover](https://www.canada.ca/en/space-agency/news/2021/05/backgrounder---canada-moves-forward-with-plans-to-explore-the-moon.html), the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) awarded [MDA](https://mda.space/en/article/mda-csa-design-contract-lunar-rover-mission) and [Canadensys](https://www.canadensys.com/canadensys-selected-to-design-lunar-rover-concept-for-canadian-space-agency-moon-exploration) detailed design study contracts in the same year for a mission to the Moon’s south pole. An interesting and challenging requirement is for the rover to survive an entire lunar night, and be able to explore [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other resources in [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/). CSA will select either of the two companies to build the rover for the actual mission, which will launch in 2025 onboard a NASA-funded CLPS lander. In October 2021, Australia [announced its first Moon mission](https://www.industry.gov.au/news/headed-to-the-moon-the-trailblazer-program-and-nasa-space-act-agreement). Their space agency will fund a winning proposal by an Australian industry consortia this year to develop a lunar rover for a maximum cost of (Australian) $50 million. The sub 20-kilogram rover will hitch a ride to the Moon in 2026 or later onboard a NASA-funded CLPS lander as well. The semi-autonomous rover will explore the Moon’s south pole, and retrieve lunar soil for the lander, where a NASA-operated system will practice extracting oxygen from it. This mission will thus demonstrate a key step towards establishing a [sustainable human presence](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept) on the Moon. ## Roving on a volcanic dome In September 2021, NASA asked U.S scientists to [propose science instrument suites](https://nspires.nasaprs.com/external/solicitations/summary.do?solId=%7BAD1DEAD1-7060-2C93-8CD1-780AF8FC9D54%7D&path=&method=init) worth [up to $40 million](https://nspires.nasaprs.com/external/viewrepositorydocument/cmdocumentid=820831/solicitationId=%7BAD1DEAD1-7060-2C93-8CD1-780AF8FC9D54%7D/viewSolicitationDocument=1/F.10%20PRISM%5FAmend34.pdf) to fly on a 2025 CLPS mission landing on one of the two [volcanic domes of Gruithuisen](https://jatan.space/unique-volcanic-domes-of-gruithuisen/). It would greatly expand our knowledge of the Moon’s volcanic past because the domes are made up of silicic material instead of basalt, the latter of which is more common. The mission will have a rover capable of traveling up to 500 meters from the landing site. Scientists could propose up to 15 kilograms of instruments on the rover. ## The rover Artemis astronauts will drive on the Moon In August 2021, NASA [revealed more details](https://sam.gov/opp/9e777623a1f3478296f21f2f0d787113/view) on its plan to purchase a commercial rover which [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/) astronauts will drive on the Moon later this decade. Since NASA intends to sustain its return to the Moon, the agency desires the [Lunar Terrain Vehicle](https://jatan.space/what-we-know-about-artemis-ltv/) (LTV) to be far more capable than the [Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV)](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/apollo%5Flrv.html) used by Apollo astronauts, and more sophisticated than even the current crop of Mars rovers. The LTV, launching no earlier than 2028, will be an all-electric rover that two suited astronauts can drive on the Moon for up to 20 kilometers without a recharge. Unlike [Apollo](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/celebrating-apollo-at-50), the LTV will be used across multiple Artemis missions for at least 10 years. This means the LTV must survive frigid night-time temperatures and navigate the challenging [rugged terrain](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/SPole%5FSRidgemap%5FLOLA-Slope5m%5Fv20190515.pdf) at the Moon’s south pole. It can also explore [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) for up to two hours. When there aren’t any crewed missions to use the LTV, the rover will be remotely operated to transport up to 800 kilograms of cargo between desired points on the Moon. While we wait for NASA to solicit LTV proposals from U.S. companies sometime this year, [Lockheed Martin](https://www.lockheedmartin.com/en-us/news/features/2021/lunar-terrain-vehicle.html) and one by [Northrop Grumman](https://www.northropgrumman.com/space/lunar-terrain-vehicle) have already revealed their concepts. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f3440a5d5-829f-41ed-a692-d207e839dab2_2400x1300-jpeg.jpg) Concept image of the Northrop-Grumman-led crewed and cargo lunar rovers to be proposed for NASA’s Artemis program. [Credit: Northrop Grumman](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5Jak6yv2Hug) The LTV is just one of the two rover types part of NASA’s [Artemis Base Camp](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept), which aims to build the infrastructure necessary for at least a few astronauts to live long-term on the Moon. The other rover is a pressurized, habitable one, which would enable astronauts to explore the Moon’s south pole for up to 45 days at a time. NASA will presumably solicit proposals for this even more advanced vehicle at a later stage. --- After an excruciatingly long abandonment of over three decades, entities globally pushing the boundaries of planetary surface exploration on scales big and small seems like a worthy [return to our Moon](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/). *A [crispier version](https://orbitalindex.com/archive/2022-02-16-Issue-156) of this article has been co-published with [The Orbital Index](https://orbitalindex.com/archive), my favorite technical space newsletter. I greatly admire the persistence and quality of work Andrew and Ben display in each of their weekly issues, and am happy to have contributed to the newsletter I’ve come to rely on for years now.* --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### Moon Monday #101: Three November launches, an exciting Artemis IV mission, and more updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-101/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:19.000Z ## Lunar Flashlight to launch alongside ispace’s Moon lander in November In a delightful update, NASA announced last week that the [Lunar Flashlight](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/cubesat/missions/lunar%5Fflashlight.php) CubeSat will [launch as a secondary payload](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/jpl/nasa-s-lunar-flashlight-ready-to-search-for-the-moon-s-water-ice) between November 9–15 onboard the same SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket that will lift [ispace Japan’s first Moon lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-99/). However, ispace has announced just today that the mission will launch [no earlier than November 22](https://ispace-inc.com/news/?p=2384). Just like the lunar en-route [CAPSTONE](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/small%5Fspacecraft/capstone) spacecraft, the 14-kilogram Lunar Flashlight CubeSat will use fuel-efficient paths to and around the Moon, including taking a [ballistic trajectory](https://advancedspace.com/blt) to reach Luna and being in a [near-rectilinear halo orbit](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/a-lunar-orbit-that-s-just-right-for-the-international-gateway) after. As this highly elliptical orbit takes Lunar Flashlight just 15 kilometers above the lunar south pole, the spacecraft will use its four-laser reflectometer—a spaceflight first—and its spectrometer to identify locations and abundances of [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) inside [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/). Lunar Flashlight is part of [the slew of NASA-funded robotic missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-63/) over the next 5 years that will take specific measurements to help scientists globally get an actionable grasp on the nature of lunar water. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f16d73c70-9ef0-4d51-908d-3f4ab66af9c5_1920x1300-jpeg.jpg) Concept image showing Lunar Flashlight remotely sensing presence of water ice in a permanently shadowed region on the Moon’s south pole. [Credit: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/lunar-flashlight-selected-to-fly-as-secondary-payload-on-exploration-mission-1) Lunar Flashlight was originally supposed to fly along with [10 other small satellites](https://jatan.space/science-on-artemis-i/) on NASA’s [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/around-the-moon-with-nasa-s-first-launch-of-sls-with-orion) Moon mission but it couldn’t be completed in time for integration with the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html). (As it turns out, Artemis I itself has seen multiple delays, and NASA is now aiming for a [November 14 launch](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/10/12/nasa-sets-date-for-next-launch-attempt-for-artemis-i-moon-mission).) This led NASA to announce in June that Lunar Flashlight will [co-launch](https://www.nasa.gov/centers/marshall/news/releases/2022/nasa-marshall-team-delivers-tiny-powerful-lunar-flashlight-propulsion-system.html) with [Intuitive Machines’ first Moon lander](https://7c27f7d6-4a0b-4269-aee9-80e85c3db26a.usrfiles.com/ugd/7c27f7%5Fbc896cfc90ca4ae9a0643bfbf5ed214a.pdf) end of this year. But the latter mission has been delayed to 2023, prompting the agency to take this new launch decision. ## Artemis IV to include a Moon landing; bigger deal than it may seem Jeff Foust [reports](https://spacenews.com/lunar-landing-restored-for-artemis-4-mission) that NASA’s Artemis IV mission, aiming for launch in 2027 on the upgraded [Block 1B](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/sls%5Flift%5Fcapabilities%5Fand%5Fconfigurations%5F508%5F08202018%5F0.pdf) variant of the SLS rocket, will see a lunar landing after all. NASA originally intended for Artemis IV to carry astronauts to the agency-led international [Gateway lunar station](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) and deliver the station’s ESA- and JAXA-developed [International Habitation module](https://liquifer.com/gateway-i-hab) (i-HAB), which would provide more space for crew to live, work, and conduct research in. All of that stays, with a landing now added as a separately launched mission element just like [the first crewed landing with HLS Starship](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) on Artemis III. The Artemis IV lander is likely to be an [upgraded SpaceX Lunar Starship](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-provides-update-to-astronaut-moon-lander-plans-under-artemis) rather than [its upcoming competitor](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-95/), the latter of which will start competing for future crewed landings post Artemis V. The upgraded Lunar Starship might carry 4 or more astronauts to the surface, as opposed to 2 on Artemis III, and should support surface stays of at least 33 Earth days, in principle, compared to the 7 days of Artemis III. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f05fefac2-fd6b-4248-b77b-64b768a22e22_2880x1500-jpeg.jpg) An illustration of SpaceX’s Lunar Starship that will land NASA Artemis astronauts on the Moon this decade. [Credit: SpaceX](https://www.spacex.com/updates/starship-moon-announcement/index.html) This Artemis IV update is a huge deal. In just one mission after Artemis III’s crewed Moon landing demonstration mid-decade, NASA will have upgraded its entire lunar transportation stack—from improving payload capacity to lunar orbit by 10,000 kilograms with SLS Block 1B to sending astronauts to the Gateway for the first time to demonstrating enhanced landing and potentially extended surface stay capabilities to bringing more scientifically valuable lunar samples to Earth. Of course, the catch is that Artemis IV now requires all of these elements to be concurrently ready—from the i-HAB module to the upgraded Lunar Starship and the SLS Block 1B rocket. The fact that each of its major elements are being contracted in very distinct ways by different organizations makes Artemis IV an embodiment of the beast that is NASA’s [Artemis campaign](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis). The most likely and longest delay to Artemis IV could be from the [Mobile Launcher 2](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/final%5F-%5Fmobile%5Flauncher%5F2%5Ffact%5Fsheet.pdf) required to launch the SLS Block 1B rocket. In a [scathing report](https://oig.nasa.gov/docs/IG-22-012.pdf) released in June, NASA’s Office of Inspector General (OIG) detailed the [poor progress and ballooning cost](https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/06/nasas-second-mobile-launcher-is-too-heavy-years-late-and-pushing-1-billion) of the 118-meter Mobile Launcher 2\. The OIG estimates that the launcher will be built no earlier than November 2026, after which it will need to be tested, meaning Artemis IV has a very slim chance of actually taking off in 2027\. Regardless of its exact launch year anytime before 2030, Artemis IV would be a giant leap for the agency. --- *Many thanks to [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io) for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* *Thanks also to [Adithya Kothandhapani](https://www.linkedin.com/in/adithya-k-b5066a48) and [Vishesh Vatsal](https://www.linkedin.com/in/vishesh-vatsal-3b16ba15), both from [SkyServe](https://skyserve.ai), for supporting my independent writing.* --- ## Avoiding hardware damage and conflict on the Moon On October 25, NASA’s Office of Technology, Policy, and Strategy (OTPS) [published a detailed report](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/lunar%5Flanding%5Fand%5Foperations%5Fpolicy%5Fanalysis%5Ffinal%5Freport%5F24oct2022%5Ftagged%5F0.pdf) prompting the agency and its [international partners](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html) to plan for several policy and technical challenges that could stem from the increasing Moon landing missions by entities worldwide, especially those clustered at the relatively small but [water-rich](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) south pole. The challenges range from protecting heritage sites, like [those of Apollo](https://www.nasa.gov/mission%5Fpages/LRO/multimedia/lroimages/apollosites.html), to making sure activities by one organization don’t hinder or damage the other by establishing “safety zones”. I won’t go into details here because the report’s executive summary is pretty good and straightforward, and so instead it may be more useful to highlight some recent related developments. - On December 31, 2020, the U.S. President [signed into law](https://web.archive.org/web/20210101150030/https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefings-statements/bill-announcement-123020-2) the “One Small Step to Protect Human Heritage in Space Act”, which requires NASA to add recommendations for its commercial and international partners to prevent future lunar activities from harming Apollo artifacts. This could be extended to include the pre-Apollo [Surveyor landers](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/surveyor) too. - One bit from the report caught my eye: “Ensure our understanding of navigable pathways between sites of interest is robust; if there continues to be a need to protect these pathways, identify them as “transit corridors” and ensure their protection; if fixed facilities must be placed on these corridors, make their locations known and ensure they do not block mobile assets.” - A [White Paper](https://arxiv.org/abs/2102.12312) submitted to [the 2023-2032 Decadal Survey](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-74/) reviewed our current knowledge of how plumes emitted by Moon and Mars landers interact with the surface. To protect hardware from [lander plume effects](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/game%5Fchanging%5Fdevelopment/projects/PSI), the paper strongly recommends all future NASA missions carry not just descent imagers but also instruments for specific measurements of plume effects, and that such data be public. It also called for NASA to fund the development of related lunar infrastructure such as dust-mitigating [landing pads](https://lunaroutpost.com/lunar-outpost-colorado-school-of-mines-developing-technology-for-autonomous-lunar-excavation-and-construction). - NASA has already been [looking for sufficiently elevated locations](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2021/nasa-s-artemis-base-camp-on-the-moon-will-need-light-water-elevation) for its [Artemis Moonbase](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept) that are also at least a kilometer away from the crewed and cargo landing areas. This is to protect the lunar base from huge amounts of high-speed debris that visiting spacecraft will kick off while landing. Contamination from spacecraft is also why astronauts will have to venture far away from the landing and base sites to obtain [pure surface samples](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) for science. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f0445339e-7881-4ebb-8641-dcaa16053bf4_1533x802-jpeg.jpg) Simulation showing Apollo Lunar Module’s plume effects from 5 meters above the Moon’s surface. Image shows plume gas velocity vectors colored by velocity magnitude (blue = low, magenta = high) as well as streamlines indicating strong upward flow directions in vacuum. [Credit: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/game%5Fchanging%5Fdevelopment/projects/PSI) ## ISRO really did delay Chandrayaan 3 for OneWeb Last week I argued that ISRO [pushed back the launch](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-100/) of its [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-3-prelaunch-info/) Moon landing mission to accommodate two launches of OneWeb satellites. An [r/ISRO subreddit discussion](https://www.reddit.com/r/ISRO/comments/ycxaou/chandrayaan%5F3s%5Flaunch%5Fdelay%5Fto%5Fjune%5F2023%5Fappears) now cements that as fact. - *u/Vyomagami* [points out](https://www.reddit.com/r/ISRO/comments/ycxaou/comment/itpf7vu/?context=3) that ISRO’s 2020–21 Annual Report (and indeed the [2021–22 report](https://www.isro.gov.in/media%5Fisro/pdf/AnnualReport/annual%5Freport%5Fenglish.pdf) as well) mentions Chandrayaan 3’s launch vehicle as specifically being the same GSLV Mk III that [lofted OneWeb satellites to orbit](https://indianexpress.com/article/india/isro-launches-36-oneweb-satellites-precisely-completes-mission-of-many-firsts-8225696) last week. Naturally, this snatch extends to the next Mk III and the next batch of OneWeb satellites. - In an [interview with The Hindu](https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/science-must-become-the-priority-in-future-isro-chairman-somanath/article66056657.ece) late last week, ISRO Chief S. Somanath acknowledged the above stating that space science isn’t and has never been ISRO’s priority. He did add that it must become a priority in the future along with increased budgets. As far as I can tell, this is the first time a top-level ISRO official has acknowledged the above instead of [pretending otherwise](https://jatan.space/how-to-honor-mangalyaan/). Well, it sucks to be right about this one. :( ## More Moon - Following tests related to the flight termination system this week, NASA [will transport](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/10/28/teams-on-track-for-artemis-i-rollout-to-launch-pad) the fully stacked [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) from its assembly building to the launchpad on November 4\. If all goes to plan, it will [launch on November 14](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/10/12/nasa-sets-date-for-next-launch-attempt-for-artemis-i-moon-mission) for its long-awaited [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-i) mission to send an uncrewed [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) around the Moon and back. - Hardware for NASA’s [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to) mission to carry crew around the Moon and back is progressing. The mission’s 15,000-kilogram [European Service Module](https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/space/esm)—which will provide propulsion, water, oxygen, thermal control, and electrical power to the [Orion capsule](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) hosting astronauts—has been [mated with the adapter](https://www.airbus.com/en/newsroom/stories/2022-10-first-crewed-moon-mission-gets-closer) which will connect it to Orion. The service module will now undergo a series of [space-simulating tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/) and various verification tests for its hardware interfaces. - Quantum Space, who [want to develop](https://spacenews.com/quantum-space-unveils-plans-for-cislunar-platforms) serviceable spacecraft platforms in cislunar space, says their first commercial lunar satellite QS-1 will launch in October 2024 on a 3-year mission to [scan and track hardware in cislunar space](https://spacenews.com/quantum-space-announces-first-cislunar-mission) using a high-resolution optical imager. Such capability would’ve certainly been helpful to track the rocket body that [smashed on the Moon’s farside](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/1261) earlier this year. - This month Astrobotic [opened](https://moonshotmuseum.org/2022/08/22/moonshot-museum-announces-october-grand-opening) the non-profit [Moonshot Museum](https://moonshotmuseum.org) at their facility. The museum’s flagship attraction is a large clean room window through which people can see the company’s [Moon landers](https://www.astrobotic.com/lunar-delivery/landers) and [rovers](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-93/) being built. There are also hands-on lunar exploration activities, workshops, and guidance on all possible career paths in space. ## Support Moon Monday? It takes a lot of effort and time every single week to craft this informed, exhaustive, and context-providing newsletter, which is also the only one in the world to cover global lunar updates of all kinds. I’m the sole person researching, writing, editing, publishing, and even publicizing [Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/s/moon-monday/archive). If you’ve been enjoying reading my work but have never shared it, consider posting about this one on your digital socials or sending it to your friends and colleagues? I would also appreciate donations as a show of support for my labor of lunar love. [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support) --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about)** ### Moon Monday #100: Chandrayaan 3 and OneWeb, Orion’s true cost, and more lunar updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-100/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:19.000Z *I’ve never been more proud and happy to publish a post on the Internet, for this is the 100th edition of Moon Monday. When I started the newsletter nearly 2 years ago, it didn’t seem there would be enough happening in lunar exploration to reflect on every week but I’m happy to have been so wrong. The [archive of global lunar developments](https://blog.jatan.space/s/moon-monday/archive) across exploration, science, business and policy is filled with hope and push for the future.* *I’m also pleased to share with you that Moon Monday crossed 3,000 email subscribers! Gratifyingly, a majority of my readers comprise planetary scientists and engineers, personnel at national space agencies, executives at space companies, and fellow writers & journalists, all from around the world.* **Thank you so much* to everyone who reads Moon Monday, to those who have provided feedback and shared editions, to ones who [donate](https://jatan.space/support) to directly support my work, and especially to Moon Monday’s sponsors [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io), [The Orbital Index](https://orbitalindex.com) and [Open Lunar Foundation](https://www.openlunar.org) for helping sustain this newsletter.* *If your organization too would like to sponsor this one-of-a-kind newsletter while increasing your visibility among my highly enthusiastic lunatic audience, [get in touch](https://jatan.space/connect).* *Here’s to going forward to the Moon. 🚀🌗* --- ## Chandrayaan 3 slowed down by one web of perplexing priorities ISRO has pushed the launch of India’s Chandrayaan 3 Moon landing mission from Q1 2023 to [June 2023](https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/science/chandrayaan-3-launch-in-june-next-year-says-isro-chairman/articleshow/94992898.cms). After the [Chandrayaan 2 lander](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-2-moon-landing-mission/) unfortunately [failed](http://www.planetary.org/blogs/jason-davis/vikram-apparently-crash-lands.html) to land on the Moon in 2019 during its final mission phase, ISRO has been more serious and cautious than ever prior to attempting a landing again with Chandrayaan 3\. While [the mission’s technological and scientific objectives](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-3-prelaunch-info/) haven’t changed, ISRO has made [several upgrades](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/chandrayaan-3-targeted-this-year-corrections-in-progress-hardware-realisation-almost-done/articleshow/89322779.cms) to the Chandrayaan-2-like lander such as software improvements, strengthened legs, a couple of new sensors, and better power and communication systems to increase the likelihood of sticking the landing. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fc6b9fa8a-8488-4436-a595-9e80feba2066_1500x1000-jpeg.jpg) An artist’s impression of Chandrayaan 2’s lander and rover on the Moon. Chandrayaan 3 hardware is expected to look similar. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=--8ORixBXQE) Chandrayaan 3’s launch delay, served in the unfortunately characteristic style of ISRO (officials) providing information only when asked, is the latest in a string of similarly conveyed deferrals. Just to sample a few, the mission’s launch per agency officials previously went from [Late 2020](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/chandrayaan-3-to-cost-rs-615-crore-launch-could-stretch-to-2021/articleshow/73055941.cms) to [Early 2021](https://indianexpress.com/article/technology/science/chandrayaan-3-launch-2021-without-orbiter-moon-rusting-images-6589280/) to [Early 2022](https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/chandrayaan3-launch-delayed-further-to-2022-says-isro-chief-k-sivan-101613901105054.html) to [Q3 2022](https://pqars.nic.in/annex/255/AU1413.pdf) to [Early 2023](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/2-gaganyaan-abort-tests-in-august-december-relay-satellites-next-year/articleshow/90688885.cms). However, I don’t think the latest delay can be attributed to the mission. For almost a year now, ISRO officials have consistently projected tests of the lander and other mission aspects [to be going well](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/another-chandrayaan-3-test-done-on-sunday-sslv-launch-planned-for-august/articleshow/92982060.cms) and be done [before 2023](https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/pune/instruments-onboard-chandrayaan-3-undergoing-tests-readying-for-launch-later-this-year-former-isro-chief-7744424). Moreover, it was in January that ISRO chief S. Somanath said that the mission’s *GSLV Mk III* rocket will be [ready for launch](https://www.reddit.com/r/ISRO/comments/s9w3ik/gslv%5Fmk3%5Fready%5Ffor%5Fchandrayaan3%5Fcy3%5Fpropulsion) later in the year—before the mission’s delay to Q1 2023\. This brings us to yesterday’s [successful launch of OneWeb satellites](https://indianexpress.com/article/india/isro-launches-36-oneweb-satellites-precisely-completes-mission-of-many-firsts-8225696) by the same Mk III. The next loft of OneWeb satellites to orbit will also be on a Mk III [in Q1 2023](https://www.businessinsider.in/india/news/isro-enters-into-commercial-launch-market-by-placing-36-oneweb-satellites-into-orbit/articleshow/95044564.cms), which I don’t think just happens to coincide with the previously targeted launch of Chandrayaan 3\. Since India can produce a Mk III [roughly once every 8 months](https://spacenews.com/oneweb-launch-sign-of-greater-role-for-india-in-commercial-launch-market) on average, it appears that the country seized the opportunity to offer OneWeb [prioritized rides](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L68zTAyTd0I) while meeting the company’s urgent need to replace their [now-terminated launch contract](https://spacenews.com/oneweb-takes-229-million-charge-for-canceled-soyuz-launches) with Soyuz. Sadly, this wasn’t the first time Chandrayaan 3 was deprioritized. In October 2021, The Times of India [reported](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/chandrayaan-3-may-have-to-wait-its-turn/articleshow/87066808.cms) that the mission would be delayed due to ISRO prioritizing their Gaganyaan preparations to send humans to Earth orbit. If only that was Gaganyaan’s only snatch. India’s upcoming Venus orbiter [Shukrayaan](https://jatan.space/isro-venus-orbiter-launch-2024/) has been unable to secure a GSLV Mk III for launch because the vehicle will be busy serving human spaceflight missions mid-decade. Shukrayaan mission designers are thus now looking into choosing the Mk II launch vehicle, which other than delays could reduce the orbiter’s capabilities because the Mk III is India’s most powerful rocket. Jeff Foust reports that India is working on [increasing the Mk III’s production rate](https://spacenews.com/oneweb-launch-sign-of-greater-role-for-india-in-commercial-launch-market) to an average of one every 3 months within 2–3 years so as to attract more commercial customers, and that these would be separate from the modified Mk IIIs produced for the crewed Gaganyaan program. While this could’ve been great news for [India’s growing planetary ambitions](https://jatan.space/isro-space-science-missions-2020-2025/), the increased availability of launch vehicles unfortunately seems to be restricted to commercial launches. Don’t get me wrong, I’m excited about India’s growing commercial space launches going ahead—especially as a somewhat geopolitically neutral offering—but for a nation that prides itself on its [purported space science achievements](https://jatan.space/how-to-honor-mangalyaan/), India ought to be just as confident and intentional about its planetary goals and plans. While space enthusiasts around the world cheered yesterday’s OneWeb launch, as they will for Gaganyaan, none of it needs to come at the cost of uniquely valuable space science. *Update on Oct 31, 2022: It’s [now confirmed](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-101/) that ISRO really did delay Chandrayaan 3’s launch for OneWeb.* ## NASA contracts Lockheed Martin to make 3 more Orion lunar capsules ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f72c40763-82d6-4f55-8a72-7f57b3fe1cca_2200x1400-jpeg.jpg) Artist’s impression of the Orion spacecraft and its attached European Service Module powerhouse flying over the Moon. [Credits: NASA / ESA / ATG Medialab](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2019/03/Orion%5Fand%5FEuropean%5FService%5FModule%5Forbiting%5Fthe%5FMoon) As part of NASA’s [Artemis campaign](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) to regularly send humans to the Moon, the agency has awarded Lockheed Martin a [$1.99 billion contract](https://news.lockheedmartin.com/2022-10-20-NASA-Orders-Three-More-Orion-Spacecraft-from-Lockheed-Martin) to produce 3 more [crewed Orion capsules](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) that would fly on Artemis VI–VIII missions. This leaves 6 more capsules that NASA can order for future missions per the [original 2019 agreement](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-commits-to-long-term-artemis-missions-with-orion-production-contract). For comparison, NASA procured the Artemis III–V capsules at [$2.7 billion](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-commits-to-long-term-artemis-missions-with-orion-production-contract). The cost savings chiefly come from future reusing of many components and parts of the spacecraft structure from returned capsules during initial Artemis missions. While both entities highlighted the same, it’s important to put that in context. In its [November 2021 report](https://oig.nasa.gov/docs/IG-22-003.pdf), NASA’s Office of Inspector General (OIG) highlighted that a single Orion capsule launch for [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-i) and [II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to) would cost a whopping $1 billion. This doesn’t include the $300 million of the [European Service Module](https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/space/esm), which critically provides propulsion, water, oxygen, thermal control, and electrical power to Orion. The figure also doesn’t include the [$20 billion already spent](https://www.planetary.org/space-policy/cost-of-sls-and-orion) on development costs. To make matters worse, the OIG issued a [highly critical report](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-ig-blasts-nasa-for-excluding-17-5-billion-from-orion-cost-estimate/) in 2020 on how NASA (mis)accounts for Orion costs. So while the roughly $667 million per Orion capsule for Artemis VI–VIII sounds like a good cost reduction, and is welcome, it’s not as effective in the grand scheme of things. ## More Moon - NASA has [extended the deadline](https://sam.gov/opp/e9085924e04f40d8b1b20d9451a28342/view) from November 15 to December 6 for U.S. companies to submit their [“sustainable” lander proposals](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-95/) to bid [against SpaceX’s Lunar Starship](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-provides-update-to-astronaut-moon-lander-plans-under-artemis) on all future crewed Artemis landings post Artemis V. The selection will now be in June 2023 instead of May. - Relatedly, Marcia Smith reports that former Space Shuttle Flight Director Wayne Hale, who now chairs the Human Exploration and Operations Committee of the NASA Advisory Council, is urging the agency to [avoid contracts that prevent release of public information](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/hale-urges-more-transparency-in-artemis-commercial-contracts) because companies claim proprietary rights. This applies particularly to the Public-Private crewed lunar landers mentioned above. - Jeff Foust reports that ESA [will seek €380 million](https://spacenews.com/esa-finalizes-package-for-ministerial) for its robotic lunar exploration plans at the upcoming Ministerial Council in November 2022, a meeting of government ministers from each of ESA’s 22 Member States. The majority of the requested funds are to begin development on the ambitious and versatile [European Large Logistics Lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-94/), followed presumably by ESA’s [Moonlight plans](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-98/) to build a constellation of satellites that provide communications and navigation services for hardware at and around the Moon. - Former NASA administrator [James Bridenstine](https://www.nasa.gov/about/highlights/bridenstine-biography.html), who helped NASA launch the crewed [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) lunar campaign and the [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) robotic Moon landing program, has [joined Firefly Aerospace’s Advisory Board](https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/firefly-aerospace-adds-former-nasa-administrator-james-bridenstine-to-its-advisory-board-301656935.html). Firefly is gearing up for its [first CLPS mission](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-firefly-aerospace-for-artemis-commercial-moon-delivery-in-2023) in 2024, carrying 155 kilograms of NASA payloads to the lunar surface. I’ve covered [the mission’s landing site and science](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-70/) in Moon Monday #70. - Only 2% of the named craters on the Moon are designated after women, a fact made worse when considering [the historical role of women](https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/how-do-moon-craters-get-names) in naming them. A [publicly signable open letter](https://docs.google.com/document/d/e/2PACX-1vQ93IbE-cF%5FiuWGsBqB8SAouLhr9E441eSQCfKVHSbW8ywH9-mPo4pRZ8KHjYuATAcZP2IsCNKIx-By/pub) urges the International Astronomical Union to modify its planetary naming conventions to ensure better representation for all because even well-intentioned recent efforts aren’t able to avoid biased outcomes. - James McDivitt [passed away on October 13](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/correction-apollo-astronaut-james-mcdivitt-dies-at-age-93). He commanded the [Apollo 9](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/apollo-9) mission, and was the lunar landing operations manager for Apollo missions 12 through 16. - [The time NASA figured out that our Moon is cratered all the way down](https://jatan.space/its-craters-all-the-way-down/) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f00591d98-19a5-40e0-99dc-83979307d718_1200x950-jpeg.jpg) A render of Firefly’s Blue Ghost lander descending on the Moon. [Credit: Firefly](https://firefly.com/firefly-aerospace-is-one-step-closer-to-landing-on-the-moon) Which is your favorite Moon Monday edition? I’d be curious for you to [let me know](https://jatan.space/connect). Some of mine are [#95](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-95/), [#87](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-87/), [#79](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-79/), [#70](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-70/), [#52](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-52/), [#39](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-39/), [#26](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-26/) and, of course, [#1](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-01/). 🌝 --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### Moon Monday #99: Two November launches, an instant origin scenario, prepping for future exploration, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-99/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:20.000Z ## ispace to launch for the Moon in November ispace Japan has completed [space environmental testing](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/) of [its first lunar lander](https://jatan.space/ispace-japan-m1-moon-mission/) in Germany, and is now targeting launch in the [November 9–15 timeframe](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=3682) on a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket. Mission payloads include the UAE’s 10-kilogram [Rashid rover](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirates%5FLunar%5FMission) (sporting two [high-resolution cameras](https://www.khaleejtimes.com/news/uaes-lunar-rover-to-have-french-cameras) from the French space agency), a [solid-state battery](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=2585) technology demonstration, a 250-gram [tennis-ball-sized rover](https://global.jaxa.jp/press/2021/05/20210527-1%5Fe.html) led by the Japanese space agency, [3 navigation-related payloads and services](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=2587) funded under the Canadian space agency’s [LEAP initiative](https://asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/funding-programs/programs/leap/default.asp), and more. The lander [will collect](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=3829) lunar soil samples and [transfer its ownership](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-companies-to-collect-lunar-resources-for-artemis-demonstrations) to NASA as precedence for future resource use under the U.S.-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f0cfbf4c3-6288-402a-8449-81895f3ce69d_1864x1080-jpeg-1.jpg) **Left:** Technicians prepping ispace’s first lunar lander for showtime; **Right:** The fully assembled lander at [IABG](https://www.iabg.de/en/business-fields/space) in Germany. Credits: ispace ([1](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=2499), [2](https://ispace-inc.com/news-en/?p=3682)) If ispace successfully lands the spacecraft on the Moon, it will be the first private entity, and the fourth organization in the world, to achieve the feat. It’s impressive already that ispace has managed to [raise money for the mission](https://ispace-inc.com/news/?p=2026) and bag truly varied international commercial customers, three of which involve national space agencies. While western coverage on commercial lunar landers has largely only highlighted NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) and its vendors, ispace—which is also helping partner CLPS vendor Draper [launch a farside mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-87/)—seems to have been underrated. ## A wild new proposal of an instantly formed Luna Scientists have proposed yet another addendum in an effort to solve [the mystery of our Moon’s origin](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/). While there’s a high consensus among scientists worldwide that the Moon likely coalesced from the debris of a collision between early Earth and a Mars-sized body 4.5 billion years ago, several specifics within remain questionable. One such sore thumb is the Moon having a practically identical bulk composition to Earth rather than a mix of its two parent planets. Now scientists who recently simulated the Moon-forming collision in the highest resolution to date, meaning physics is emulated with higher fidelity, find it to be an accelerated process. They find that [the Moon may have formed in hours](https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/ac8d96), not months or years, and that its primary material source was Earth’s outer layers stripped by the impact. While other models have been proposed to get an Earth-like composition for the Moon, the [authors say](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/lunar-origins-simulations) these struggle to explain several lunar properties such as the Moon’s current orbit. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f8b10b5b9-ddea-493e-befd-992210bb8b1d_2200x1240-jpeg.jpg) Snapshot from a state of the art simulation showing the aftermath of a Mars-sized planet colliding with Earth 4.5 billion years ago, which led to the Moon’s formation. In here, the smallest body orbiting Earth (leftmost) forms our Moon while the larger object slams into and becomes part of Earth. [Credit: NASA Ames](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/lunar-origins-simulations) Of course, we need to meticulously analyze [pristine mantle and crust samples](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) from diverse locations on the Moon to know if this proposal holds true. This is where NASA’s [Artemis campaign](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) is most close, as it’s expected to bring abundant lunar samples from some geologically diverse and pristine locations on the south pole. --- *Many thanks to [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io) for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* *Thanks also to [Mark Lucas](https://www.linkedin.com/in/mark-j-lucas) for supporting my independent writing.* --- ## NASA funds lunar communications studies NASA [is funding](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-contracts-to-assess-near-space-communications-capabilities) KSAT USA and SpaceLink to [conduct studies](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/nnh16zcq001k%5Fcis%5Fbaa%5Fsource%5Fselection%5Fstatement%5F2022-09-08%5Ffe.pdf) on how they can enhance and plan communications for future lunar missions as part of the agency’s [Near Space Network](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/heo/scan/services/networks/near%5Fspace%5Fnetwork/complexes). This includes bettering traditional direct-to-Earth communications, developing lunar orbital relays, and offering communications and navigation services much like what ESA is already progressing towards with its [Moonlight initiative](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-98/). Relatedly, KSAT USA’s namesake parent company in Norway [was part of](https://www.ksat.no/news/news-archive/2021/ksat-part-of-selected-consortium-for-esas-moonlight-initiative/) one of the [two consortia selected by ESA](https://www.esa.int/About%5FUs/Corporate%5Fnews/ESA%5Fadvances%5Fits%5Fplan%5Ffor%5Fsatellites%5Faround%5Fthe%5FMoon) to determine Moonlight’s feasibility. KSAT, whose several grounds stations are already part of the Near Space Network, is also establishing [a dedicated ground network](https://www.ksat.no/news/news-archive/2022/ksat-to-invest-in-antenna-network-for-lunar-missions) to (commercially) serve communications needs of the increasing number of Moon missions. Notably, the company has a [commercial agreement](https://www.ksat.no/news/news-archive/2021/ksat-to-support-intuitive-machines-missions-to-the-moon) with Intuitive Machines to provide communications for the latter’s [first](https://7c27f7d6-4a0b-4269-aee9-80e85c3db26a.usrfiles.com/ugd/7c27f7%5Fbc896cfc90ca4ae9a0643bfbf5ed214a.pdf), [second](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-to-land-water-measuring-payload-on-the-moon), [third](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-mission-to-reiner-gamma/) and all future lunar missions, most of which are part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ffac0a4a0-35bc-4854-9777-3dd233c5421d_3200x1800-jpeg.jpg) Ground stations forming NASA’s Near Space Network as of 2022\. [Credit: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/heo/scan/services/networks/near%5Fspace%5Fnetwork/complexes) ## More Moon - NASA will [target launching the SLS rocket on November 14](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/10/12/nasa-sets-date-for-next-launch-attempt-for-artemis-i-moon-mission) for its long-awaited [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-i) mission to send an uncrewed [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) around the Moon and back. The 69-minute launch window opens at 12:07AM EST (5:07AM UTC). Following ongoing [maintenance and repairs](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/10/06/inspections-underway-for-rocket-spacecraft-before-setting-launch-date) to the rocket’s [thermal protection system](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/insulation-protects-sls-from-fire-and-ice/), and recharging or replacing several batteries, the agency plans to roll [the SLS](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) to the launchpad as early as November 4. - Dennis Tito and his wife Akiko Tito [have purchased 2 out of 12 seats](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/spacex-sells-another-starship-circumlunar-mission-this-one-to-dennis-tito) on the second circumlunar mission of [SpaceX Starship](https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/starship), with the first one being Yusaku Maezawa’s “[dearMoon](https://dearmoon.earth)” targeting a 2023 launch. This gives SpaceX potentially two opportunities to fly humans around the Moon before NASA launches crew on a similar mission with [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to) no earlier than late 2024\. This isn’t a competition but the optics of it to that end cannot be ignored. - In September 2022, ESA [began training](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Training%5Fastronauts%5Fto%5Fbe%5Fscientists%5Fon%5Fthe%5FMoon) the next two astronauts—ESA’s [Alexander Gerst](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Astronauts/Alexander%5FGerst) and NASA’s [Stephanie Wilson](https://www.nasa.gov/astronauts/biographies/stephanie-d-wilson/biography)—as part of its [Pangaea campaign](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/CAVES%5Fand%5FPangaea/What%5Fis%5FPangaea) to coach future lunar astronauts in geology, a highly valuable skill in exploring the Moon and collecting samples. The last Pangaea batch saw European astronaut Andreas Mogensen, European engineer Robin Eccleston and NASA astronaut Kathleen Rubins [explore various Moon-like geological sites](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-86/) across Europe. - ESA is funding [the LEAP mission concept](https://www.europlanet-society.org/four-legged-jumping-robots-leap-to-explore-the-moon) to explore some of the most challenging terrains on the Moon, starting with the [geologically rich Aristarchus](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-44/), a [highly desired landing region](https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/PSJ/abfec6) by scientists that’s also difficult to access. The LEAP team aims to launch a versatile four-legged robot on ESA’s upcoming [European Large Logistic Lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-94/) by end of decade or early next which can hop its way out of challenging areas, with terrestrial prototype testing in lunar-like testbeds ongoing. - Fun fact: NASA’s Surveyor 6 spacecraft, which landed on the Moon in 1967, [was the first planetary hopper](https://www.drewexmachina.com/2017/11/07/surveyor-6-the-third-time-is-the-charm), having jumped post-landing to relocate. The second hoppers [were Apollo astronauts](https://www.smithsonianmag.com/air-space-magazine/mr-moonwalk-180967001). The next lunar hop could be by Intuitive Machines’ NASA-funded [Micro-Nova](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/intuitive-machines-and-nasa-finalize-contract-for-extreme-lunar-mobility-spacecraft) robot during the company’s [second mission](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-to-land-water-measuring-payload-on-the-moon) in 2023 as part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). - NASA’s recent [spectacular DART asteroid impact](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-dart-imagery-shows-changed-orbit-of-target-asteroid) reminds me of when the agency also intentionally [smashed Apollo lunar ascent modules](https://www.popsci.com/how-apollo-lunar-modules-were-smashed-for-science) on the Moon post-mission for seismic science. --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### Moon Monday #98: ESA Moonlight, a surviving CAPSTONE, Turkey’s Moonshot, community events, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-98/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:20.000Z ## ESA’s Moonlight constellation plans forge forward Why build a constellation of lunar satellites that provide navigation and communications services around the Moon? For one, a NavCom service will enable cost-effective Moon missions, as spacecraft would no longer need their own hefty communications hardware and rented ground infrastructure. Nations with smaller space budgets can take advantage of this to send their own missions. Such a service can also facilitate missions to the Moon’s farside, where [a communications relay is required](https://www.planetary.org/articles/20180615-queqiao-orbit-explainer), and even aid hardware on the poles, where Earth visibility is limited. The latter is especially useful for future rovers venturing inside [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/). Moreover, a lunar NavCom service could provide a common time reference for Moon-based fundamental physics and astronomy experiments, including for [farside radio astronomy](https://jatan.space/radio-astronomy-from-the-moon/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f8093003d-a5ba-4e9c-8d92-8c7487dc3244_1920x1080-jpeg.jpg) ESA envisions a communications and navigation service as a basis for sustained lunar exploration. [Credit: ESA](https://www.esa.int/About%5FUs/Corporate%5Fnews/ESA%5Fadvances%5Fits%5Fplan%5Ffor%5Fsatellites%5Faround%5Fthe%5FMoon) It’s with that vision, named “[Moonlight](https://www.esa.int/Applications/Telecommunications%5FIntegrated%5FApplications/Lunar%5Fsatellites)” by ESA, that the agency [funded two consortia of companies](https://www.esa.int/About%5FUs/Corporate%5Fnews/ESA%5Fadvances%5Fits%5Fplan%5Ffor%5Fsatellites%5Faround%5Fthe%5FMoon) in May 2021 to determine the feasibility of having a *commercial* lunar NavCom service. In February 2022, ESA detailed Moonlight’s [expected capabilities](https://ideas.esa.int/servlet/hype/IMT?documentTableId=45087669056462156&userAction=Browse&templateName=&documentId=335dbe1a8f262b8e3fbd02bcfb89de12), and integrated [formal community feedback](https://bsgn.esa.int/2022/02/10/lcns-call-for-ideas) on the service’s use cases and applications. Now with a good notional idea of required infrastructure for the service, ESA is asking companies/consortia from its member states, including Canada, to [indicate their interest by end of October 28](https://ideas.esa.int/servlet/hype/IMT?documentTableId=45087137952589244&userAction=Browse&templateName=&documentId=55f6abec39146b28fbc3140b91e403b5) in developing the project or its associated technologies as well as provide feedback. Based on that, ESA will formally solicit proposals in December to co-fund companies to build Moonlight by end of decade. Moonlight will be part of the proposals seeking a green light at ESA’s Ministerial Council in November 2022, a meeting of government ministers from each of the agency’s 22 Member States. [ESA will be the anchor customer](https://www.esa.int/Applications/Telecommunications%5FIntegrated%5FApplications/Wanted%5Ffirms%5Fto%5Fconnect%5Fand%5Fguide%5FMoon%5Fmissions) of Moonlight but expects companies to actively commercially provide NavCom services to public and private customers globally. To that end, ESA is also [providing up to €200,000 per study](https://business.esa.int/funding/intended-tender/lunar-economy-applications) to entities proposing viable business concepts and lunar economy applications that would benefit from or be enabled by Moonlight. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f2622ffac-2854-4360-b778-bdb251c7e6e9_1337x821-jpeg.jpg) A notional top-level system concept of ESA’s Moonlight initiative. The envisioned communications and navigation service will comprise several commercial nodes strategically placed to serve specific mission needs. [Credit: ESA](https://ideas.esa.int/servlet/hype/IMT?documentTableId=45087669056462156&userAction=Browse&templateName=&documentId=335dbe1a8f262b8e3fbd02bcfb89de12) As a pathfinder to Moonlight, ESA [signed a contract](https://www.sstl.co.uk/media-hub/latest-news/2021/sstl-signs-up-esa-as-anchor-customer-for-lunar-pat) with SSTL in September 2021 worth [$23.5 million](https://spacenews.com/esa-to-be-anchor-customer-on-commercial-lunar-satellite/) to get communications services from the company’s aptly named [Lunar Pathfinder](https://jatan.space/nasa-esa-collaborate-on-lunar-pathfinder/) orbiter. This commercial relay spacecraft [will be deployed into lunar orbit](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-esa-finalize-agreements-on-climate-artemis-cooperation) by 2025 by a Moon lander competitively selected by NASA under the agency’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). In return, ESA will let NASA use Pathfinder to relay communications between Earth and its robotic hardware on the Moon, particularly for the agency’s CLPS missions on the farside. Moonlight isn’t the only NavCom network being planned: - NASA wants a similar navigation service called [LunaNet](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2021/lunanet-empowering-artemis-with-communications-and-navigation-interoperability), which might integrate with Moonlight. - [ArkEdge Space](https://spacenews.com/japans-arkedge-space-closes-18-7-million-series-a-for-nanosatellite-projects), [Aquarian Space](https://spacenews.com/another-startup-joins-race-to-provide-high-speed-lunar-communications) and [Plus Ultra](https://ispace-inc.com/news/?p=2156) each want to build their own such network. - In April 2022, China announced intentions to [build their own NavCom constellation](https://spacenews.com/china-to-build-a-lunar-communications-and-navigation-constellation) to support their future missions and the upcoming [long-term scientific base](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-32/) on the Moon’s south pole. *Related: ESA’s November Ministerial Council meeting will also decide the fate of the ambitious and versatile [European Large Logistics Lander](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-94/).* ## Another CLASSy find by Chandrayaan 2 India’s [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) has created the [first ever global-scale sodium maps](https://www.isro.gov.in/SodiumISRO.html) of our Moon. The discovery comes from the [CLASS X-ray instrument](http://oro.open.ac.uk/29976/1/CLASS%5F2011%5FLunar%5FPlanetary%5FScience%5FConf.pdf) onboard, which is globally mapping elements at the highest resolution till date to help constrain the composition and [evolution of the Moon](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/)’s crust. CLASS previously [sensed Chromium on the Moon](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2021/pdf/2230.pdf), a first such detection in X-rays, and even detected [energetic](https://www.isro.gov.in/update/03-oct-2019/studying-earth%E2%80%99s-extended-magnetosphere-geotailplasma-around-moon) [solar events](https://www.isro.gov.in/update/23-feb-2022/chandrayaan-2-detected-solar-proton-events-due-to-high-intensity-solar-flares). Studies of lunar sodium so far have largely been via ground telescopes because the element doesn’t have a distinct signature in visible or near-infrared light wavelengths in which orbiters typically map. However, sodium does have characteristic X-rays, [which Chandrayaan 1 detected on the Moon](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Space%5FScience/European%5Flunar%5FX-ray%5Fcamera%5Fmore%5Fsensitive%5Fthan%5Fexpected) and now the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter is advancing by providing global mapping. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f283eec5c-54a1-4249-a2b7-3c991137ed56_1600x1000-jpeg-1.jpg) **Top left:** A map of sodium on the Moon as measured by the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter; **Bottom left:** The sodium average across latitudes shows increasing abundance towards the lunar north; **Top right:** Illustration of the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter; **Bottom right:** Lunar sodium atoms are either loosely bound to the surface or tightly bound to minerals within. Credits: [ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/SodiumISRO.html), [S. Narendranath, et al.](https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/ac905a) [The orbiter’s findings](https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/ac905a) plausibly explain the presence of relatively ample sodium in the Moon’s exosphere, which scientists [discovered in 2021](https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2020JE006671) forms a diffuse, comet‐like glowing tail every New Moon—it’s unfortunately much fainter than our eyes can see. CLASS’s detection of veneers of loosely bound sodium atoms across the Moon’s surface imply that solar radiation can liberate them into the exosphere with ease. This is an important step forward in better understanding such interactions not just on our Moon but on similar airless bodies like Mercury. --- *Many thanks to [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io) for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## CAPSTONE lives! On September 8, the NASA-funded and Advanced Space-led [CAPSTONE](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/small%5Fspacecraft/capstone) spacecraft [put itself in safe mode](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/09/10/capstone-spacecraft-in-safe-mode-teams-working-to-resolve-issue) after it [started tumbling](https://advancedspace.com/capstone-12sep22-update) at the end of a planned trajectory correction maneuver. Over the next couple of weeks, teams and operators [managed to](https://advancedspace.com/capstone-15sep22-update) spin-stabilize the spacecraft, and have it generate adequate power and send more telemetry for extensive analysis. Teams subsequently determined that a partially open valve in one of the eight thrusters likely caused the spacecraft to thrust whenever the propulsion system was pressurized, and have uploaded new commands to ignore that thruster and successfully [regained full, 3-axis attitude control](https://advancedspace.com/capstone-mission-recovery-success-update) on CAPSTONE. Teams are trying to figure out how to operate the spacecraft despite the faulty valve while trying to fix the latter. The good news is CAPSTONE remains on its intended [fuel-saving ballistic transfer](https://advancedspace.com/blt) to the Moon for orbital capture on November 13, so the mission is still on. ## Turkey’s first Moon mission is taking shape A Swedish instrument [will be onboard](https://www.irf.se/en/news/2022/10/03/swedish-space-instrument-will-study-the-moon-on-board-a-turkish-spacecraft) Turkey’s first Moon mission, the AYAP-1 orbiter. By analyzing how highly energetic neutral atoms in [the solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) slam the Moon’s surface and get reflected, the instrument will be able to study surface elements as well as local magnetic fields. Not much is known about Turkey’s AYAP-1 mission itself though. The spacecraft will roughly be in a 100 kilometers circular lunar orbit for at least three months, and likely launch no earlier than 2024. The Swedish instrument onboard is the successor of the [SARA](https://www.spl.gov.in/SPL/index.php/advanced-technologies/chandrayaan-1/sara) instrument onboard India’s [Chandrayaan 1](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/) Moon mission but has approximately seven times higher spatial resolution, which will be especially useful for studying [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/). SARA helped scientists [better estimate the amount and distribution of water or hydroxyl](https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/10/091015091605.htm) locked in the soil across the Moon, which proved timely for ESA’s [BepiColombo mission](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/bepicolombo) to Mercury carrying two similar water-detecting instruments. ## More Moon - South Korea’s [first lunar orbiter KPLO](https://jatan.space/kplo/) has crossed its furthest point from Earth at 1.56 million kilometers away, and remains on track to [arch its way back](https://www.kari.re.kr/eng/kariimg/view.do?idx=1523&mno=sub05%5F01&img%5Fgbn=PHO) to the Moon—like CAPSTONE—for orbital capture on December 16\. Teams operating NASA’s ultra-sensitive [ShadowCam](http://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/about) onboard have acquired nearly 100 dark space images [to calibrate the camera](http://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/news/1268) ahead of its much awaited novel views of literally *seeing* inside [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) of our cosmic neighbor. - Remember when researchers [grew plants in Apollo lunar soil](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/biological-physical/scientists-grow-plants-in-soil-from-the-moon)? The lead scientists [discuss more of the work](https://www.nasa.gov/johnson/HWHAP/moon-farming) in a recent episode of *Houston, We Have a Podcast*. - Engineers keep the lunar-bound [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft)’s more than 11 kilometers of cabling [organized with tie-wraps](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2022/10/Cables%5Ftie-wraps%5Fand%5Fno%5Fstep). ## Upcoming Events This month and next will see members of the global lunar community convene at many key events that help shape exploration of our Moon. - October 13–15: [International Lunar Search and Rescue Conference](https://www.iaassconference2022.space-safety.org) - October 14: [Lunar Surface Science Workshop 18](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lunarsurface2020), Implementing a Coordinated Lunar Resource Evalun Campaign - October 26–28: [Apollo 17 - ANGSA Workshop](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/ANGSAApollo17%5F2022) - November 1–2: [Inclusion Plan Best Practices Workshop](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/inclusionplan2022) (By NASA SMD) - November 2–4: [Lunar Polar Volatiles Conference](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lunarpolar2022) - November 2–3: [LSIC Fall Meeting](https://lsic.jhuapl.edu/Events/Agenda/index.php?id=350) - November 8-10: [6th Global Moon Village Workshop & Symposium](https://moonvillageassociation.org/6th-global-moon-village-workshop-symposium) - November 22–23: [ESA’s Ministerial Council Meeting](https://vision.esa.int/cm22) Mentioning this list here is a result of a related suggestion by [Michael Nord](https://www.linkedin.com/in/michael-nord-a90994105) to have a centralized “Lunar Events Calendar”. I thought merely listing these frenzied happenings for now would help gauge community interest in Moon Monday providing such a thing. While the exhaustive [Downrange](https://www.spacecalendar.com/downrange) by *Space Calendar* and Marcia Smith’s excellent [Events Calendar](https://spacepolicyonline.com/events) already exist, their coverage of everything space can be too noisy for lunar-specific needs. These also sometimes lack mentions of events that might be too niche for their purposes. So let me know if you found my events listing useful with the poll below. *Also, a related reminder that I’m on a [lunar discussion panel](https://us06web.zoom.us/webinar/register/WN%5FjSeKyZ0-TDaWttoa6tiRAQ) with the Australian Space Agency on October 13\. If you’re interested in Indian and [Australian lunar exploration plans](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-97/), and how they (can) fit into ever-growing international lunar activities, [register here for free](https://us06web.zoom.us/webinar/register/WN%5FjSeKyZ0-TDaWttoa6tiRAQ).* --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### Reviewing Mangalyaan, India’s first Mars mission URL: https://jatan.space/reviewing-mission-mangalyaan/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:20.000Z *Here’s an attempt at a neutral overview of India’s first Mars mission and its actual impact, one which doesn’t stick to its cost effectiveness at any cost.* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fc9ef3536-bf84-41bf-8130-f5e06160790a_2048x1363-jpeg.jpg) An artist’s illustration of the Mangalyaan spacecraft at Mars. [Credit: Nesnad](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mars%5FOrbiter%5FMission%5F-%5FIndia%5F-%5FArtistsConcept.jpg) ## Why did India launch Mangalyaan? On November 5, 2013, the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) [launched](https://youtu.be/7DcSDOkDvyQ?t=1968) its first spacecraft bound for [Mars](https://www.planetary.org/worlds/mars). India built Mangalyaan (“Mars craft” in English) to study the Red planet and test key technologies required for exploring the inner solar system. The [Mangalyaan spacecraft](https://www.isro.gov.in/Spacecraft/mars-orbiter-mission-spacecraft) successfully entered Mars orbit on September 23, 2014, making ISRO only the fourth space agency in the world to do so. Prior to India, only the United States, the Soviet Union and the European Space Agency (ESA) had successfully explored Mars. Mangalyaan operated for more than 7 years. Its fuel depleted in 2022, leading to loss of communications with the spacecraft and thus being subsequently [declared end of life](https://www.isro.gov.in/MOM%5FNationalMeet%5F2022SEP.html). During its mission, Mangalyaan observed various [Martian landscapes](https://jatan.space/views-of-mars-from-mangalyaan/) and studied [their composition](https://www.isro.gov.in/pslv-c25-mars-orbiter-mission/global-albedo-map-of-mars) using its five indigenous [science instruments](https://www.isro.gov.in/announcement-of-opportunity-utilising-mars-orbiter-mission-data-mcc-tis-msm-lap-and-menca-payloads-1). The bold mission wasn’t without its challenges, some of which were unique to India. ## Why did ISRO launch Mangalyaan on a PSLV rocket? ISRO originally intended to launch Mangalyaan on their Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) rocket instead of the only roughly half as powerful Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV). As with most [Mars missions](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/every-mars-mission), a rocket as powerful as a GSLV could’ve boosted Mangalyaan out of Earth orbit and onto an interplanetary trajectory to the Red planet. But the rocket [suffered two failures in 2010](https://www.planetary.org/articles/20130729-india-prepares-to-return), just as Mangalyaan was being conceptualized. Fixing the identified issues in the rocket’s design and preparing for another launch could take at least 3 years, placing it eerily close to the time-sensitive November 2013 launch window for Mars. The next launch opportunity was in 2016 so ISRO decided to launch Mangalyaan on a PSLV rocket in 2013 instead. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9cc04a6b-6591-4d4b-98a6-af22eb90ea87_1594x1126-jpeg.jpg) Launch of the Mangalyaan spacecraft onboard a PSLV rocket on November 5, 2013\. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/pslv-c25-mars-orbiter-mission/pslv-c25-mars-orbiter-mission-gallery) However, the PSLV could only place Mangalyaan in a [highly elliptical Earth orbit](https://www.isro.gov.in/launcher/pslv-c25). It would be the spacecraft’s job to fire its engines at precise points in each orbit multiple times over the next few weeks to set itself on a trajectory to Mars, or it would miss the planet entirely. The trajectory design was highly unusual for a Mars mission but it worked. Mangalyaan escaped Earth’s shackles and was on a 300-day journey to Mars. Once the spacecraft arrived at the Red planet, it fired its engines again and [successfully entered Mars orbit](https://www.isro.gov.in/update/24-sep-2014/mars-orbiter-spacecraft-successfully-inserted-mars-orbit). ## Why was Mangalyaan in a highly elliptical orbit around Mars? Mangalyaan entered Mars orbit with its closest point to the planet at about 420 kilometers and farthest at about 80,000 kilometers, which is a much longer orbit than all its contemporary Mars missions. Over the years, ISRO has reduced the orbit’s size but it hasn’t appreciably changed relative to other missions. For example, NASA’s [Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/mars-reconnaissance-orbiter) mapping mission has a nearly circular orbit of [about 300 kilometers](https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/mars-reconnaissance-orbiter/in-depth) while ESA’s [Mars Express](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/mars-express) has an orbit of 300 by 10,000 kilometers. Mangalyaan’s large and highly elliptical Mars orbit is again tied to its choice of launching on a PSLV rocket. For the PSLV to place Mangalyaan in a desired Earth orbit, the spacecraft couldn’t be any heavier than it was—it couldn’t carry any more fuel. And because Mangalyaan has to get out of Earth orbit by itself, it needs to use its own fuel which could’ve otherwise allowed reducing its Mars orbit to enable better scientific observations and mapping capabilities. This is partly why Mangalyaan’s [scientific output has been low](https://jatan.space/missing-science-from-mangalyaan/). ISRO nevertheless continues calling the mission a great scientific success but [that’s a wrong and dangerous way](https://jatan.space/how-to-honor-mangalyaan/) to honor the spacecraft. However, the spacecraft’s orbit did give it a great vantage point to capture [full globe views](https://www.planetary.org/articles/1003-mom-mcc-data-release-2) of Mars. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f3d39fb55-2ae9-4547-a6fa-9c82a9c4bde4_2048x1800-jpeg.jpg) Global view of Mars from the Mangalyaan spacecraft, taken on October 4, 2014, from an altitude of 76,680 kilometers. [Credit: ISRO / Emily Lakdawalla](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/global-view-of-mars-from-mom-tharsis) ## What technologies ISRO developed for Mangalyaan? ISRO built upon its experience with [Chandrayaan 1](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/), India’s first lunar orbiter, to develop Mangalyaan. The Mars spacecraft is a [modified design](https://space.skyrocket.de/doc%5Fsdat/mars-orbiter-mission.htm) of the Chandrayaan 1 spacecraft structure with upgraded components as required. For example, there are more and upgraded solar panels to make up for reduced solar energy available at Mars. ISRO also developed the ability for its ground stations to communicate with a spacecraft on another planet, and learn how to operate Mangalyaan with two-way communication lags of up to 42 minutes. This gap also demanded enabling the spacecraft to make autonomous decisions for situations where there would be no time for humans to be in the loop, something that wasn’t necessary for Chandrayaan 1. ## National response The fact that ISRO successfully placed a spacecraft in Mars orbit on their very first attempt [garnered attention and praise](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars%5FOrbiter%5FMission#Recognition) from people worldwide. In India, the mission had even deeper effects, aided by ISRO’s [inaugural efforts to be active on social media](http://lighthouseinsights.in/isro-mars-orbiter-social-media.html) to make people at large aware of the mission. The mission saw several film and TV show adaptations in India, the most popular of which was the dramatized movie [Mission Mangal](https://www.imdb.com/title/tt9248972). The national government decided to feature an illustration of Mangalyaan [on the reverse side](https://www.firstpost.com/india/rs-500-and-rs-1000-banned-new-rs-2000-currency-note-to-feature-mangalyaan-raised-bleed-lines-3095624.html) of India’s highest denomination currency note of ₹2,000 (roughly $27). Writer Minnie Vaid wrote a book called [Those Magnificent Women and their Flying Machines](https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/44578585-those-magnificent-women-and-their-flying-machines), which [profiles the journeys](https://jatan.space/book-review-those-magnificent-women-and-their-stories/) of some of the key women who had leading roles in the mission. [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f5ba7a1fd-47fd-4c98-b6ea-4e97e41d191b_311x475-jpeg.jpg)](https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/44578585-those-magnificent-women-and-their-flying-machines) Book cover of [Those Magnificent Women and their Flying Machines](https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/44578585-those-magnificent-women-and-their-flying-machines) ## Future missions With the experience gained from Mangalyaan and technologies built for it, ISRO is [planning more missions](https://jatan.space/isro-space-science-missions-2020-2025/) to explore the inner solar system, such as the Venus orbiter [Shukrayaan](https://jatan.space/isro-venus-orbiter-launch-2024/) and the [Aditya-L1](https://www.isro.gov.in/aditya-l1-first-indian-mission-to-study-sun) solar observatory. ISRO is also planning to launch Mangalyaan 2 by 2026, with an upgraded orbiter and 100 kilograms of scientific instruments, but is [uncertain to be formally undertaken](http://lighthouseinsights.in/isro-mars-orbiter-social-media.html) anytime soon. A [recent talk by a veteran ISRO scientist](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zD%5FnZURYYZQ) tells us that ISRO has begun [working on Mars landing technologies](https://jatan.space/isro-has-begun-working-on-mars-landing-technologies/) too. In all, mission Mangalyaan has opened up the inner solar system for India’s fledgling planetary program. *Originally published at [The Planetary Society](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/mangalyaan).* --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### Again, Mangalyaan was never a science mission URL: https://jatan.space/how-to-honor-mangalyaan/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:20.000Z When India’s [Mangalyaan spacecraft](https://jatan.space/reviewing-mission-mangalyaan/) successfully entered Mars orbit on September 23, 2014, it made ISRO only the fourth organization in the world to achieve the feat, after the United States, the Soviet Union, and ESA. The fact that Mangalyaan was India’s first interplanetary mission, and cost just $70 million, earned it even more [international respect](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars%5FOrbiter%5FMission#Recognition) while instilling a sense of pride among Indians. But how much pride is too much pride? Here’s how ISRO officially described the Mangalyaan spacecraft’s end of life in a [release on October 3](https://www.isro.gov.in/MOM%5FNationalMeet%5F2022SEP.html) (emphasis mine): > It was also discussed \[at a national meet\] that despite being designed for a life-span of six months as a technology demonstrator, the Mars Orbiter Mission has lived for about eight years in the Martian orbit with a **gamut of significant scientific results** on Mars as well as on the Solar corona, before losing communication with the ground station, as a result of a long eclipse in April 2022\. During the national meet, ISRO deliberated that the propellant must have been exhausted, and therefore, the desired attitude pointing could not be achieved for sustained power generation. It was declared that the spacecraft is non-recoverable, and attained its end-of-life. The mission will be ever-regarded as a remarkable technological and **scientific feat in the history of planetary exploration**. Setting aside the fact that ISRO never officially communicated any efforts to keep the spacecraft alive, which is sadly not a widely expected trait from the publicly funded agency, ISRO can’t seem to stop calling Mangalyaan a “scientific” success. I’ve already laid out previously how [Mangalyaan has a huge vacuum of scientific results](https://jatan.space/missing-science-from-mangalyaan/) so please read that as well as [a response from an ex-ISRO scientist](https://science.thewire.in/the-sciences/isro-mars-orbiter-mission-limited-science-output-research-expenditure) to it followed by my [rebuttal response](https://jatan.space/debate-missing-science-from-mangalyaan-still-reflects-on-isro/) to get a broad picture of the situation. But the bottomline is that Mangalyaan’s scientific output is low simply because it was never designed to be a scientific mission. Mangalyaan was a technology demonstrator, and [an amazing one at that](https://jatan.space/reviewing-mission-mangalyaan/), right from making things work with an unusually small launch vehicle to the planetary exploration technologies it helped develop for India. But forcibly calling it something more is not just wrong but dangerous. It instills, in a large population no less, a false sense of scientific achievement as well as conditions us to have subpar expectations from [future missions](https://jatan.space/isro-space-science-missions-2020-2025/). Granted, it’s decidedly unfair to directly compare India’s nascent planetary efforts to mature endeavors from NASA or ESA. But our bar for scientific discovery can at least be our own [Chandrayaan 1](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/) or [AstroSat](https://www.isro.gov.in/Astrosat%5FSpacecraft.html), each of which for their own unique reasons have led to hundreds of published works in peer-reviewed international journals—well over an order of magnitude more than Mangalyaan. Even initial science from the ongoing [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/), while delayed, did [make progress](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-44/) in some key, specific results expected from it, such as quantifying [water on the Moon’s poles](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and the sunlit surface. Another example demonstrating the orbiter’s raw capacity is a recent [result published in a peer-reviewed, revered international journal](https://doi.org/10.1093/mnrasl/slac058), which concerns the amount of plasma in the Moon’s exosphere and is a key characterizing measurement never done by any prior spacecraft. ISRO shared another similarly vetted and unique result [on the agency’s website just today](https://www.isro.gov.in/SodiumISRO.html), October 7, about the [first ever global-scale sodium maps of the Moon](https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/ac905a). Such a steady stream of quality results has, sadly, simply never been the case with Mangalyaan. Even though I remain optimistic and excited about India’s [upcoming planetary missions](https://jatan.space/isro-space-science-missions-2020-2025/), it ultimately rests on our crucial collective ability to not forget how to correctly measure progress. But also, while we do recognize and respect Mangalyaan’s success as a technology demonstrator, ISRO [has no firm plans for a successor Mars mission](https://science.thewire.in/aerospace/isro-mangalyaan-end-mission) for years to come. The right way to honor Mangalyaan is to thrust its good forward and egress the rest. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f3d39fb55-2ae9-4547-a6fa-9c82a9c4bde4_2048x1800-jpeg-1.jpg) Global view of Mars from the Mangalyaan spacecraft, taken on October 4, 2014 from an altitude of 76,680 kilometers. [Credit: ISRO / Emily Lakdawalla](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/global-view-of-mars-from-mom-tharsis) *Republished by [The Wire Science](https://science.thewire.in/the-sciences/mangalyaan-farewell-science-results).* --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### Moon Monday #97: Australia aims for Luna, CLPS evolves towards enhance science, and more updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-97/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:20.000Z ## A look at Australian efforts to explore our Moon A little over 3 years after being founded, the Australian Space Agency [announced its first Moon mission](https://www.industry.gov.au/news/headed-to-the-moon-the-trailblazer-program-and-nasa-space-act-agreement) in October 2021\. The agency will soon competitively fund an Australian industry consortia to develop the mission’s lunar rover for a maximum cost of (Australian) $42 million. The sub 20-kilogram rover will fly to the Moon onboard a NASA-funded [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) lander, targeting a [2026 launch](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-australia-sign-agreement-to-add-rover-to-future-moon-mission). The rover will explore the Moon’s south pole semi-autonomously, and retrieve lunar soil for the lander where a NASA-operated system will practice extracting oxygen from it as a precursor to a technology needed to [sustain human presence](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept) at the Moon. *(The oxygen extractor system is [very likely](https://www.esa.int/Newsroom/Press%5FReleases/Redirecting%5FESA%5Fprogrammes%5Fin%5Fresponse%5Fto%5Fgeopolitical%5Fcrisis) ESA’s compact and power-efficient [PROSPECT](https://exploration.esa.int/web/moon/-/59102-about-prospect), which includes a drill, an oven and spectrometers to detect and study [water](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other resources.)* Matt Ryall has [more lunar rover details on his Aussie Space Cast](https://aussiespacecast.com/episode/19-australia-going-to-the-moon). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fa8247b81-b3b9-4024-9108-97507810d5f9_1800x1300-jpeg.jpg) An illustration of Australia’s first lunar rover with its sampling arm. [Credit: ASA](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GTtotRvtg6M) This U.S.-Australian partnership on the mission isn’t a one off. Australia is [a founding signatory](https://usa.embassy.gov.au/news/australia-signs-nasas-artemis-accords) of the U.S.-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html), which intends to promote cooperative lunar exploration. As NASA grows its robotic and human presence at the Moon leading to [Artemis Base Camp](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept), Australia hopes to provide lunar services in areas where they have strong expertise, such as remotely operating terrestrial mining systems, which is what convinced NASA to partner with the country in the first place. On the other hand, Australia benefitted from [consulting with NASA](https://storage.googleapis.com/converlens-au-industry/industry/p/prj1a478f5ce6581483b3d86/public%5Fassets/Trailblazer%20Consultation%20Paper.pdf) and other international experts when forging their lunar plans while also getting their rover a ride to the Moon without having to develop arduous landing technologies themselves, in the same vein as the upcoming [Canadian rover](https://www.canada.ca/en/space-agency/news/2021/05/backgrounder---canada-moves-forward-with-plans-to-explore-the-moon.html) flying on a CLPS lander mid-decade. The rover is the beginning of Australia’s lunar ambitions. Their recently released [10-year space robotics roadmap](https://www.industry.gov.au/sites/default/files/January%202022/document/robotics%5Fand%5Fautomation%5Fon%5Fearth%5Fand%5Fin%5Fspace%5Froadmap%5F2021-2030.pdf) highlights the nation’s keen interest in developing “Foundation services” necessary for achieving permanent off-Earth outposts. One such goal is to have remotely operable and/or autonomous systems that can build and maintain infrastructure on the Moon starting end of decade. By then, Australia also intends to launch reconnaissance orbiters to better map minerals, [water ice deposits](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/), and [lava tubes](https://jatan.space/underground-lava-tubes-on-the-moon-marius-hills/) below the Moon’s surface. To that end, Australia [recently funded](https://business.gov.au/grants-and-programs/moon-to-mars-initiative-demonstrator-feasibility-grants/grant-recipients) the development of an [advanced, unique ground penetrating radar prototype](https://www.rmit.edu.au/news/all-news/2021/jun/maprad-radar), which despite being ten times smaller than existing systems can see almost twice as deep. The aforementioned roadmap document also states that before sending their first lunar rover, Australia will build a number of facilities across the country to allow testing lunar technologies in Moon-resembling environments, including natural geological sites like [Undara’s grand lava tubes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undara%5FVolcanic%5FNational%5FPark), before flying on actual missions so as to reduce risk and accelerate development. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f12b59489-4a54-4abe-af45-e794614f44d6_2500x1200-jpeg.jpg) An artist’s illustration of the implementation of Australia’s vision for lunar infrastructure. [Credit: ASA](https://www.industry.gov.au/sites/default/files/January%202022/document/robotics%5Fand%5Fautomation%5Fon%5Fearth%5Fand%5Fin%5Fspace%5Froadmap%5F2021-2030.pdf) Australian companies and organizations are also engaging in international cooperation. Here are all lunar examples I could find. - U.S. based Intuitive Machines [signed a 5-year agreement](https://www.csiro.au/en/news/News-releases/2021/CSIROs-Dish-to-support-one-of-the-first-commercial-Moon-landings) with Australia’s CSIRO last year to use their high-bandwidth [Parkes Radio telescope](https://www.csiro.au/en/about/facilities-collections/ATNF/Parkes-radio-telescope) for spacecraft communications during Intuitive Machines’ lunar missions, most of which will fly under NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). - A consortium of Australian companies led by small-satellite developer Fleet Space Technologies plan to [send nano-satellites to the Moon](https://www.7sisters.com.au) onboard [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to) in 2024 to search for abundant, accessible water. Their second mission in a later Artemis flight will deploy a constellation of larger satellites in lunar orbit. - Australian EXPLOR Space and the University of Technology Sydney are [collaborating with ispace and Stardust Canada](https://ispace-inc.com/news/?p=2062) to build a Moon mining rover. - The Australian Space Agency is helping the country’s businesses by [providing grants](https://business.gov.au/grants-and-programs/moon-to-mars-supply-chain-capability-improvement-grants) to build capacity to deliver lunar-related products and services into domestic and international supply chains. Considering everything mentioned so far, it’s imperative to circle back to Australia’s signing of the U.S.-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html). The Accords, [controversially](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/do-nasas-lunar-exploration-rules-violate-space-law), intend to set precedence for local resource extraction on the Moon, which can put its signatories [at odds](https://www.lawfareblog.com/artemis-accords-step-toward-international-cooperation-or-further-competition) with the [1967 Outer Space Treaty](https://unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/introouterspacetreaty.html), and most certainly in conflict with [The Moon Treaty](https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/moon-agreement.html), which curiously [Australia has signed too](https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/why-did-australia-sign-moon-treaty). It will be interesting to see with time how Australia acts with regards to all of these international commitments. *Related announcement: I’m humbled to be on a [lunar discussion panel](https://us06web.zoom.us/webinar/register/WN%5FjSeKyZ0-TDaWttoa6tiRAQ) on October 13 with the Australian Space Agency! If you’re interested in Indian and Australian lunar exploration plans, and how they (can) fit into ever-growing international activities on and around the Moon, [register here for free](https://us06web.zoom.us/webinar/register/WN%5FjSeKyZ0-TDaWttoa6tiRAQ).* [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f95321d22-9eea-49a9-9ec3-6ea4e3ac44b5_1024x724-jpeg.jpg)](https://us06web.zoom.us/webinar/register/WN%5FjSeKyZ0-TDaWttoa6tiRAQ) --- *Many thanks to [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io) for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ### Enhanced science on budget, enter CLPS Phase 3 NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) to send payloads to the Moon on commercial landers just entered its third enhanced science phase under the agency’s [PRISM initiative](https://science.nasa.gov/researchers/solicitations/roses-2021/amendment-22-payloads-and-research-investigations-surface-moon-prism-draft-text-released-community). In Phase 2, NASA [selected science instruments](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-new-science-investigations-for-future-moon-deliveries) to be CLPS-launched [to a lunar swirl](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-mission-to-reiner-gamma/) and the farside [Schrödinger crater](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-87/) in 2024 and 2025 respectively, followed by [two more selections](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-new-instruments-for-priority-artemis-science-on-moon) for CLPS launches in 2026\. Now NASA is [asking scientists to propose scientific investigations](https://science.nasa.gov/researchers/solicitations/roses-2022/amendment-51-f10-prism-final-text-and-due-dates) worth $50 million by end of year for a 2027 CLPS flight. So what makes PRISM 3 even better than previous calls? Scientists can now choose a landing site, instead of the CLPS vendor or NASA doing so, as long as it meets certain engineering, safety and operational requirements. [For this particular CLPS mission](https://nspires.nasaprs.com/external/solicitations/summary!init.do?solId=%7b8401954E-7021-F7A4-02D2-3F3F37643BCA%7d&path=open), scientists can propose their instruments suite to be flown to either the Moon’s nearside or farside, within 75° of the equator. Scientists can also request lunar night survival and mobility services as a requirement, with sufficient justification. Another nice inclusion is that NASA is also requiring proposers to provide an *Inclusion Plan*. NASA had originally planned to allow scientists to also leverage CLPS-lander-provided sampling systems but it [has been removed](https://nspires.nasaprs.com/external/viewrepositorydocument/cmdocumentid=897664/solicitationId=%7B8401954E-7021-F7A4-02D2-3F3F37643BCA%7D/viewSolicitationDocument=1/F.10%20PRISM3%5FFAQ%5F20220919.pdf) in [the final solicitation](https://nspires.nasaprs.com/external/solicitations/summary!init.do?solId=%7b8401954E-7021-F7A4-02D2-3F3F37643BCA%7d&path=open) citing cost and complexity challenges. However, scientists can propose sampling systems as part of their suite as always. To help scientists incorporate sampling systems in their proposals to NASA for the 2027 CLPS mission, [Honeybee Robotics has organized a workshop on October 14](https://www.eventbrite.com/e/choosing-a-sampling-system-for-your-prism-proposal-tickets-410152967567) to discuss practical considerations for not just their own sampling systems but ones in general, which I think is pretty cool. While scientists [recommended NASA via the Decadal](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-74/) to have much more prominent evolutionary jumps in CLPS capabilities, PRISM 3’s additions are wholly welcome. ## More Moon ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f022172dc-b3b6-4551-bdc6-107982aa36ac_1064x709-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of an inflatable Moonbase concept. [Credit: Pneumocell](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2020/09/Inflatable%5FMoon%5Fbase) - Last Monday NASA decided to [roll back the SLS rocket to its assembly building](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/09/26/nasa-to-roll-artemis-i-rocket-and-spacecraft-back-to-vab-tonight) after [all](https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/09/nasa-seems-to-be-in-full-send-it-mode-for-the-artemis-i-mission) due to Hurricane Ian. Teams will now inspect the fully stacked rocket, carefully replace the batteries of its flight termination system (which [isn’t possible on the launchpad](https://spacenews.com/nasa-to-assess-sls-work-and-next-launch-opportunities-after-rollback)), and replace or service parts as needed. The long-awaited [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-i) mission to send an uncrewed [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) around the Moon and back will now only [launch in the November 12-27 window](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/09/30/teams-confirm-no-damage-to-flight-hardware-focus-on-november-for-launch). - Relatedly, the four [RS-25 engines](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/fs/rs25.html) that will help power the crewed [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to) mission in 2024 were [delivered to NASA’s Michoud Assembly Facility](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/artemis-ii-rocket-engines-arrive-at-nasa-s-michoud-assembly-facility.html). Later this fall, the engines will be installed into the SLS rocket [core stage](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/multimedia/infographics/corestage101.html), which is undergoing final assembly. - Andrew Jones reports on how [China is looking for international partners for lunar exploration](https://spacenews.com/china-seeks-new-partners-for-lunar-and-deep-space-exploration), and how they omitted mentioning Russia despite their formerly announced partnership for the [ILRS scientific Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-32/). Also, a Pakistani CubeSat “ICUBE-Q” will apparently be onboard China’s Chang’e 6 sample return mission, which would make it Pakistan’s first lunar craft. - A cool new proposal to study [half-buried, inflatable lunar habitats](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2020/09/Inflatable%5FMoon%5Fbase), which sport rotating mirrors to direct sunlight to desired areas such as a greenhouse, was recently funded by ESA as part of their [Open Space Innovation Platform](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Preparing%5Ffor%5Fthe%5FFuture/Discovery%5Fand%5FPreparation/The%5FOpen%5FSpace%5FInnovation%5FPlatform%5FOSIP). - If you look up at our Moon and keep wondering where did this giant thing come from, I've summarized [how samples brought by NASA’s Apollo missions transformed our understanding](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/) of Luna’s origin, and how we can push it further. --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### Moon Monday #96: Another storm for SLS, a lunar power service, a refined Lunar-Mars vision, and more updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-96/ Last updated: 2024-07-01T12:22:56.000Z ## NASA wants the SLS rocket and its teams to withstand a storm On September 21, NASA [successfully conducted](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/09/21/artemis-cryogenic-demonstration-test-concludes-all-objectives-met) the cryogenic leak test to verify the integrity of the [newly replaced seals](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/09/09/teams-replace-seals-on-artemis-i-moon-rocket-prepare-for-tanking-test) on the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html)’s core stage, where a [persistent, large hydrogen leak](https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/09/years-after-shuttle-nasa-rediscovers-the-perils-of-liquid-hydrogen) forced the agency to scrub the September 3 launch attempt of the [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-i) mission to send an uncrewed [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) around the Moon and back. Notably, hydrogen leaks still cropped up during the test, [including at the exact same spot](https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2022/09/artemis-i-fueling-test), but engineers sufficiently controlled them by more “gently” loading the super-chilled propellents. Soon after the test, the Eastern Range approved NASA’s request to extend the battery rating of SLS’ flight termination system to allow a launch attempt on September 27 but a tropical storm nearing Florida forced agency officials to [let go of that possibility](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/09/24/artemis-i-managers-wave-off-sept-27-launch-preparing-for-rollback). And yet NASA officials want the rocket and its teams to weather the storm, instead of rolling the rocket back to its assembly building, just so they can [hope for an October 2 launch](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/09/25/weather-monitoring-and-rollback-preparations-continue). Eric Berger has an excellent report on just [how much NASA officials downplayed the storm](https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/09/nasa-seems-to-be-in-full-send-it-mode-for-the-artemis-i-mission) last week. Essentially, it’s because the rocket is fully stacked since almost a year now—meaning critical parts would soon need servicing—that NASA is in a hurry to blast the big orange rocket away from Earth. **Update:* NASA decided to* [*roll back SLS to its assembly building*](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/09/26/nasa-to-roll-artemis-i-rocket-and-spacecraft-back-to-vab-tonight) *after all. Phew.* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fe48c76cf-c109-43f3-af4e-827333f7c10a_2080x1200-jpeg.jpg) The SLS rocket is seen here heading to the launchpad from its assembly building in March 2022 for what was then a final test before the Artemis I Moon mission launch. With an impending storm against a burgeoning will to launch, SLS again finds itself between the two locations. [Credits: NASA / Kim Shiflett](https://images.nasa.gov/details-KSC-20220317-PH-KLS04%5F0087) ## Astrobotic reveals plans for first ever power grid on the Moon On September 19, [Astrobotic announced LunaGrid](https://www.astrobotic.com/announcing-lunagrid-a-commercial-power-service-for-the-moon), the world’s first commercial power generation and distribution service to enable hardware on the Moon’s poles to survive on [poorly lit terrain](https://arxiv.org/abs/1208.5587) and through the frigid nights. Quite cleverly, LunaGrid combines virtually everything Astrobotic has been tangibly building so far—[landers](https://www.astrobotic.com/lunar-delivery/landers), [rovers](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-93/), [wireless chargers](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-82/) and, of course, their nearly 10-meter tall, retractable polar solar arrays being [funded by NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/three-companies-to-help-nasa-advance-solar-array-technology-for-moon) at $6.2 million. Beginning in 2026 at the earliest, Astrobotic’s [large Griffin landers](https://www.astrobotic.com/lunar-delivery/landers/griffin-lander) will deploy vertical solar arrays on [maximally sunlit sites](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/271) at the Moon’s south pole. Each array itself can wirelessly distribute power to hardware assets approaching it, or tethered autonomy-capable CubeRovers can charge further away assets, also wirelessly as [recently ground-tested](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-82/) and supported by a [$5.8 million NASA Tipping Point contract](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/solicitations/tipping%5Fpoints/2020%5Fselections). As an aside, Astrobotic itself intends its [MoonRanger](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotics-moonranger-moves-into-final-production/) CubeRover to [demonstrate lunar night survival using their wireless charging system](https://www.astrobotic.com/cuberover-funded-for-survive-the-lunar-night-mission), also with NASA funding, on an as-yet-unannounced [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) mission no earlier than 2025. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f56011ece-99cd-40f8-b909-f3016ab88f87_2560x1440-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of elements of Astrobotic’s LunarGrid power generation and distribution service on the Moon. [Credit: Astrobotic](https://www.astrobotic.com/lunar-delivery/lunar-surface-power) Astrobotic says each solar array will include transformers and power management systems to extend capabilities beyond the array itself and thus make the LunaGrid. If Astrobotic really pulls off building a lunar power grid at even the baseline 10 kilowatts target, and crucially somehow pay for its launches, we could see numerous micro-rovers, say, by international space agencies and companies wirelessly charge themselves and live to explore another lunar day. I think there’s better potential for surface science payloads deployed in proximity to LunaGrid getting the power needed for sustained and enhanced science operations. [Lunar night surviving seismometers](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2022/pdf/1576.pdf) such as the ones flying on the [NASA-funded 2025 farside CLPS mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-87/) come to mind, which themselves could enable low-cost pathways to building the [Lunar Geophysical Network](https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/PSJ/ac0f82) that scientists [highly recommended in the latest Decadal survey](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-74/). --- *Many thanks to* [*Epsilon3*](https://www.epsilon3.io) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## NASA updates Moon to Mars objectives on feedback Last week NASA [updated](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-s-stakeholder-collaborations-help-inform-moon-to-mars-planning) the draft set of [50 one-liner, high-level Moon to Mars objectives](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/moon-to-mars-objectives-.pdf) that the agency released in May, with their aim being to act as guideposts for establishing a permanent human presence on the Moon followed by Mars. These changes came due to [community feedback](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-reviews-comments-on-moon-to-mars-objectives). Below is a broad list of changes NASA made in the [revised objectives document](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/m2m-objectives-exec-summary.pdf). - Added *Recurring Tenets* to address common themes across objectives. These broadly include enhanced international and industry collaboration, interoperable and reusable systems, responsible space activities, and leveraging low-Earth orbit infrastructure for lunar activities. - Elaborated *Lunar Infrastructure* objectives, and added an *Operations* objective of minimizing disturbance to the local lunar and martian environment. - *Exploration Science* has been renamed, divided into, and expanded as *Science-Enabling* and *Applied Science* goals. An interesting addition in the latter is to “Conduct applied scientific investigations essential for the development of bioregenerative-based, ecological life support systems.” - Curiously, the original fourth *Lunar Goal* to “Collect samples over a long traverse/duration in the South Pole Aitken Basin and deliver the samples to astronauts for return to Earth” was removed in favor of a totally different one pertaining to advancing our understanding of the origin of life in the Solar System by identifying the nature and evolution of habitable environments. - Added a *Heliophysics Goal*: “Determine the history of the Sun and solar system as recorded in the lunar and Martian regolith.” - Added two *Biological Sciences Goals* pertaining to crew health and performance on long-term “Mars-class” missions. - Added as a *Physics Goal* the acknowledgement of doing more fundamental physics from the Moon than only [farside radio astronomy](https://jatan.space/radio-astronomy-from-the-moon/). Most notably, NASA says it will revisit and refine these objectives each year. However, again, NASA doesn’t mention alongside or anywhere the programs and projects it has already undertaken, and is planning, to specifically meet many of these objectives. Since most changes comprise add-ons or better wording, my previous [mapping of the objectives to ongoing NASA efforts](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-78/) might be useful to look at again. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f10c26f07-6d41-474f-8e00-9071ff12a331_1600x1080-jpeg.jpg) Moon to Mars graphic. [Credit: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-australia-sign-agreement-to-add-rover-to-future-moon-mission) ## NASA makes milestone payment to ispace Europe for upcoming lunar regolith ownership transfer In 2020, NASA took another step in incentivizing the industry to build sample extraction technologies by [selecting four companies](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-companies-to-collect-lunar-resources-for-artemis-demonstrations) to collect lunar material (*collect*, not return to Earth) and transfer its ownership to the agency. This move by NASA is to set precedence for resource use under the U.S.-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html). ispace inc. Japan and its subsidiary ispace Europe were two of the selectees. Now post-review, [NASA has paid the interim milestone amount to ispace Europe](https://ispace-inc.com/news/?p=2361) whose micro-rover on ispace Japan’s [second Moon mission](https://ispace-inc.com/hakuto-r/eng) in 2024 will collect said lunar regolith. ispace Japan itself is yet to receive its milestone payment for what seems to be a proposal to collect regolith using the lander on its [first Moon mission](https://ispace-inc.com/hakuto-r/eng) launching this November. Relatedly, with growing interest from space nations around the world to acquire and use lunar resources, and [increasingly varied interpretations](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/do-nasas-lunar-exploration-rules-violate-space-law/) of what is and isn’t allowed by the [1967 Outer Space Treaty](https://unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/introouterspacetreaty.html), the Open Lunar Foundation (a Moon Monday sponsor) led the creation of [a lunar resources trust](https://breakingground.space) to demonstrate better management of resources for all. Orbit Fab intends to purchase a small amount of lunar regolith from another company, presumably from one the four NASA selectees, [and transfer it to the trust](https://breakingground.space/library/m158985x86dp26otgrhmv5g1ubi7ca) to set precedence for sustainable lunar resource management. Also related: Representatives from the 21 countries that have signed the Artemis Accords [met in person last week](https://spacenews.com/artemis-accords-signatories-hold-first-meeting) in Paris to primarily float ideas around on how to move the Accords forward in formal ways. ## More Moon - ESA has competitively [selected Astrobotic to fly a landing-precision-aiding camera](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/ESA%5Flunar%5Flanding%5Fcamera%5Fto%5Ffly%5Fto%5Fthe%5FMoon) on the same 2024 mission the company is delivering NASA’s [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) to the Moon. This will be the first ever commercial delivery to the Moon contracted by ESA though much more are expected as ESA moves hardware originally intended to fly on Russian Luna landers [over to NASA-funded lunar missions](https://www.esa.int/Newsroom/Press%5FReleases/Redirecting%5FESA%5Fprogrammes%5Fin%5Fresponse%5Fto%5Fgeopolitical%5Fcrisis). The biggest commercial delivery for ESA would be when a [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) lander carries the 280-kilogram [Lunar Pathfinder](https://jatan.space/nasa-esa-collaborate-on-lunar-pathfinder/) orbiter to the Moon. - By sending radar signals through the thin lunar exosphere to Earth and analyzing how they were affected, India’s [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) has made the first measurements of electron plasma densities in the exosphere on the Moon’s nightside, specifically in the “wake region” where [solar wind radiation](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) doesn’t directly interact with the surface. It measured, in line with theoretical predictions, electron densities [at least an order of magnitude more](https://doi.org/10.1093/mnrasl/slac058) than on the dayside where the solar wind does slam the surface! *Aside: ISRO pleasantly has* [*a decent website post*](https://www.isro.gov.in/update/07-aug-2022/dfrs-payload-onboard-chandrayaan-2-orbiter-detects-high-density-plasma-lunar-wake) *about the discovery. It’s not a NASA quality release but is much better than the previously non-existent state for decades.* - [Everything we know about the advanced rover NASA's Artemis astronauts will drive on the Moon](https://jatan.space/what-we-know-about-artemis-ltv/) - Do not forget to look up at the Moon on “[International Observe the Moon Night](https://moon.nasa.gov/observe-the-moon-night/)” on Saturday, October 1\. Actually, don’t forget to do so every week 🌝. As my contribution to this worldwide outreach effort to get people to look up at *and* to the Moon, I’ve made [several Moon projects](https://blog.jatan.space/moon-projects) for curious people from all backgrounds to learn more about our cosmic neighbor and its scientific importance, how we explore it, and browse geologically intriguing places on it. [→ My Moon Web Archives 🌗](https://jatan.space/moon-projects/) --- *All my Moon projects, including this one-of-a-kind lunar newsletter, are completely free to access, with zero ads. If you like my work to popularize lunar exploration and keep you informed of latest developments from across the globe, consider supporting.* [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support) --- **→** [**Browse the Blog**](https://blog.jatan.space/start) **|** [**About**](https://blog.jatan.space/about) ### Everything we know about the rover NASA's Artemis astronauts will drive on the Moon URL: https://jatan.space/what-we-know-about-artemis-ltv/ Last updated: 2024-04-10T09:22:53.000Z **Update on April 8, 2023:* This article has been superseded by a new one published based on later developments:* [*One giant leap for Moon rovers*](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-171/) --- In August 2021, NASA [revealed initial details](https://sam.gov/opp/9e777623a1f3478296f21f2f0d787113/view) on its plan to purchase a commercial rover which [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/) astronauts will drive on the Moon later this decade. Before soliciting proposals for the same later this year, NASA laid out the capabilities it wants this Lunar Terrain Vehicle (LTV) to have, and seeked input from U.S. companies for the same. At another such industry day held this August 30, followed by an amendment, NASA has [provided more details](https://sam.gov/opp/16c5e42788c4406d8687cb22ec5d3a70/view) on the LTV plans. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fdefe411f-5fc7-4df7-b0b3-f1b2e6423e35_2495x1655-jpeg.jpg) An artist’s concept of a next-generation lunar roving vehicle. [Credit: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-prompts-companies-for-artemis-lunar-terrain-vehicle-solutions) ## Capabilities Since NASA intends to [sustain its return to the Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-95/), the LTV will be far more capable than the [Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV)](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/apollo%5Flrv.html) used by Apollo astronauts, and more sophisticated than even the current crop of Mars rovers. - The LTV will be an unenclosed, all-electric rover that two suited astronauts can drive on the Moon for up to 20 kilometers on a 8-hour roundtrip without the rover needing a recharge. That’s roughly thrice Apollo LRV’s range and twice its drive time. - Unlike Apollo, the LTV will be used across multiple Artemis missions for at least 10 years. This means the LTV must survive frigid night-time temperatures on the Moon’s south pole every month, which can last from a few hours up to at least 150 hours even in favorably selected high-altitude locations. That’s even better than NASA’s upcoming polar-water-studying [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/), which is being designed to survive complete darkness periods of [about 96 hours](https://www.nasa.gov/viper/overview#MissionTimeline) by parking at pre-identified high-altitude spots throughout the mission. - The LTV should be able to traverse 20 degrees slopes, and in general navigate the challenging [rugged terrain](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/SPole%5FSRidgemap%5FLOLA-Slope5m%5Fv20190515.pdf) at the Moon’s south pole, which is where all currently planned Artemis surface missions will take place. Within this slope limit, the LTV should be able to spend up to two hours in [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/), where temperatures are [well below -180 degrees Celsius](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/96). Combined with the same requirement for [commercial Artemis spacesuits](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-80/), this sets the stage for astronauts exploring and bringing cryogenic samples of [pristine, precious lunar polar volatiles](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) to Earth for meticulous studies, [an identified key priority](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/artemis-iii-science-definition-report-12042020c.pdf) for Artemis science. To that end, NASA would also like the LTV to have a robotic manipulator arm for deploying science instruments, for example. Exciting stuff. - Given its criticality to astronauts being able to safely return to the lander or Artemis Base Camp, the rover’s mobility must be at least single-fault tolerant. - NASA wants the rover to be remotely operable from anywhere between the lunar surface and Earth. The agency also desires the rover to have sufficient autonomous capabilities. These requirements chiefly come from NASA’s [Science Mission Directorate](https://science.nasa.gov/about-us/science-strategy) to ensure efficient scientific use of the rover when a crewed mission isn’t ongoing, which is at least 11 months of the year! - In addition to a suited crew of two weighing 550 kilograms, the LTV must transport up to a total of 250 kilograms of cargo, science instruments, lunar samples and technology demonstration payloads between desired points on the Moon. For non-crew traverses, the LTV would be able to carry 1600 kilograms at reduced speeds. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f8f4c28c1-f4ea-4164-b6d9-be14f6961610_2640x1500-jpeg-1.jpg) Desired capabilities of the Artemis Lunar Terrain Vehicle. [Credit: NASA](https://sam.gov/api/prod/opps/v3/opportunities/resources/files/90f14b078fad4da587e2f6fbbfe60768/download?&token=) When NASA revealed these details, it intended the rover to be launched to the Moon in 2027 on a commercial lander part of the agency’s [CLPS program](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/clps). However, NASA [indicated](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-61/) in January 2022 that the Artemis V mission, [launching no earlier than 2028](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-71/), will carry the crewed lunar rover instead. While we wait for NASA to solicit LTV proposals from U.S. companies sometime this year, here are all the proposers we know of. - Lockheed Martin is [partnering with](https://www.lockheedmartin.com/en-us/news/features/2021/lunar-terrain-vehicle.html) General Motors, who helped develop Apollo’s LRV, to build an LTV-class rover sporting an [MDA-provided robotic arm](https://mda.space/en/article/mda-joins-lockheed-martin-and-general-motors-on-lunar-rover). It will be able to preposition itself near a landing site prior to astronauts arriving on future Artemis missions, and conduct autonomous science operations. - Northrop Grumman and its partners are building [an LTV-class autonomous rover](https://www.northropgrumman.com/space/lunar-terrain-vehicle) in both crew and cargo variants. - Astrolab will bid their [Flexible Logistics and Exploration (FLEX) rover](https://astrolab.space/news/blog/1). Unlike Lockheed and Northrop’s concepts, as far as we know, FLEX already has a [fully-functional terrestrial prototype](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SfT6HIc9OPw), which has been tested for mobility, crewed and remote operations, and to deploy a variety of large payloads. - Teledyne Brown Engineering, Sierra Space, Nissan North America and Bridgestone have revealed their partnership to [bid an LTV-class rover](https://usa.nissannews.com/en-US/releases/teledyne-sierra-space-and-nissan-designing-next-generation-lunar-terrain-vehicle-for-nasa) too. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f3440a5d5-829f-41ed-a692-d207e839dab2_2400x1300-jpeg-1.jpg) Concept image of the Northrop-Grumman-led crewed and cargo lunar rovers to be proposed for NASA’s Artemis program. [Credit: Northrop Grumman](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5Jak6yv2Hug) It should be noted that the LTV is just one of the two rover types part of NASA’s [Artemis Base Camp](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept), which aims to build the infrastructure necessary for at least a few astronauts to live long-term on the Moon. The other rover is a pressurized, habitable one, which would enable astronauts to explore the Moon’s south pole up to 45 days at a time. NASA will presumably solicit proposals for this even more advanced vehicle at a later stage. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f957080d7-329f-4a08-a5ff-727d4905cd02_1200x675-jpeg.jpg) Illustration showing NASA astronauts on the Moon’s south pole using different crewed rovers. [Credit: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/moon-investments-prepare-us-for-mars.pdf) The solicitations for these proposals will be published later this year on the agency’s [ROSES-2022 Blog](https://science.nasa.gov/researchers/sara/grant-solicitations/roses-2022). P.S. NASA has made a really [cool video ad](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b6r5m-IeAwQ) for the LTV. --- **→** [**Browse the Blog**](https://blog.jatan.space/start) **|** [**About**](https://blog.jatan.space/about) **|** [**Donate ♡**](https://jatan.space/support) ### Moon Monday #95: NASA seeks advanced human landers; CAPSTONE tumbles; Masten gets sold, and too many updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-95/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:21.000Z *I’m over the Moon to share that [Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/s/moon-monday/archive) is now featured as a resource on the homepage of the [Moon Village Association’s website](https://moonvillageassociation.org/).* ^\_^ *Also, so much happened in lunar exploration last week that this 2000-plus-word issue is packed with exciting news updates, and lots of context and references. To the Moon!* --- ## CAPSTONE is tumbling :/ On September 8, the NASA-funded and Advanced Space-led [CAPSTONE](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/small%5Fspacecraft/capstone) spacecraft [put itself in safe mode](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/09/10/capstone-spacecraft-in-safe-mode-teams-working-to-resolve-issue) after it detected an issue at the end of a planned trajectory correction maneuver. It turns out the spacecraft had [started tumbling](https://advancedspace.com/capstone-12sep22-update), was losing power, and experiencing periodic system resets but it ultimately managed to contact mission control in about a day. With help from NASA’s Deep Space Network, teams worked hard to stabilize the spacecraft enough to be power positive—generate more power via its solar panels than the system consumes—and have it send more telemetry. Teams are now attempting to use the available power to [warm up the propulsion system enough](https://advancedspace.com/capstone-15sep22-update) to bring it back online. This would allow attempts to de-tumble the spacecraft, regain full orientation control, accurately point the solar panels to fully charge the batteries, and thus resume nominal operations. Thankfully, since the aforementioned trajectory correction maneuver itself went as planned, CAPSTONE remains on its intended [fuel-saving ballistic transfer](https://advancedspace.com/blt) to the Moon for orbital capture on November 13, and so a recovered CAPSTONE would mean the mission is on. ## Astrobotic acquires Masten to build more for the Moon On September 13, Astrobotic announced the [acquisition of competitor Masten Space Systems](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-acquires-masten-space-systems), including much of its space technology portfolio [for $4.5 million](https://spacenews.com/court-approves-sale-of-masten-assets-to-astrobotic) following a [Chapter 11 bankruptcy filing](https://spacenews.com/masten-space-systems-files-for-bankruptcy). Astrobotic has also hired several of Masten’s employees, [including David Masten himself](https://www.linkedin.com/feed/update/urn:li:activity:6975104208920346625), bringing the combined workforce to more than 200\. The eight payloads meant to fly on [Masten’s first Moon landing mission](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-contract-to-deliver-science-tech-to-moon-ahead-of-human-missions) part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) might get transferred over to Astrobotic by the agency or be distributed among multiple CLPS flights. Astrobotic says Masten’s popular and revered [vertical takeoff, vertical landing (VTVL) terrestrial rockets](https://masten.aero/terrestrial-landers) will not only continue enabling pre-flight testing of various space technologies but that they plan to expand the service to more companies, governments, and space agencies. Two lunar-specific technologies recently tested using Masten’s VTVL rockets are the lunar-dust-characterizing [Ejecta STORM](https://twitter.com/drphiltill/status/1339993751381569537) and the low-cost sampling technology [PlanetVac](https://www.planetary.org/sci-tech/planetvac), the latter of which is set to launch on [Firefly’s first CLPS mission](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-firefly-aerospace-for-artemis-commercial-moon-delivery-in-2023) in 2024\. Astrobotic will also continue developing the suborbital [Xogdor](https://masten.aero/blog/masten-kicks-off-development-for-xogdor-rocket/), part of [a $10 million NASA Tipping Point award](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/solicitations/tipping%5Fpoints/2020%5Fselections), as their most advanced VTVL rocket, which will in particular enable validating a host of advanced lunar navigation and landing technologies. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f4a15d98b-dcff-41c8-bd4e-cda733d41c01_1200x800-jpeg.jpg) Test flight of a Masten Xodiac rocket in May 2018 with the PlanetVac sampler attached to a leg. [Credit: Masten Space / Bruce Betts / The Planetary Society](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/planetvac-xodiac-takes-flight) Less talked about though are the trove of previously mostly NASA-funded lunar technologies Masten was developing, including a [mobile rocket miner](https://masten.aero/blog/masten-designs-rocket-mining-system), a [lunar night survival system](https://masten.aero/blog/surviving-the-lunar-night-with-mastens-nite-system), [near-instantaneous landing pads](https://masten.aero/blog/mitigating-lunar-dust-masten-completes-fast-landing-pad-study) made by future landers, and more. Astrobotic says they will continue developing these technologies. But given that Masten [laid off many employees](http://parabolicarc.com/2022/07/14/cash-strapped-masten-space-furloughs-employees-moon-landing-mission-at-risk) before their Chapter 11 filing, including those exclusively working on their CLPS landing, we’ll have to wait and hope for continuity. Either way, Astrobotic as a company has gotten stronger from this deal for net good. I’d like to point out from a writer’s perspective that [Masten’s blog posts](https://masten.aero/news) related to technology milestones often [had actual hardware imagery and more non-PR details](https://masten.aero/blog/mitigating-lunar-dust-masten-completes-fast-landing-pad-study) compared to other similar companies, and so I hope that continues. ## NASA asks U.S. companies to bid sustainable landers to keep sending humans to the Moon In March, NASA announced [a change in strategy](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-provides-update-to-astronaut-moon-lander-plans-under-artemis) for one of their most important pieces in [sustaining human presence on the Moon](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept)—regularly ferrying [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) astronauts to and fro the lunar surface after [the first crewed landing with SpaceX Starship](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) mid-decade. With it, NASA extended SpaceX’s contract to co-fund another crewed landing with an upgraded Lunar Starship, which can carry 4 or more astronauts, support longer surface stays (of at least 33 Earth days), deploy more payloads, and dock with the NASA-led international [Gateway lunar station](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway). As [part two](https://www.nasa.gov/nextstep/humanlander4) of that strategy, NASA is [now seeking proposals](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-pursues-astronaut-lunar-landers-for-future-artemis-moon-missions) from U.S. companies other than SpaceX by November 15 for a similarly capable lander. The upgraded Lunar Starship and the competitor, to be chosen by May 2023, will bid on all future Artemis landings for fixed-price, milestone-based contracts, a model demonstrated to work well at the International Space Station. Blue Origin, Lockheed Martin, Northrop Grumman, and Dynetics are the [likely contenders](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-45/) for this [solicitation](https://sam.gov/opp/846a06fdcf3e408fa84ab6ac93b8cdc8/view) but we don’t yet know if and how they’ll team up among themselves. NASA has provided [detailed requirements for the proposals](https://sam.gov/api/prod/opps/v3/opportunities/resources/files/1c0f2f45dbb5482485ef791c0e9a037a/download?&token=), which says the competitor must demonstrate an uncrewed and a crewed lunar landing by 2028 to certify their system for future bids. The crewed demonstration landing two astronauts on the Moon’s south pole will be similar in scope to SpaceX’s [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) landing. Given its launch timing, Artemis V seems its likely moniker. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f00f14795-c977-4b7f-b6ba-5f19932db5b4_1874x1000-jpeg.jpg) Notional elements and baseline requirements of a crewed lunar excursion mission using a “sustainable” lander. [Credit: NASA](https://sam.gov/api/prod/opps/v3/opportunities/resources/files/49365fa938584255853066b4f86cd8e6/download?&token=) Interestingly, NASA would also like the two “sustainable” landers to support short-stay two-astronaut missions at non-polar regions across the Moon, including the farside. This may sound like a minor enhancement but is huge as it would lay the foundation for landing and living on the Moon anywhere—however briefly. However, NASA is requiring even such non-polar missions to dock with the Gateway. Moreover, as mentioned at the [LEAG 2022 Annual Meeting](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/leag2022) last month, NASA plans to complement the crewed landers and help sustain & extend lunar stays post-2030 under [Artemis Base Camp](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept) using what they’re calling “Human-Class Cargo Delivery Landers” or HDL. These landers, which could be built by a number of companies including SpaceX, should be capable of delivering 12,000 to 15,000 kilograms of cargo to the surface, including crew-critical supplies, scientific payloads, large rovers, habitat modules, and more. The [document detailing HDL operations](https://sam.gov/api/prod/opps/v3/opportunities/resources/files/5eb97cf82c7744519a9f234083c27555/download?&token=) says that docking with the Gateway is optional for them. *Phew*. Additionally, HDL landers might also do cargo or robotic missions at non-polar regions. With advanced crewed landers and human-class cargo craft for the Moon, NASA now has a public, tangible plan to meet three major [high-level Moon to Mars objectives](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-78/) the agency released earlier this year. --- *Many thanks to [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io) for sponsoring Moon Monday, which allows me to dedicate time to create detailed issues like this one.* --- ## The Moon-focused Intuitive Machines to go public ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f1ebbceb3-78b8-478f-9954-b21b2b85e274_2114x1400-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of Intuitive Machines’ lander on the Moon with NASA’s PRIME-1 drill attached. [Credit: Intuitive Machines](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/nasa-intuitive-machines-announce-landing-site-location-for-lunar-drill) On September 15, Intuitive Machines [announced plans to go public](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/intuitive-machines-to-list-on-nasdaq-through-merger-with-inflection-point-acquisition-corp) via a SPAC merger (🫧💥🤔) by January 2023\. The company expects to raise [about $300 million](https://payloadspace.com/intuitive-machines-announces-plans-to-go-public) by doing so, which would chiefly allow starting work on the Nova-D lander, which would boast up to six times more payload capacity than the 130-kilogram capable Nova-C flying the company’s upcoming three [CLPS Moon landings](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) for NASA. Given the news, I thought it might be useful to list all lunar missions and technologies that Intuitive Machines has been tangibly building so far in one place. - Intuitive Machines’ first CLPS mission will land [six NASA payloads](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/first-commercial-moon-delivery-assignments-to-advance-artemis) for [$77 million](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-first-commercial-moon-landing-services-for-artemis-program) in 2023\. Most notably, the lander’s stereo cameras will record and help quantify [how rocket plumes interact with and kick off Moondust](https://arxiv.org/abs/2102.12312) so we can better protect future surface spacecraft and habitats. - As an aside, we finally know why Intuitive Machines hasn’t yet revealed their flight lander for the mission. [Eric Berger reports](https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/09/in-a-bid-to-expand-its-moon-business-intuitive-machines-will-go-public) that the lander’s propellant tanks failed during qualification testing. The issue has since been resolved, and the lander is now in final assembly. Moreover, NASA had requested Intuitive Machines to change their landing site from near the equator to the Moon’s south pole, which necessitated more planning. - On its [second Moon mission](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-to-land-water-measuring-payload-on-the-moon) in late 2023, Intuitive Machines will deliver NASA’s [PRIME-1 one-meter drill](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/game%5Fchanging%5Fdevelopment/projects/PRIME-1) and a mass spectrometer to study [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) at [the Moon’s south pole](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-intuitive-machines-announce-landing-site-location-for-lunar-drill). The lander will also deploy [a rover](https://lunaroutpost.com/nokia-and-intuitive-machines-select-lunar-outpost-for-first-rover-mission-at-lunar-south-pole) by partner [Lunar Outpost](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-79/) to test Nokia’s [4G/LTE network](https://www.nokia.com/networks/insights/network-on-the-moon). Further, there’s the company’s own [NASA-supported, $41 million](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/solicitations/tipping%5Fpoints/2020%5Fselections) hopper onboard called [Micro-Nova](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/intuitive-machines-and-nasa-finalize-contract-for-extreme-lunar-mobility-spacecraft), which will jump around, including over small [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/), to take high-resolution images of the surface under its flight path. - Intuitive Machines’ [third Moon landing](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-mission-to-reiner-gamma/) will help study the [magnetic swirl of Reiner Gamma](https://jatan.space/swirls-on-the-moon/) in 2024 along with a rover again provided by [Lunar Outpost](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-79/). - As urged by NASA for CLPS, Intuitive Machines has [signed multiple agreements over the last two years](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-93/) to get commercial Earth communications services for all of its lunar missions. Complementing it are commercial lunar data relay satellites, with the company deploying at least one of them in every Moon flight [starting with their second CLPS mission](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/intuitive-machines-to-deploy-and-operate-first-lunar-communication-satellite-in-2022). - There’s also a fourth Intuitive Machines Moon mission, not yet selected in a CLPS bid, but with at least [one commercial customer](https://aegisaero.com/news/two-leading-houston-based-commercial-space-companies-formalize-an-agreement-to-put-a-commercial-science-and-testing-facility-on-the-moon) and likely two more [with a rideshare provider](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/im-2-south-pole-mission-adds-secondary-rideshare-spaceflight-inc) as a general customer for all possible future missions. - One of the bidders of NASA’s upcoming versatile Artemis [Lunar Terrain Vehicle](https://jatan.space/what-we-know-about-artemis-ltv/) for astronauts is Northrop Grumman, who has [partnered with Intuitive Machines](https://www.northropgrumman.com/space/lunar-terrain-vehicle) to possibly deliver the Lunar Outpost-built rover via Nova-D. - In June 2022, NASA and the U.S. Department of Energy [awarded $5 million](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-announces-artemis-concept-awards-for-nuclear-power-on-moon) to IX, a joint venture between Intuitive Machines and X-Energy, for developing an autonomous, compact and lightweight [fission surface power system](https://www.nasa.gov/mission%5Fpages/tdm/fission-surface-power/index.html) prototype for surviving long and frigid lunar nights as well as inside [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/). If selected, a flight version could launch to the Moon by end of decade. --- *A gentle reminder that this one-of-a-kind newsletter of mine covering lunar exploration, science, commercial and policy developments from around the world is absolutely free to access, and that I don’t display any ads. If you find value in what I do, consider supporting.* [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support) *If your organization would like to sponsor Moon Monday to help keep it going while increasing your visibility to my highly enthusiastic lunatic audience, get in touch.* [Contact for sponsorships →](https://jatan.space/connect) --- ## UAE and China partner to explore the Moon The UAE and China [announced their intent to collaborate](https://twitter.com/MBRSpaceCentre/status/1570732792916635651) on future Moon missions, starting with a UAE lunar rover being [onboard China’s Chang'e 7 lander](https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/CkjacBB3c4L%5FUbwNbeFPvA). Targeting launch around 2024, Chang’e 7 will consist of an orbiter and a lander, the latter of which [will likely deploy](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=CHANG-E-7) a (Chinese) rover and hopper to map resources in [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) near the landed region on the Moon’s south pole. The UAE is on a collaboration streak. The [Rashid rover](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirates%5FLunar%5FMission), UAE’s first lunar mission, is hitching a ride to the Moon’s surface on ispace Japan’s [first landing mission](https://ispace-inc.com/hakuto-r/eng/) later this year. Last year in October, the [UAE announced partnering with Israel’s SpaceIL](http://www.parabolicarc.com/2021/10/25/israel-uae-agree-to-collaborate-on-lunar-earth-observation-missions) to potentially have one of their rovers onboard one of the two SpaceIL [Beresheet 2](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-51/) landers in 2024\. Recall also that at last year’s [Global Space Exploration Conference](https://www.iafastro.org/events/global-series-conferences/glex-2021/), UAE’s space agency [revealed intents](https://www.thenationalnews.com/uae/science/uae-reveals-long-term-moon-exploration-plan-at-global-space-conference-1.1242597) to launch lunar orbiters too, and that they are looking to partner with other agencies to send Emirati astronauts to the Moon. ## More Moon - NASA is now planning to conduct the cryogenic leak test [on September 21](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/09/12/nasa-adjusts-dates-for-artemis-i-cryogenic-demonstration-test-and-launch-progress-at-pad-continues) to verify the integrity of the [newly replaced seals](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/09/09/teams-replace-seals-on-artemis-i-moon-rocket-prepare-for-tanking-test) on the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html)’s core stage, where a [persistent, large hydrogen leak](https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/09/years-after-shuttle-nasa-rediscovers-the-perils-of-liquid-hydrogen) had forced NASA to scrub the September 3 launch attempt of the [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-i) mission to send an uncrewed [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) around the Moon and back. If the test is successful, and NASA receives the pending approval from the Eastern Range to re-extend the battery rating of SLS’ flight termination system, the agency plans to launch SLS on September 27 during a 70-minute window starting at 11:37AM EDT. If the Eastern range doesn’t approve said ask, NASA will have to move the rocket back to its assembly building to replace the flight termination system’s batteries and target the October 17–31 launch window. - Thomas Zurbuchen, NASA Associate Administrator for the Science Mission Directorate, has [announced his departure from NASA](https://blogs.nasa.gov/drthomasz/2022/09/13/transitioning-to-my-next-chapter) in December. NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) to send the agency’s scientific instruments and technological payloads onboard commercial landers is [the brainchild of Zurbuchen](https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/04/nasas-other-moon-program-is-about-to-take-center-stage). - Scientists doing microscopic studies of [lunar samples](https://moon.bao.ac.cn/moonSampleMode/index.html) brought by China’s [Chang’e 5 mission](https://jatan.space/change-5-landing-site/) from near a volcanic dome in December 2020 have [discovered a new column-shaped phosphate mineral](https://www.leonarddavid.com/china-claims-new-moon-mineral-discovered) named “Chang’esite-(Y)”. - Eric Berger reports that the first flight engine for ULA’s Vulcan rocket [had a build issue and was thus sent back](https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/09/as-summer-turns-to-fall-ula-still-waiting-for-its-be-4-rocket-engines) in August from its test stand in Texas to Blue Origin’s factory. ULA therefore seems unlikely to launch Vulcan and therefore [Astrobotic’s first CLPS Moon lander](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/first-commercial-moon-delivery-assignments-to-advance-artemis) onboard in 2022\. Astrobotic’s lander itself is not yet fully assembled though, [but is close](https://www.astrobotic.com/nasas-deep-space-network-ground-testing-with-peregrine-a-success), and will need to go through a series of [space simulating tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/) before heading to the launch site. --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### Moon Monday #94: Pushing for an SLS liftoff, new spacesuits for Moonwalking, a large ESA lander, and more URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-94/ Last updated: 2024-07-22T07:24:39.000Z ## NASA pushes for September launch of Artemis I After a [persistent, large hydrogen leak](https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/09/years-after-shuttle-nasa-rediscovers-the-perils-of-liquid-hydrogen) on the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html)’s core stage forced NASA to scrub the September 3 launch attempt of the [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-i) mission to send an uncrewed [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) around the Moon and back, the agency decided to fix the issue on the launchpad itself instead of taking the rocket back to its assembly building. Last week technicians [replaced two seals](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/09/09/teams-replace-seals-on-artemis-i-moon-rocket-prepare-for-tanking-test) on the anomalous [quick disconnect interface](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oeuU%5FffBlGI&t=26s)—which feeds liquid hydrogen into the core stage—to prevent future leaks, and are now preparing to test its robustness by fully filling the rocket with super-chilled liquid propellants on September 17\. Engineers are [still investigating](https://spacenews.com/nasa-preparing-for-late-september-artemis-1-launch-attempt) what caused the leak. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f8c15f645-5676-4034-8ad0-71f121e91096_1800x1200-jpeg.jpg) Technicians work to replace seals in a quick disconnect area on NASA’s SLS rocket. [Credits: NASA / Chad Siwik](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/09/08/repair-work-underway-preparations-continue-for-next-launch-opportunity) In the meanwhile, NASA is requesting the Eastern Range to re-extend the battery rating of SLS’ flight termination system, this time by 20–25 days instead of the previous 5 days for the agency to be able to target the following [launch opportunities](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/09/08/repair-work-underway-preparations-continue-for-next-launch-opportunity): - September 23: Two-hour launch window starting from 6:47AM EDT, with Orion splash-landing on October 18 - September 27: 70-minute launch window starting from 11:37AM EDT, with Orion splash-landing on November 5 If said safety requirement isn’t met, NASA will have to move the SLS rocket back to its assembly building to recharge the flight termination system’s batteries, and target the October 17–31 launch window. If they do so, there’s an even higher likelihood that the batteries of five of the [scientific CubeSats onboard](https://jatan.space/science-on-artemis-i/) will be [unable to be retain enough charge](https://spaceflightnow.com/2022/08/23/cubesats-on-artemis-1-to-pursue-bold-missions-in-deep-space) to carry on their missions. ## The first Artemis astronauts on the Moon will wear Axiom’s spacesuits NASA has [awarded Axiom Space](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-taps-axiom-space-for-first-artemis-moonwalking-spacesuits) a baseline $228.5 million contract to provide advanced, space-qualified spacesuits and associated services for the agency’s [first crewed Artemis Moon landing mission](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) mid-decade. This move follows the agency’s [selection of Axiom Space and Collins Aerospace](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-partners-with-industry-for-new-spacewalking-moonwalking-services) in June as [bidding vendors](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-80/) for all Artemis missions until 2034\. NASA dropped developing its own [xEMU suits](https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/exploration-extravehicular-mobility-unit-xemu) in favor of said commercial competitive procurement method but has [made its research available](https://eva.jsc.nasa.gov) to accelerate development of the new suits while reducing risk. To many people’s surprise, Collins, who designed the Apollo suits, didn’t get selected despite its previous public [showcase of progress with lunar suit concepts](https://www.collinsaerospace.com/news/news/2022/06/collins-aerospace-selected-to-outfit-the-next-generation-of-space-explorers). On the other hand, Jeff Foust reports that [Axiom remains secretive of its design](https://spacenews.com/nasa-selects-axiom-space-to-develop-artemis-spacesuit) other than saying their suits are based on NASA’s xEMU ones. NASA’s [source selection statement](https://sam.gov/api/prod/opps/v3/opportunities/resources/files/008410da33b746d39c69ca232fa54bef/download?&token=) notes that Axiom bid a lower price than Collins. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f069cab41-8188-48a6-bf5a-1dedaa77f180_2750x1550-jpeg.jpg) Salient features of NASA’s xEMU spacesuits, whose research the agency is making available to U.S. companies making next-generation commercial spacesuits to be used by astronauts on Moon missions. [Credit: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/exploration-extravehicular-mobility-unit-xemu) In any case, we do know that all Artemis lunar suits must follow [NASA-defined technical capabilities and safety standards](https://sam.gov/api/prod/opps/v3/opportunities/resources/files/ecc034760ec1485b8a26b21a493de9a1/download). This means the Axiom suits must support at least six two-person Moonwalks, and release less than 100 grams of notorious lunar dust into the cabin post-moonwalks for safety. NASA wants Artemis III astronauts to venture inside [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s south pole, especially since cryogenically sampling and [bringing pristine, precious lunar polar volatiles](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) to Earth for meticulous studies is [an identified key priority](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/artemis-iii-science-definition-report-12042020c.pdf). The spacesuits therefore must let astronauts enter such regions, where temperatures are [well below -180 degrees Celsius](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/96), and function nominally for at least 2 hours. --- *A whole-hearted thank you to Moon Monday’s sponsors [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io), [The Orbital Index](https://orbitalindex.com) and [Open Lunar Foundation](https://www.openlunar.org). Their support helps sustain this one-of-a-kind newsletter covering lunar exploration, science, commercial and policy developments from around the world.* --- ## Russia’s Luna 25 Moon lander to launch in 2023 Per Roscomos Director General Yury Borisov, the launch of Russia’s [Luna 25 robotic Moon lander](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2021/pdf/2032.pdf) has been [delayed until next year](https://tass.com/science/1504355). Earlier this year, Russia completed thermovac (short for ‘thermal and vacuum’) tests on the fully assembled lander, complete with its eight scientific instruments. Landing-related tests that followed showed that the Doppler distance and velocity sensors [underperformed](https://tass.com/science/1481613), resulting in the decision to delay mission launch. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f04dd4ac3-b72b-4bb7-9698-f69272f33f60_950x649-jpeg-2.jpg) Russia’s Lunar 25 Moon lander in assembly. [Credits: Sergey Bobylev / TASS](https://tass.com/science/1393447) Luna 25’s instruments include an arm to sample material from 20 to 30 centimeters below the surface and then feed it to a laser spectrometer to determine elements and isotopes within. There’s also a neutron and gamma ray spectrometer to identify the composition of the subsurface. An ESA-provided navigation camera originally aboard the lander was [pulled away by ESA](https://www.esa.int/Newsroom/Press%5FReleases/Redirecting%5FESA%5Fprogrammes%5Fin%5Fresponse%5Fto%5Fgeopolitical%5Fcrisis) as a response to Russia’s invasion of Ukraine. The mission’s landing site, while not truly polar due to engineering constraints, is selected at about 70° South such that underground [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) can still be detected. ## On ESA’s large lunar lander proposal The upcoming ESA ministerial council meeting in November will decide the fate of the long-proposed [European Large Logistics Lander](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Exploration/European%5FLarge%5FLogistics%5FLander) (EL3), recently formally named Argonaut. If green-lit, the large 4.5 meters wide and up to 6 meters tall robotic lander to be built by Thales Alenia or Airbus will be capable of deploying up to 1500 kilograms of payload on the Moon. Argonaut’s first launch will be no earlier than 2030, and launch every 2-3 years. Its size and delivery capacity makes it larger than any existing NASA-commissioned [CLPS landers](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). Argonaut is being designed to be versatile; it can deploy and support large rover explorations, do [sample return](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Exploration/To%5Fthe%5FMoon%5Fdown%5Fsouth) missions, and specifically aid NASA’s [Artemis missions](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) with cargo supplies. While ESA originally intended for Argonaut to return any lunar samples to Earth robotically, the agency’s Director of Human and Robotic Exploration David Parker said at the [LEAG 2022 Annual Meeting](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/leag2022) last month that Argonaut would help bring samples via either crewed Artemis surface missions or the NASA-led international [Gateway lunar station](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fd7cd39d2-0f3a-4776-9f9c-1f873c8e4536_1920x1080-jpeg.jpg) Illustrations of the European Large Logistics Lander aka Argonaut. Credits: ESA ([1](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2019/11/European%5FLarge%5FLogistics%5Flander%5Flanding), [2](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2019/11/European%5FLarge%5FLogistic%5FLander%5Funloading%5Fcargo), [3](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Exploration/Landing%5Fon%5Fthe%5FMoon%5Fand%5Freturning%5Fhome%5FHeracles), [4](https://esamultimedia.esa.int/docs/HRE/Terrae%5FNovae%5F2030+strategy%5Froadmap.pdf)) Relatedly, ESA [awarded a €1 million contract](https://www.thalesgroup.com/en/worldwide/space/press-release/thales-alenia-space-wins-study-contract-develop-payload-extract) in early 2022 to a Thales Alenia-led consortium for developing a lunar oxygen-extractor demonstration payload intended [to be aboard an Argonaut lander](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FEngineering%5FTechnology/Team%5Fchosen%5Fto%5Fmake%5Ffirst%5Foxygen%5Fon%5Fthe%5FMoon). Future, more advanced resource extraction and utilization machines would also be delivered via Argonaut. In the meanwhile. Russia’s invasion of Ukraine prompted ESA to [look for a new ride](https://www.esa.int/Newsroom/Press%5FReleases/Redirecting%5FESA%5Fprogrammes%5Fin%5Fresponse%5Fto%5Fgeopolitical%5Fcrisis), instead of the previous Russian Luna 27, to test their precision lunar navigation, landing and hazard avoidance system called PILOT before the critical hardware guides Argonaut. With ESA’s recently publicly released [exploration vision and strategy document](https://esamultimedia.esa.int/docs/HRE/Terrae%5FNovae%5F2030+strategy%5Froadmap.pdf) called [Terra Novae 2030+](https://www.esa.int/terraenovae), which posits a trove of European lunar technologies, let’s hope that Argonaut becomes official at the November ESA ministerial council meeting. ## More Moon - After [successfully conducting a trajectory correction maneuver](https://www.msit.go.kr/bbs/view.do?sCode=user&mId=113&mPid=112&pageIndex=&bbsSeqNo=94&nttSeqNo=3182105&searchOpt=ALL&searchTxt=) on September 2, South Korea’s [first lunar orbiter KPLO](https://jatan.space/kplo/) is [arching its way back](https://www.kari.re.kr/eng/kariimg/view.do?idx=1523&mno=sub05%5F01&img%5Fgbn=PHO) to the Moon for orbital capture on December 16 as planned. - The NASA-funded and Advanced Space-led [CAPSTONE](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/small%5Fspacecraft/capstone) spacecraft [put itself in safe mode](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/09/10/capstone-spacecraft-in-safe-mode-teams-working-to-resolve-issue) on September 8 after it detected an issue during a planned trajectory correction maneuver. CAPSTONE remains on its intended [fuel-saving ballistic transfer](https://advancedspace.com/blt) to the Moon for orbital capture on November 13\. Teams are in contact with the spacecraft, and are working towards a solution. - Following Masten Space’s [Chapter 11 bankruptcy filing](https://spacenews.com/masten-space-systems-files-for-bankruptcy), which came after the company [laid off employees](http://parabolicarc.com/2022/07/14/cash-strapped-masten-space-furloughs-employees-moon-landing-mission-at-risk) exclusively working on [its first CLPS Moon landing](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-contract-to-deliver-science-tech-to-moon-ahead-of-human-missions), a U.S. federal court has approved on September 8 [the sale of nearly all of Masten’s assets to competitor Astrobotic](https://spacenews.com/court-approves-sale-of-masten-assets-to-astrobotic) who made the highest bid of $4.5 million. Astrobotic also plans to hire some of Masten’s employees, and the payloads meant to fly on Masten’s CLPS flight might be transferred over to Astrobotic by NASA. --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### Are planets with two stars promising places for life? URL: https://jatan.space/is-life-possible-around-two-stars/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:21.000Z Our search for planets around other stars in our galaxy has led us to discover [more than 5,000 worlds](https://exoplanets.nasa.gov/discovery/exoplanet-catalog). Some of these [exoplanets](https://www.planetary.org/worlds/exoplanets) seem to be [Earth-like](https://www.planetary.org/articles/earth-like-worlds), where surface conditions could sustain liquid water and possibly life as we know it. Even as next generation telescopes, including the [JWST](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/james-webb-space-telescope), aim to study atmospheres of such far-off worlds to assess their suitability to host life, our search for [habitable worlds](https://www.planetary.org/articles/what-is-the-habitable-zone) remains limited. Single stars like our Sun aren’t the galactic norm; at least [half the stars in our Milky Way galaxy exist in pairs](https://news.berkeley.edu/2021/02/22/binary-stars-are-all-around-us-new-map-of-solar-neighborhood-shows) as binary stars. Several are [trinary](https://bigthink.com/starts-with-a-bang/planet-orbiting-3-stars) or [more](https://exoplanets.nasa.gov/news/1672/discovery-alert-first-six-star-system-where-all-six-stars-undergo-eclipses). It begs the question: could an Earth-sized planet in a favorable orbit around two stars support life? The question is presumptuous. For it assumes that [the way in which the planets formed in our Solar System](https://jatan.space/solar-system-history-101/) is applicable to worlds around binary stars. Ample research suggests that Earth-sized worlds might have a hard time even forming in chaotic two-star systems. ## The formation conundrum In our Solar System, Moon-sized protoplanets are thought to have formed [within a million years from slowly colliding dust particles](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1973ApJ...183.1051G/abstract) in the disk of material orbiting the newborn Sun. Up to hundreds of these worlds collided and combined in the inner Solar System for about 100 million years until only four large bodies remained: [Mercury](https://www.planetary.org/worlds/mercury), [Venus](https://jatan.space/why-explore-venus/), [Earth](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/earth), and [Mars](https://www.planetary.org/worlds/mars). But this kind of large-scale accretion may not function for planets around binary stars, which have a hard time forming in the first place. The gravitational presence of an entire second star makes the disk particles orbit with much higher velocities. Instead of gently sticking on collision, they tend to break each other. Based on simulations, scientists think that even when baby planets a few hundred kilometers across form, their high velocities will likely [fragment each other on collision](https://www.aanda.org/component/article?access=doi&doi=10.1051/0004-6361/202141139). The fact of the matter is we’ve already [found](https://exoplanets.nasa.gov/exoplanet-catalog/1814/kepler-16b) [several](https://arxiv.org/abs/1210.3612) [planets](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2020/nasa-s-tess-mission-uncovers-its-1st-world-with-two-stars) in binary and even multiple star systems. How then do they exist? Are they [rogue planets](https://jatan.space/is-life-possible-on-rogue-planets/) that the combined gravities of binaries capture into orbit when they pass by too closely? In 2021, scientists simulating the nature of protoplanetary disks around newborn binary stars published a more viable explanation: the disk’s gases, like wind, can drag and slow down high velocity particles and baby planets enough in certain zones to [enable them to grow into planets](https://www.centauri-dreams.org/2021/07/28/a-path-to-planet-formation-in-binary-systems). But gravity presents another steep barrier for binary star planets. [Observations of disks surrounding newborn binary stars](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-04659-4) by the international [ALMA](https://www.almaobservatory.org/en/about-alma) radio telescope array suggests that young binary stars periodically attract more infalling material from their disks than single stars do. This triggers frequent energy outbursts from the stars, which heat up the gas and keep distorting the disk structures. As a result, only certain quieter parts of the disks may be favorable to giant planets accreting. It gets worse. The pronounced periodic heating of planet-forming disks in binary systems [could evaporate substantial water ice and dust](https://nbi.ku.dk/english/news/news22/planets-of-binary-stars-as-possible-homes-for-alien-life) on asteroids and comets, and alter the chemistry of their organic molecules—essential ingredients for life as we know it. Considering that scientists think comets and/or asteroids are what [brought water and organic materials to early Earth](https://www.nature.com/articles/nature03676), this would leave the hope for life on binary star planets literally deserted. ## The silver lining In 2017, based on extensive climate modeling, scientists published that an Earth-sized planet in the habitable zone around two Sun-like stars [could retain its water for long](https://exoplanets.nasa.gov/news/1430/earth-sized-tatooine-planets-could-be-habitable), and thus presumably be conducive for life to emerge. They found that water vapor clouds in the atmospheres of such planets can persist and regulate temperature variations stemming from the combined gravitational effects of two stars swinging a planet in and out of a circular orbit. Since then, scientists have found more [mechanisms that widen habitable zones](https://www.york.ac.uk/physics/news/departmentalnews/2019/enlarging-habitable-zones-around-binary-stars) in such systems. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f3775a33e-3122-44e4-94f0-5c3dec55d687_1280x720-jpeg.jpg) This artist's concept shows a hypothetical Earth-like watery planet around the binary stars Kepler-35A and B. [Credits: NASA / JPL-Caltech](https://exoplanets.nasa.gov/news/1430/earth-sized-tatooine-planets-could-be-habitable) Moons present another avenue. Saturn’s moon [Enceladus](https://www.planetary.org/worlds/enceladus) has a potentially [habitable underground ocean floor](https://jatan.space/saturn-moon-enceladus-habitable/), made possible by Saturn’s gravity tugging and generating friction between parts of its interior to make it warm. Moons around giant planets in binary systems could have similar conditions despite also not residing in the traditional Earth-like habitable zone. ## A habitable world right next door? All of these prospects of finding a two-star habitable world become most intriguing when we consider that the nearest star system to Earth—Alpha Centauri—has a binary pair. Being just 4.4 light years away, Alpha Centauri’s two Sun-like stars shine brightly in Earth’s southern night skies. Scientists have long been trying to detect planets around the two stars but none of the 5,000 worlds we’ve discovered conclusively belong here. It is our proximity to the bright Alpha Centauri pair that hinders our understanding of possible worlds around them. As seen from Earth, the two stars are angled such that light from one [pollutes the search](https://www.centauri-dreams.org/2022/03/15/modeling-a-habitable-planet-at-centauri-a-b) for planets around another. The good news is that our increasingly sensitive tools combined with a sufficiently large separation between the two stars from 2022 to 2035 could help astronomers detect any sizable world in the system. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fcf86d057-13c4-4066-a456-f4e7124c748e_1920x1200-jpeg.jpg) The image foreground shows the Very Large Telescope in Chile. The stellar backdrop includes the bright Alpha Centauri, whose two stars appear singular from Earth. [Credits: Y. Beletsky / ESO](https://www.eso.org/public/images/eso1702a) ## Finding another pale blue dot The [TOLIMAN](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/scientists-plan-private-mission-to-hunt-for-earths-around-alpha-centauri) space telescope developed by the University of Sydney, and privately funded by the Breakthrough Initiative along with some support from NASA, is targeting launch in 2023\. TOLIMAN will use [an advanced technique](https://www.centauri-dreams.org/2021/04/30/toliman-looking-for-earth-mass-planets-at-alpha-centauri) of astrometry—which is the precise cataloging of the positions, distances, and motions of stars—to find any Earth-sized worlds in the Alpha Centauri system. To reduce mission risk, the team successfully [launched the CUAVA-1 CubeSat](https://www.sydney.edu.au/news-opinion/news/2021/08/30/cuava-1-cubestat-launch-satellitte-spacex-space-station.html) in August 2021 as a technology demonstration. After TOLIMAN, the team wants to launch the even more sensitive TOLIMAN+ at some point to find rocky worlds around further out binary stars. The possibility of moons of binary star exoplanets harboring life ties back to our Solar System. Some of the biggest planetary science missions launching this decade, like [JUICE](https://jatan.space/esa-juice-mission-to-jupiter-moons/) and [Europa Clipper](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/europa-clipper), are dedicated to finding if underground oceans of Jupiter’s icy moons are habitable. [Future mission concepts](https://jatan.space/when-will-we-explore-enceladus-to-find-life/) such as [Orbilander](https://www.planetary.org/articles/meet-orbilander-enceladus-mission) would look for direct signs of life on Enceladus. Finding strong life signs on any of these moons would boost the idea of similar life being also possible in binary star systems. In the meanwhile, both ALMA and JWST [can detect some complex chemicals](https://nbi.ku.dk/english/news/news22/planets-of-binary-stars-as-possible-homes-for-alien-life) in protoplanetary disks around young binary stars to help scientists determine their abundance and suitability to life as we know it. Future telescopes like the massive [Square Kilometer Array](https://www.skatelescope.org/the-ska-project) and the [European Extremely Large Telescope](https://www.eso.org/sci/facilities/eelt/science/index.html) will be able to detect more and larger organic molecules. They will also spot life-conducive chemicals in atmospheres of two-star planets. Way back in the 1940s, half a century before the first exoplanet was discovered, Isaac Asimov imagined life being possible on a planet orbiting multiple stars with his novel “[Nightfall](https://micro.blog/books/9780307792396).” Now, if an Earth-like world is found and [imaged](https://www.centauri-dreams.org/2021/04/26/imaging-an-alpha-centauri-planet) right here in our cosmic neighborhood at Alpha Centauri, Carl Sagan’s famous narration of the “[Pale Blue Dot](https://www.planetary.org/worlds/pale-blue-dot)” would take on an even greater meaning. *Originally published at [The Planetary Society](https://www.planetary.org/articles/habitability-of-planets-around-two-stars).* --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### Moon Monday #93: Another Artemis I delay, Moon-dedicated ground stations, a versatile rover, and more updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-93/ Last updated: 2024-04-15T10:03:40.000Z ## A notorious hydrogen leak stops brimming SLS rocket from blasting off of Earth On September 3, NASA [scrubbed the second launch attempt](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/08/29/launch-attempt-scrubbed) of the super heavy-lift [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) for the [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-i) mission to send an uncrewed [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) around the Moon and back. While the first launch was cancelled due to engineers being [unable to verify appropriate chilling of the engines](https://spacenews.com/countdown-begins-for-second-artemis-1-launch-attempt) on the rocket’s [core stage](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/multimedia/infographics/corestage101.html) pre-launch, this time it was a [persistent large hydrogen leak](https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/09/years-after-shuttle-nasa-rediscovers-the-perils-of-liquid-hydrogen) on the core stage, variations of which have been plaguing the big orange rocket in all of its [wet dress rehearsals](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-83/). NASA is [still deciding](https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/09/years-after-shuttle-nasa-rediscovers-the-perils-of-liquid-hydrogen) whether it will need to move the rocket back into its assembly building for repairs but it’s the most likely outcome given that general health inspections, servicing of the flight termination system, and weather all constrain extended stays on the launchpad. If the engineers are able to fix the leak source while the SLS is at the launchpad, and other factors are favorable, the next launch attempt could be on September 19 but the next window from October 17–31 is far more likely. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fe48c76cf-c109-43f3-af4e-827333f7c10a_2080x1200-jpeg-1.jpg) The SLS rocket is seen here heading to the launchpad from its assembly building in March 2022 for what was then a final test before the Artemis I Moon mission launch. With the second launch scrub on September 3, the rocket again finds itself between the two locations. [Credits: NASA / Kim Shiflett](https://images.nasa.gov/details-KSC-20220317-PH-KLS04%5F0087) ## Meet Intuitive Machines’ ground stations for the Moon Following a [small representative test](https://www.intuitivemachines.com//post/intuitive-machines-validates-lunar-communication-with-msu-for-first-lunar-landing) earlier this year, Intuitive Machines has [validated their entire ground communications system](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/commercial-lunar-network-completed-ahead-of-im-1-moon-mission) to be used for its [first Moon landing mission](https://7c27f7d6-4a0b-4269-aee9-80e85c3db26a.usrfiles.com/ugd/7c27f7%5Fbc896cfc90ca4ae9a0643bfbf5ed214a.pdf) in *2023* part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). Under a Space Act agreement, NASA has been lending Intuitive Machines access to the [LRO spacecraft](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html), currently orbiting the Moon, to conduct live tests using company’s network of commercially partnered ground antennas. The network has successfully tracked LRO, and fed downlinked data back to Intuitive Machines’ Control Center in Houston. The team successfully determined LRO’s orbit too. This is a huge step for Intuitive Machines since NASA has urged CLPS companies to (commercially) solicit their own ground station services instead of using the agency’s own [Deep Space Network](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/heo/scan/services/networks/deep%5Fspace%5Fnetwork/about). Over the last two years, Intuitive Machines has signed multiple agreements to get commercial Earth communications services for all of its lunar missions. The netwror with the [Morehead State University](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/morehead-state-university-space-science-center-to-support-intuitive-machines-missions-to-the-moon)’s [21-meter space tracking antenna](https://www.moreheadstate.edu/College-of-Science/Earth-and-Space-Sciences/Space-Science-Center/Laboratories-Facilities/21M-Space-Tracking-Antenna) [Goonhilly](https://www.goonhilly.org/ges-supports-im-mission-to-moon)’s [GHY-6 deep space antenna](https://www.goonhilly.org/ghy-6-32m-x/s-band) in the UK, the Norwegian-based [KSAT](https://www.ksat.no/news/news-archive/2021/ksat-to-support-intuitive-machines-missions-to-the-moon/)’s impressive [global network of ground stations](https://www.ksat.no/ground-network-services/ksat-lunar), and [with CSIRO](https://www.csiro.au/en/news/News-releases/2021/CSIROs-Dish-to-support-one-of-the-first-commercial-Moon-landings) for the high-bandwidth capable [Parkes](https://www.csiro.au/en/about/facilities-collections/ATNF/Parkes-radio-telescope) disk in Australia. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fcf93e484-b44d-438d-ab2b-920941a58c98_1920x1080-jpeg.jpg) Ground stations to be used by Intuitive Machines for its first CLPS Moon landing mission. Credits: [Intuitive Machines](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/commercial-lunar-network-completed-ahead-of-im-1-moon-mission), [MSU](https://www.moreheadstate.edu/college-of-science/earth-and-space-sciences/space-science-center/laboratories-facilities/21m-space-tracking-antenna), [Goonhilly](https://www.goonhilly.org/ghy-6-32m-x/s-band), [CSIRO](https://www.csiro.au/en/news/News-releases/2021/CSIROs-Dish-to-support-one-of-the-first-commercial-Moon-landings) Relatedly, KSAT has been expanding their ground network to specifically serve Moon missions this decade. Notably, [KSAT is part of](https://www.ksat.no/news/news-archive/2021/ksat-part-of-selected-consortium-for-esas-moonlight-initiative/) one of the two [consortia selected by ESA](https://www.esa.int/About%5FUs/Corporate%5Fnews/ESA%5Fadvances%5Fits%5Fplan%5Ffor%5Fsatellites%5Faround%5Fthe%5FMoon) for its [Moonlight initiative](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-65/), an envisioned commercial lunar communication and navigation service. Also relatedly, CLPS competitor Astrobotic also successfully [completed end-to-end communications testing](https://www.astrobotic.com/nasas-deep-space-network-ground-testing-with-peregrine-a-success) for the first lunar landing in July, wherein Astrobotic’s Mission Control Center passed commands to the actual flight lander via NASA’s Deep Space Network, and the lander responded by sending telemetry. Intuitive Machines is yet to reveal their flight lander. --- *Many thanks to* [*Epsilon3*](https://www.epsilon3.io) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* *Thanks also to* [*Shane McFarland*](https://www.linkedin.com/in/shane-mcfarland) *for supporting my independent writing.* --- ## Meet the versatile CubeRover from Astrobotic As part of the agency’s Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) program, [NASA is funding Astrobotic to develop and test](https://www.astrobotic.com/cuberover-funded-for-survive-the-lunar-night-mission) the ability of their company’s micro-sized CubeRover to survive frigid lunar nights, *and fly* it on an upcoming CLPS mission no earlier than 2025 for a demonstration. Just as importantly, the rover will also demonstrate traversing based on lunar satellites as its communications relay, unlike the standard for small rovers to communicate via their lander wherein the line of sight constraint limits where the rover can go and how far. Having these two technologies essentially removes one of the most limiting constraints for small mobile lunar hardware—that they function only for one lunar day i.e. 14 Earth days. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fsubstack-post-media-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f4f38d65f-7991-44ff-9763-8334713537ee_1018x571-jpeg.jpg) Render of MoonRanger traversing on the lunar surface. [Credit: Astrobotic](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotics-moonranger-moves-into-final-production/) The CubeRover has more tricks up its sleeve. The rover comes in three sizes, with even the suitcase-sized 13-kilogram [MoonRanger](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotics-moonranger-moves-into-final-production) boasting autonomous navigation and mapping capabilities, something typically a no-go for micro-rovers who require humans in loop to operate. NASA decided to make use of MoonRanger’s auto-mapping capabilities by putting [a neutron spectrometer](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/where-s-the-water-two-resource-hunting-tools-for-the-moon-s-surface) onboard to detect signs of water ice below the Moon’s surface as a precursor risk-reducing mission to polar-water-studying [VIPER](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) rover. Originally scheduled to be delivered on a Masten CLPS lander, the rover will need to find another ride with [Masten recently filing for Chapter 11 bankruptcy](https://spacenews.com/masten-space-systems-files-for-bankruptcy). Astrobotic has been able to consistently bag funding for the CubeRover program and build it. Back in 2019 before the world changed forever, NASA awarded a [$2 million ‘Tipping Point’ contract](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-small-business-tipping-point-contracts-advance-small-moon-rover) to Astrobotic to ready its lightweight CubeRover for Moon exploration as early as 2022\. That’s now a happy reality. In 2020, Astrobotic in collaboration with NASA’s Kennedy Space Center [successfully tested](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/commercial-cuberover-test-shows-how-nasa-investments-mature-space-tech) a 4-kilogram 4-wheeled CubeRover inside a [120-ton lunar soil simulant testbed](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/sp-2017-01-008-ksc%5Fub%5Fswamp%5Fworks%5Fflyer%5F508.pdf) for a range of mobility tests to improve the wheel design. In November 2021, Astrobotic [opened a new “Lunar Regolith Lab”](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-reveals-new-lunar-regolith-lab-for-rover-testing) at its headquarters in Pittsburgh, which features a pit filled with about 20,000 kilograms of industry-standard GRC-1 lunar soil simulant to mimic the mechanical properties of the Moon’s surface, thereby allowing proper long-term verification of the rover’s performance. Supported by a $5.8 million [NASA Tipping Point contract](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/solicitations/tipping%5Fpoints/2020%5Fselections) awarded in 2020, Astrobotic and partners have been developing a wireless charging system for lunar hardware to survive the frigid nights. This year, they [successfully tested](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotics-wireless-charging-system-for-the-moon-can-survive-lunar-night) power transmission with prototype sending and receiving hardware on Earth under simulated lunar polar conditions, including wide temperature ranges and with lunar soil simulants in between the plates. Astrobotic will next develop a [space-qualified](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/) engineering model of the system for future use in actual lunar missions both by itself and its customers. Astrobotic’s future landers and notably their upcoming vertical solar panels, which I’ve [covered on Moon Monday previously](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-92/), might transmit power wirelessly to rovers and other hardware wanting to survive the lunar night. The first such test seems to be for MoonRanger with the aforementioned 2025 CLPS mission. ## South Korea proposes a Moon lander [Sisoo Park](https://www.linkedin.com/in/sisoopark) reports that at an August 24 public hearing, the South Korean space agency [KARI proposed building a fully indigenous Moon landing mission](https://spacenews.com/south-korea-seeks-459-million-for-lunar-lander-project) in collaboration with the nation’s nascent but fast-growing space industry. To that end, KARI seeks $459 million in funding to make a 1,800-kilogram robotic lander and a 15-kilogram rover that will be onboard the lander. The rocket lifting the lander and putting it on the path to the Moon would also be indigenously developed. The recent successful launch of South Korea’s homegrown KSLV-2 rocket surely provides a boost to the robustness of the proposal and ambition. While the recently launched [KPLO orbiter](https://jatan.space/kplo/), currently on the way to the Moon, comprises the first phase of South Korea’s lunar exploration program, the robotic Moon landing represents the second phase. KARI proposes starting work on the mission in 2024 so that they can launch seven year later in 2031\. This roughly matches the 6 years of time India required to be launched on a natively built rocket, it took them 6 years from building the indigenously developed Chandrayaan 2 lander-orbiter spacecraft stack to taking it to the launchpad. One interesting bit mentioned in South Korea’s proposal is the mission duration of one year. Considering that most lunar surface missions last one lunar day i.e. 14 Earth days, this can only imply three things. Either South Korea intends to demonstrate the rare technology of lunar night survival on the mission or that the lander will touchdown on a high-altitude polar site where there is near-constant sunlight. The last possibility is doing both. Of course, the polar lunar night at favorably selected sites doesn’t last for 14 Earth days but just a few. For instance, NASA’s polar-water-studying [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) will survive complete darkness for [about 4 Earth days](https://www.nasa.gov/viper/overview#MissionTimeline) by parking at pre-identified high-altitude spots throughout the mission matching that maximum night duration. Related: LPI’s [computational tools](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/tools/) include a [student-developed tool](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/tools/lunarseasoncalc/) to determine areas and specific patches on the lunar poles are illuminated at any given time. The tool accounts for illumination changes that take place due to lunar seasons. ## More Moon - NASA [continues funding small businesses to develop specific lunar technologies](https://www.nasa.gov/spacetech/sbir%5Fsttr/nasa%5Fawards%5Faccelerate%5Fsmall%5Fbusiness%5Ftech%5Ffor%5Fearth%5Fspace), with a major chunk of the latest nearly $27 million going to four companies to continue working on their technologies meant to enable sustainable lunar exploration. These funded technologies are autonomous lunar soil excavators and transporters for resource utilization, night survival technologies for small lunar hardware (the aforementioned Astrobotic contract), advanced neuromorphic computing chips for autonomous computing, and a scalable low-pressure, tankage-based propulsion system to deliver small science spacecraft to the Moon. - Relatedly, Sierra Space has [progressed](https://www.sierraspace.com/newsroom/press-releases/sierra-space-completes-successful-nasa-test-readiness-review-for-lunar-oxygen-extraction-system) in developing their NASA-funded autonomous carbothermal reactor to processes and extract oxygen from minerals in lunar soil for future use as life support and as fuel without having to rely on dragging it all out of Earth’s gruesome gravity well. With terrestrial hardware testing to follow next, NASA and Sierra Space ultimately intend to demonstrate this system on a future CLPS mission. - At the [LEAG 2022 Annual Meeting](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/leag2022) last month, NASA clarified that astronaut activities at the upcoming agency-led international Gateway lunar station will take into consideration the [upcoming solar maximum](https://www.weather.gov/news/201509-solar-cycle), with the Sun’s flaring and radiation bursts being predicted to be more intense than usual this time around. NASA added for relief that the agency’s Heliophysics division is also a major participant in the Gateway. In fact, that would probably be a chief reason why an [armada of international instruments](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-62/) on the Gateway are dedicated to characterizing the radiation environment around Moon to allow us to formulate better shielding requirements for hardware we build and people we send on future longer and sustained deep space missions to the Moon, Mars and beyond. - The U.S. Space Command talked to NASA last week about [the need for developing highly autonomous technologies to better understand and monitor the cislunar environment](https://spacenews.com/u-s-space-command-calls-for-investment-in-technologies-for-deep-space-missions). --- **→** [**Sponsor Moon Monday**](https://blog.jatan.space/sponsor-moon-monday) **|** [**Browse the Blog**](https://blog.jatan.space/start) **|** [**About**](https://blog.jatan.space/about) ### Moon Monday #92: Artemis I launch delay, skeleton Starship, powering a lunar base, and more updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-92/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:22.000Z ## The Sun isn’t rising for the SLS just yet The super heavy-lift [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) just can’t catch a break. NASA [scrubbed today’s launch](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/08/29/launch-attempt-scrubbed) of SLS for the [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-i) mission to send an uncrewed [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) around the Moon and back. The launch was called off because of a [persistent issue](https://spacenews.com/first-artemis-1-launch-attempt-scrubbed) that is preventing proper [“bleed” conditioning](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/08/29/engineers-troubleshooting-engine-conditioning-issue) of the third [RS-25 engine](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/multimedia/rs-25-engine-infographic.html) on the rocket’s [core stage](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/multimedia/infographics/corestage101.html). Essentially, engineers aren’t able to flow liquid hydrogen through the engine to make it cool enough for launch. NASA said on the livestream that the rocket will not be drained of its more than 2 million litres of propellant just yet, as engineering teams try to figure out the root cause of the issue. This “bleeding” technique is something that teams couldn’t test during earlier [wet dress rehearsals](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-83/) because of a then recurring [hydrogen leak](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/04/14/artemis-i-wdr-update-third-test-attempt-concluded), which was [later fixed](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/05/06/artemis-i-rocket-spacecraft-prepare-for-return-to-launch-pad-to-finish-test). Assuming the issue is solved, the next launch attempt for Artemis I is a two-hour window starting at 12:48 PM EDT on September 2\. NASA’s [official Artemis Blog](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis) should have more details on the issue and next launch attempt soon. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fa31d43ee-cb65-4c4d-8934-7c23413135b2_1800x1200-jpeg.jpg) The SLS rocket at its launchpad on the morning of August 17, 2022\. [Credits: NASA / Joel Kowsky](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/sunrise-on-the-artemis-i-moon-rocket.html) ## A skeleton Lunar Starship *and* Artemis Base Camp At the [LEAG 2022 Annual Meeting](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/leag2022) last week, the head of the [Human Landing System](https://www.nasa.gov/nextstep/humanlander2) (HLS) program Lisa Watson-Morgan said that the robotic test flight of SpaceX’s Lunar Starship in 2024—the flight preceding the highly anticipated [Artemis III crewed landing](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon)—isn’t required to takeoff post-landing. She clarified that the test Lunar Starship will be a “skeleton” version of the actual crewed lander, and that the baseline requirement is only to prove a safe touchdown. It wouldn’t be surprising if SpaceX decided to demonstrate a launch from the Moon anyway. Lisa Watson-Morgan added that the test lander will carry at least one payload in addition to a host of imagers and sensors. When asked about its landing site, she specified that it likely won’t touchdown in any of the recently announced [Artemis III candidate landing regions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-91/) to avoid contaminating their scientific potential. Relatedly, she also assured people that given the criticality of Lunar Starship’s elevator, it’s being designed to be multi-fault tolerant. Logan Kennedy, Artemis surface lead, revealed more on how NASA plans to complement the agency-requested [sustainable landers from SpaceX and a competitor](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-70/), which will ferry [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) astronauts to and fro the Moon’s surface after Artemis III. In order to sustain and extend human presence post-2030 under [Artemis Base Camp](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept), whose stay duration NASA revealed at the meeting to be of 30 days initially, the agency will ask companies to develop “Human-Class Cargo Delivery Landers (HDL)”. These should be capable of delivering 12,000 to 15,000 kilograms of cargo to the surface, including crew-critical supplies, scientific payloads, large rovers, habitat modules, and more. NASA also noted that all crewed missions will target summer stays at the Moon’s south pole because it has relatively much better lighting conditions than local winter. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fed879063-e389-4bb8-a178-0fe91b916f45_2800x1600-jpeg.jpg) An old illustration of SpaceX Lunar Starship’s cargo variant. [Credit: SpaceX](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/new-companies-join-growing-ranks-of-nasa-partners-for-artemis-program) Kennedy also said that while the first HLS Starship with astronauts will carry only 100 kilograms of cargo to the surface and back (including samples), later missions will increase that to 182 kg to the surface and 160 kilograms back, with a goal of 1,000 kilograms both ways. However, a small note at the bottom of one of his slides read: > Orion does not have specific storage to match the HLS sample return volume. Sample return mass to Earth via Orion might require mission-by-mission decisions on storage. NASA is looking into handling excess mass in different ways. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f1c4948ea-48b8-4bbf-97fd-0fcbe56dba90_1772x1000-jpeg.jpg) Credit: NASA, presentation at [LEAG 2022](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/leag2022) --- *Many thanks to [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io) for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* *Thanks also to [Pradeep](https://pradx.in/about-us) and [Abhinav Yadav](https://travellingthroughspace.medium.com/about) for supporting my independent writing.* --- ## Powering the Artemis Base Camp The Sun always being close to the horizon on the Moon’s [rocky poles](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/SPole%5FSRidgemap%5FLOLA-Slope5m%5Fv20190515.pdf) means something as mundane as a small rock or a gentle slope in the wrong direction can deprive solar panels on future habitats or other hardware of sunlight. Extensive studies [from ESA](https://arxiv.org/abs/1208.5587) and [NASA](https://trs.jpl.nasa.gov/handle/2014/45337) have shown that even the best high-altitude sites would need solar panels placed at least 2 meters above the surface to generate adequate power, and more than 5 meters for substantial power. Following an [initial developmental award](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-industry-to-mature-vertical-solar-array-technologies-for-lunar-surface) in 2021 part of the agency’s VSAT project, NASA awarded a total of [$19.4 million to Astrobotic, Honeybee Robotics and Lockheed Martin](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/three-companies-to-help-nasa-advance-solar-array-technology-for-moon) last week to build and test prototypes of vertical solar arrays. These systems must auto-deploy up to 10 meters in height, retract for relocation, be stable on steep terrain, be resistant to abrasive lunar dust, all while minimizing mass and stowed volume for easing delivery to the Moon. NASA will downselect one system for a possible test flight near end of decade and ultimately use it for Artemis Base Camp. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9bbec859-8193-4d41-93f5-1aa218a6e34b_1920x1080-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of a large vertical solar array being used as a power source on the Moon. [Credit: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-industry-to-mature-vertical-solar-array-technologies-for-lunar-surface) ## China’s march to the Moon With the [fourth phase of China’s lunar exploration project](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-58/) being approved in December 2021, the country is amid a long leap in exploring our cosmic neighbor. But China has its sights much further, with [officials recently claiming progress towards crewed lunar landing](https://spacenews.com/china-claims-progress-on-rockets-for-crewed-lunar-landings-and-moon-base), Andrew Jones reports. While China hasn’t yet officially approved a formal human Moon landing project, it has long begun building many of the necessary elements to pull off the feat. China is building a new (and possibly reusable) super heavy-lift rocket, [derived from its existing venerable Long March 5](https://spacenews.com/chinas-new-rocket-for-crewed-moon-missions-to-launch-around-2026), with a set purpose to send humans to the Moon before 2030\. Capable of launching up to 70,000 kilograms to low Earth orbit and up to 27,000 kilograms on a trajectory to the Moon, it matches the capacity of the current [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html), and is nearly thrice that of the Long March 5 and SpaceX’s Falcon 9\. China is targeting an Earth orbit test flight with its [new generation crewed spacecraft](https://spacenews.com/long-march-5b-rolled-out-for-crewed-spacecraft-space-station-test-launch/) using a smaller two-stage version of the rocket [in 2026](https://www.space.com/china-reusable-rockets-for-astronaut-launches). Hardware development for the previously known super heavy-lift [Long March 9](https://spacenews.com/tag/long-march-9) rocket has also been [progressing](https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/R1lngfn70pof4EHD9Gl8Eg) [well](https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s?%5F%5Fbiz=MzA5MTQxODQ2MA==&mid=2649454555&idx=1&sn=7368686096edb11857d06790a00f3797&chksm=88636de8bf14e4fe83d9b07336ce85b566fa93782e5fb3f1f04c9402cb7cd19fc11ba444d8d6&xtrack=1&scene=90&subscene=93&sessionid=1614937228&clicktime=1614937264&enterid=1614937264&ascene=56&devicetype=android-29&version=27001543&nettype=internet&abtest%5Fcookie=AAACAA%3D%3D&lang=en&exportkey=AjOhvBlRJGRmJsmyL2jjR5E%3D&pass%5Fticket=XP9bV73t5R98oc9lqVckFxV1OiUM6svo%2BPYDxQbmfObpsjA8GkGjAXH87cz8HxHo&wx%5Fheader=1). When ready around 2030, it will be able to launch 140,000 kilograms to low Earth orbit, and 50,000 kilograms on a trajectory to the Moon. At least initially, China intends to use Long March 9 to deliver huge amounts of cargo to the joint Sino-Russian [International Lunar Research Station](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-32/) (ILRS), a long-term robotic and crewed scientific base on the Moon’s south pole. Last we heard, China and Russia [formulated a Declaration for ILRS](http://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465652/n6465653/c6812568/content.html) in September 2021 to clarify the project’s general principles and how international entities can participate. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f532f89f5-7420-4fba-8154-f10b432afdff_2500x1500-jpeg.jpg) An artist’s concept depicting infrastructure plans of China and Russia’s joint Moonbase, the International Lunar Research Station. [Credits: CNSA / Roscosmos](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l2P5kFTBuOs) ## More Moon - CAPSTONE [crossed its farthest point from Earth](https://advancedspace.com/capstone-apogee). Next up? [Arch its way back](https://advancedspace.com/blt) to the Moon for orbital capture on November 13. - SpaceNews reports that the Lunar Trailblazer orbiter, intended to launch in 2023, [will undergo a NASA continuation/termination review](https://spacenews.com/lunar-trailblazer-faces-nasa-review-after-cost-overruns/) due to cost overruns by spacecraft contractor Lockheed Martin. I recently wrote how Trailblazer will give us [unprecedented high-resolution global maps](https://jatan.space/nasa-lunar-trailblazer/) of the amount, distribution, and state of water across the Moon. Even when assuming a 200% cost increase from the [$55 million SIMPLEx mission cap](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/small-satellite-concept-finalists-target-moon-mars-and-beyond), Trailblazer would provide scientific data for its targeted themes on par with NASA’s Discovery-class missions for about five times cheaper. I hope this mission critical to the lunar water story makes it to the launchpad as teams work on controlling its cost. --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### NASA’s Artemis I is loaded with sidekick science and technology missions URL: https://jatan.space/science-on-artemis-i/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:22.000Z *January 2023 Edit: I’ve covered post-launch updates on the CubeSats on Moon Monday [#104](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-104/), [#105](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-105/), and [#108](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-108/).* --- NASA is all set to launch the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) on August 29, setting in motion the historic [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-i) mission to send an uncrewed [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/orion/about/index.html) around the Moon and back. While Artemis I’s primary objective is to test a key technology stack NASA will use for ferrying future lunar astronauts, the mission also sports well over a dozen uniquely exciting secondary experiments. After the SLS rocket launches, the [second stage](https://www.ulalaunch.com/interim-cryogenic-propulsion-stage-%28icps%29) will fire its engine to push the connected Orion spacecraft out of Earth orbit and on a trajectory to the Moon. It’ll then separate from Orion, and subsequently deploy [10 CubeSats](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/0364%5Fsecondary%5Fpayloads%5Fbrochure%5F07282020%5F508%5Fsingle%5Fpages%5Ffor%5Fweb.pdf) weighing about 14 kilograms each on independent scientific missions. Orion itself carries several experiments of its own. All of these secondary experiments can be broadly divided into three categories: 1. Lunar missions 2. Technology demonstrations 3. Radiation experiments ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f5f04065f-3d85-4524-b23b-b082f20f5a32_1600x1200-jpeg.jpg) The 10 CubeSats on Artemis I are installed on the Orion Stage Adapter ring above the connected SLS second stage. [Credits: NASA / Kevin O’Brien](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/launching-science-and-technology-on-nasa-s-artemis-i-mission.html) ## Lunar missions There are four secondary lunar missions launching on Artemis I. The [LunaH-Map](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/lunah-map-university-built-cubesat-to-map-water-ice-on-the-moon) CubeSat lunar orbiter will use two neutron spectrometers to map hydrogen—an indicator of water—across the Moon’s south pole. Over 60 Earth days, it will map hydrogen in [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/), the variably lit south polar surface, and a meter below both in the highest resolution to date by flying at an altitude of merely 12 kilometers or lower. On the other hand, the [Lunar IceCube](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2019/lunar-icecube-mission-to-locate-study-resources-needed-for-sustained-presence-on-moon) CubeSat lunar orbiter will use its miniaturized infrared spectrometer to directly detect water across the Moon’s surface as well as measure water vapor in the thin lunar exosphere. Both of these missions represent the start of [a series of agency-funded robotic missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-63/) over the next five years, each of which will take specific measurements to help scientists get an actionable grasp on the nature of [water on the Moon](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f8875cd63-fb3c-41fd-95e9-fc41a58f2b02_2146x862-jpeg.jpg) **Left:** A team prepares the LunaH-Map before its installation on the SLS rocket. **Right:** Orbit ground track for the entire 60 Earth days science phase of the mission to map hydrogen on the Moon’s south pole. The yellow circle denotes spacecraft altitude of 8 kilometers, and green denotes 12 kilometers. Passes over the Shackleton crater can be as low as 5 kilometers. Credits: NASA [1](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2021/07/23/artemis-i-cubesats-will-study-the-moon-solar-radiation/), [2](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/lunah-map-university-built-cubesat-to-map-water-ice-on-the-moon) The [Lunar InfraRed imaging](https://terranorbital.com/lunir) (LunIR) CubeSat, a joint mission by Terran Orbital and Lockheed Martin, will fly past the Moon to test a novel micro-cryocooler and thermal imager combo designed to make infrared surface maps under difficult conditions. This could lead to better night-time mineral- and water-mapping of the Moon by future missions. The last secondary lunar mission on Artemis I is the most fascinating one. The Japanese space agency JAXA’s OMOTENASHI aims to [demonstrate a semi-soft landing](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/home/omotenashi/service.html) with a 14-kilogram spacecraft! That itself is its primary objective; to test unique technologies and trajectory maneuvers that can safely land small spacecraft on the Moon. If successful, OMOTENASHI will be the smallest spacecraft ever to touchdown on the lunar surface, and make Japan the fourth nation to achieve the feat. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f3037ca57-cfd4-4802-b400-83dac88a912e_1480x900-jpeg.jpg) Mission sequence of JAXA’s OMOTENASHI semi-soft lunar lander. The “” denoted in the illustration refers to deployment from the SLS rocket’s second stage, not the Artemis I liftoff from Earth. [Credit: JAXA](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/home/omotenashi/service.html) ## Technology demonstrations Artemis I carries five secondary technology demonstration missions, each of which are totally different from the other. The [NEA Scout](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/nea-scout) will be the first CubeSat to visit an asteroid, using [a solar sail](https://www.planetary.org/articles/what-is-solar-sailing) no less. When at the Moon, NEA Scout will deploy its large 86-square-meter solar sail to slowly spiral out of lunar orbit and eventually glide past a near-Earth asteroid to image it up-close. The Italy-provided [ArgoMoon](https://blogs.esa.int/orion/2022/05/20/argomoon-cubesat-a-personal-photographer-for-orions-boost-to-the-moon) CubeSat is on a photography mission. After separating from the SLS rocket’s second stage, it will take what are sure to be awe-inspiring images of the second stage pushing Orion out of Earth orbit and onward to the Moon. ArgoMoon will also help monitor the deployment of the other CubeSats, and test optical communications between it and Earth. The [Team Miles CubeSat](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/centennial%5Fchallenges/cubequest/team%5Fmiles) is a citizen science project chosen as part of NASA’s [Cube Quest Challenge](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/centennial%5Fchallenges/cubequest/about.html). It aims to autonomously travel at least 96 million kilometers in deep space using plasma propulsion, as a precursor for future larger, efficient spacecraft. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f74b61ce3-4ca2-4588-9f83-ab1279b18090_750x500-jpeg.jpg) Timeline for deploying the Artemis I CubeSats. [Credits: NASA / Kevin O’Brien](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/launching-science-and-technology-on-nasa-s-artemis-i-mission.html) Via Lockheed Martin, Amazon’s Alexa voice assistant and Cisco’s Webex video conferencing software [will be inside Orion](https://news.lockheedmartin.com/2022-01-05-Lockheed-Martin,-Amazon-and-Cisco-to-Bring-Voice-Technology-and-Video-Collaboration-to-the-Moon) in the form of a tailor-made tablet and associated hardware. Collectively called [Callisto](https://www.lockheedmartin.com/callisto), the system will use NASA’s Deep Space Network for [Webex’s video conferencing](https://blog.webex.com/hybrid-work/leaving-earth-without-leaving-home-behind) and Orion’s local database for Alexa to function offline. Since Artemis I has no crew, operators will interact with Callisto remotely from the control center on Earth. Specifically with Alexa, the idea is that crew interacting with it should be able to [access specific real-time mission telemetry using voice](https://www.aboutamazon.com/news/devices/alexa-take-me-to-the-moon) alone. Based on this demonstration flight, Callisto will be improved for [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to), the first crewed flight under the [Artemis campaign](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis). ## Studying deep space radiation like never before The Artemis I mission will study deep space solar and galactic cosmic radiation in a plethora of ways. Most notably, NASA has installed two dummies inside the Orion spacecraft, provided by the German space agency led [MARE experiment](https://www.dlr.de/content/en/missions/mare.html). These [anatomically accurate analogues](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Orion/Radiation%5Ffor%5Fdummies) of adult female torsos will measure the effects of deep space radiation on the female body for the first time. Because women have a higher cancer risk than men on average, MARE will help develop adequate protective measures for future female crews on Moon missions. One of the dummies, named Helga, will fly unprotected while the other, Zohar, will wear a Israel-provided radiation protection vest called [AstroRad](https://stemrad.com/astrorad-4). Combined, both torsos have more than 10,000 passive crystal sensors and 34 active radiation detectors embedded inside them to measure radiation exposure throughout the mission, all the way until Orion splashes down on Earth. NASA and its partners will compare datasets from Helga and Zohar to best [protect astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/hrp/elements/radiation/risks) on [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fa09b17aa-a745-4832-8289-b7601b226b61_1920x1080-jpeg-1.jpg) The installed locations of the two female torso analogues within the Orion spacecraft, which will fly to the Moon and back on the Artemis I mis­sion. [Credits: NASA / Lockheed Martin / DLR](https://www.dlr.de/content/en/missions/mare.html) The [many more radiation experiments](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-i-space-radiation-research-to-help-moon-mars-explorers) on Artemis I include five [ESA-provided active dosimeters](https://blogs.esa.int/orion/2022/04/11/european-technology-to-map-radiation-on-the-way-to-the-moon), four NASA-funded [biological investigations](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/small-samples-with-big-mission-on-first-orion-flight-around-the-moon), [tree seeds](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-i-becomes-cultural-educational-time-capsule-for-trip-around-moon) inside Orion (similar to Apollo’s [Moon Trees](https://www.nasa.gov/centers/marshall/history/moon-trees-stand-as-living-testaments-to-first-voyages-to-moon.html)), and Japan’s miniature active dosimeter on the [OMOTENASHI](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/home/omotenashi/service.html) semi-soft lander. There’s also an active radiation warning system within Orion called HERA, which will notify crew to take shelter on detecting highly energetic solar flare events. From August 4 through 7 in 1972, the Sun blurted [several bursts of flares](http://spaceweatherlivinghistory.org/timeline/31) between the Apollo 16 and 17 missions. Had the astronauts been in lunar orbit or on the surface, they could’ve faced damaging levels of radiation. So one nice thing about Orion is that it’s [designed to protect astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/scientists-and-engineers-evaluate-orion-radiation-protection-plan) from such energetic particles that reach the Earth-Moon space in a matter of hours. Further, while Orion’s Artemis I flight will last 42 days at best, three Artemis I CubeSats will collect deep space radiation data for much longer. [BioSentinel](https://www.nasa.gov/ames/biosentinel)will measure the impact of space radiation on yeast over six months from solar orbit. The researchers chose yeast because their cells and human cells have many similar DNA damage and repair mechanisms. Terrestrial facilities can’t fully simulate the unique radiation environment of deep space so this study will provide us new insights on its effects on biological life as NASA seeks to establish [long-term human presence](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept) on the Moon. As part of their [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) to send science payloads to the Moon on commercial landers, NASA [selected a similar surface mission](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-new-instruments-for-priority-artemis-science-on-moon) for launch in 2026. The Artemis I CubeSat [EQUULEUS](https://www.space.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp/equuleus/en) by Japan will fly to the Earth-Moon Lagrangian Point L2—where the Earth’s and Moon’s gravitational pulls roughly balance—to study phenomena and changes in Earth’s plasmasphere due to [the solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/), the radiation particles and magnetic fields streaming from the Sun. It will also measure meteor impact flashes and the dust environment around the Moon, providing additional insights on how we can best protect future astronauts. The [CuSP](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2016/heliophysics-cubesat-to-launch-on-nasa-s-sls) CubeSat will study the solar wind from a solar orbit closer in than Earth’s. This is a test mission to eventually vouch for a network of dozens of small solar observing stations across the inner solar system that can track and help better predict solar weather in 3D, giving us a better [understanding of our Sun](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) and its threats to future human exploration. Looking ahead, an [armada of international instruments](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-62/) on the upcoming NASA-led international [Gateway lunar station](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) will continue and advance for years this radiation-characterizing research kicked off by Artemis I. NASA and ESA will use these comprehensive datasets to best protect astronauts on longer and sustained future crewed missions to the Moon, Mars and beyond. --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### Moon Monday #91: Artemis landing sites and a launch on the horizon, lunar construction, and more updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-91/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:22.000Z ## Potential zones for the first Artemis Moon landing Following an uncrewed and crewed flight around the Moon with [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/around-the-moon-with-nasa-s-first-launch-of-sls-with-orion) and [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to) respectively, NASA will land astronauts on the lunar surface mid-decade with [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon). Its astronauts will reach lunar orbit in an [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/orion/about/index.html) blasted from Earth by an [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html). A crewed lunar variant of [SpaceX Starship](https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/starship) called the [Human Landing System](https://www.nasa.gov/nextstep/humanlander2) (HLS) will dock with Orion, and carry astronauts to the surface and back. While NASA’s selection of HLS Starship and [commercial spacesuits](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-80/) largely culminate the technology stack to be used for this historic return of humans to the Moon after Apollo, the science end is now catching up. After the [Science Definition Team](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/Artemis/) laid out [the mission’s science priorities](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-defines-science-priorities-for-first-crewed-artemis-landing-on-moon) in December 2020 and NASA revealed [Artemis’ science structure](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-68/) in March 2022, the agency has now announced [13 candidate landing zones](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-identifies-candidate-regions-for-landing-next-americans-on-moon) for Artemis III, chosen meticulously out of a filtered list of 28 using data from the [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html), decades of lunar science findings, and keeping in mind engineering constraints (discussed below). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9f39387a-f722-4e39-bdd1-245cbf451518_2300x1300-jpeg-4.jpg) The 13 candidate polar landing zones for NASA’s Artemis III crewed Moon landing. Each zone is about 15 by 15 kilometers and contains over 10 potential landing sites about 100 meters across. [Credits: NASA / LRO](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-identifies-candidate-regions-for-landing-next-americans-on-moon) | [Browse them on a map](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/layers?extent=-123.1287296%2C-80.2286323%2C62.2044887%2C-76.8446639&id=lroc&showTerrain=true&queryOpts=N4XyA&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypOOKWbJYZdAJgQWfyJqv5JwDGKIQp0ADgCcWRL2LkBSikA&proj=17) A few interesting things to note about these selections: - Since a key priority of Artemis III is to cryogenically sample and [bring pristine and precious lunar polar volatiles](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) to Earth for meticulous studies, nearly all the landing zones contain numerous big and small [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) with Earth-facing slopes. This was expected but it’s good to have it anchored. Also considering that some of these zones contain locations with ancient crustal and/or mantle material, Artemis III is likely to further advance our understanding of [the Moon’s origin](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/) and [evolution](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). - At least two currently known landing regions of [NASA CLPS missions](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) show up for Artemis III too. - The [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) is set to explore an area [near the western edge of the Nobile crater](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-s-artemis-rover-to-land-near-nobile-region-of-moon-s-south-pole) whereas two Artemis III zones are on Nobile’s rim. - Intuitive Machines’ [second lunar lander](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-to-land-water-measuring-payload-on-the-moon) will touchdown on [a ridge connected to the Shackleton crater](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-intuitive-machines-announce-landing-site-location-for-lunar-drill). - The inclusion of the Malapert and Leibnitz plateaus is interesting because their near-polar locations coupled with high altitudes uniquely afford them practically [100% Earth-visibility](https://trs.jpl.nasa.gov/bitstream/handle/2014/45337/09-3089%5FA1b.pdf) despite the Moon’s [libration](https://www.skyatnightmagazine.com/advice/skills/lunar-libration-what-is). Like any mission to the Moon’s poles, choosing a landing site for Artemis III has unique challenges. The [steep, rocky polar terrain](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/SPole%5FSRidgemap%5FLOLA-Slope5m%5Fv20190515.pdf) renders flat areas only about 100 meters across, which thus become the unforgiving landing precision requirement for HLS Starship or any lander. Moreover, the terrain coupled with the forever near-horizon, circling Sun provide [sufficiently continuous lighting only to elevated areas](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/271) such as crater rims or peaks, that too at different times for different places. The final landing site and launch date(s) for the Artemis III mission, which needs continuous lunar polar sunlight for 6.5 days, will thus be selected based on aforementioned factors as well as combined constraints from SLS, Orion, and Starship. We tend to focus on the larger picture so much that it’s easy to forget the sheer difficulty of any landing in the lunar polar hellscape. One with crew is captivating. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f4bad83e4-05da-4d12-8728-cf4a1fd46423_2000x2000-jpeg.jpg) Aggregated solar illumination map of the Moon’s south pole, made from stacked observations by NASA’s LRO spacecraft. The brightest spots are near-permanently sunlit areas whereas the pitch black ones are permanently shadowed. [Credit: NASA](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/271) --- *Many thanks to [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io) for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* *Thanks also to* *[Hunter Danque](https://www.linkedin.com/in/hunter-danque)* *for supporting my independent writing.* --- ## An SLS rocket on its launchpad for the last time? On August 17, the fully stacked SLS rocket [arrived at its launchpad](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/08/17/artemis-i-moon-rocket-arrives-at-launch-pad-ahead-of-historic-mission) in Kennedy Space Center for quite possibly the last time. If all goes well, it will launch [on August 29](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-i-press-kit), or September 2 or 5, for the [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/around-the-moon-with-nasa-s-first-launch-of-sls-with-orion) mission to send an uncrewed [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/orion/about/index.html) around the Moon and back. This move follows successful testing of the rocket’s flight termination system the weekend before. With experience from [the wet rehearsal tests](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-83/) earlier this year, teams have refined pre-launch procedures and so [the launch timeline is now updated](https://www.nasa.gov/content/artemis-i-launch-countdown-101) accordingly. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f08f5357d-8938-43a4-9d3e-2b9eb4517cb0_1530x1080-jpeg.jpg) NASA’s SLS rocket is seen here sitting atop its mobile launcher, nearly ready for launching the Artemis I Moon mission. [Credits: NASA / Joel Kowsky](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/sls-moon-rocket-readies-for-artemis-i-launch.html) After the SLS rocket launches, the [second stage](https://www.ulalaunch.com/interim-cryogenic-propulsion-stage-%28icps%29) will fire its engine to push the connected Orion spacecraft out of Earth orbit and on a trajectory to the Moon. It’ll then separate from Orion, and subsequently deploy [10 CubeSats](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/0364%5Fsecondary%5Fpayloads%5Fbrochure%5F07282020%5F508%5Fsingle%5Fpages%5Ffor%5Fweb.pdf) on independent scientific missions. NASA now has a [timeline chart](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/launching-science-and-technology-on-nasa-s-artemis-i-mission.html) for these deployments. Marcia Smith reports that the batteries of 5 of the CubeSats [can’t be recharged](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/artemis-i-back-on-the-pad-this-time-for-launch). Since they were installed onto SLS last year, Artemis I missing launching by September could be concerning for their missions. ## Astrobotic’s first Moon lander almost assembled Astrobotic is progressing well in preparing its Peregrine lander for launch, likely in early 2023, as part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) to [carry the agency’s science and technology payloads](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-awarded-79-5-million-contract-to-deliver-14-nasa-payloads-to-the-moon) to the Moon. With the Terrain Relative Navigation (TRN) camera and compute hardware as well as its [twenty four payloads](https://www.astrobotic.com/lunar-delivery/manifest) now integrated, the lander is nearing full assembly. Additionally, Astrobotic successfully [completed end-to-end communications testing](https://www.astrobotic.com/nasas-deep-space-network-ground-testing-with-peregrine-a-success) for the mission last month, wherein Astrobotic’s Mission Control Center passed commands to their flight lander via NASA’s Deep Space Network, and the lander responded by sending telemetry. Last year, Intuitive Machines [did a similar test](https://www.intuitivemachines.com//post/intuitive-machines-validates-lunar-communication-with-msu-for-first-lunar-landing) with partner Morehead’s [21-meter antenna](https://www.moreheadstate.edu/College-of-Science/Earth-and-Space-Sciences/Space-Science-Center/Laboratories-Facilities/21M-Space-Tracking-Antenna) and NASA’s [LRO spacecraft](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html) to validate their [first CLPS lander](https://7c27f7d6-4a0b-4269-aee9-80e85c3db26a.usrfiles.com/ugd/7c27f7%5Fbc896cfc90ca4ae9a0643bfbf5ed214a.pdf)’s communications system. The company is yet to reveal their flight lander while publicly maintaining a target launch in December 2022. ## Towards lunar construction As part of the second Lunar Surface Technology Research (LuSTR) solicitation, [NASA will provide up to $2 million each to three U.S. university-led teams](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/strg/lustr/NASA%5FSelects%5FThree%5FUS%5FUniversities%5Fto%5FDevelop%5FLunar%5FInfrastructure%5FTech) to develop their proposed technologies related to future lunar-living. - The Colorado School of Mines—in partnership with [Lunar Outpost](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-79/), Michigan Tech and Betchel—will develop a [rover-enabled autonomous lunar landing pad construction system](https://lunaroutpost.com/lunar-outpost-colorado-school-of-mines-developing-technology-for-autonomous-lunar-excavation-and-construction), and demonstrate as much on Earth. - Relatedly, NASA [recently awarded a small contract](https://explorationarchitecture.com/astroport-space-technologies-awarded-nasa-contract) to Astroport to develop prototypes of parts of the technology that will melt lunar regolith, convert it to manufacturing feedstock, and use that to robotically assemble infrastructure like landing pads. - The Missouri University of Science and Technology will use magnetism and electrostatics to better separate calcium- and aluminum-containing minerals from lunar regolith and extract materials suitable for construction. - Relatedly, for the eighth [BIG Idea Challenge](https://bigidea.nianet.org), NASA is asking university students to build and demonstrate [concepts for any major part of a lunar metal production pipeline](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-seeks-student-ideas-for-extracting-forging-metal-on-the-moon)—from efficiently extracting metals from lunar minerals to making additively manufactured infrastructure such as pipes, rails and more. - Auburn University will use data from recent lunar missions to create more reliable [space grade electronics](https://jatan.space/space-grade-electronics/) that function efficiently in the frigid lunar night and in permanently shadowed regions, where temperatures go [well below -180 degrees Celsius](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/96). - Relatedly, NASA recently [selected Microchip Technology Inc. for a $50 million firm-fixed-price contract](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-next-generation-spaceflight-computing-processor-contract) to develop a computing processor that provides at least 100 times the performance of modern spaceflight computers while being more tolerant to factors like radiation. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f3704d7f9-a966-4f30-9b50-ef09dbaa4f0c_1880x1080-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of a lunar landing pad construction system and its elements. [Credits: Astroport / Tangram 3DS](https://explorationarchitecture.com/astroport-space-technologies-awarded-nasa-contract) ## More Moon - SpaceNews reports that in response to Masten Space [filing for Chapter 11 bankruptcy](https://spacenews.com/masten-space-systems-files-for-bankruptcy), following the company’s [laying off of employees](http://parabolicarc.com/2022/07/14/cash-strapped-masten-space-furloughs-employees-moon-landing-mission-at-risk) exclusively working on [its first CLPS Moon landing](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-contract-to-deliver-science-tech-to-moon-ahead-of-human-missions), Astrobotic has made a [formal bid of $4.2 million](https://spacenews.com/astrobotic-bids-for-masten-space-systems-assets) for “substantially all” of Masten’s assets. Also, SpaceX had terminated Masten’s launch contract on June 30 because of missed payments. - NASA, via [LSII](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/Lunar%5FSurface%5FInnovation%5FInitiative), is looking into buying lunar data from missions via a formal mechanism, and is [asking the community for feedback](https://forms.gle/tuhzwAUaQLDivQ2D7). --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### My articles on Indian space URL: https://jatan.space/indian-space/ Last updated: 2024-02-24T10:34:18.000Z Here are all notable articles and blog posts I’ve published on India’s largely successful—but also very opaque—space program, including all of its planetary missions. I keep updating any evergreen posts within this list, and will maintain the list itself for the convenience of readers, so make sure to bookmark this page. ## 🚀 Space missions - [India aims for the Moon with launch of Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3/) - [How Chandrayaan 3 made its historic touchdown on our Moon](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown/) - [Chandrayaan 3 slowed down by one web of perplexing priorities](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-100/) - [Chandrayaan 3 mission trivia and tidbits](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-135/) - [Some notable specifics of Chandrayaan 3’s historic touchdown on our Moon](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-142/) - [Chandrayaan 3’s hop](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-143/) - [Space science missions ISRO will launch in the near future](https://jatan.space/isro-space-science-missions-2020-2025/) - [Indian Space Progress](https://blog.jatan.space/s/indian-space-progress/archive), my newsletter dedicated to covering developments across the entire (civil) Indian space landscape - [India’s Shukrayaan orbiter to study Venus for over four years](https://jatan.space/isro-venus-orbiter-launch-2024/) - [Looking back at Chandrayaan 1 and forward to Artemis](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/) - [The Chandrayaan 2 orbiter is creating the highest resolution map of the Moon](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) - [Chandrayaan 2, India’s first mission to attempt a Moon landing](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-2-moon-landing-mission/) - [Chandrayaan 2’s landing failure and the road ahead](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-landing-failure-and-the-road-ahead/) - [Reviewing Mangalyaan, India’s first Mars mission](https://jatan.space/reviewing-mission-mangalyaan/) - [Preparing for India’s Yuri Gagarin moment with Gaganyaan](https://jatan.space/astronauts-begin-training-for-gaganyaan-in-russia/) (old piece but some information on progress to that point is still relevant) ## 🛰️ Science - [How NASA and India discovered water on the Moon](https://jatan.space/how-nasa-and-chandrayaan-discovered-water-on-the-moon/) - [India’s Astrosat and NASA’s Chandra co-discover a rapidly spinning black hole](https://jatan.space/on-the-verge-of-revealing-a-singularity/) - [India’s Chandrayaan 2 lunar orbiter is also a Sun watcher](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-orbiter-is-also-a-sun-watcher/) - [Initial lunar science results from the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-44/) ## 🧐 Opinion - [India’s Mars orbiter completes six years at the red planet, but where is the science?](https://jatan.space/missing-science-from-mangalyaan/) - [Debate: Mangalyaan’s low science output still reflects on ISRO](https://jatan.space/debate-missing-science-from-mangalyaan-still-reflects-on-isro/) - [Again, Mangalyaan was never a scientific space mission](https://jatan.space/how-to-honor-mangalyaan/) - [Book review: Those magnificent women and their stories that must be told](https://jatan.space/book-review-those-magnificent-women-and-their-stories/) - [ISRO needs night survival technologies for future Moon missions and beyond](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-and-lunar-night-survival/) ## ✨ Interesting bits - [Interviewing Chandrayaan 1’s Mission Director on India’s role in the new Moon race](https://jatan.space/interviewing-isro-chandrayaan-1-mission-director/) - [Views of Mars from India's Mangalyaan orbiter](https://jatan.space/views-of-mars-from-mangalyaan/) - [How Chandrayaan 1 viewed a solar eclipse from the Moon](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1-captures-solar-eclipse/) - [Explainer – Why did it take so long to find the Chandrayaan 2 lander?](https://jatan.space/finding-the-chandrayaan-2-lander/) ## 💛 Personal angle - [I saw a rocket launch!](https://jatan.space/i-saw-a-rocket-launch/) - [Space Q&A with r/India redditors](https://jatan.space/ama-on-subreddit-india/) - Tangent: [Kids in South Korea and a Moon mission](https://jatan.space/moon-moment-for-south-korea/) --- *In all, the Indian space trajectory looks promising and exciting. I can’t wait to write more about it, and do my bit in pushing Indian space, and therefore global space exploration too, forward.* :D --- **→** [**Browse the Blog**](https://blog.jatan.space/start) **|** [**About**](https://blog.jatan.space/about) **|** [**Donate ♡**](https://jatan.space/support) ### Space science missions ISRO will launch in the near future URL: https://jatan.space/isro-space-science-missions-2020-2025/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:22.000Z In 2008, the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) launched the [Chandrayaan 1](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/) spacecraft and successfully put it into lunar orbit, marking India’s foray into planetary exploration. In the decade since, the country successfully launched its first Mars orbiter [Mangalyaan](https://jatan.space/reviewing-mission-mangalyaan/), and its first space telescope [AstroSat](https://www.isro.gov.in/astrosat-0). ISRO even attempted a prestigious Moon landing with [Chandrayaan 2](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-2-moon-landing-mission/) in 2019 but the lander unfortunately [crashed](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/1131) at the last moment. Now the agency is gearing to launch several space science missions by 2025, including a Moon landing reattempt with Chandrayaan 3, its first solar telescope, first Venus orbiter, and more. ## Chandrayaan 3, India’s Moon landing reattempt ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f3ba8f1a9-a026-4b6d-b12a-3f4ed1f8c9fb_1500x1000-jpeg-1.jpg) An artist’s impression of Chandrayaan 2’s lander and rover on the Moon. Chandrayaan 3 hardware is expected to look similar. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=--8ORixBXQE) ISRO launched the ambitious [Chandrayaan 2](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-2-moon-landing-mission/) mission in July 2019 with the hope of becoming the world’s fourth country to land a spacecraft on the Moon. The lander [unfortunately crashed on the lunar surface](https://www.planetary.org/blogs/jason-davis/vikram-apparently-crash-lands.html) on September 7, 2019, taking the rover onboard along with it. However, the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter continues to go around the Moon, and is [expected to provide the highest resolution Moon maps](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) to date. ISRO is now preparing [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-3-prelaunch-info/) for a 2023 launch, with the mission essentially being a repeat of the Chandrayaan 2’s surface mission. The lander will carry, among other experiments, a thermal probe and a seismometer to study the Moon’s interior, and the rover will carry a pair of spectrometers to determine what the ancient lunar crust is made of. ## India’s first space-based solar observatory Launching [in 2023](https://www.financialexpress.com/defence/isro-likely-to-launch-chandrayaan-3-and-aditya-l1-mission/2635422) onboard a PSLV-XL rocket, [Aditya-L1](https://www.isro.gov.in/Aditya%5FL1.html) will study the Sun’s surface and atmosphere with its seven instruments. It’ll be placed at the first Lagrangian point (L1) between the Sun and Earth, where the gravitational pull of these two bodies roughly cancel out. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f4eed22b5-4823-4c20-b1f0-fa0b09dd27a2_1085x942-jpeg.jpg) A schematic illustration of Aditya-L1 and its instruments. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/aditya-l1-first-indian-mission-to-study-sun) The L1 point is not a point as much as a small region in space, host to [multiple solar science missions](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) in the past, such as SOHO, ACE, WIND and DSCOVR. Like those, Aditya-L1 will observe the Sun uninterrupted from this vantage point. The spacecraft will have a unique ability to observe the Sun in multiple wavelengths while also measuring the solar magnetic field and the solar wind radiation using its in-situ instruments. In 2018, NASA launched the [Parker Solar Probe](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2019/nasas-parker-solar-probe-sheds-new-light-on-the-sun) on a mission to go right into the Sun’s atmosphere to unravel its mysteries. ESA launched the [Solar Orbiter](https://sci.esa.int/web/solar-orbiter/-/44167-objectives) in 2019 on a similar mission. Aditya-L1 will study the Sun from much further away but its global views will allow for its observations to complement data from the NASA and ESA probes and place them in context. The hope for scientists globally with these solar missions is to explain why the Sun’s corona is hotter than its surface by several million degrees, a [major unsolved problem](https://science.nasa.gov/news-articles/the-mystery-of-coronal-heating) in solar physics. Relatedly, ISRO will launch the [DISHA twin satellites](https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/pune/aditya-l1-disha-satellites-will-help-deepen-indias-space-weather-knowledge-isro-7909902), DISHA H at a high inclination orbit of 85 degrees and DISHA L at a low inclination 25-degree one, to study how [the solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) interacts with Earth’s upper atmosphere. ## Specialized X-ray telescope India’s first space telescope, [AstroSat](https://www.isro.gov.in/AstroSat.html), was designed to observe high energy cosmic objects in multiple wavelengths. The country’s second space telescope, X-ray Polarimetry Satellite, or [XPoSat](http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/2017/copuos2017tech30E.pdf), will be smaller and specialized. Launching on an SSLV rocket [in 2023](https://www.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/list-of-isros-upcoming-missions-1639470493-1) to Earth orbit, XPoSat will study the polarization of X-rays emitted by cosmic objects using a [polarimeter](http://rri.res.in/~bpaul/polix.html) built by the Raman Research Institute. How radiation is polarized gives away the nature of its source object, including the strength and distribution of its magnetic field. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f22034907-ed06-4b6a-83d7-565f81512964_1100x550-jpeg-1.jpg) XPoSat and its polarimeter instrument POLIX up top. [Credit: ISRO](https://sites.astro.caltech.edu/~srk/XC/Notes/POLIX-SRK-2020.pdf) In December 2021, NASA launched IXPE on a similar mission. They both will measure the polarization information of some of the brightest known X-ray sources in the universe, including pulsars, X-ray binary stars and gigantic-black-hole-hosting galactic cores. ## Collaboration with NASA on a radar-imaging satellite The [NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar](https://nisar.jpl.nasa.gov) (NISAR) satellite will be the first satellite with a dual-frequency radar imaging system. At an estimated [$1.5 billion](http://syntheticapertureradar.com/nasa-isro-sar-project-nisar/), it’s among the most expensive Earth-observation satellites ever built. Following its planned launch onboard a GSLV Mk II rocket in 2023, it will be placed in a Sun-synchronous orbit so that its solar panels can provide constant power. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fbde900ff-6f72-4735-9032-cfe7e0bb81bf_1200x834-jpeg-1.jpg) An artist’s impression of the NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar. [Credit: NASA](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/nasa-isro-synthetic-aperture-radar-nisar/) NISAR’s dual-frequency radar imaging system will reveal ongoing changes in Earth’s crust, polar ice, climatic processes, biomass, and more at a [high resolution](https://nisar.jpl.nasa.gov/nisarmission/observationstrategy/) of 3 to 50 meters per pixel, at a rapid bi-weekly pace, globally. The satellite will also be used for disaster management, whereby its data will be available only a few hours after observations. ISRO and NASA have said that all science data from the mission will be in the public domain. ## A Venus orbiter in the making In 2018, ISRO [called for instrument proposals](https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/ao%5Fvenus.pdf) for a Venus orbiter mission, [Shukrayaan](https://jatan.space/isro-venus-orbiter-launch-2024/), which is targeting launch in December 2024 at the earliest. Shukrayaan’s primary scientific objectives include studies of Venus’ surface and subsurface, its atmospheric chemistry, and [solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) interactions with the planet. This is a refreshing mission because an initial interest in exploring the planet during the 1960s to 1980s quickly faded after Mars started getting all the attention. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fc87f10ff-4af5-4ab6-88c2-bb2792b814f0_1494x1294-jpeg.jpg) A not-to-scale representation of ISRO’s Venus orbiter mission Shukrayaan. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/vexag/meetings/archive/vexag-17/presentations/Nigar.pdf) [Venus needs to be explored](https://jatan.space/why-explore-venus/) not just because it hosted water for at least 2 billion years, longer than Mars, but also to understand how Earth-like planets change over time, and what makes Earth a haven for life. Right now, there is only one spacecraft at Venus, the Japanese orbiter [Akatsuki](https://global.jaxa.jp/projects/sas/planet%5Fc/), compared to eleven at Mars as of 2022\. So ISRO sending a mission to Venus should be refreshing for the global planetary science community. Shukrayaan will study Venus for over four years from a polar orbit of 200 x 600 kilometers, allowing for global mapping. It will have a payload capacity of about 100 kilograms. In addition to several Indian instruments, ISRO will also be carrying a few international ones. [One of them](https://presse.cnes.fr/en/france-india-space-cooperation-focus-climate-science-and-space-exploration) is intended to be the French Space Agency’s VIRAL instrument (Venus Infrared Atmospheric Gases Linker), co-developed with the Russian space agency. International collaboration is great, as attested by Chandrayaan 1’s [co-discovery of water on the Moon](https://jatan.space/how-nasa-and-chandrayaan-discovered-water-on-the-moon/) with NASA. ## Partnering with Japan on a lunar polar rover The Japanese-Indian joint [LUPEX mission](https://www.exploration.jaxa.jp/e/program/lunarpolar) will launch no earlier than 2025 to explore the nature of [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other resources on the Moon’s south pole. The Japanese space agency JAXA is building the mission’s 350-kilogram rover while an ISRO-built lander will deliver the rover. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f913a003d-677a-4bb8-84b9-a17101a127ed_800x448-jpeg.jpg) Elements of the joint Indian-Japanese Lunar Polar Exploration (LUPEX) mission. Notice the heightened mast for the rover’s solar panel, something very useful at the lunar poles where the Sun is always near the horizon. [Credit: JAXA](https://www.exploration.jaxa.jp/e/program/lunarpolar/) The LUPEX rover will have both Indian and Japanese instruments—chiefly a drill and a bunch of complementary spectrometers—to study the nature, amount and accessibility of water ice in its landed region between 89-90°S, making the mission similar to NASA’s [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/). LUPEX will explore its landed region for at least six months, and likely venture into [permanently shadowed areas](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) a few hundred meters across. In April 2022, ESA [signed a collaborative agreement](https://twitter.com/AschbacherJosef/status/1511091280327200773) to contribute a [mass spectrometer](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2020/08/Sensing%5Fthe%5FMoon) onboard the rover to study the Moon’s exosphere. While the final instrument suite will be decided in the mission development phase that started in April, a ground penetrating radar and a thermal probe are key contenders, neither of which VIPER has. Findings from them would thus nicely complement results from VIPER. A [February talk by ISRO scientist S. Megala](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E81SoGhVNe8&t=5454s) has juicier details on the mission. Here’s a PDF of slides from her talk. ![](https://substack.com/img/attachment_icon.svg) Slides: Early details on LUPEX mission3.72MB ∙ PDF file[Download](https://blog.jatan.space/api/v1/file/560f633b-5378-4aec-beeb-e6fd232eb71c.pdf)[Download](https://blog.jatan.space/api/v1/file/560f633b-5378-4aec-beeb-e6fd232eb71c.pdf) Megala also hinted that ISRO is considering making its next Moon mission after LUPEX to be a sample return one. They’re currently internally referring to it as Chandrayaan 5, meaning LUPEX is considered Chandrayaan 4. --- Other missions in ISRO’s pipeline could include a successor to [Mangalyaan](https://jatan.space/reviewing-mission-mangalyaan/). The agency hopes to launch Mangalyaan 2 by 2026, with an upgraded orbiter and 100 kilograms of scientific instruments, but is [uncertain to be formally undertaken](http://lighthouseinsights.in/isro-mars-orbiter-social-media.html) anytime soon. A [recent talk by a veteran ISRO scientist](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zD%5FnZURYYZQ) tells us that ISRO has begun [working on Mars landing technologies](https://jatan.space/isro-has-begun-working-on-mars-landing-technologies/) too. ISRO also has plans for launching an Astrosat successor but details are unclear about it too at the moment. Despite the largely non-transparently conveyed delays in launches of all the above missions so far, delays which have come to be expected as standard now, undertaking such diverse missions boosts India’s fairly nascent space science endeavors and puts it on a promising trajectory. Here’s hoping that India goes all in on this trend and makes deep space exploration a prioritized national goal just like we did for launching astronauts. --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### Moon Monday #90: An armada of radiation detectors, preparing for dark Moonwalks, and more lunar updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-90/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:22.000Z *Today marks 75 years of India’s independence from colonial rule. Just as my country has since been contributing to and learning from the world via our existence as Earth’s largest democracy, I hope our growing Chandrayaan ambitions and resurgence in collaborative planetary science efforts will play an important and necessary role in shaping global polices over decades for sustainable, cooperative and peaceful Moon exploration as humanity makes its first attempt at long-term lunar living.* --- ## The Artemis I mission will study deep space radiation like no other As NASA targets launch of the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) on August 29 for the [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/around-the-moon-with-nasa-s-first-launch-of-sls-with-orion) mission to send an uncrewed [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/orion/about/index.html) around the Moon and back, teams [installed two dummies inside Orion](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/08/12/teams-work-final-preparations-for-roll-out-of-artemis-i-moon-rocket) last week, provided by the German space agency led [MARE experiment](https://www.dlr.de/content/en/missions/mare.html). These [anatomically accurate analogues](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Orion/Radiation%5Ffor%5Fdummies) of adult female torsos, the same kind used in hospitals to quantify correct radiation dosage for cancer therapies, will measure for the first time the effects of deep space solar and galactic cosmic radiation on the female body. Because women have a higher cancer risk than men on average, the experiment will help develop adequate protective measures for future female crews on Moon missions. One of the dummies, named Helga, will fly unprotected while the other, Zohar, will wear a newly developed Israel-provided radiation protection vest called [AstroRad](https://stemrad.com/astrorad-4). Combined, both torsos have more than 10,000 passive crystal sensors and 34 active radiation detectors embedded inside them to measure radiation exposure throughout the mission, all the way until Orion splashes down on Earth. NASA, DLR and partners will compare datasets from Helga and Zohar to best [protect astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/hrp/elements/radiation/risks) on [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to), the first crewed flight under the campaign. Related: A neat post on [solving some developmental challenges](https://www.dlr.de/blogs/en/desktopdefault.aspx/tabid-5893/9577%5Fread-1225) faced by the experiment because of the potentially long wait times of the SLS rocket on the launchpad. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fa09b17aa-a745-4832-8289-b7601b226b61_1920x1080-jpeg-2.jpg) The installed locations of the two female torso analogues within the Orion spacecraft, which will fly to the Moon and back on the Artemis I mis­sion. [Credits: NASA / Lockheed Martin / DLR](https://www.dlr.de/content/en/missions/mare.html) Artemis I is carrying [many more radiation experiments](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-i-space-radiation-research-to-help-moon-mars-explorers), including five [ESA-provided active dosimeters](https://blogs.esa.int/orion/2022/04/11/european-technology-to-map-radiation-on-the-way-to-the-moon), four NASA-funded [biological investigations](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/small-samples-with-big-mission-on-first-orion-flight-around-the-moon), Japan’s miniature active dosimeter on the [OMOTENASHI](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/home/omotenashi/service.html) semi-soft lander, and an active radiation warning system within Orion called HERA which will notify crew [to take shelter](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/scientists-and-engineers-evaluate-orion-radiation-protection-plan) on detecting highly energetic solar flare events. From August 4 through 7 in 1972, the Sun blurted [several bursts of flares](http://spaceweatherlivinghistory.org/timeline/31) between the Apollo 16 and 17 missions. Had the astronauts been in lunar orbit or on the surface, they could’ve faced damaging levels of radiation. So one nice thing about Orion is that it’s [designed to protect astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/scientists-and-engineers-evaluate-orion-radiation-protection-plan) from such energetic particles that reach the Earth-Moon space in a matter of hours. After the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/index.html) launches for Artemis I, the [second stage](https://www.ulalaunch.com/interim-cryogenic-propulsion-stage-%28icps%29) will fire its engine to push the connected Orion spacecraft out of Earth orbit and on a trajectory to the Moon. It’ll then separate from Orion, and deploy [10 CubeSats](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/0364%5Fsecondary%5Fpayloads%5Fbrochure%5F07282020%5F508%5Fsingle%5Fpages%5Ffor%5Fweb.pdf) on independent scientific missions, two of which will collect substantial radiation data in deep space. - [BioSentinel](https://www.nasa.gov/ames/biosentinel)will measure the impact of space radiation on yeast over six months from solar orbit. The researchers chose yeast because their cells and human cells have many similar DNA damage and repair mechanisms. Terrestrial facilities can’t fully simulate the unique radiation environment of deep space so this study will provide us new insights on its effects on biological life as NASA seeks to establish long-term presence on the Moon. - The Japanese spacecraft [EQUULEUS](https://www.space.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp/equuleus/en) will fly to the Earth-Moon Lagrangian Point L2—where the Earth’s and Moon’s gravitational pulls roughly balance—to study Earth’s plasmasphere. It will also measure meteor impact flashes and the dust environment around the Moon, providing additional insights for the safety of future astronauts. An [armada of international radiation-measuring instruments](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-62/) on the upcoming NASA-led international [Gateway lunar station](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) will continue and advance this extensive research kicked off by Artemis I. NASA and ESA will use these comprehensive datasets to best [protect astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/hrp/elements/radiation/risks) on longer and sustained future crewed Moon missions. --- *Thanks to [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io) for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* *Thanks also to [Jason Davis](https://www.planetary.org/profiles/jason-davis) for supporting my independent writing.* *I’m looking for a sponsor to enable me to attend the revered [IAC 2022 space conference](https://iac2022.org/about-iac/iac-2022) in Paris next month. In return, you’ll be gratefully credited for the same in my article uniquely covering Moon-related things at the conference. Additionally, you will receive all the benefits of a Moon Monday sponsor for three months. Please [email me](mailto:hey@jatan.space) if your organization or company would like to fund my first international conference visit ever.* --- ## U.S. President passes the first NASA authorization act in half a decade On August 9, U.S. President Biden [signed into law](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/biden-signs-2022-nasa-authorization-act-into-law) the [CHIPS and Science Act](https://www.commerce.senate.gov/services/files/CFC99CC6-CE84-4B1A-8BBF-8D2E84BD7965). While the bill is primarily intended to support domestic manufacturing of semiconductors, it [includes formal authorization](https://spacenews.com/nasa-authorization-included-in-chips-act) of NASA’s lunar exploration efforts under [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis). The bill, while not providing any funding, directs NASA to establish a “Moon to Mars Program Office” as well as appoint an Artemis Director within it. Recall that the Aerospace Safety Advisory Panel (ASAP), a committee that reports to NASA and the U.S. Congress, [noted](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasas-aerospace-safety-advisory-panel-releases-2021-annual-report) in [its 2021 annual report](https://oiir.hq.nasa.gov/asap/documents/2021%5FASAP%5FReport-TAGGED.pdf) that Artemis isn’t actually a single program but a collection of many related programs none of which answer to a common program manager or board. From the report: > There is no clearly defined leader of the enterprise, transparently endowed with the ultimate authority, responsibility, and accountability to direct all Artemis-related programs and ensure full synchronization and integration of effort. The bill therefore attempts to resolve the same. While NASA leadership had then disagreed by [calling Artemis a ](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-ig-disputes-nasas-optimism-on-artemis-schedule)*[campaign](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-ig-disputes-nasas-optimism-on-artemis-schedule)* of lunar exploration efforts, and not a defined program, they [intended to establish](https://spacenews.com/congress-presses-nasa-for-more-details-on-artemis-costs-and-schedules) an “Artemis campaign development division” to run and provide centralized oversight over all Artemis missions, each with a manager. Back to the NASA authorization bill; it [also directs NASA to launch the SLS rocket annually](https://spacenews.com/nasa-authorization-included-in-chips-act) after [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to), the first crewed launch currently targeting launch in 2024\. NASA is also directed to ready the SLS rocket’s more powerful [Block 1B variant](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/sls%5Flift%5Fcapabilities%5Fconfigurations%5F04292020%5Fwoleo.pdf) for the Artemis IV launch in 2027 while asking it provide a report on the status of the [troublesome development](https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/06/nasas-second-mobile-launcher-is-too-heavy-years-late-and-pushing-1-billion) of said rocket’s [Mobile Launcher 2](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/final%5F-%5Fmobile%5Flauncher%5F2%5Ffact%5Fsheet.pdf). ## Preparing to train astronauts for dark Moonwalks To train upcoming Artemis astronauts for moonwalking under [challenging dark conditions](https://www.nasa.gov/ames/feature/the-dark-side-of-the-crater-how-light-looks-different-on-the-moon-and-what-nasa-is-doing) caused by the forever near-horizon Sun and rocky terrain on the Moon’s poles, NASA’s [Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory](https://youtu.be/NqeC0AnU-Ng) has been setup to [mimic lunar polar lighting](https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/dark-mode-activated) at the bottom of their 12-meter deep pool. They do so by turning off all facility lights, installing black curtains on the pool walls to minimize reflections, and using a powerful underwater cinematic lamp. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9eee7855-91e0-4e8f-9aac-26fc1f9a0a5b_2400x1500-jpeg.jpg) The Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory set to mimic lighting conditions on the Moon’s poles. [Credits: NASA / Lauren Maples](https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/dark-mode-activated) Recall that NASA wants Artemis astronauts to venture inside [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/), where temperatures are [well below -180 degrees Celsius](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/96), which is why one of the [core requirements](https://sam.gov/api/prod/opps/v3/opportunities/resources/files/ecc034760ec1485b8a26b21a493de9a1/download) of the [upcoming new spacesuits](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-80/) is to let astronauts explore such regions nominally for at least two hours. Here’s an illustrative excerpt from [Alexandra Witze](http://alexandrawitze.com)’s nice [overview of the Artemis campaign](https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-022-01253-6): > NASA is designing Artemis spacesuits that can withstand the huge temperature swings experienced from light to dark and back again. Cameras will need to have a high dynamic range, functioning equally well in deep shadow and bright sunlight. And even getting around on the surface will be challenging. “It will be a disorienting environment in which to operate,” says Jose Hurtado, a planetary geologist at the University of Texas in El Paso, who helps to train NASA astronauts. “You can imagine walking around at night with nothing but a flashlight.” > > Artemis astronauts will train in field geology at night in rugged landscapes on Earth to prepare for the conditions that they might encounter on the Moon. Using artificial lighting, laser ranging, map displays or other technical aids could help them to get around more smoothly, says Carolyn van der Bogert, a planetary geologist at the University of Münster in Germany, who has analysed astronaut landing sites. “That’s going to be an improvement over what the Apollo astronauts had.” Relatedly, I got inspired to write a little verse: > On the Moon, > from where the Sun doesn't shine, > a new era will dawn. ## More Moon - On August 10, a Super Guppy large-cargo-hauling airplane [delivered the testing structure](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/nasa-s-super-guppy-delivers-rocket-test-article-to-marshall.html) of the SLS rocket’s [Orion stage adapter (OSA)](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sfNSxn4MPos) to Huntsville, whose flight version connects the rocket’s second stage to the Orion spacecraft. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f03f43fae-b1ae-43ca-8615-b4d836e4697f_1650x1000-jpeg.jpg) The Orion Stage Adapter test structure is unloaded from Super Guppy at Huntsville, Alabama. [Credits: NASA / Charles Beason](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/nasa-s-super-guppy-delivers-rocket-test-article-to-marshall.html) - [Lunar Zebro](https://zebro.space) from the Delft University of Technology is a neat micro-rover with C-shaped wheels. Its team is targeting the first demonstration with a single rover on the Moon in 2023 on an unrevealed lander, with follow-up missions touting Zebro swarms that can risk exploring challenging terrain due to available redundancy. - For its eighth [BIG Idea Challenge](https://bigidea.nianet.org), NASA is asking university students to build and demonstrate [concept designs for any major part of a metal production pipeline on the Moon](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-seeks-student-ideas-for-extracting-forging-metal-on-the-moon)—from efficiently extracting metals from lunar minerals such as ilmenite and anorthite to making additively manufactured infrastructure such as pipes, power cables, transport rails, and more. - Since India’s [Chandrayaan 2 lunar orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) is nominally functioning, and expected to do so until at least 2027, the orbiter on the [Chandrayaan 3 lunar landing mission](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-3-prelaunch-info/) won’t have any Moon-studying instruments. The orbiter’s sole purpose is to propel the lander to the Moon and relay communications during and after landing. However, ISRO [revealed at COSPAR 2022](https://cosparhq.cnes.fr/assets/uploads/2022/07/India-2022%5FSpace-Research-in-India-Book-WEB-Version-09-07-22%5Fcompressed.pdf) that the orbiter will [host the SHAPE experiment](https://old.reddit.com/r/ISRO/comments/vweeu5/report%5Fon%5Fspace%5Fresearch%5Fin%5Findia%5Ffor%5F44th%5Fcospar/ifpfurp), which is a near-infrared spectro-polarimeter made to observe the full Earth disc from the Moon to get a sense of what signatures of habitable [Earth-like exoplanets](https://www.planetary.org/articles/earth-like-worlds) would look like. This isn’t the first instance of an Indian mission leveraging the lunar vantage point for non-lunar science; [the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter is also a Sun watcher](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-orbiter-is-also-a-sun-watcher/). --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### Lunar Trailblazer, NASA’s Moon water mapper URL: https://jatan.space/nasa-lunar-trailblazer/ Last updated: 2025-02-24T10:37:55.000Z With its [Artemis campaign](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/artemis), NASA wants to succeed the [Apollo missions](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/celebrating-apollo-at-50) by landing humans on our Moon again—this time to stay. Between Apollo and Artemis, one stark difference in exploring our cosmic neighbor is the study of [lunar water](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). While studies of [Apollo samples](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/samples/atlas) originally supported a long-held consensus of our Moon being extremely dry, technological advances over three decades later allowed discovering water within lunar [volcanic glasses](https://www.nature.com/articles/nature07047) and [minerals](https://www.pnas.org/content/107/25/11223). Around the same time, the [Chandrayaan 1](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/) mission [discovered water](https://jatan.space/how-nasa-and-chandrayaan-discovered-water-on-the-moon/) in relatively large amounts across the Moon. Luna turned out not to be bone dry after all. These and subsequent developments rekindled global interest in [exploring our cosmic neighbor](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) from a resource utility as well as scientific standpoint. Since then, scientists have been trying to understand exactly how water molecules and other such volatiles get produced on the Moon, and then [get transported](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasa-study-highlights-importance-of-surface-shadows-in-moon-water-puzzle) to the poles where they can get sequestered in [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) for billions of years. For Artemis’ ambition to have astronauts living on the Moon using local resources like water, NASA needs to know its exact nature and accessibility to plan ahead. To that end, [a slew of agency-funded robotic missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-63/) over the next five years will take specific measurements to help scientists get an actionable grasp on the nature of lunar water. This is where [Lunar Trailblazer](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/) comes in. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f08dfec30-9413-4631-bd2d-8e41ed18953f_1600x1050-jpeg.jpg) Render of the Lunar Trailblazer orbiter at the Moon. [Credit: Lockheed Martin](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/gallery.html) ## How will Lunar Trailblazer map water on the Moon? The 210-kilogram Trailblazer spacecraft will [launch in 2023](https://spacenews.com/nasa-moves-up-lunar-trailblazer-launch) on a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket [alongside the second Intuitive Machines lander](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-to-land-water-measuring-payload-on-the-moon) delivering NASA’s instruments to the Moon. After entering a polar lunar orbit, Trailblazer will use its [two instruments](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/instruments.html) to [map the form, abundance, and distribution](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/objectives.html) of water on the Moon, including ice on its poles and [regolith- or rock-associated water](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/lunarWater.html) in sunlit regions. Much like Chandrayaan 1, Trailblazer has an infrared spectrometer to detect water and hydroxyl (OH) molecules based on how the Moon’s surface reflects and absorbs infrared light. But Trailblazer’s superior resolution can better differentiate between the two, in all of their icy, liquid, and vapor forms. Since the temperature of the surface being mapped affects the results, Trailblazer’s second instrument will simultaneously measure temperatures to correctly calibrate the water detections. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f4283062d-4d29-4384-8869-556df93ae48b_1950x1950-jpeg.jpg) Lunar Trailblazer will follow up on a key discovery by the Chandrayaan 1 mission: water and hydroxyl (blue and violet on this map) across the Moon’s surface. [Credits: ISRO / NASA](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/images/pia12237-water-detected-at-high-latitudes) --- **Cool as lunar ice:* The Trailblazer team has put up* [*an online interactive map*](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/explore.html) *to browse and learn about each of the mission’s mapping targets. It would be amazing if this became a staple for all planetary missions.* --- ## How will Lunar Trailblazer advance our understanding of water on the Moon? Trailblazer’s high-resolution maps of the amount and distribution of the Moon’s [polar water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/), and how much of it exists as ice crystals versus being mineral-bound, will provide scientists with the geologic context necessary to conduct and interpret future studies from the surface. This is true for missions like NASA’s [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) launching in 2024 to tangibly study water ice inside permanently shadowed regions as well as for all crewed Artemis missions aiming to [bring lunar ice as cryogenic samples](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-defines-science-priorities-for-first-crewed-artemis-landing-on-moon) for meticulous studies on Earth. Trailblazer will also [monitor](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/files/NESFELS%5F210720.pdf) water content changes and its migration across sunlit regions in a wide range of latitudes. Coupled with [similar ongoing observations](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-40/) by India’s [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-2-moon-landing-mission/), we’ll get to know exactly how water moves across the Moon—day and night—and settles inside permanently shadowed regions. This knowledge will extend to airless bodies across the Solar System, including [Mercury](https://www.nasa.gov/mission%5Fpages/messenger/media/PressConf20121129.html) and [Ceres](https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/2016GL069368), both of which boast water ice cold traps. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f197bf622-b79c-4132-a914-ff8b780f75a0_1250x1250-jpeg.jpg) Concept image showing how Lunar Trailblazer’s remote sensing data can distinguish between water in the form of ice crystals from mineral-bound states. [Credit: Jasper Miura / Lockheed Martin](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/gallery.html) Trailblazer’s comprehensive dataset will help scientists know and compare the level of contribution of each lunar water source: ancient volcanoes, comets and asteroids, [micrometeorites](https://jatan.space/the-tiniest-of-impact-craters/), [the solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/), and [the Earth’s atmosphere](https://www.gi.alaska.edu/news/earths-atmosphere-may-be-source-some-lunar-water). In particular, the water concentrations Trailblazer detects in ancient and young volcanic lands will help scientists know how much water the Moon’s interior began with and lost over time, a [highly debated topic](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-85/). These water fractions are critical to understanding not just the [evolution of our Moon](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) *and* rocky planets at large but also for peering into [the Moon’s origin](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/), and with it Earth’s. If our Moon really formed from the debris of a collision between early Earth and a Mars-sized body 4.5 billion years ago, many scientists think the impact’s intense heat makes it unlikely for the Moon to have gotten or retained much water or its constituents while coalescing. ## Simple, fast, and efficient exploration Lunar Trailblazer was commissioned by NASA in 2019 as part of their new program [SIMPLEx](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/small-satellite-concept-finalists-target-moon-mars-and-beyond) (Small Innovative Mission for Planetary Exploration), which specifically funds missions that advance planetary science on low budgets. As such, the [$72 million](https://spacenews.com/nasa-to-continue-lunar-trailblazer-despite-cost-overrun) Trailblazer satellite is tailor-made to advance our understanding of lunar water—a specific, future-defining aspect of lunar exploration and science. With big science for a fraction of the cost of typical planetary science missions, Trailblazer embodies its namesake. *Thanks to* [*Bethany Ehlmann*](https://www.planetary.org/profiles/bethany-ehlmann) *and Trailblazer’s web team for reviewing the initial version of this page for technical accuracy.* *Originally published at* [*The Planetary Society*](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/lunar-trailblazer)*.* ### Ultimate guide to water on the Moon URL: https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/ Last updated: 2025-10-27T06:05:03.000Z Scientists have long suspected water might exist on the Moon, but exactly how much there was and where it was located has been the source of much debate. In a 1967 paper, scientist Harold Urey [mocked his colleagues](https://www.nature.com/articles/2161094a0) for believing the Moon’s river-like channels were caused by anything other than water, such as “lava, dust-gas or possibly even vodka.” The [definitive discovery of Moon water](https://jatan.space/how-nasa-and-chandrayaan-discovered-water-on-the-moon/) came in 2008, when India’s space agency ISRO launched the [Chandrayaan 1](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/) spacecraft to lunar orbit. Chandrayaan 1 carried with it a NASA-provided science instrument called the Moon Mineralogical Mapper—M3 for short—that observed how the surface absorbed infrared light. Using this data M3 determined that previously suspected water molecules were [ice inside the Moon’s polar craters](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=7218). A year later in 2009, NASA launched the [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO)](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/lunar-reconnaissance-orbiter) and an impact probe called LCROSS. The upper stage from the rocket used to launch LRO and LCROSS was deliberately smashed into a dark crater on the Moon’s south pole. LCROSS flew through the debris plume and detected [155 kilograms of water](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010Sci...330..463C/abstract) before it too crashed into the Moon. Since then, many other Moon missions have seen hints of water in different forms and in different regions. Though these discoveries are vital incremental steps in the scientific process, they are occasionally over-hyped by the media. In 2020, NASA and the German space agency’s flying SOFIA telescope observed the Moon in infrared and [confirmed the presence of water](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-s-sofia-discovers-water-on-sunlit-surface-of-moon/) in non-polar regions. ## How can water exist on the Moon? The existence of lunar water may seem strange, considering the Moon has no atmosphere and its surface is exposed to the vacuum of space. Daytime temperatures reach 120 degrees Celsius. Any surface water in sunlit regions evaporates and then floats away. Earth is tilted 23 degrees away from the plane in which planets go around the Sun. This tilt changes the amount of sunlight our planet’s northern and southern hemispheres receive each year, creating our seasons. It also plunges the north and south poles into periods of constant darkness and constant sunlight. Our Moon, however, has less of a tilt. At the poles the Sun hovers close to the horizon. Large craters with terraced rims block sunlight from ever reaching inside. These areas are called [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/), or PSRs. PSRs are known to exist on other low-gravity, airless worlds too, like [Mercury](https://www.nasa.gov/mission%5Fpages/messenger/media/PressConf20121129.html) and [Ceres](https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/2016GL069368). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f548e2f77-98ee-4a21-a9d2-14a62015235c_1133x1133-jpeg.jpg) The rim of the 10-kilometer-wide Erlanger crater on the Moon’s north pole. The crater floor is in permanent darkness. [Credit: NASA LRO](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/96) Temperatures inside the Moon’s PSRs [can drop to -250 degrees Celsius](https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/news/907/moons-south-pole-in-nasas-landing-sites/). That’s colder than Pluto! The Moon’s poles have [hundreds of PSRs](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/psr/list) where spacecraft have detected substantial water ice. It’s easy to see why the water stays inside such natural [cold traps](https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2023GL105369) but where did it come from in the first place? ## Where did water inside the Moon’s permanently shadowed craters come from? Water-bearing [comets and asteroids](https://jatan.space/why-explore-small-worlds/) have bombarded our inner solar system multiple times throughout history. Some of these small worlds smashed into the early Earth and Moon, depositing water. Some of the [Moon’s water may also have come from Earth](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/) if our theory that the Moon was created when a large object smashed into Earth is indeed correct. While most of the Moon’s water evaporated into space, some of it found its way into PSRs, where it has been preserved for billions of years. In the Moon’s non-polar regions, [the solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/)—more specifically, protons emitted by the Sun—constantly bombards the surface. Some of these protons interact with oxygen molecules in the lunar soil to produce water. This water isn’t anything like what you could drink, though: it’s in such small amounts that the lunar soil is still hundreds of times drier than Earth’s deserts. ## How much water is on the Moon? Based on remote observations by radar instruments aboard Chandrayaan-1 and LRO, the lunar poles have over [600 billion kilograms of water ice](https://www.nasa.gov/mission%5Fpages/Mini-RF/multimedia/feature%5Fice%5Flike%5Fdeposits.html). That’s enough to fill at least 240,000 Olympic-sized swimming pools. This is a low-end estimate because the amount of water detected is limited by the strength of spacecraft radar. New missions with radars that penetrate deeper will likely find more water ice. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f02de3a80-5512-495e-87ff-50a357047ea2_1200x675-jpeg.jpg) Distribution of water ice on the lunar south pole (left) and north pole (right) as mapped by ISRO’s Chandrayaan 1 spacecraft. The water ice lies within the permanently shadowed regions in deep polar craters. [Credit: NASA](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=7218) In 2020, researchers using LRO data identified PSRs inside craters that were smaller than a kilometer. These [micro cold traps](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-020-1198-9) increase the expected amount of water ice on the Moon by at least 10 to 20 percent. ## Why do we care about water on the Moon? The high volume of water ice on the Moon has attracted the attention of space agencies and private companies around the world. They [envision](https://jatan.space/the-moon-as-a-rocket-platform/) mining the water ice to produce air, drinking water, and propellant, fueling the needs of lunar habitats and even entire lunar industries in the future. For scientists, the water ice and other chemicals in the PSRs offer a pristine record of cometary and asteroid bombardment from the solar system’s early days. By studying the water, we can learn more about the [origin of the Earth and Moon](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/), and by extension how life arose on Earth. Realizing the high value of these PSRs, NASA has designated them as [sensitive locations](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-updates-planetary-protection-policies-for-robotic-and-human-missions-to-earth-s-moon) subject to strict contamination protections. ## How can we explore the Moon’s water ice directly? Exploring the PSRs firsthand is no small challenge. The first hurdle is developing an ability to land with precision. Whereas regions near the Moon’s equator have large expanses of flat terrain, the polar regions are often [rocky and sloped](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/SPole%5FSRidgemap%5FLOLA-Slope5m%5Fv20190515.pdf). The lunar poles also require spacecraft that can survive very cold temperatures. While PSRs are extremely cold, their sunlit crater rims don’t get very much direct sunlight, keeping them cooled to an average of about -50 degrees Celsius. Another challenge is power and communication. A rover venturing into a PSR will lose its line-of-sight with Earth, disabling communications, while the lack of sunlight means it will have to pack powerful batteries or rely on nuclear power. ## How will future missions study and use water on the Moon? Space missions in the last decade have been [acquiring more information](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-63/) about PSRs and volatiles in them so they can be explored with landers and rovers. Scientists using data from LRO and Japan’s Kayuga orbiter have identified [favorable landing sites](https://arxiv.org/abs/1208.5587) for future missions. LRO data has also been used to make an extensive [atlas of PSRs](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/psr), which includes [high-resolution altitude and slope maps](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/), and even imagery based on dim light bouncing off the upper walls of lunar craters. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fce009360-4428-43f7-ad54-9c1544e0f913_2000x2000-jpeg.jpg) Aggregated solar illumination map of the Moon’s south pole, as made from stacked observations by NASA’s LRO spacecraft. The brightest spots are near-permanently sunlit areas, whereas the pitch black ones are the permanently shadowed regions. [Credit: NASA](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/271) ISRO’s [Chandrayaan-2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/), launched in 2019, is using its advanced radar to map the water ice at greater depths and quantify it. These efforts will be aided by NASA’s [Lunar Trailblazer](https://jatan.space/nasa-lunar-trailblazer/) orbiter launching in 2023, as well as the agency’s ShadowCam instrument onboard [South Korea’s first lunar orbiter](https://jatan.space/kplo/) launched in 2022\. China’s Chang’e-6 mission may bring samples from the Moon’s south pole back to Earth. These samples would allow us to precisely date different chemicals within the ice, tracing their origin story to unlock fundamental mysteries about the solar system. NASA’s [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) and the ISRO-JAXA [LUPEX rover](https://jatan.space/indian-space-issue-25/) missions, slated for launch mid-decade, would drive into PSRs to make high-resolution maps of the water ice and other chemicals, and drill the ice to unravel what is hidden in its pristine depths. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f4bf83af3-f590-4bdc-94d5-d51bb0f04273_1024x576.png) An artist’s impression of NASA’s VIPER rover exploring the Moon’s south pole, scouting for water ice. [Credit: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/new-viper-lunar-rover-to-map-water-ice-on-the-moon) VIPER’s and LUPEX’s findings will set the stage for [NASA’s Artemis program](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/), which envisions an eventual long-term human presence on the lunar surface. As part of the [identified science priorities](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-defines-science-priorities-for-first-crewed-artemis-landing-on-moon) for Artemis III, the first crewed Artemis landing, NASA intends to cryogenically sample and bring precious volatiles from PSRs to Earth for meticulous studies. The lunar poles are also central to human and robotic exploration plans of commercial companies and many other nations, including China, India, Japan, Europe, and Russia. PSRs add to the long list of [reasons to explore our Moon](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/). Samples from PSRs and the lunar poles will be studied by laboratories worldwide to precisely date the age of volatiles and materials within, trace their origin, and unlock fundamental mysteries about the Solar System. --- ## Resource list - Explore PSRs in a Google-maps like interface with [LROC Quickmap](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=-122.7585096,-86.1783348,118.9545339,-85.6397119&proj=17&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEoAsjYIHYFcA2vIBvAXwF0kB2BBDSHfIs8k84cOKWhEAJgA5QFdInoEWSAMxw4E4VjximjUqSA) - [Atlas of PSRs](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/psr/list) by NASA LRO - [Slope, elevation, temperatures, solar illumination and communication maps](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/) of the lunar south pole by LPI - The Moon’s south pole on [NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio](https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/Gallery/moonpole.html) - Tools and data on [lunar mining & landing sites](https://kevincannon.rocks/lunarmining/) *Originally published at* [*The Planetary Society*](https://www.planetary.org/articles/water-on-the-moon-guide)*, enhanced since to keep information current.* ### Moon Monday #89: A lunar-bound Korean craft, crew for the Moon, hybrid exploration, and more updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-89/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:23.000Z ## KPLO on its way to our cosmic neighbor! On August 5, 2022 (KST), a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket [successfully launched and deployed](https://spacenews.com/south-koreas-first-lunar-orbiter-on-way-to-the-moon) the [Korea Pathfinder Lunar Orbiter](https://jatan.space/kplo/) (KPLO) towards the Moon. With KPLO, South Korea forays into planetary exploration, begins its ambitious lunar exploration program, and finds a collaborator in NASA. Equipped with [four indigenously built instruments](https://space.skyrocket.de/doc%5Fsdat/kplo.htm) and the NASA-provided ultra-sensitive [ShadowCam](http://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/about), KPLO will show us new views of the Moon’s surface and help us plan future missions there, including landing humans on the lunar poles. Here are some things to look forward to. - KPLO was launched on a [ballistic lunar trajectory](https://www.kari.re.kr/eng/kariimg/view.do?idx=1523&mno=sub05%5F01&img%5Fgbn=PHO)—the same kind being currently used by the NASA-funded [CAPSTONE](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/small%5Fspacecraft/capstone) spacecraft—which will allow KPLO to reach the Moon for orbital capture on December 16. - Following various timely and precise engine burns, KPLO will circularize its lunar orbit to a roughly 100 kilometers altitude by December 31. - KPLO’s instruments will start studying the Moon from January 2023 for [at least a year](https://www.shadowcam.asu.edu/KPLO%5Fenglish%5Fpress%5Fkit.pdf). This means we can expect the much-awaited ShadowCam views then. - The [$182 million](https://spacenews.com/south-koreas-first-lunar-orbiter-on-way-to-the-moon) KPLO mission comprises the first phase of South Korea’s lunar exploration program. In the second phase, they plan to launch another lunar orbiter, a lander, and a rover. In March 2021, South Korean President Moon Jae-in [said](https://spacenews.com/south-korean-leader-vows-landing-on-the-moon-by-2030/) the robotic lander will launch on an indigenously developed rocket before 2030. The [KPLO Press Kit](https://www.shadowcam.asu.edu/KPLO%5Fenglish%5Fpress%5Fkit.pdf) has many more mission details. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fdb864116-98b2-4362-9674-fee3a7eb1bda_1500x1050-jpeg.jpg) A SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket soars post-liftoff, carrying the Moonbound KPLO spacecraft (render shown in the inset image). [Credits: ASU / KARI](http://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/posts/1263) ## Artemis I Moon launch palpable at last NASA continues targeting [launch of their SLS rocket on August 29](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/08/05/artemis-i-final-stage-of-moon-rocket-preparations-underway) for the [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/around-the-moon-with-nasa-s-first-launch-of-sls-with-orion) mission to send an uncrewed [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/orion/about/index.html) around the Moon and back. Before the agency rolls out the fully stacked rocket to the launchpad on August 18, two key preparations remain: testing the flight termination system, and installing the [two ESA-provided dummies](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Orion/Radiation%5Ffor%5Fdummies) inside Orion for deep space radiation measurements. Orion will also [carry 54 kilograms worth of mementos](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-i-becomes-cultural-educational-time-capsule-for-trip-around-moon), including a Moon rock and a bolt from Apollo 11, a variety of tree seeds to be planted on Earth after the capsule returns in order to understand deep space effects (similar to Apollo’s [Moon Trees](https://www.nasa.gov/centers/marshall/history/moon-trees-stand-as-living-testaments-to-first-voyages-to-moon.html)), and contributions from several partner space agencies. Also, there’s an [Artemis I Press Kit](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-i-press-kit) now. Related: In a thoughtful piece, Casey Dreier [highlights the inevitability of the SLS program](https://www.planetary.org/articles/why-we-have-the-sls) being the way it is. A part that stood out: > Depending on how you look at it, the SLS is either a product of a broken system that curries favor to wealthy industries or an example of representative democracy working as it should—with members of Congress responding to the local needs of their constituents. Perhaps it’s a bit of both. But there are real and durable reasons for why we have (and will continue to have) the SLS for many years to come. Casey also helpfully summarizes the [cost breakup of SLS and Orion](https://www.planetary.org/space-policy/cost-of-sls-and-orion) over the years. ## On selecting astronauts to blast to the Moon NASA now says that [all of their active astronauts will be eligible](https://spacenews.com/entire-nasa-astronaut-corps-eligible-for-artemis-missions) for flying on future [Artemis Moon missions](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis), instead of just the [previously announced set of 18](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-team). This brings the pool to a total of 42, plus the 10 candidates currently in training. Relatedly, NASA’s Office of Inspector General had raised in its [January 2022 report](https://oig.nasa.gov/docs/IG-22-007.pdf) that as opposed to over a hundred astronauts available during the Space Shuttle’s final two decades, the number NASA has in its corps now is uncomfortably small to work with and grow quickly to meet the agency’s simultaneously expanding goals for sending humans to the Moon while maintaining presence in Earth orbit. From the report: > The Agency could be overestimating the time available to develop and implement the necessary training framework and regimen across key Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle (Orion), next-generation spacesuits, and Human Landing. Delays in moving beyond the current ISS-focused approach for current and future astronauts increase the risk of delays in developing the necessary training to meet Artemis mission goals. ## Germany and ESA are pursuing hybrid lunar exploration The [ARCHES Space-Analog Demonstration](https://www.arches-projekt.de/en/demomission/space/) project led by the German space agency, and featuring significant ESA participation, [successfully conducted their latest terrestrial demonstration](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FEngineering%5FTechnology/Rover%5Fplus%5Fastronaut%5Fcomplete%5FMount%5FEtna%5Fchallenge) in July. It involved an astronaut remotely operating a two-armed surface rover named *Interact* for a sample return mission with a one-second delay, as if controlling it from the upcoming NASA-led international [Gateway lunar station](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway). As the rover’s name suggests, it isn’t your typical remotely commanded mobile machine but one that [can transmit haptic feedback](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FEngineering%5FTechnology/Ground-based%5Frover%5Fs%5Ftouch%5Fshared%5Fwith%5Fastronaut%5Fin%5Fspace) to let an operator feel the weight and cohesion of the rocks its arms pick up. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f0894f88e-e782-46e8-b3f5-ab821c31128b_1024x768-jpeg.jpg) The two-armed *Interact* rover besides its lander on Mount Etna. [Credit: ESA](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2022/07/Interact%5Frover%5Fby%5Flunar%5Flander) Cooperating with mission control on Earth, and [aided by other robots](https://www.dlr.de/content/en/articles/missions-projects/arches/arches%5Fdlr%5Fcomponents.html), the astronaut-rover duo picked up rocks of interest and brought them to its lander more efficiently than traditional operations would. The rover itself was driving on Mount Etna in Italy, an active volcano, chosen for its very Moon-like layered lava landscapes and granular surface. The whole four-week exploration was thus indeed like being on a real mission. This activity is part of the intent ESA has with their [European Large Logistics Lander](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Exploration/European%5FLarge%5FLogistics%5FLander) (EL3) launching post-2030, which is being designed to support a variety of endeavors such as large rover explorations, sample return, and aiding NASA’s Artemis missions with cargo supplies. ESA, JAXA, and CSA had previously conducted [a joint mission study](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Exploration/To%5Fthe%5FMoon%5Fdown%5Fsouth) using EL3 to bring samples from the pristine [Schrödinger crater](https://jatan.space/the-crowned-crater-of-schrodinger/) on the Moon’s farside. While the mission hasn’t been passed yet, other destinations and future reconsiderations for the large lander remain on the table. --- *Many thanks to [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io), [The Orbital Index](https://orbitalindex.com) and [Open Lunar Foundation](https://www.openlunar.org) for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* *Thanks also to Steve B for supporting my independent writing.* --- ## More Moon - Northrop Grumman has subcontracted startup Solstar Space to [provide Wi-Fi internet services](https://payloadspace.com/northrop-selects-solstar-for-lunar-gateway-internet) at the [Gateway lunar station](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway), specifically on the Northrop-built [HALO](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-northrop-grumman-finalize-moon-outpost-living-quarters-contract) living quarters. Solstar also intends to provide similar Wi-Fi access points for astronauts and robots on future surface missions. - South Korean carmaker Hyundai has formed a consortium with sister company Kia Motors and six national research institutes [to eventually build lunar rovers](https://www.hyundai.com/worldwide/en/company/newsroom/hyundai-motor-and-kia-to-develop-lunar-surface-exploration-mobility-through-joint-multilateral-research-agreement-0000016870). - Here’s a [neat overview of ESA’s Lunar Economy Workshop](https://bsgn.esa.int/2022/08/05/lunar-workshop-summary) which took place this past July. We hear [more tidbits](https://bsgn.esa.int/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Lunar-Economy-Workshop%5FLunar-Payload-Delivery-Services.pdf) from companies proposing their landers for [ESA’s CLPS-like program](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-66/) to carry European scientific instruments and technology demonstrations to the Moon. Notably, NASA CLPS vendors Astrobotic and Intuitive Machines are interested in the program too, by partnering with European companies who would lead the efforts. - A nice picture from a Moon-like Norwegian region [explored](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2022/07/26/mapping-for-the-moon) as part of the Pangaea astronaut training campaign [discussed in Moon Monday #86](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-86/): ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f6e208657-5804-4c3e-baab-fc06d3fbf9cc_2400x1600-jpeg.jpg) ESA’s Andreas Mogensen (left) and NASA’s Kate Rubins (right) standing next to an exposed Moon-like anorthosite rock in Norway as part of their Pangaea astronaut training course in geology. [Credits: ESA / V. Crobu](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2022/07/Bound%5Fup%5Fwith%5Fthe%5FMoon) --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### Moon Monday #88: An agile lunar rover, donating lunar regolith, a lander nearly ready, and more updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-88/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:23.000Z ## NASA’s VIPER rover endures a steep SLOPE The [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/), launching in 2024 [on an Astrobotic lander](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-astrobotic-to-fly-water-hunting-rover-to-the-moon) as part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), will closely study [lunar water](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other volatile resources on the Moon’s south pole to inform future robotic and crewed missions. On top of dealing with the numerous challenges in any Moon mission, NASA is designing VIPER to power through one of the harshest planetary environments in the Solar System. With temperatures during major investigations [well below -180 degrees Celsius](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/96), a rocky terrain [riddled with steep slopes](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/SPole%5FSRidgemap%5FLOLA-Slope5m%5Fv20190515.pdf), a near-horizon Sun causing long, moving shadows that the solar-powered rover [needs to keep avoiding](https://www.nasa.gov/viper/overview#MissionTimeline) or face a freeze, NASA is sending VIPER to lunar hell. To get its job done under such extreme circumstances, VIPER is being designed to traverse 15-degree inclines with ease, and [even 25 to 30 degree slopes](https://www.nasa.gov/viper/lunar-operations#route) if need be. VIPER should be capable of driving sideways, diagonally, or move in any direction without changing where it’s heading to keep its solar panels pointed at the Sun. If VIPER gets stuck in fluffy soil, it should be able to lift each of its wheels independently to dig into and sweep along the surface—a bit like swimming or *inch-worming*—to get out of it. To ensure VIPER will meet these exotic mobility requirements for mission success, NASA’s Glenn Research Center [upgraded their SLOPE Lab](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/glenn/2021/viper-hits-the-slopes) last year to [test VIPER prototypes](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/artemis-moon-rover-s-wheels-are-ready-to-roll) on a high fidelity lunar-terrain-imitating sand pit. VIPER’s engineering model arrived at the SLOPE lab this year for final mobility testing to inform the flight rover’s upcoming reviews. The rover [aced various drive scenarios](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/nasas-viper-prototype-motors-through-moon-like-obstacle-course) amid carefully and methodically simulated lunar terrain and rock permutations, including climbing steep slopes while autonomously avoiding the excessive ones, “inch-worming” out of fluffy soil, wheeling over fairly large boulders, and more. This focus on the sheer agility of a planetary rover is unprecedented but called for by the mission’s needs. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f85adca20-0aac-4096-90dd-74aa67ef7ce8_2500x1450-jpeg.jpg) The VIPER rover prototype, stripped down to its mobility components, navigating fluffy lunar soil simulant in the SLOPE lab. [Credit: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/nasas-viper-prototype-motors-through-moon-like-obstacle-course) ## NASA wants a SLS rocket to liftoff every year, eventually Like it or not, the super heavy-lift big orange [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) is here to stay, apparently for no less than 15 years as a U.S. national capability. Following a [Request for Information](https://sam.gov/opp/d20ca9e5714b4fa08b75b0a3612f38f9/view) published on October 26 last year, NASA has now released a [pre-solicitation notice](https://sam.gov/opp/8121cbeb1ffc477bb9a342375ab429c7/view) saying that it’s [preparing to award a contract](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-prepares-for-space-launch-system-rocket-services-contract) for future SLS missions to Deep Space Transport LLC, a joint venture between two major SLS contractors Boeing and Northrop Grumman. NASA will [transfer ownership of SLS production and associated facilities](https://spacenews.com/nasa-prepares-to-award-sls-launch-services-contract-to-boeing-northrop-joint-venture) from the currently multiple hardware contracts per mission to a single launch service contract for [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) and other missions starting end of decade. The baseline contract would be for missions Artemis V through IX, at an aspirational rate of one flight per year, and optionally Artemis X–XIV missions and 10 non-Artemis launches. NASA hopes that transitioning the rocket’s ownership to the private industry would slash its cost by 50% or more, and that the agency could then use those saved funds elsewhere in Artemis. After the rocket’s ownership transfer, NASA will remain the primary customer of SLS but the agency says the joint venture should also market the rocket to other potential customers. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fecfa7cd7-e1fe-404f-8ca7-571b17779983_1280x853-jpeg.jpg) The Moon won’t set for the SLS rocket anytime soon, a cause of concern for many hoping for a cheaper, faster timeline for Artemis missions. This view of SLS on the launchpad may be a sight we might want to get used to. [Credit: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/moon-shines-on-the-space-launch-system-rocket-on-the-launch-pad.html) How anyone taking over the SLS rocket would lower its cost by at least 50% is unclear. Since the launch vehicle alone currently costs a whopping [$2.2 billion per flight](https://oig.nasa.gov/docs/IG-22-003.pdf), even the desired 50% price reduction amounts roughly to$1 billion, and launches once a year at best. In comparison, a [SpaceX Starship](https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/starship) mission with equivalent or greater launch capacity could fly more frequently for much cheaper by any measure. One of NASA’s biggest concern with launching astronauts on Starship from Earth seems to be the lack of an [emergency escape system](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/orion%5Flas%5Ffact%5Fsheet%5F8.5x11%5F4page%5F11%5F19%5F15.pdf), which the [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/orion/about/index.html) atop the SLS has. Well, I’m just a space enthusiast but it seems to me that even the route of adapting Orion for any other operational or upcoming heavy-lift rocket would save far more money *and* launch more frequently. Related read from Casey Handmer: [Starship is still not understood](https://caseyhandmer.wordpress.com/2021/10/28/starship-is-still-not-understood). ## Building a trusted way to manage lunar resources On July 27, Orbit Fab and Breaking Ground Trust announced the signing a [first of a kind agreement for donating lunar regolith](https://breakingground.space/library/m158985x86dp26otgrhmv5g1ubi7ca). Orbit Fab develops infrastructure such as [RAFTI](https://www.orbitfab.com/raftib2) for refueling spacecraft in Earth orbit, and is interested in extending its products and services to the Moon. Breaking Ground is a trust established last year to develop fair, practical and multi-utility approaches to manage extracted lunar resources, especially as the Moon’s south pole gets increasingly crowded later this decade and beyond. As part of the agreement, Orbit Fab intends to purchase a small amount of lunar regolith from another company, and then transfer it to Breaking Ground to hold it in trust in order to set precedence for promoting sustainable lunar resource management. The regolith could presumably come from any of the missions by [the four companies NASA selected in 2020](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-companies-to-collect-lunar-resources-for-artemis-demonstrations) to collect lunar material for the agency (note: *collect*, not return to Earth). --- *Thanks to [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io) for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## More Moon - Regarding the lack of clarity on [Lunar Pathfinder](https://bsgn.esa.int/service/lunar-pathfinder)’s 2025 CLPS launch I [discussed last week](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-87/), a CLPS vendor source tells me that NASA will soon release a dedicated competitive bid for the same. - The [Korea Pathfinder Lunar Orbiter](https://jatan.space/kplo/) (KPLO) is targeting [launch on August 5](https://twitter.com/Kor%5FSpaceflight/status/1552495287356489728) on a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket. This South Korea’s first Moon mission will show us new views of the lunar surface, and provide critical information about the lunar polar terrain and its water deposits to help plan future crewed and robotic missions. It will also [inspire kids, students and people at large](https://jatan.space/moon-moment-for-south-korea/) in the country. :) - NASA [continues preparing and testing](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/07/29/final-work-continues-to-ready-artemis-i-moon-rocket-for-launch) the fully stacked SLS rocket for launching the [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/around-the-moon-with-nasa-s-first-launch-of-sls-with-orion) mission [as early as August 29](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-i-mission-availability) to send an uncrewed Orion spacecraft around the Moon and back. Last week’s key preparations include work to arm the flight termination system, and adding protective thermals blankets and seals for the rocket’s second stage and Orion respectively. - In a [press release](https://ispace-inc.com/news/?p=2306), ispace Japan says their [first Moon landing mission](https://ispace-inc.com/hakuto-r/eng/about) could launch in November 2022 on a SpaceX Falcon 9 as the lander’s [space suitability testing](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/) is going well and expected to be done in September. The lander will carry several payloads to the Moon, including UAE’s [Rashid rover](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirates%5FLunar%5FMission) (sporting two [high-resolution cameras](https://www.khaleejtimes.com/news/uaes-lunar-rover-to-have-french-cameras) from the French space agency), a [solid-state battery tech demo](https://ispace-inc.com/news/?p=1047), a [transformable lunar robot](https://ispace-inc.com/news/?p=1903) by the Japanese space agency, and [multiple Canadian payloads and services](https://ispace-inc.com/news/?p=1905). Interestingly, the press release also claims that all payload slots for their second Moon landing in 2024 are booked. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ffd7d7e26-fb55-4080-ba91-5714f7d23dd9_885x755-jpeg.jpg) Technicians prepping the M1 lunar lander for showtime. [Credit: ispace](https://ispace-inc.com/news/?p=2306) - After recently [laying off employees](http://parabolicarc.com/2022/07/14/cash-strapped-masten-space-furloughs-employees-moon-landing-mission-at-risk) exclusively working on [its first CLPS Moon landing mission](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-contract-to-deliver-science-tech-to-moon-ahead-of-human-missions), Masten Space has [filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy](https://spacenews.com/masten-space-systems-files-for-bankruptcy). - On July 25, the [CAPSTONE](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/small%5Fspacecraft/capstone) spacecraft [performed its second major trajectory correction maneuver](https://advancedspace.com/capstone-tcm2-success) to stay on course to arch back to the Moon on November 13\. Interestingly, the maneuver was conducted in two stages so the spacecraft’s navigation software could recalibrate and make the second burn more accurate. The next maneuver is in early September. - I’m glad to be [one of the many lunatics appearing on Countdown to the Moon](https://www.countdowntothemoon.org/2022/07/14/904-jatan-mehta), which is [this nice project](https://www.countdowntothemoon.org/went) by Nathan Price to interview people at large about their thoughts and opinions on us sending humans to the Moon again. --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### Moon Monday #87: A Schrödinger cat-like CLPS program, Artemis I launch-bait, and more updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-87/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:23.000Z *This week’s Moon Monday is a CLPS special, with all of its promises, risks, and drama. I hope you enjoy the deep dive as much as I did writing it.* :) ## NASA eyes prestigious farside Moon landing in boldest CLPS bet yet Last week NASA [awarded its eighth contract](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-draper-to-fly-research-to-far-side-of-moon) under the [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) to send the agency’s instruments and payloads on commercial landers to the Moon. Draper, the winning company, is tasked with landing a spacecraft on the lunar farside, a feat only achieved by China’s [Chang’e 4](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/change-4) mission so far. The landing region chosen by NASA for the 2025 mission is no less impressive—the 312 kilometers wide [Schrödinger crater](https://jatan.space/the-crowned-crater-of-schrodinger/), a pristine destination [long asked for](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-52/) by the global scientific community. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f5c1197df-aba7-4679-9a00-891fcf6027e6_1056x890-jpeg.jpg) The 312 kilometers wide Schrödinger crater, as captured by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter. [Credit: NASA](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Schr%C3%B6dinger%5F%28LRO%29%5F500%5Fkm.png) Since the Moon’s farside isn’t visible from Earth, Draper’s lander [will deploy two Blue Canyon-built satellites](https://www.draper.com/press-release/nasa-awards-draper-73-million-deliver-suite-payloads-moon-2025) in cislunar orbit similar to [Chang’e 4’s Queqiao spacecraft](https://www.planetary.org/articles/20180615-queqiao-orbit-explainer) to relay communications between the lander and Earth. The lander will carry 95 kilograms of NASA’s scientific instruments, which should yield more science compared to prior CLPS selections on average thanks to the agency’s young [PRISM initiative](https://science.nasa.gov/researchers/solicitations/roses-2021/amendment-22-payloads-and-research-investigations-surface-moon-prism-draft-text-released-community). The mission will deploy [two distinct, lunar-night-surviving seismometers](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2022/pdf/1576.pdf), the most sensitive ones ever sent to space. Over at least four months of their operation, they will help us better understand [the Moon’s internal structure and how it evolved](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/), and know the amount and rate of [micrometeorite impacts](https://jatan.space/the-tiniest-of-impact-craters/) on the farside to help plan future crewed [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) missions. The lander will also carry [a drill, a probe, and a magnetic sounder](https://www.nationalacademies.org/event/06-25-2021/docs/DDF733FD65D56D559F052CC946914B5ECE2C67853F8A) to measure the farside crust’s internal heat flow and electrical conductivity in a way that will resolve murkiness of its thermal and compositional structure. There’s also a non-PRISM experiment [to study electric and magnetic properties](https://www.universityofcalifornia.edu/news/uc-berkeley-put-experiment-surface-moon-next-2-years) in the region, which shielded from Earth’s electromagnetic interference is apt for studying [the solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/)’s interactions with the surface, and for characterizing the Moon’s radio emissions for [future farside radio telescopes](http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/May21/radio-astronomy-from-Moon.html). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fac0a7f67-a256-45b1-903c-02b9f35fff20_1800x1200-jpeg.jpg) A rendering of Draper’s Series 2 lunar lander selected for delivering NASA’s instruments to the Schrödinger crater on the Moon’s farside. [Credit: Draper](https://www.draper.com/press-release/nasa-awards-draper-73-million-deliver-suite-payloads-moon-2025) This is perhaps the boldest CLPS mission yet, or at least one promising the most bang for the buck. Draper bid only $73 million for NASA’s task order request, making it the second lowest CLPS contract thus far (the cheapest is Intuitive Machines’ second Moon landing [at $47 million](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-to-land-water-measuring-payload-on-the-moon)). And what NASA could get for that $73 million, roughly 10 times less than the agency’s [Discovery class](https://www.nasa.gov/planetarymissions/discovery.html) missions, is a prestigious farside landing in a geologically pristine treasure-melt pond. Curiously, something neither NASA nor Draper have mentioned in their respective press releases is if the lander will also carry UK’s [Lunar Pathfinder](https://bsgn.esa.int/service/lunar-pathfinder) orbiter. As part of a [NASA-ESA June 2022 agreement](https://jatan.space/nasa-esa-collaborate-on-lunar-pathfinder/), Pathfinder is supposed to launch on a CLPS lander by 2025, in return for which NASA can use the orbiter for communicating with its farside and polar hardware, presumably including Draper’s mission. The next two CLPS selections are [launching in 2026](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-new-instruments-for-priority-artemis-science-on-moon) so they’re unlikely to carry Pathfinder. As the only 2025 CLPS launch, Draper’s lander seems to be the most likely to onboard the orbiter. Also, the [280-kilogram](https://directory.eoportal.org/web/eoportal/satellite-missions/l/lunar-pathfinder) Pathfinder is too heavy for most CLPS landers. Since Draper’s lander is directly based on ispace’s [vastly more capable](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-42/) Series 2 lunar lander design compared to [Series 1](https://ispace-inc.com/hakuto-r/eng/about), it can deploy up to 500 kilograms of payload to the surface or up to 2,000 kilograms in lunar orbit. Depending on the mass of the two Blue Canyon communications satellites, Lunar Pathfinder could be within the Draper lander’s deployment reach. *Update on August 1, 2022: Regarding the lack of clarity on Lunar Pathfinder’s launch, a CLPS vendor source tells me that NASA will soon release a dedicated competitive bid for it.* ## NASA borders on traditional, cautious approach with the VIPER mission If the farside mission is CLPS’ latest program-pushing bet, NASA’s [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) is where the trait began. But since the mission is paramount to understanding the nature of [the Moon’s polar water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and for planning near-term crewed missions, NASA is taking a more conservative approach with VIPER than other contracts. Recently NASA [requested Astrobotic to delay VIPER’s delivery](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-replans-clps-delivery-of-viper-to-2024-to-reduce-risk) to the Moon’s south pole from November 2023 to November 2024\. NASA is paying Astrobotic an additional $67.8 million to do additional testing of their large, 5900-kilogram [Griffin lander](https://www.astrobotic.com/griffin) to reduce mission risk. Astrobotic’s VIPER contract now stands at $320.4 million, making it the most expensive CLPS mission. Concerns about VIPER aren’t new. For one, the [April 2022 report](https://oig.nasa.gov/docs/IG-22-010.pdf) from NASA’s Office of Inspector General pointed out that the agency doesn’t have a reliable true cost estimate for the mission because unlike traditional ones, NASA is separating its own costs to build and operate VIPER (currently at $433.5 million) from the funding it’s providing to Astrobotic (originally [$199.5 million](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-astrobotic-to-fly-water-hunting-rover-to-the-moon)). The second concern, as [reported by Eric Berger](https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/04/nasas-other-moon-program-is-about-to-take-center-stage), was that owing to VIPER’s vitality, NASA had briefly considered a traditional delivery for the rover. But the higher costs and timelines for bypassing CLPS for VIPER would’ve effectively killed the program, which NASA’s [Science Mission Directorate](https://science.nasa.gov/about-us/science-strategy) (SMD) as CLPS’ managing body wouldn’t accept. Ultimately, NASA asked Astrobotic to better test Griffin’s propulsion system and reduce risks while the agency nevertheless began building a backup instruments set. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f178c2cb2-587f-41e7-89a4-18aab4bfe6c5_800x540-jpeg.jpg) Artist’s impression showing NASA’s VIPER rover moving down a ramp of Astrobotic’s Griffin lunar lander. [Credit: Astrobotic](https://www.astrobotic.com/2020/6/11/astrobotic-awarded-199-5-million-contract-to-deliver-nasa-moon-rover) --- *Many thanks to [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io) for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## Masten’s CLPS Moon landing mission in free fall According to [a July 14 report](http://parabolicarc.com/2022/07/14/cash-strapped-masten-space-furloughs-employees-moon-landing-mission-at-risk) by Douglas Messier, Masten Space has furloughed its employees and recently laid off many who were exclusively working on [its first Moon landing mission](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-contract-to-deliver-science-tech-to-moon-ahead-of-human-missions) part of NASA’s CLPS program. It would seem that Masten underbid by $30 million to NASA for its eventually awarded contract of $75.9 million, with said remainder amount failing to come from a private customer who intended to fly payloads onboard. In a response to Messier, NASA said it’s working with Masten to figure out the exact impact of the situation, and that if Masten is unable to deliver the agency’s payloads, they’ll be relocated on other CLPS flights. This is really sad, not just for what seems to be the end of Masten’s CLPS Moon landing but also the trove of other promising, previously-funded lunar or related technologies Masten was developing, including a [mobile rocket miner](https://masten.aero/blog/masten-designs-rocket-mining-system), a [lunar night survival system](https://masten.aero/blog/surviving-the-lunar-night-with-mastens-nite-system), the suborbital [Xogdor](https://masten.aero/blog/masten-kicks-off-development-for-xogdor-rocket/) for reduced gravity testing and validating lunar navigation and landing technologies, [near-instantaneous landing pads](https://masten.aero/blog/mitigating-lunar-dust-masten-completes-fast-landing-pad-study) to be made by future landers, and more. ## How do CLPS selections work? Considering that all of today’s highlight stories are about CLPS, with takeaways from each revolving around *pricing* for varied reasons, it’s worth at least briefly discussing how CLPS mission selections work. When NASA started CLPS in 2018, it invited all interested U.S. companies to present their robotic lunar landing capabilities. After evaluating proposals chiefly on the basis of technical merit and feasibility, NASA selected a total of fourteen companies—[nine in 2018](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-announces-new-partnerships-for-commercial-lunar-payload-delivery-services) and another [five a year later](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/new-companies-join-growing-ranks-of-nasa-partners-for-artemis-program)—who can bid on each CLPS lunar landing task order from NASA until 2028. NASA decides the landing site and delivery year for each task order, and what scientific instruments it prefers onboard. It then puts out these requirements for the CLPS vendors to bid on. Based on how well each bid fairs in terms of technical merit, pricing as well as schedule, NASA awards a CLPS task order to a company. For NASA, each order delivers the community’s scientific instruments at a far lower cost than a dedicated, traditional mission while covering end-to-end services. The selected company is responsible for integrating NASA’s payloads onto their craft, landing on the Moon, operating the lander, and sourcing their own mission infrastructure, including booking a rocket to fly on and availing ground station services for the lander to communicate with Earth. With a roughly order of magnitude lower price for NASA, the agency is willing to accept a 50-50 chance of success with [CLPS missions](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), especially considering that only three countries have landed anything on the Moon so far. Even if only half the CLPS craft nail the landing, the entire program’s cost of $2.6 billion over 10 years amounts to way less than the [$4.1 billion](https://oig.nasa.gov/docs/IG-22-003.pdf) of one Artemis SLS+Orion launch, or rather costs about the same as just three Discovery missions to make a more relevant comparison. SMD deems the return to still be plentiful. If missions like the farside Draper landing deliver, it’s a boon. But for cases like Masten, it’s a lesson in how CLPS’ structure encourages undercutting, which risk not just the missions but entire companies. CLPS seems to be like Schrödinger’s cat; we will just have to *witness* the program unfold to find out how valuable it turns out to be, and if and how it (hopefully) evolves. ## More Moon - NASA is [targeting August 29](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/07/22/teams-press-ahead-toward-artemis-i-launch-in-late-august) as the earliest possible launch of the [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/around-the-moon-with-nasa-s-first-launch-of-sls-with-orion) mission to send an uncrewed [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/orion/about/index.html) around the Moon and back, with the next opportunities being on September 2 and 5 respectively, all [assuming a decision](https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/07/nasa-sets-a-late-august-launch-date-for-sls-and-it-may-actually-happen) to roll the fully stacked [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) to the launchpad on August 18\. As part of launch preparations, technicians installed the [suited manikin Campos](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/public-names-moonikin-flying-around-moon-on-nasa-s-artemis-i-mission) inside Orion last week. Sensors on its seat will record acceleration and vibration throughout the mission. Five additional accelerometers inside Orion will complement that data, including during the final mission phase of [bounced atmospheric reentry](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/orion-spacecraft-to-test-new-entry-technique-on-artemis-i-mission) and splashdown. NASA has a regularly updated page for [Artemis I launch windows](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-i-mission-availability) throughout this year. - TASS reports that Russia’s [Luna 25 Moon landing mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-62/) will most likely [launch no earlier than 2023](https://tass.com/science/1481613) because of inadequately functioning landing sensors in recent tests. - NASA and Northrop Grumman [successfully test fired](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/nasa-completes-test-firing-of-future-artemis-booster-motor.html) the SLS rocket’s upcoming new booster design I [covered last week](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-86/). NASASpaceflight has [interesting technical details](https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2022/07/fsb-2-test) on its design. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f4bf9b043-47ab-47a0-816e-3d2c0b5f9866_1809x1400-jpeg.jpg) A full-scale test booster being fired to help design a future version which will be on NASA’s SLS Block 2 rocket configuration. [Credit: Northrop Grumman](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/nasa-completes-test-firing-of-future-artemis-booster-motor.html) --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### Looking back at Chandrayaan 1 and forward to Artemis URL: https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/ Last updated: 2024-06-14T12:54:34.000Z On October 22, 2008, an Indian PSLV rocket launched the [Chandrayaan 1](https://www.issdc.gov.in/chandrayaan1.html) spacecraft into Earth orbit. After a series of orbit-raising maneuvers, Chandrayaan 1 successfully entered orbit around the Moon on November 8 of that year, marking India’s foray into planetary exploration. Over the next four days, it fired its engines multiple times at precise intervals to [attain a circular orbit of 100 kilometers](https://web.archive.org/web/20140630200638/http://isro.gov.in/pressrelease/scripts/pressreleasein.aspx?Nov08%5F2008) so it can closely study the Moon with [its 11 instruments](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2006/pdf/1704.pdf), roughly half of which came from NASA and space agencies in Europe. Communication with the orbiter was lost on August 29, 2009 but the mission’s key objectives were met, including [discovering water on the Moon](https://jatan.space/how-nasa-and-chandrayaan-discovered-water-on-the-moon/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fc0ee9baf-1fb4-4160-8cda-a71d610610f8_600x550-jpeg.jpg) Launch of the Chandrayaan 1 spacecraft on a PSLV rocket on October 22, 2008\. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/pslv-c11-chandrayaan-1/pslv-c11-chandrayaan-1-gallery) ## Why did India launch Chandrayaan 1? The Mission Director of Chandrayaan 1, Srinivasa Hegde, recalls the mission’s inception [in an interview](https://jatan.space/interviewing-isro-chandrayaan-1-mission-director/): > Dr. K. Kasturirangan, who chaired the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) from 1994 to 2003, wanted the organization to play a small role in India’s ambition to become a superpower. This planted the seed for undertaking more ambitious missions. The idea of a Moon orbiter was floated around and was received positively by everyone. > > At the time, ISRO already had geostationary satellites, which have plenty of fuel. The basic infrastructure was ready and the only change required was adapting it for the Moon. Initial calculations showed that our PSLV rocket could provide an Earth-bound orbit beyond which the fuel on the spacecraft could be used to go to the Moon and perform orbital capture. In all, Chandrayaan 1 seemed like a logical extension of our capabilities. ## How did Chandrayaan 1 discover water on the Moon? Finding water on the Moon was a primary scientific objective when ISRO was planning Chandrayaan 1\. Space agencies globally were keen to confirm water’s presence, hopefully in relatively large amounts, as that would have implications for future human settlements as well as [the Moon’s origin](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/). NASA pitched and got to fly two of its water-hunting instruments on Chandrayaan 1. Their Miniature Synthetic Aperture Radar (Mini-SAR) found the patterns of reflected signals from more than 40 polar craters to be [consistent with water ice](https://www.nasa.gov/mission%5Fpages/Mini-RF/multimedia/feature%5Fice%5Flike%5Fdeposits.html). But just like with [previous efforts](https://jatan.space/how-nasa-and-chandrayaan-discovered-water-on-the-moon/) such as NASA’s Clementine Moon-mapping orbiter, the data wasn’t bulletproof. But NASA’s Moon Mineralogical Mapper (M3) on Chandrayaan 1 [could differentiate between ice, liquid water, and water vapor](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/ice-confirmed-at-the-moons-poles) based on how the lunar surface reflected and absorbed infrared light. It was M3 that confirmed our Moon hosts water once and for all, and found the majority of it is concentrated [on the poles](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=7218). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f0b4631df-27ab-4c4f-ab42-4a1eb8970906_1400x788-jpeg.jpg) Distribution of water ice deposits on the Moon’s south pole (left) and north pole (right), marked in blue, as indicated by Chandrayaan 1’s M3 instrument. [Credit: NASA](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/ice-confirmed-at-the-moons-poles) M3 was also an excellent mineral mapper; its data has helped scientists worldwide churn out hundreds of publications and counting. Noah Petro, the Project Scientist for NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/lunar-reconnaissance-orbiter) (LRO), [noted](https://twitter.com/nepetro/status/1166746554381811713) in 2019: > 10 years ago today Chandrayaan-1 ended. I was so lucky to be a small part of that mission. The M3 instrument allowed us to take a huge step forward in learning about the composition of our 8th continent! Among the [many more scientific results](https://web.archive.org/web/20141023233203/http://isrohq.vssc.gov.in/isr0dem0v2/index.php/science/science-history/74-general/1005-chandrayaan-1mission) from other Chandrayaan 1 instruments, the Indian, Swedish, and European Space Agency’s (ESA) collaborative instrument [SARA](https://www.spl.gov.in/SPL/index.php/advanced-technologies/chandrayaan-1/sara) stands out. By analyzing how protons (hydrogen nuclei) in [the solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) impact the Moon and get reflected, SARA helped scientists [better estimate the amount and distribution of water or hydroxyl](https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/10/091015091605.htm) locked in the soil across the Moon. The discovery proved timely for ESA’s [BepiColombo mission](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/bepicolombo) to study Mercury, which carries two similar instruments for detecting water. ## Chandrayaan 1’s impact on lunar exploration Chandrayaan 1’s discovery of lunar water helped revitalize global interest in exploring our Moon. This includes NASA’s [Artemis plans](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) to return humans to the Moon and use resources like water to sustain future habitats as well as the flurry of upcoming robotic missions seeking the exact nature, state, and amount of lunar water. There’s India’s own [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/), which is using its advanced radar to better map and quantify [water ice on the Moon’s poles](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). South Korea’s first lunar orbiter [KPLO](https://jatan.space/kplo/) will also help detect vast polar water ice deposits using its ultrasensitive camera. NASA’s [Lunar Trailblazer](https://jatan.space/nasa-lunar-trailblazer/) orbiter will particularly map the form, abundance, and changes in water in sunlit regions on the Moon. Surface missions like NASA’s upcoming [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) will take a much closer look by physically studying water ice inside polar [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/), which will start to inform us on how to extract the water to sustainably live on the Moon. VIPER’s findings will set the stage for NASA’s Artemis campaign, which envisions an eventual [long-term human presence](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept) on our Moon. ### Cost and collaboration A less-noticed impact of the Chandrayaan 1 mission is its total cost of less than $100 million coupled with its collaboration model. As evident by the mission’s discoveries, welcoming foreign instruments proved effective in increasing mission science without increasing costs. From the perspective of the participating agencies, they got to fly their instruments without having to build an entire mission of their own. At the same time, experience gained by ISRO in developing planetary instruments by collaborating with NASA and ESA helped them make fully indigenous, [state-of-the-art instruments](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) for the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter. South Korea is now [following this very model](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-selects-nine-scientists-to-join-korea-pathfinder-lunar-orbiter-mission) for its first lunar orbiter [KPLO](https://jatan.space/kplo/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f64f7e815-240c-43fe-b998-816ae7b0a695_1024x768-jpeg.jpg) Technicians handling the Chandrayaan 1 spacecraft. [Credits: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/pslv-c11-chandrayaan-1/pslv-c11-chandrayaan-1-gallery) ## What technologies did ISRO develop for Chandrayaan? Chandrayaan 1 was the first time India explored another world. To materialize the mission, ISRO developed a number of new technologies. They established the [Indian Deep Space Network](https://web.archive.org/web/20151020022026/http://www.vssc.gov.in/VSSC%5FV4/index.php/ground-segment/82-chandrayaan-1/967-indian-deep-space-network-idsn) to communicate with the spacecraft, and made the [Indian Space Science Data Center](https://www.issdc.gov.in/) to process and archive scientific data from the mission. Future missions like India’s popular [Mangalyaan](https://jatan.space/reviewing-mission-mangalyaan/) Mars orbiter would go on to leverage this infrastructure. Even Chandrayaan 1’s spacecraft structure design [formed the basis](https://space.skyrocket.de/doc%5Fsdat/mars-orbiter-mission.htm) for Mangalyaan. Later this decade, ISRO also intends to launch [a Venus orbiter](https://jatan.space/isro-venus-orbiter-launch-2024/). In the decade since Chandrayaan 1 pioneered lunar orbit for India, the country attempted a Moon landing with [Chandrayaan 2](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-2-moon-landing-mission/) but the spacecraft unfortunately [crashed](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/1131) at the last moment. ISRO will retry landing with [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-3-prelaunch-info/) next year. The Japanese and Indian space agencies will be launching a joint mission in 2024 or later called [Lunar Polar Exploration (LUPEX)](https://www.exploration.jaxa.jp/e/program/lunarpolar/) to explore water and other resources on the Moon’s south pole using a rover. In all, Chandrayaan 1 launched not just a science orbiter to the Moon but India’s planetary program while also catalyzing global interest in our cosmic neighbor. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ff184d4d1-eb55-46e1-9d42-980b5b80d83c_570x450-jpeg.jpg) Chandrayaan 1 spacecraft illustration. Image: TeamIndus ## How did Chandrayaan 1 view an eclipse from the Moon? In 2009, a year after launch, both the star sensors onboard the spacecraft had failed. With that, the spacecraft lost its ability to precisely point to a desired attitude in space. Instead of losing the craft, ISRO engineers came up with a solution that involved using the Sun sensors to get knowledge of two spatial axes and take aid from the ground station to know the third. This data was utilized by the onboard gyroscopes to be able to point the spacecraft again with reasonable accuracy. As the spacecraft passed between the Moon and Earth in its lunar orbit on July 22, 2009, it [imaged the Moon’s shadow](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1-captures-solar-eclipse/) cast on our planet. This was a first for any lunar mission, and completely executed when the spacecraft was in a non-nominal state. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/06/chandrayaan-1-captures-solar-eclipse-2009-1.gif) The totality shadow cast on Earth by the Moon during the total solar eclipse of July 22, 2009, as captured by Chandrayaan 1 from lunar orbit. Images: ISRO / GIF: Jatan Mehta *Originally published at* [*The Planetary Society*](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/chandrayaan-1)*, edited and enhanced with more information since.* ### Moon Monday #86: New SLS boosters, a Korean Mooncraft, a crusty Pangaea, and more updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-86/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:24.000Z ## NASA is sticking with the SLS rocket for Artemis IX and beyond On July 21, NASA and Northrop Grumman will [test fire a new, full-scale solid rocket booster](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/nasa-northrop-grumman-to-test-fire-future-artemis-booster-motor.html) as part of an ongoing [test campaign](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/subscale-booster-motor-for-future-artemis-missions-fires-up-at-marshall) to converge on a final booster design for the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html)’s most powerful [Block 2](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/sls%5Flift%5Fcapabilities%5Fconfigurations%5F04292020%5Fwoleo.pdf) configuration to be used on future [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) missions starting sometime in the 2030s. The test booster will be fired for approximately two minutes, similar to the time and power level during an actual launch. The SLS rocket’s [current twin boosters](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/fs/solid-rocket-booster.html)—based on the Space Shuttle Boosters with an added segment for increased thrust—are mounted on the side of the rocket’s core stage and provide more than 75% of the thrust required during the first two minutes of each flight. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ff5ffb192-554e-4b52-a3fc-dc529cfc3412_2400x1500-jpeg.jpg) The full-scale test booster to be fired for helping design a future version which will be on NASA’s SLS Block 2 rocket configuration. [Credits: Northrop Grumman](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/nasa-northrop-grumman-to-test-fire-future-artemis-booster-motor.html) With the Shuttle’s hardware inventory running out, NASA and Northrop Grumman are eyeing the above-mentioned [practically new and upgraded boosters](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2021/12/02/sls-booster-fired-up-to-test-improved-design-for-future-artemis-missions) to debut on Artemis IX. The mission is also when the [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/orion/about/index.html) on top of SLS will feature [an upgraded main engine](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-orion-main-engine-contract-for-future-artemis-missions) for the second time instead of its current Shuttle-era one. Recall that NASA had awarded [a $3.19 billion contract](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-artemis-contract-for-future-mega-moon-rocket-boosters) to Northrop Grumman in December 2021 primarily to produce five more booster pairs by end of 2031 for Artemis missions IV–VIII. While many strongly advocate for the U.S. Congress and NASA to cancel the [time- and money-expensive](https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/03/its-huge-expensive-and-years-late-but-the-sls-rocket-is-finally-here) SLS program in favor of commercial alternatives, this booster update is yet another clear sign that the agency is sticking with the big orange rocket. The saying in many cultures along the lines of “accept our demons and live on” seems pretty apt here. In the meanwhile, NASA has been [continuing preparations and testing](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/07/15/progress-continues-toward-artemis-i-launch) of the fully stacked SLS rocket for launching the [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/around-the-moon-with-nasa-s-first-launch-of-sls-with-orion) mission [within two months](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-i-mission-availability) to send an uncrewed Orion spacecraft around the Moon. ## A Mooncraft arrives at the Kennedy Space Center for launch On July 6, South Korea’s Danuri spacecraft [arrived in Florida via air transport](http://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/news/1262), and was then delivered to SpaceX at the Kennedy Space Center. Teams are preparing to integrate the spacecraft with its Falcon 9 rocket for launch on August 2\. As [South Korea’s first planetary mission](https://jatan.space/kplo/), the formally named Korea Pathfinder Lunar Orbiter (KPLO) will show us new views of the Moon’s surface and provide critical information about the lunar polar terrain and its water deposits to help plan future crewed and robotic missions. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fc2a0388b-d0c5-4259-bc9e-393e08df47a9_1100x1100-jpeg.jpg) The KPLO spacecraft as transported to the U.S. via air. [Credits: KARI](http://shadowcam.sese.asu.edu/news/1262) ## Pangaea continues training astronauts in geology ESA continues the latest round of its [Pangaea campaign](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/CAVES%5Fand%5FPangaea/What%5Fis%5FPangaea) to train future lunar astronauts in geology, a highly valuable skill in exploring the Moon and collecting samples. Their current participants are European astronaut [Andreas Mogensen](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2021/11/17/back-to-the-future), European engineer [Robin Eccleston](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2021/09/09/robin-the-gadget-master) and NASA astronaut [Kathleen Rubins](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2021/09/16/kate-and-the-moon). They [took field trips](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Astronaut%5Fgeology%5Fbound%5Ffor%5Fthe%5FMoon) last year to the Italian Dolomite mountains and the German Ries crater both of which are terrestrial analogues to places on the Moon. Their last visit was to the [Spanish volcanic landscapes of Lanzarote](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2021/11/11/astronaut-training-in-the-land-of-volcanoes), whose now-solidified basaltic lava flows resemble the Moon’s dark volcanic plains. Mogensen and Rubins are [exploring this week](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2022/03/21/advanced-geology-training-for-the-moon) the unique geology of Nusfjord in Norway as their last stop. The region has well preserved anorthosite rocks, the kind that makes up bulk of the Moon’s crust. In addition to using orbital images and 3D models to plan their exploratory paths in the region, the astronauts [will use spectral images](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2022/07/26/mapping-for-the-moon) to enhance scientific investigations. Such training will help astronauts better sample the Moon on future missions and return more suitable crustal materials from its highlands, which includes the polar regions. Rubins is [part of the Artemis astronauts group](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-team/), and might be the first woman to land on the Moon. Pangaea’s blog has a nice [account on her activities](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2021/09/16/kate-and-the-moon/) last year. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f2e36f274-4c82-45d1-bc8b-81a19d96aa84_2048x1366-jpeg.jpg) ESA’s Pangaea crew exploring minerals in the La Corona lava tube in the Spanish Canary Islands. [Credits: ESA / A. Romeo](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2021/12/01/goodbye-volcanoes-hello-moon) To aid astronauts during this geology campaign as well as on actual future lunar missions, ESA [continues to build](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2021/11/11/to-all-moonwalkers-update-your-space-tablet) the [Electronic Field Book](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2021/11/11/to-all-moonwalkers-update-your-space-tablet), or what I like to call the “Moonwalk tablet”. The astronauts use it to: - Access geologic maps provided by ESA’s [PLANMAP](https://planmap.eu/planmap-project) project to plan their exploration routes. PLANMAP combines different data products like imagery, digital terrain models, spectral and chemical information, radar products and more into a comprehensive package. - Identify minerals and rocks in real-time using thousands of built-in profiles and use that information to collect best samples. - Record their steps and excursions. - Communicate with scientists at mission control to integrate their inputs while also integrating data from various cameras and instruments. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9c57d22d-265d-4751-9267-765ede3ed59d_1185x985-jpeg.jpg) Interface of ESA’s Electronic Field Book. The tablet allows astronauts to record their steps on geology expeditions, link collected samples to places, and more. [Credit: ESA](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2018/11/The%5FElectronic%5FField%5FBook%5Finterface) ESA aims to get the Moonwalk tablet ready for use by astronauts by 2027, including making it lunar [dust-](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/The%5Ftoxic%5Fside%5Fof%5Fthe%5FMoon) and [radiation-tolerant](https://jatan.space/space-grade-electronics/), and capable of surviving extreme temperatures. Its battery should also last more than 8 hours, and it must be ergonomic for astronauts with their bulky spacesuits and gloves to operate. --- *Thanks to [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io) for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## More Moon - The [Moon samples](https://moon.bao.ac.cn/moonSampleMode/index.html) brought by the [Chang’e 5 mission](https://jatan.space/change-5-landing-site/) from near a volcanic dome were dated last year by scientists to be [1.96 billion years old](https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abl7957). Chinese scientists have now used this precise age to update the [crater counting model](https://english.cas.cn/newsroom/research%5Fnews/phys/202202/t20220214%5F300776.shtml), which is [the basis for determining ages](https://www.planetary.org/articles/0401-the-lunar-chronology) of most features on the Moon. It turns out some lunar features may be [as much as 240 million years older](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-022-01604-3) than previously thought. The scientific value of the Chang’e 5 samples isn’t limited to the Moon. Scientists will use these newer, more accurate ages of lunar places and regions to calibrate the ages of features on other worlds such as Mars, Mercury, and the icy moons. Chang’e 5 samples are thus helping us refine our understanding of the [chain of key events in our Solar System](https://jatan.space/solar-system-history-101/). - On July 14, Saudi Arabia became [the 21st country to sign](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/saudi-arabia-signs-artemis-accords) the [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html), signaling its commitment to cooperate in space and lunar exploration. - On July 12, the [CAPSTONE](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/small%5Fspacecraft/capstone) spacecraft autonomously [executed its second trajectory correction maneuver](https://advancedspace.com/capstone-completes-tcm1c) for the scheduled 53 seconds to stay on the path to the Moon. The next maneuver is in late July. - The International Moon Day will be celebrated [all around the world](https://internationalmoonday.org/imd-world-events) this July 20th. If you don’t have humans celebrating nearby, maybe host a small one of your own to get people excited about our Moon? Perhaps my [curated Moon page](https://blog.jatan.space/our-moon) can be of help—I’ve handpicked resources and wrote accessible stories over the past three years to get people with no space background on the Moon exploration bandwagon. [Explore our Moon 🌗](https://jatan.space/our-moon/) --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### The rocket launch shaker test URL: https://jatan.space/the-rocket-launch-shaker-test/ Last updated: 2024-11-10T12:15:16.000Z ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/11/cheops-shaker-test.gif) Launch vibration test of ESA’s CHEOPS planet-hunting space telescope. [GIF: ESA / Airbus / RUAG](https://sci.esa.int/web/cheops/-/60585-vibration-test-of-the-cheops-satellite-longitudinal-shaking) Anyone who has seen a rocket launch in person—[I have!](https://jatan.space/i-saw-a-rocket-launch/)—has also felt its surreal rumbles despite being several kilometers away. A spacecraft sitting on top of a rocket needs to avoid damage to its structure by surviving the jolt from rocket engines turning on and the intense vibrations they generate during flight. For this, all spacecraft—and sometimes even their individual components—are tested pre-launch on electric or hydraulic [shaker tables](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FEngineering%5FTechnology/Test%5Fcentre/Electrodynamic%5Fshakers), which simulate a rocket’s intense vibrations. The European Space Agency’s [HYDRA](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FEngineering%5FTechnology/Test%5Fcentre/Hydraulic%5Fshaker) facility can generate vibrations equivalent to an earthquake of 7.5 on the Richter scale. ### Moon Monday #85: A magmatic Moon mystery, CAPSTONE calling, Europe’s lunar leap, and more updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-85/ Last updated: 2025-04-28T10:03:31.000Z ## The mystery of the Moon’s volcanic water China’s [Chang’e 5 mission](https://jatan.space/change-5-landing-site/), which brought to Earth 1.7 kilograms of [lunar samples](https://moon.bao.ac.cn/moonSampleMode/index.html) from near a volcanic dome in December 2020, [confirmed](https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abl7957) that the Moon was volcanically active [2 billion years ago](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-04100-2), a recent enough time on geological scales. However, scientists [were left wondering](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-50/) at the [much lower water content](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-04107-9) in the samples than expected. The merely [1–5 parts per million (ppm) of water](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-04107-9) couldn’t have catalyzed and enabled the cooling interior of the Moon to spew out lava long after peak volcanism ended well over a billion years ago at that point. Notably, this water concentration is far drier than in the Moon’s mantle over a billion years prior as derived from Apollo and Luna sample studies, meaning the water was probably lost via volcanic outgassing over those hundreds of millions of years. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f193372f3-1ca4-43cc-a788-ea311cac681d_2600x2045-jpeg.jpg) Changes in the amount of water in the Moon’s mantle over time, as estimated based on Apollo and Chang’e samples. [Credit: Sen Hu, et al. (2021)](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-04107-9) The lower water content in the Chang’e 5 samples could be a local anomaly. For example, a spectrometer on the Chang’e 5 lander itself [detected water](https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/939534) at [180 ppm](https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abl9174) in a rock at the [landing site](https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/15994), something that can’t be solely due to [the solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/). The larger region where Chang’e 5 landed may have higher concentrations of volcanism-aiding elements after all. Remote sensing observations by India’s Chandrayaan 1 orbiter strongly support even higher water concentrations [ranging from 200 to 750 ppm](https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.1701471) across large swaths of possible ancient volcanic mantle deposits on the Moon’s surface. A new paper published in May analyzing and aggregating results from multiple orbiters and studies finds the erupted water fraction from the early mantle to be [at least 667 ppm](https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/PSJ/ac649c/meta#psjac649cs3) and possibly much higher. It suggests that volcanism could’ve been a viable source of the [water deposits on the Moon’s poles](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). That’s where the next research results create another dissonance. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f2893e3d1-0952-4f29-891b-c0802fa9f3b6_900x460-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of volcanism on the Moon releasing water vapor. [Credit: Olga Prilipko Huber](https://www.brown.edu/news/2017-07-24/moonwater) In a [study published in February 2022](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-28289-6), researchers analyzed data of water and other volatiles detected by NASA’s [LCROSS spacecraft](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=2009-031B) to determine the likeliness of their source being volcanoes, comets, [micrometeorites](https://jatan.space/the-tiniest-of-impact-craters/), the [solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/), or even [the Earth’s atmosphere](https://www.gi.alaska.edu/news/earths-atmosphere-may-be-source-some-lunar-water). Volatile ratios suggested that they weren’t due to past volcanic outgassing and thus didn’t come from the Moon’s interior. The most abundant source instead seems to be comets, followed by micrometeorites. A [related study](https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2020GL089509) published last year supports this result, which found that even temporary atmospheres created during the peak volcanic Moon over 3 billion years ago was likely inefficient in transferring and depositing lots of volatiles to polar [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/). Okay but why is the exact water fraction in the Moon’s interior so important to know? Other than the many scientific questions it would help answer about the [evolution of our Moon](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) and planetary bodies at large, the amount of water in the lunar mantle is critical to [knowing the Moon’s origin](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/), and with it Earth’s. If the Moon really formed from the debris of a collision between early Earth and a Mars-sized body 4.5 billion years ago, scientists think the impact’s intense heat makes it unlikely for the Moon to have gotten or retained much water or its constituents while coalescing. ## CAPSTONE continues to the Moon Shortly after Rocket Lab’s Lunar Photon spacecraft [deployed](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/07/04/capstone-leaves-earth-orbit-headed-to-the-moon) the NASA-funded and Advanced Space-operated [CAPSTONE spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/small%5Fspacecraft/capstone) on July 4 on a [fuel-saving ballistic transfer](https://advancedspace.com/blt) to the Moon, CAPSTONE [failed to communicate with Earth](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/07/05/further-details-on-communications-issues-with-nasas-capstone). This happened after the spacecraft had successfully deployed its solar arrays and stabilized. An improperly formatted command sent to the spacecraft during that time [stopped the radio](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/07/07/mission-team-determines-cause-of-communications-issues-for-nasas-capstone) from working. On July 6, CAPSTONE’s autonomous flight software cleared the erroneous command to get the spacecraft talking to Earth again. Soon after, mission operators [fully recovered](https://advancedspace.com/capstone-06july22-update) the spacecraft, which during the blackout was self-operational thanks to the aforementioned autonomous system. On July 7, operators sent commands to CAPSTONE to execute its first trajectory correction maneuver—originally scheduled for July 5—to neutralize minor deviations of the craft from its intended orbit. The operation [was successful](https://advancedspace.com/capstone-tcm1-success) and CAPSTONE remains on track to arch back to the Moon on November 13. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f92180500-1130-461e-a698-9fff146eaa03_980x651-jpeg.jpg) After a successful first trajectory correction maneuver, marked TCM-1 in the diagram, the CAPSTONE spacecraft is on its intended path to the Moon. [Credit: Advanced Space](https://advancedspace.com/capstone-tcm1-success) While CAPSTONE wasn’t communicating, Rocket Lab [took the opportunity to brag](https://spacenews.com/capstone-suffers-communications-problem) that their [Photon spacecraft](https://www.rocketlabusa.com/space-systems/photon) could itself complete what CAPSTONE intends, that is, enter the [fuel-efficient](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/a-lunar-orbit-that-s-just-right-for-the-international-gateway) near-rectilinear halo orbit (NRHO) the NASA-led international [Gateway station](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) will be in later this decade. Note that Rocket Lab’s briefings on Photon’s own mission before launch and after CAPSTONE’s deployment have been scarce, and intentionally kept obscure in terms of possibilities. Aside: You can now [check CAPSTONE’s progress](https://eyes.nasa.gov/apps/orrery/#/sc%5Fcapstone) using the *NASA Eyes* web-app, which has a simulated 3D view based on real mission data. ## Europe’s leap for the Moon The European Space Agency (ESA) has publicly released its new [exploration vision and strategy document](https://esamultimedia.esa.int/docs/HRE/Terrae%5FNovae%5F2030+strategy%5Froadmap.pdf) called [Terra Novae 2030+](https://www.esa.int/terraenovae). It’s a three-part vision pointing out high-level technology advancements and goals for European decision-makers to target across Earth orbit, the Moon and Mars. From the European [Large Logistics Lander](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Exploration/European%5FLarge%5FLogistics%5FLander) launching post-2030 to support crewed and large robotic explorations, many lunar resource utilization projects starting with the [oxygen-extractor demo mission](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FEngineering%5FTechnology/Team%5Fchosen%5Fto%5Fmake%5Ffirst%5Foxygen%5Fon%5Fthe%5FMoon) following [PROSPECT](https://exploration.esa.int/web/moon/-/59102-about-prospect), a European [on the Moon](https://spacenews.com/esa-and-nasa-to-cooperate-on-earth-science-and-lunar-mission) and [Gateway](https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-55906695), a lunar communications and navigation service with [Moonlight](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-65/), a [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/)\-like [commercial Moon landing program](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-66/), and regularly [sending science instruments](https://ideas.esa.int/servlet/hype/IMT?documentTableId=45087127246400699&userAction=Browse&searchTerm=SVNT&templateName=&documentId=a74341805c7f2c3197252cefbf332097) to (yet to be detailed) things like resource prospecting missions by advanced mobile robots, power plants, pressurized rovers, surface habitats, and in-space transportation systems, there’s so much to look forward to! ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fd7d8dcab-f454-4a81-9a36-9d1417a1450d_1880x1040-jpeg.jpg) An artist’s impression showing some of the initial European capabilities and contributions for Moon exploration. [Credit: ESA](https://esamultimedia.esa.int/docs/HRE/Terrae%5FNovae%5F2030+strategy%5Froadmap.pdf) --- *Many thanks to* [*Epsilon3*](https://www.epsilon3.io)*,* [*Open Lunar Foundation*](https://www.openlunar.org) *and* [*The Orbital Index*](https://orbitalindex.com) *for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## More Moon - Now that NASA’s fully stacked [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) is back at its assembly building, engineers have [started preparing it](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/07/08/work-continues-to-prepare-artemis-i-moon-rocket-for-launch) for launching the [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/around-the-moon-with-nasa-s-first-launch-of-sls-with-orion) Moon mission in [August end](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-i-mission-availability) (though September is more likely). Last week technicians swapped the computer on the rocket’s [second stage](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/fs/ICPS.html) used during testing with a flight unit sporting freshly calibrated navigation sensors and updated software. They also activated or charged batteries on several element of the rocket stack, including those on the [10 small spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-space-launch-system-s-first-flight-to-send-small-sci-tech-satellites-into-space) launching on independent scientific missions via Artemis I. - The 17th session of the Lunar Surface Science Workshop is today, July 11\. The topic is “[Defining a Coordinated Lunar Resource Evaluation Campaign](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lunarsurface17/pdf/lunarsurface17%5Fprogram.htm)” necessary to understand if the Moon’s resources could actually sustain humans. [Register for free](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meeting%5Fportal/registration/?mtg=lunarsurface17). - The Open Lunar Foundation (a Moon Monday sponsor) has opened up its fourth “[Fund a Fellow](https://www.openlunar.org/fellow)” program, wherein you can donate to enable a cohort to conduct original research related to sustaining future human presence on the Moon. These studies have policy implications right now, such as the two good past program output examples of [safety zones](https://www.openlunar.org/library/safety-zones-for-lunar-activities-under-the-artemis-accords) and [polycentric governance](https://www.openlunar.org/library/polycentricity-for-governance-of-the-moon-as-a-commons). - I'll be giving a free virtual talk titled “From Chandrayaan to Artemis” on July 17 as part of [the International Moon Day celebrations](https://internationalmoonday.org/imd-world-events/india-mva-india-international-moon-day-celebration-2022) by Moon Village Association India. Come see me speak instead of write for a change! You can [register here](https://www.eventbrite.com/e/mva-india-imd-celebration-2022-tickets-372244010857), but note that the talk won’t be very technical like Moon Monday since it’s primarily an outreach event. --- **→** [**Browse the Blog**](https://blog.jatan.space/start) **|** [**About**](https://blog.jatan.space/about) **|** [**Donate ♡**](https://jatan.space/support) ### Recipes to make moons URL: https://jatan.space/how-moons-form/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:24.000Z Our Solar System hosts [a great diversity](https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/moons/overview) of moons. There’s our own Moon, whose airlessness makes it a [natural geological time capsule](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) of events in the early Solar System. There’s Saturn’s largest satellite [Titan](https://www.planetary.org/worlds/titan), which boasts an atmosphere and lakes of methane in eerie reminiscence to adolescent Earth. There’s [Triton](https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/moons/neptune-moons/triton/in-depth), which spews out nitrogen geysers from a likely subsurface water ocean all the way out at Neptune. How did these and many more distinctly fascinating moons form? It turns out, there are more ways to make moons than planets. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fad4e78b7-6605-4819-a9a9-8b4c33bcbe2b_2500x1600-jpeg.jpg) View of our Moon seen by the Galileo spacecraft as it flew by on December 7, 1992\. [Credit: NASA](https://www.flickr.com/photos/nasacommons/9458193857/) ## How Earth and Mars got their moon(s) Where did our Moon come from? Nobody knows for sure, but studies of the 382 kilograms of rock samples brought to Earth by Apollo astronauts broadly supports a [fiery origin story](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/). Scientists think a titanic collision took place 4.5 billion years ago when [the planets had just formed](https://jatan.space/solar-system-history-101/). A young Mars-sized planet named Theia collided with the newborn Earth. The impact ejected a huge amount of material. While some of this material escaped into space, the rest stayed in orbit and consolidated to form our Moon. A similar ancient collision of a young planet with Pluto [may have created](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005Sci...307..546C/abstract) its largest moon [Charon](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/pluto-s-big-moon-charon-reveals-a-colorful-and-violent-history). Not all collisions lead to large moons though; case in point being [Phobos](https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/moons/mars-moons/phobos/in-depth) and [Deimos](https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/moons/mars-moons/deimos/in-depth), the small and lumpy satellites of Mars. Their circular orbits, along with extensive simulations, suggest that a large asteroid or comet may have impacted Mars shortly after its birth, with the resulting orbital debris becoming rings and eventually [clumping into the small moons](https://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo2916). That, or only one larger moon formed [but then broke apart](https://ethz.ch/en/news-and-events/eth-news/news/2021/02/martian-moons-have-a-common-ancestor.html) under Mars’ gravity into Phobos and Deimos less than 2.7 billion years ago. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f7678aad2-9f24-4cd0-8c14-cd75fe836769_2500x1600-jpeg.jpg) Composite of the martian moons Phobos and Deimos, presented at approximate relative sizes to each other. Credit: The HiRISE camera on NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter ([Phobos](https://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA10368), [Deimos](https://mars.nasa.gov/mro/gallery/press/20090309a.html)) ## Why don’t Mercury and Venus have a moon? As you can tell by now, colossal planetary collisions were common in the chaotic early Solar System. But they don’t guarantee a moon. Scientists think [Mercury](https://www.planetary.org/worlds/mercury) also [may have experienced a high-speed impact](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003E%26PSL.216..441S/abstract) that stripped off its entire outer layer and sprung the material into space. But unlike Earth, Mercury is too close to the Sun and not as massive to have held that material in orbit against Sol’s pull, thereby being moonless. Intriguingly, this scenario would also explain why Mercury’s core takes up more of the planet’s volume than Venus, Earth, and Mars. The moonless [Venus](https://jatan.space/why-explore-venus/) is more puzzling. Being about twice as farther away from the Sun than Mercury and almost as massive as Earth, any ancient planetary collision likely would’ve produced a Venusian satellite. Scientists think Venus experienced not one [but two giant impacts](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/double-impact-may-explain), with the first one creating a moon but the second toppling Venus in a way that led to the moon moving inward and ultimately colliding with the planet. Such a “double impact” scenario would also explain Venus’ extremely slow rotation rate of 243 Earth days, and the fact that it [spins in the opposite direction](https://www.universetoday.com/36123/axis-of-venus) of most planets. ## How giant planets like Jupiter get their many moons When giant planets like Jupiter form, their higher gravity can attract large amounts of material which orbit the planets as dense circumplanetary disks. Much like how disks around new stars forge planets, material in these circumplanetary disks [coalesce over time](https://arxiv.org/abs/0812.4995) to form moons, the most pristine examples of which are the large [Galilean moons](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/galileansgalileo) of Jupiter: Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto. Saturn’s moon [Titan](https://www.planetary.org/worlds/titan), which is bigger than planet Mercury, formed from a circumplanetary disk too. Uranus also has [five sizable moons](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/uranus-moons-voyager-2-high-resolution) formed from a disk but their order [remains mysterious](https://www.cscs.ch/science/physics/2021/how-did-the-peculiar-moons-of-uranus-form) because the outer satellites are counterintuitively far more massive than the inner ones. We have even [detected a circumplanetary disk](https://www.eso.org/public/news/eso2111) around the young Jupiter-like planet PDS 70c outside our Solar System, from which large moons could form. The higher gravities of the giant planets sometimes makes them simply steal a moon. At some point in the Solar System’s past, Triton happened to pass close enough to Neptune to get captured in orbit around the ice giant. Saturn’s moon [Phoebe](https://www.planetary.org/articles/20140213-the-two-faces-of-phoebe) is thought to be captured too because its orbit is highly elliptical and inclined with respect to Saturn’s rotation plane. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fdbd114e2-f9c2-471f-a459-ea54edc80f27_3000x1688-jpeg.jpg) Many of the Solar System’s major moons, shown here at scale. Two of them are larger than Mercury; seven are larger than Pluto and Eris. If they were not orbiting planets, many of these worlds would be called “planets.” [Credits](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/the-solar-systems-major-moons): NASA / JPL-Caltech / Montage by Emily Lakdawalla. The Moon: Gari Arrillaga. Processing by Ted Stryk, Gordan Ugarkovic, Emily Lakdawalla, and Jason Perry. ## Future exploration To figure out how our Moon formed, which is intricately tied to Earth’s origin, we need to go [back to the Moon](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) with missions like those under [Artemis](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/artemis) to bring pristine samples from deep under the lunar surface and from inside [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/). Likewise, Japan’s [Martian Moons eXploration mission](https://jatan.space/japan-mmx-mars-moons-sample-return/), or MMX, launching in 2024 will survey the martian moons and bring a sample of Phobos back to Earth in 2029 to help us ascertain if they really formed from ancient rings. In the second half of this decade, a slew of missions from across the globe will launch to [study Venus](https://jatan.space/why-explore-venus/) in unprecedented detail, including the [VERITAS](https://jatan.space/nasa-veritas-mission-to-venus/), [EnVision](https://jatan.space/esa-envision-mission-to-venus/) and [Shukrayaan](https://jatan.space/isro-venus-orbiter-launch-2024/) orbiters and the [DAVINCI](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/davinci) atmospheric probe. Their high-sensitivity measurements of Venusian rocks will help scientists constrain Venus’ past significantly and thereby determine how likely it was to have a moon in its sky. The [2023-2032 Planetary Science Decadal Survey](https://www.planetary.org/articles/the-2022-planetary-decadal-released)—a report produced every 10 years by the U.S. scientific community to guide future NASA missions—recommends sending a spacecraft to Uranus as the highest priority. [One of the four major scientific objectives](https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/26522/chapter/24?term=UOP#619) of this Uranus Orbiter and Probe (UOP) mission is to understand the mysterious origin of the planet’s five large moons. In the meantime, the recently launched [JWST](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/james-webb-space-telescope) space telescope will directly study moon-forming disks around planets outside our solar system, giving us a direct look at an impressive recipe for making large moons. What a profound scientific success it would be to identify the origin of our Moon and of those across our Solar System. *Originally published at [The Planetary Society](https://www.planetary.org/articles/how-planets-get-moons).* --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### Moon Monday #84: A lunar-bound CAPSTONE, an Earthbound NASA, and more updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-84/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:24.000Z ## Rocket Lab puts CAPSTONE on the path to the Moon On June 28, Rocket Lab [successfully launched](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/capstone-launches-to-test-new-orbit-for-nasa-s-artemis-moon-missions) the NASA-funded and Advanced Space-built $13 million [CAPSTONE spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/small%5Fspacecraft/capstone) from New Zealand. At about 300 kilograms, CAPSTONE and the upgraded [Photon third stage](https://www.rocketlabusa.com/space-systems/photon) together are the heaviest payload the company’s small Electron rocket has ever lifted. Over the past six days in Earth orbit, Photon’s engine fired seven times to successfully raise the orbit for it and the attached CAPSTONE craft. Today, July 4, Photon has [deployed CAPSTONE](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/07/04/capstone-leaves-earth-orbit-headed-to-the-moon) to deep space on a [fuel-saving ballistic transfer](https://advancedspace.com/blt) which arches back to the Moon in November for [the mission](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/small%5Fspacecraft/capstone). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fe53b42a4-3af8-4f1b-8940-b8c98ed5d9af_1202x820-jpeg.jpg) Rocket Lab mission control [screen-grab](https://www.rocketlabusa.com/updates/rocket-lab-moon-mission-for-nasa-a-success) (top left and bottom right), [illustration](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/small%5Fspacecraft/capstone) of the CAPSTONE spacecraft orbiting the Moon (bottom left), and [launch](https://www.rocketlabusa.com/updates/rocket-lab-successfully-launches-capstone-spacecraft-completes-first-leg-of-moon-mission-for-nasa) of CAPSTONE (top right). Credits: Rocket Lab, NASA, Daniel Rutter The mission [pushed the Electron rocket stack to its limits](https://spacenews.com/rocket-lab-sees-payoff-from-capstone-launch), and now goes down as Rocket Lab’s first Moon mission launch and deployment. Not only does it reinforce confidence in the company’s upcoming interplanetary missions [to Venus](https://www.rocketlabusa.com/missions/upcoming-missions/first-private-mission-to-venus) and [Mars](https://blogs.nasa.gov/escapade) but also proves that launching cost-effective, small planetary spacecraft on small rockets is possible in a fairly quick turnaround time. ## NASA’s FY 2023 budget proceedings don’t look bleak for Artemis On June 28, the U.S. House [approved $25.45 billion](https://docs.house.gov/meetings/AP/AP00/20220628/114966/HMKP-117-AP00-20220628-SD004.PDF) as NASA’s FY 2023 budget, a substantial increase over FY 2022’s $24.04 billion but less than the [Presidential request of $25.97 billion](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-71/). Given below are the [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) and lunar-related highlights. - The [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html), [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/orion/about/index.html) and related ground systems continue to be funded at about the same levels as requested. - NASA’s [Lunar Discovery and Exploration](https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/programs/lunar-discovery-exploration) (LDEP) program gets $10 million more than the requested $486 million particularly to ensure full funding for commercial [CLPS lunar landings](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) enabling surface science, including the [VIPER rover mission](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/). LDEP is the organizational unit chiefly integrating and coordinating Artemis science efforts across the agency as well as with NASA’s commercial and international partners. Their recent work includes formulating the [Science Definition report](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-defines-science-priorities-for-first-crewed-artemis-landing-on-moon) and the [Artemis science structure](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-68/) for the [first crewed landing](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) with Artemis III. - NASA had requested $48 million to begin meticulous infrastructure planning for future Artemis missions working towards a [baseline sustainable habitat](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept). The U.S. House has approved $40 million for commercially developing lunar surface power systems, which primarily includes [vertical solar arrays](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-75/) and [nuclear fission units](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-announces-artemis-concept-awards-for-nuclear-power-on-moon). - Finally, the U.S. House has approved the requested $1.49 billion for the development of crewed lunar landers by U.S. companies, compared to last year’s $1.2 billion. This is good but still modest because the funding would be divided between NASA’s selection of SpaceX [Lunar Starship for Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon), an alternative provider for the same mission, the [previously discussed](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-70/) sustainability upgrades for Lunar Starship and its competitor chosen as part of the [Sustaining Lunar Development](https://www.nasa.gov/nextstep/humanlander4) (SLD) project. While the U.S. House’s lunar budget approval is looking great, we’ll only find out later this year after the Senate proceedings how much money NASA actually gets. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f58bfd696-65fb-4637-b02b-2c69d48edc2c_2260x1260-jpeg.jpg) Credit: NASA’s FY 2023 budget request [summary slides](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/fy23%5Fnasa%5Fbudget%5Frequest%5Fsummary.pdf) At this point, I’m compelled to link to Eric Berger’s [recent report that NASA is planning two alternate timelines](https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/06/we-got-a-leaked-look-at-nasas-future-moon-missions-and-likely-delays) for Artemis missions because the agency anticipates future budgets not being high enough to build a [baseline sustainable habitat](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept) on the Moon by 2032\. The piece sounds alarming but in my opinion isn’t a bad outlook for several reasons: 1. While it is true that Artemis missions are getting delayed from their (revised) ambitious targets, that was always assumed to be the case by almost everyone in the space industry. 2. As for SLS and Orion, they were always designed to build the NASA-led international [Gateway lunar station](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) rather than specifically enable landings on the Moon. No surprises there. 3. Planning alternate launch dates and timelines for missions and their programs is a standard industry practice, and so by itself cannot be considered valid hints of additional delays. 4. The [evolved, sustainable crewed lunar landers](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-70/) that NASA seeks from SpaceX and a SLD competitor for frequent Earth-Moon ferrying were never likely to be ready for showtime before end of the decade anyway. Personally, I think this decade is about the endurance of Artemis as a collection of funded, collaborative programs more than anything else. An initial wave of successful crewed Artemis missions, alongside the desirable high percentage of successes in affiliated programs like CLPS, will be key to attaining the critical mass necessary to sustain and thrive NASA’s Artemis ambitions in the next decade. --- *Thanks to [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io) for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* *Thanks also to [Alexandra Witze](http://alexandrawitze.com) for supporting my independent writing.* --- ## More Moon - Chinese scientists have [released the most detailed geological map](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2095927322002316?via%3Dihub) of our Moon to date by combining data from Chang’e lunar robotic missions and several international ones. - NASA transported the fully stacked SLS rocket [back to its assembly building](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/07/02/nasas-moon-rocket-and-spacecraft-arrive-at-vehicle-assembly-building) from the launchpad on June 2\. Over the next two months, teams will [replace a seal](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/06/20/artemis-i-wdr-update-test-ends-at-737-p-m-edt-at-t-29-seconds) on the quick disconnect part of the [tail mast umbilical](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/fs-2018-02-250-ksc-ml%5Fumbilical%5Ffact%5Fsheet.pdf) on the rocket’s mobile launcher, arming the rocket’s flight termination system, and preparing for a target launch of [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/around-the-moon-with-nasa-s-first-launch-of-sls-with-orion) in [August end](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-i-mission-availability) (though September is more likely). While SLS was at the launchpad, teams tested and verified the [startup and shutdown of the thrust vector control system](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/06/27/teams-complete-artemis-i-booster-test-ahead-of-rocket-return-to-vehicle-assembly-building) of the rocket’s twin boosters. This test was supposed to be part of the original T-9.3 seconds [wet dress rehearsal](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-readies-rocket-for-artemis-i-wet-dress-rehearsal) but was done separately because the rehearsal ended 20 seconds prior. - ISRO Chairperson S. Somanath [told reporters last week](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/gaganyaan-mission-cant-happen-this-year-or-next-year-focus-fully-on-safety-aspects-isro-chief/articleshow/92579979.cms) that two GSLV Mk III rockets—India’s most powerful—are scheduled to launch OneWeb satellites by October 2022 and January 2023 respectively. Since India doesn’t have a spare GSLV Mk III lying around, and can only ready one for launch every few months, it automatically means the launch of the [Chandrayaan 3 Moon landing mission](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-3-prelaunch-info/) will be delayed from January 2023\. This is yet another example of India’s recent commercial space reforms coming at the cost of its fledgling but promising planetary science program. :/ - As part of [project MOONRISE](https://www.lzh.de/index.php/en/press-releases/2022/moonrise-lzh-and-tu-berlin-bring-3d-printing-moon-laser-and-ai), funded by Germany at €4.74 million, research teams at LZH and TU Berlin are developing an AI-supported compact laser system to melt lunar soil for 3D-printing infrastructure such as landing pads and roads. They’ve successfully demonstrated the system’s core working on Earth, including under simulated lunar gravity in [an Einstein-Elevator](https://www.hitec.uni-hannover.de/en/large-scale-equipment/einstein-elevator/). They intend to launch a test system in 2024 on an as yet unknown flight. - A re-plug to my [no-math explainer of the rocket equation](https://jatan.space/the-moon-as-a-rocket-platform/) and its fundamental implications, highlighting how our Moon can be an efficient, long-term rocket and infrastructure platform from an energy expenditure point of view to help us settle across the Solar System. Nature has been kind enough to give us a moon that’s both a scientific and technological bonanza. Let’s make the most of it. --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### Looking back at Pathfinder as the start of modern Mars exploration URL: https://jatan.space/nasa-mars-pathfinder-mission/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:24.000Z July 4, 2022 will mark 25 years since NASA landed the Pathfinder spacecraft on Mars. It was the first Mars landing in about two decades, following the agency’s successful [Viking 1 and 2](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/viking) missions. While the flagship Vikings cost a whopping [$7 billion](https://www.planetary.org/space-policy/viking-cost) (inflation-adjusted for 2020), Pathfinder cost a humble [$485 million](https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/12frTU01gfT1CXGWFimN3whf4348F%5Fr3XolTqBt02OyM/edit#gid=1687800329&range=I8). And yet Pathfinder carried cutting-edge technologies to the Red Planet. The [Pathfinder mission](https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/mars-pathfinder/in-depth) successfully demonstrated [a novel method](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1996-068A) of landing on Mars with protective airbags, and saw the first-ever wheeled rover, named Sojourner, explore the Red Planet. The roughly meter-tall, pyramid-shaped [Pathfinder lander](https://d2pn8kiwq2w21t.cloudfront.net/documents/mpf%5FbQIcJKD.pdf) with its petal-shaped solar panels and the wagon-sized, six-wheeled [Sojourner rover](https://d2pn8kiwq2w21t.cloudfront.net/documents/mpf%5FbQIcJKD.pdf) each [studied Mars](https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/mars-pathfinder/in-depth) for almost three months. The lander took numerous atmospheric measurements while also imaging the martian surface. The rover explored about hundreds of square meters of area around the lander, taking 550 surface photographs and chemically analyzing 16 varied locations to discern their composition and help scientists probe their origin. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f17c34c52-4431-4d2d-873c-55ed0a13d554_2051x1400-jpeg.jpg) Technicians closing the solar panel “petals” of the Mars Pathfinder lander for integration with the launch vehicle ahead of liftoff. The Sojourner rover is visible on one of the three petals. [Credit: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/content/making-final-preparations-for-the-path-to-the-red-planet) Pathfinder was developed in just three years as the second mission under NASA’s then fresh [Discovery program](https://www.nasa.gov/planetarymissions/discovery.html), which aimed to send highly focused science missions across the solar system on a fast track and low budget. Since Pathfinder, the program has led to more hugely successful mission firsts, from the [MESSENGER](https://messenger.jhuapl.edu/index.html) spacecraft orbiting Mercury to [Dawn](https://www.planetary.org/articles/dawn-journal-final-transmission) visiting Vesta and Ceres. ## An ancient flood site Scientists [used Viking orbiter imagery and data](https://mars.nasa.gov/MPF/mpf/stereo/stereopairs.html) to select the rocky Martian plains of Ares Vallis as [Pathfinder’s landing site](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/marsland.html) because it offered unique access to a past watery Mars. Thanks to [improvements in landing techniques](https://jatan.space/how-nasa-choses-mars-landing-sites/) since the Vikings, Pathfinder touched down just 19 kilometers southwest of the ideal target point, still well within Ares Vallis and at the intended general location of 19 N, 33 W. This region is near the mouth of an ancient water channel, where a catastrophic flood is thought to have flown through, depositing a wide variety of telltale rocks to study. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f4f9a3e4e-874f-41dc-bee2-1aced019711d_1600x900-jpeg.jpg) The Mars Pathfinder lander and the Sojourner rover on Mars. [Credit: NASA](https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/mars-pathfinder/in-depth) | Explore the [landing site in 360 degrees](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/jpl/revisit-nasas-mars-pathfinder-and-rover-360-view) and see the distant [twin-peaks in high resolution](https://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA02406). The Pathfinder lander and Sojourner rover [helped us understand](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/marspath%5Fresults.html) Mars’ past and present conditions. The lander’s meteorology sensors frequently detected [dust devils](https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2005/14jul%5Fdustdevils), now known to be common on the planet. Magnets on the lander found Martian dust [highly magnetic](https://mars.nasa.gov/MPF/science/magnetic.html), which scientists think is due to the presence of maghemite—a very magnetic form of iron oxide. The iron may have been brought to the surface from Mars’ crust by an active water cycle during the [planet’s habitable past](https://jatan.space/can-we-make-mars-earth-like/), but then freeze-dried on dust particles as Mars evolved. The Sojourner rover used its X-ray spectrometer to identify what rocks and soil in the flood plain of Ares Vallis were made of. It [found](https://d2pn8kiwq2w21t.cloudfront.net/documents/mpf%5FbQIcJKD.pdf) plenty of Earth-resembling silica-rich volcanic rocks as well as [water-washed](https://www.nasa.gov/content/anniversary-of-the-mars-pathfinder-landing) rounded cobbles and pebbles. ## How Pathfinder started modern Mars exploration With the Pathfinder mission, NASA developed foundational technologies for future, increasingly more ambitious Mars missions to iterate on. Successors to Sojourner, the Spirit and Opportunity [Mars Exploration Rovers](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/mars-exploration-rovers), landed on the Red Planet in 2004 using a [similar airbag landing](https://mars.nasa.gov/mer/mission/technology/edl) technique and explored the surface [using advanced versions](https://mars.nasa.gov/mer/mission/technology/autonomous-planetary-mobility) of Sojourner’s rocker-bogie suspension system for good mobility. The two-way Earth-Mars communications lag of up to 42 minutes also demanded that the Sojourner rover be able to make safe autonomous decisions for situations where there would be no time for humans to be in the loop. This is now a staple feature of all robotic Mars rovers. Moreover, scientists determined the mechanical properties of martian soil based on Sojourner’s images of its wheel tracks and their sinkage, which provided key information for future rovers to the Red Planet. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fef7975df-30f1-4850-b490-c8c35e47686b_1800x1200-jpeg.jpg) A comparison of three generations of NASA Mars rovers. These are flight-spares inside NASA JPL's [Mars Yard](https://mars.nasa.gov/news/9077/twin-of-nasas-perseverance-mars-rover-begins-terrain-tests) testing area. The Sojourner rover’s twin is front and center, a Mars Exploration Rover spare is on the left, and the Curiosity twin is on the right. [Credits: NASA / JPL-Caltech](https://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/imagegallery/image%5Ffeature%5F2154.html) NASA officials have compared [Ingenuity](https://mars.nasa.gov/technology/helicopter/#Overview), the first helicopter on Mars, to Sojourner. Former NASA JPL Director Michael Watkins has [remarked](https://spacenews.com/ingenuity-success-opens-door-for-future-mars-helicopter-missions) that just like Sojourner demonstrated the importance of mobility in planetary exploration and led to modern sophisticated rovers like [Perseverance](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/perseverance), Ingenuity is the start of exploring Mars from the third dimension. ## Pathfinder and the Internet Perhaps the least known impact of the Pathfinder mission is NASA’s [switch to using the internet](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/pathfinder20) as the primary way of communicating with the public. Rather than just manually distributing physical prints of select images at media conferences and sending over scanned copies to TV stations and news outlets days after a major mission event, NASA provided fresh Pathfinder images from Mars directly on the then-young World Wide Web with little delay. The mission garnered more than 200 million views between July 4-8, 1997, setting a web traffic record. By the time the [Mars Exploration Rovers](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/mars-exploration-rovers) landed in 2004, NASA had massively upgraded its website infrastructure to gracefully handle the peak 109 million views it received in a day as well as the 50,000 people watching the live webcast. Pathfinder forever changed not only how the public sought information on space missions but any publicly relevant live event—in near real-time. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fc469c685-7cf9-4972-ac80-11657f94b7c5_1200x1300-jpeg.jpg) Artist's concept of Mars Pathfinder and Sojourner rover on Mars. [Credit: NASA](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/mars-pathfinder-and-sojourner) *Originally published at [The Planetary Society](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/pathfinder).* --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### Moon Monday #83: CAPSTONE launch, the final SLS rocket test, and more trailblazing URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-83/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:24.000Z *We’re about to have our first Moon mission launch since Chang’e 5 in 2020!* ## CAPSTONE launches for the Moon tomorrow The NASA-funded and Advanced Space-built [CAPSTONE spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/small%5Fspacecraft/capstone) is set to [launch tomorrow](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/06/27/capstone-launch-targeting-june-28), June 28, from New Zealand on Rocket Lab’s small Electron launch vehicle with an upgraded [Photon third stage](https://www.rocketlabusa.com/space-systems/photon). Photon will carry the microwave-oven-sized, 25-kilogram CAPSTONE spacecraft to a high elliptical Earth orbit over six days, and then push the craft to deep space on a [fuel-saving ballistic transfer](https://advancedspace.com/blt) which arches back to the Moon in November. CAPSTONE will then enter its final orbit, called the near-rectilinear halo orbit (NRHO), which the NASA-led international [Gateway station](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) will be in later this decade. CAPSTONE intends to demonstrate the [fuel-efficient nature](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/a-lunar-orbit-that-s-just-right-for-the-international-gateway) of NRHO while helping refine our mathematical models by knowing the exact propellant and power needed to maintain said orbit. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2febc8f537-9dec-4677-b231-2b290b509874_1812x1200-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of the CAPSTONE spacecraft orbiting the Moon. [Credits: NASA / Daniel Rutter](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/small%5Fspacecraft/capstone) The CAPSTONE mission’s goals extend beyond being a pathfinder for Gateway. Earlier this year, Advanced Space entered into an agreement with the U.S. Air Force to [share orbital data](https://www.prweb.com/releases/advanced%5Fspace%5Fu%5Fs%5Fair%5Fforce%5Fsign%5Fcooperative%5Fagreement%5Fto%5Fcollaborate%5Fon%5Fcislunar%5Factivities/prweb18492902.htm) collected by the spacecraft. CAPSTONE’s team will also collaborate with that of NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html) (LRO) to have both spacecraft communicate with each other and demonstrate autonomous navigation in lunar orbit, that is, without relying on Earth’s ground stations. This capability is key for efficient operations in the future when many spacecraft will be around the Moon. ## NASA completes final test of its SLS rocket before long-awaited Moon launch Last week NASA [completed](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/06/20/artemis-i-wdr-update-test-ends-at-737-p-m-edt-at-t-29-seconds) the critical [wet dress rehearsal test](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-readies-rocket-for-artemis-i-wet-dress-rehearsal) of its fully stacked [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html). This is the first time the team loaded 2.65 million liters of super-chilled propellants into the rocket, practiced nearly all phases and permutations of [launch countdown](https://www.nasa.gov/content/artemis-i-launch-countdown-101) until T-29 seconds, and demonstrated safe unloading of propellants to simulate launch delay scenarios such as [weather criteria for launch](https://www.nasa.gov/content/artemis-i-weather-criteria) not being met. A few technical problems showed up during the test, chief of which was a hydrogen leak at T-10 minutes in a small ‘quick disconnect’ line on [the tail mast umbilical](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/fs-2018-02-250-ksc-ml%5Fumbilical%5Ffact%5Fsheet.pdf) of the rocket’s mobile launcher. During an actual launch attempt, such an issue would trigger an automatic hold but engineers masked the data for this test so as to continue the countdown and demonstrate a successful handover of launch sequencing from the ground computer to the rocket’s own. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f8cc1e25a-8302-421c-88b0-e088741f1a0f_2048x1365-jpeg.jpg) NASA’s SLS rocket, standing atop its mobile launcher, at Launch Pad 39B of the agency’s Kennedy Space Center on March 18, 2022\. [Credits: NASA / Kim Shiflett](https://flickr.com/photos/nasakennedy/51954827811) After an initial review of the test data, NASA considers their [key objectives to be met](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-completes-wet-dress-rehearsal-moves-forward-toward-launch), and has decided against the need for a fifth test to count all the way down to T-9.3 seconds as was originally intended. NASA will roll back the rocket to its assembly building later this week, where teams will replace a seal on the quick disconnect line to address the hydrogen leak and then begin launch preparations. The SLS rocket will most likely [launch in September](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-i-mission-availability) for the long-awaited [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/around-the-moon-with-nasa-s-first-launch-of-sls-with-orion) mission to send an uncrewed [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/orion/about/index.html) around the Moon, marking the beginning of a long string of [missions](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) and [ambitions to sustain human presence](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept) on the Moon and in lunar orbit. --- *Thanks to [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io) for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* *Thanks also to [Tim Glotch](https://www.stonybrook.edu/commcms/geosciences/people/%5Ffaculty/glotch.php)* *for supporting my independent writing.* --- ## Lunar Trailblazer will launch two years early NASA has [moved up the launch](https://spacenews.com/nasa-moves-up-lunar-trailblazer-launch) of its [Lunar Trailblazer](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/index.html) orbiter mission from its 2025 flight as a rideshare alongside the IMAP spacecraft to a mid-2023 rideshare with [Intuitive Machines’ second Moon lander](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-to-land-water-measuring-payload-on-the-moon) launching part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). Notably, Trailblazer is the second mission NASA has accommodated on a CLPS launch after we learnt of the [Lunar Flashlight](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/cubesat/missions/lunar%5Fflashlight.php) CubeSat [co-launching](https://www.nasa.gov/centers/marshall/news/releases/2022/nasa-marshall-team-delivers-tiny-powerful-lunar-flashlight-propulsion-system.html) with [Intuitive Machines’ first CLPS lander](https://7c27f7d6-4a0b-4269-aee9-80e85c3db26a.usrfiles.com/ugd/7c27f7%5Fbc896cfc90ca4ae9a0643bfbf5ed214a.pdf) at the end of this year. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f0029fcf2-7138-41ab-857f-c0ce18de873e_1600x1050-jpeg.jpg) Render of the Lunar Trailblazer orbiter at the Moon. [Credit: Lockheed Martin](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/gallery.html) Part of NASA’s [SIMPLEx program](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/small-satellite-concept-finalists-target-moon-mars-and-beyond) to send small spacecraft quickly on planetary science missions, Lunar Trailblazer will have [two instruments](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/instruments.html) to map the [form, abundance, and distribution](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/objectives.html) of water on the Moon in both [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) and sunlit areas. The mission will also monitor changes in water in sunlit regions over time, and is expected to [provide holistic insights](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/presentations.html) on the lunar water cycle. Trailblazer joins a [slew of missions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-63/) launching within the next two years to help characterize the nature of [water ice on the Moon](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) before the first humans land part of NASA’s [Artemis campaign](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis). ## The seed for nuclear power on the Moon NASA and the U.S. Department of Energy have [awarded $5 million contracts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-announces-artemis-concept-awards-for-nuclear-power-on-moon) each to three companies for developing an autonomous, compact and lightweight [fission surface power system](https://www.nasa.gov/mission%5Fpages/tdm/fission-surface-power/index.html) prototype. The companies are: 1. Lockheed Martin, who is partnering with BWXT and Creare 2. Westinghouse, who will work with Aerojet Rocketdyne 3. IX, a joint venture between Intuitive Machines and X-Energy. They are teaming up with Maxar and Boeing. A mature fission system evolving from these prototypes could launch to the Moon by end of decade to provide at least 40 kilowatts of electrical power for a decade or more—enough to continuously power 30 households. Fission systems can enable hardware to operate during the long and frigid lunar night, and in the [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/), and can power and enable [sustained](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept) robotic and human presence on the Moon as the technology evolves. Related: Masten’s [NITE system](https://masten.aero/blog/surviving-the-lunar-night-with-mastens-nite-system) and Astrobotic’s [wireless charging](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotics-wireless-charging-system-for-the-moon-can-survive-lunar-night) system, both funded by NASA under ‘Tipping Point’ contracts, will also help hardware power through the lunar night. ## More Moon - It turns out that the two companies who recently won NASA contracts to [develop spacesuits for future Artemis astronauts](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-80/) on the Moon—Axiom Space and Collins Aerospace—were the only ones to have bid per NASA’s [source selection statement](https://sam.gov/api/prod/opps/v3/opportunities/resources/files/008410da33b746d39c69ca232fa54bef/download?&token=). Despite [over 40 companies](https://www.nasa.gov/jsc/procurement/xevas) having shown initial interest, none of them submitted a complete proposal on time. [Jeff Foust notes](https://spacenews.com/axiom-and-collins-only-bidders-for-nasa-spacesuit-contracts) that Blue Origin is a partner of Collins in developing their suit, and that NASA won’t disclose financial details such as the guaranteed minimum amounts the agency is awarding each company. - NASA LRO has quite [possibly spotted the rocket body](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/1261) that was predicted to impact the Moon’s farside on March 4, 2022\. While the object is suspected to the upper stage from the Chang’e 5 T1 launch, its identity remains mysterious. Interestingly, while [other rocket body impacts](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/938) on the Moon have made single craters, this one’s a doublet. - Firefly has [passed the Integration Readiness Review](https://firefly.com/firefly-has-completed-the-integration-readiness-review-irr-of-blue-ghost-m1) of its [Blue Ghost](https://firefly.com/blue-ghost) spacecraft slated to [land on the Moon in 2024](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-firefly-aerospace-for-artemis-commercial-moon-delivery-in-2023) as part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). Firefly can now start integrating the 2-meter tall lander capable of carrying 155 kilograms of payloads to the lunar surface. I’ve covered [the mission’s landing site and science](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-70/) in Moon Monday #70. - NASA’s Commons account on Flickr recently uploaded an image of [the U.S. and Soviet Union exchanging lunar samples](https://www.flickr.com/photos/nasacommons/18614896961) from missions Apollo 11 & 12 and Luna 16 respectively. I wonder when would we next see another such symbolic as well as science-advancing gesture? Hopefully with Chang’e 6 and Artemis III. --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### Rings in our Solar System can come and go URL: https://jatan.space/exploring-the-changing-rings-of-our-solar-system/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:24.000Z It’s hard to imagine [Saturn](https://jatan.space/why-explore-saturn/) without rings. That’s exactly what it will be though roughly 100 million years from now, a short span of time for a planet born 4.6 billion years ago. Recent [research](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0019103518302999?via%3Dihub) and [measurements](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/goddard/2018/ring-rain) taken by NASA’s [Cassini spacecraft](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/cassini) have revealed that the ring material, which is mostly water ice, is being gradually pulled into Saturn. Eventually there will be almost nothing left. To think that Saturn’s [iconic rings](https://www.planetary.org/articles/best-pictures-saturn-rings), which span the length of 27 Earths, would vanish in a cosmic blip is yet another reminder that our Solar System is a dynamic place. By the time Saturn becomes a pale hazy brown ringless orb, Mars would’ve adorned a cosmic crown of its own. Sometime [between 30 to 50 million years from now](https://astronomy.com/news/2015/11/mars-moon-phobos-is-slowly-falling-apart), Mars’ gravity will break apart its closest moon [Phobos](https://mars.nasa.gov/all-about-mars/moons/phobos). Its fragments will encircle the Red Planet. Remarkably, this isn’t the first time such an event would’ve transpired on Mars. A large asteroid or comet may have impacted the planet shortly after [our Solar System’s formation](https://www.planetary.org/articles/solar-system-history-101), with the resulting orbital debris becoming rings and eventually clumping into small moons. Scientists think Mars’ gravity ripped the innermost moon into rings again at some point, and so Phobos might just be the latest product of such an [ongoing ring-moon cycle](https://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo2916). It’s possible that Phobos and the Saturnian rings formed during or around the time dinosaurs ruled planet Earth. For a long time scientists thought Saturn’s rings are simply leftover material from the planet’s birth 4.6 billion years ago but recent measurements from Cassini have challenged this assumption. When the Cassini spacecraft made a number of passes between Saturn and its rings during the mission’s ‘[Grand Finale](https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/cassini/the-journey/the-grand-finale)’ in 2017, it allowed scientists to carefully infer the mass of the rings based on how gently the spacecraft was pulled towards them. It turned out the rings weigh [less than Saturn’s small moon Mimas](https://www.science.org/content/article/saturn-s-rings-are-recent-addition-solar-system-cassini-observations-show), too low for them being ancient structures formed alongside such a giant planet. Combined with the fact that the rings are still bright and haven’t darkened over time due to incessant [space weathering](https://jatan.space/the-tiniest-of-impact-craters/), scientists estimate their age to be [less than 100 million years](https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aat2965). They think that Saturn’s rings formed either from a moon getting too close and breaking apart or from collisions of multiple small icy moons. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f98c3c6b2-81ca-4779-8b02-6852fe84b30d_5789x1000-jpeg.jpg) A natural-color composite image of Saturn’s rings, captured by the NASA-ESA Cassini spacecraft. Slight color variations across the rings and multiple gaps are clearly visible. [Credit: JPL-Caltech](http://www.ciclops.org/view.php?id=722&js=1) ## A spectrum of rings Our Solar System is host to even more unique ring types. Jupiter’s [faint ring system](https://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/multimedia/largest/rings.html) is made entirely of dust particles hurled up into orbit by [micrometeorites impacting](https://jatan.space/the-tiniest-of-impact-craters/) the planet’s small, inner moons. Saturn’s faint and diffuse [Phoebe ring](https://www.planetary.org/articles/2165) is also formed from particles ejected from the namesake moon. Neptune’s outermost ring isn’t even a ring but [five distinct arcs](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/neptunes-rings), whose particles are probably kept from spreading out due to the gravitational pull of the ring moon Galatea. Some rings are mysterious. For example, two of the outermost Uranian rings [are red and blue](https://www.universetoday.com/142626/uranus-rings-are-surprisingly-bright-in-thermal-emissions), indicating a different composition than not just the planet’s inner, gray rings but also from the Saturnian set. The largest Uranus ring, epsilon, is [tens to hundreds of times narrower](https://news.berkeley.edu/2019/06/20/astronomers-see-warm-glow-of-uranuss-rings) than those of Saturn, and we don’t know why. In 2014, astronomers discovered a planet outside our Solar System that appears to have rings [200 times wider](https://jatan.space/the-rings-of-super-saturn/) than Saturn’s! At 180 million kilometers across, the rings of this ‘Super Saturn’— officially named J1407b—span wider than the Sun-Earth distance of 150 million kilometers. On the opposite end of the size spectrum, there are the [two rings](https://www.eso.org/public/news/eso1410) of 10199 Chariklo, a roughly 200-kilometer sized object orbiting our Sun between Saturn and Uranus. How do these colossal and tiny rings form? We’re yet to find out! ## Future exploration The answers to why the giant planets of [Jupiter](https://www.planetary.org/worlds/jupiter), [Uranus](https://www.planetary.org/worlds/uranus) and [Neptune](https://jatan.space/why-explore-neptune/) don’t have as majestic a set of rings as Saturn, at least in the present, ultimately lie in grasping how rings form, evolve, and in some cases, disappear. Sending a spacecraft to excavate chunks from Saturn’s rings and measure their exact composition, and ideally even bring samples to Earth, will anchor the age and origin of Saturn’s rings. Likewise, figuring out how Phobos formed would tell scientists if it really is part of an [ongoing ring-moon cycle](https://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo2916) at Mars. While no mission is being planned to study Saturn’s rings, Japan’s [Martian Moons eXploration mission](https://jatan.space/japan-mmx-mars-moons-sample-return/), or MMX, will study Phobos and bring samples from it to Earth to help scientists ascertain its age and formation. The [2023-2032 Planetary Science Decadal Survey](https://www.planetary.org/articles/the-2022-planetary-decadal-released)—a report produced every 10 years by the U.S. scientific community to guide future NASA missions—recommends sending a spacecraft to Uranus as the highest priority. [One of the four major scientific objectives](https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/26522/chapter/24?term=UOP#619) of this Uranus Orbiter and Probe (UOP) mission is to understand the composition, origin, mechanics, and history of the planet’s rings. In the meanwhile, the recently launched [JWST](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/james-webb-space-telescope) space telescope will [observe rings of all the giant planets](https://www.stsci.edu/files/live/sites/www/files/home/jwst/about/history/flyers/%5Fdocuments/JWST-Rings.pdf) to spot previously unknown features and help scientists better gauge how they evolve. The majestic rings of Saturn will wane over time, losing chunks and bits to the planet all the while darkening like soil on our Moon. What a sad cosmic death that would be. Perhaps there’s some solace in the fact that Saturn’s tiny icy moon Enceldaus [will still be erupting](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Space%5FScience/Cassini-Huygens/Heating%5Focean%5Fmoon%5FEnceladus%5Ffor%5Fbillions%5Fof%5Fyears) water plumes into space to keep the planet’s [diffuse E-ring](https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/news/13021/put-a-ring-on-it) alive. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f0531fa30-4fc6-46fd-9e82-f2530c9c4979_2000x1440-jpeg.jpg) An artist's impression of how Saturn may look as it loses its iconic rings. [Credits: NASA / Cassini / James O'Donoghue](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/thumbnails/image/saturn%5Ffades.gif) *Originally published at [The Planetary Society](https://www.planetary.org/articles/how-do-planets-get-rings).* --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### Moon Monday #82: Growing NASA-ESA synergy, lunar Starship, wireless power on the Moon, and more updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-82/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:25.000Z ## NASA and ESA enhance their collaboration on exploring our Moon At the ESA Ministerial Council meeting in Netherlands on June 15, 2022, NASA and ESA [extended their collaboration](https://www.esa.int/Newsroom/Press%5FReleases/From%5Fthe%5FEarth%5Fto%5Fthe%5FMoon%5Fand%5Fon%5Fto%5FMars%5FESA%5Fand%5FNASA%5Ftake%5Fdecisions%5Fand%5Fplan%5Ffor%5Fthe%5Ffuture) in several ways, including expanding their cooperation in lunar exploration. As part of an agreement, UK’s [Lunar Pathfinder](https://bsgn.esa.int/service/lunar-pathfinder) spacecraft will be deployed into lunar orbit by 2025 by a Moon lander competitively selected by NASA under the agency’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). Lunar Pathfinder will operate in a frozen elliptical orbit for at least 8 years, and relay communications between Earth and mission hardware primarily on the Moon’s farside and poles. In return for NASA launching and deploying Pathfinder to lunar orbit, ESA will let NASA use the orbiter to relay-communicate with its lunar hardware on future farside and polar missions. [My article on Lunar Pathfinder](https://jatan.space/nasa-esa-collaborate-on-lunar-pathfinder/) has more details on the incentives behind this growing NASA-ESA synergy. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ff48e4bc6-7cd8-4577-91a3-993047f588bd_2200x1400-jpeg.jpg) Artist’s impression of the Orion spacecraft and its powerhouse European Service Module (with attached solar panels) flying over the Moon. The module was the start of growing synergies between NASA and ESA in exploring our cosmic neighbor. [Credits: NASA / ESA / ATG Medialab](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2019/03/Orion%5Fand%5FEuropean%5FService%5FModule%5Forbiting%5Fthe%5FMoon) In return for ESA’s increasing contributions to [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis), NASA administrator Bill Nelson [said](https://spacenews.com/esa-and-nasa-to-cooperate-on-earth-science-and-lunar-mission) that the agency intends to have a European astronaut land on the Moon in a future mission post the [first crewed landing](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon), the [same intent as for Japan](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-79/). ESA has already [bagged three seats](https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-55906695) for their astronauts on the NASA-led [Gateway lunar station](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) in return for contributing the Orion spacecraft’s critical [service module](https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/space/esm) and the Gateway’s [ESPRIT](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/European%5FGateway%5Fmodule%5Fto%5Fbe%5Fbuilt%5Fin%5FFrance%5Fas%5FThomas%5FPesquet%5Freadies%5Ffor%5Fsecond%5Fspaceflight) communications and refueling module. The first European astronaut on the Gateway [could launch onboard](https://spacenews.com/esa-and-nasa-to-cooperate-on-earth-science-and-lunar-mission) Artemis IV, which will deliver the ESA- and JAXA-developed [International Habitation module](https://liquifer.com/gateway-i-hab) (i-HAB) to the station no earlier than 2027. ## Another milestone for SpaceX Starship, another step towards crewed lunar landing Last week, SpaceX [cleared FAA’s environmental review](https://www.faa.gov/newsroom/faa-requires-spacex-take-over-75-actions-mitigate-environmental-impact-planned) for conducting orbital launches of its [Starship](https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/starship) rocket from its Texas test site, with only several relatively minor issues to be mitigated prior to any liftoff. I like how The Orbital Index (a Moon Monday sponsor) [summarized the result](https://orbitalindex.com/archive/2022-06-15-Issue-172): > While it’s somewhat hard to imagine that the largest rocket in history will not significantly impact the adjacent state park, public beach, and nearby wildlife refuge, it’s completely unsurprising that a federal agency has provided a way forward for the company tasked with building NASA’s HLS to conduct testing of the launch system that will deliver that vehicle to space. While SpaceX still needs to acquire a launch license before Starship’s first orbital attempt, this is a huge milestone in working towards [landing the first Artemis astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) on the Moon for which NASA has [so far](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-lays-out-revised-approach-for-future-human-lunar-landing-systems) selected the lunar variant of Starship as the primary lander. At the same time, there’s not much public information about the progress of lunar Starship other than the Artemis Mission Manager, Michael Sarafin, [just mentioning](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/faa-gives-qualified-environmental-thumbs-up-for-starship-launches) last week that (lunar) Starship “is really moving along and making great progress.” --- *Many thanks to [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io) for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* *Thanks also to* *[Parvathy Prem](https://civspace.jhuapl.edu/people/parvathy-prem), David Blewett, [Arun Raghavan](https://arunraghavan.net), [Matt Ryall](https://mawsonrovers.com) and [Narayan Prasad](https://www.narayanprasad.com) for supporting my independent writing.* --- ## Astrobotic develops wireless power delivery for the Moon Supported by a $5.8 million [NASA Tipping Point contract](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/solicitations/tipping%5Fpoints/2020%5Fselections), Astrobotic and partners have been developing a wireless charging system for hardware on the Moon to survive the frigid lunar nights. They recently [successfully tested](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotics-wireless-charging-system-for-the-moon-can-survive-lunar-night) power transmission with prototype sending and receiving hardware on Earth under simulated lunar polar conditions of wide temperature ranges and with 4 centimeters of lunar soil simulant in between. Astrobotic will next develop a [space-qualified](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/) engineering model of the wireless charging system for future use in actual lunar missions both by itself and its customers. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fadbe9177-c5f4-421d-a88c-a74e3beeea5d_1053x797-jpeg.jpg) A charging plate onboard an Astrobotic CubeRover demonstrating the company’s wireless charging system. Inset image: The system is tested with interference from simulated lunar soil. [Credits: Astrobotic](https://mailchi.mp/472d462cad47/survivinglunarnightwwireless) Astrobotic’s future landers and notably their [upcoming vertical solar panels](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-92/) might transmit power wirelessly to rovers and other hardware needing to survive the lunar night. Astrobotic intends for the first such test to be for their shoebox-sized, 13-kilogram [MoonRanger](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotics-moonranger-moves-into-final-production/) rover, which boasts autonomous navigation and mapping capabilities. A MoonRanger is set to fly onboard [Masten’s 1st Moon landing mission](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-contract-to-deliver-science-tech-to-moon-ahead-of-human-missions/) in [2023](https://masten.aero/blog/masten-mission-to-lunar-south-pole-schedule-shift-to-2023/) as part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) but it’s probably too early a mission to feature wireless power delivery. ## ESA is asking scientists to propose science payloads for the Moon ESA is expanding its [SciSpacE program](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Research/Drop%5Ffly%5Firradiate%5FESA%5Fs%5FSciSpace%5Fresearch%5Fprogramme) from Earth to the International Space Station and our Moon, and with it is asking researchers across its member (and affiliated) states to [submit lunar science payload proposals](https://ideas.esa.int/servlet/hype/IMT?documentTableId=45087127246400699&userAction=Browse&searchTerm=SVNT&templateName=&documentId=a74341805c7f2c3197252cefbf332097) that can be developed to launch to the Moon within three years of an identified flight opportunity. Selected proposals next year will be part of a pool from which they might be chosen for a launch starting 2025either on an international mission, a commercial delivery like [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) or an [ESA-equivalent](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-66/) program, or ESA’s own mission. The pool of lunar-ready payloads will be reviewed, refreshed and topped up every three years. ## More Moon - The fully stacked [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) is all set for its fourth [wet dress rehearsal](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-readies-rocket-for-artemis-i-wet-dress-rehearsal) attempt [today, June 20](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/06/20/artemis-i-wdr-update-launch-director-gives-go-for-propellant-loading-countdown-set-to-resume). The timeline of fueling operations along with key milestones is [available on](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/06/17/teams-on-track-for-artemis-i-wet-dress-rehearsal-test) NASA’s official Artemis Blog. If the test is successful this time around, NASA could launch the [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/around-the-moon-with-nasa-s-first-launch-of-sls-with-orion) Moon mission in [late August at best](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-i-mission-availability) though September is more likely. - The NASA-funded and Advanced Space-built [CAPSTONE spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/media-resources-for-capstone) is now [targeting launch on June 25](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/06/14/capstone-launch-june-25). The mission intends to prove the feasibility of the unique [fuel-saving elliptical lunar orbit](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/a-lunar-orbit-that-s-just-right-for-the-international-gateway) that the NASA-led international [Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) station will use later this decade. - In [Phase 2](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/centennial%5Fchallenges/nasa-opens-second-phase-of-35-million-lunar-excavation-competition.html) of the $3 million [Break the Ice Lunar Challenge](https://breaktheicechallenge.com/), NASA is inviting the public to design and build an efficient prototype capable of extracting and transporting icy regolith on the Moon. - A [new paper](https://uploads-ssl.webflow.com/5e4b7985a58df89b6c254001/62211259b481f51d8f111baa%5FScarcity%5FPolicy%20Brief.pdf) from the Open Lunar Foundation (a Moon Monday sponsor) proposes that space agencies, lunar companies, and all such stakeholders should together [develop a Moon resources “scorecard”](https://www.openlunar.org/library/scarcity-of-lunar-resources-policy-brief), wherein the abundance/scarcity and renewability of key industrial and scientific lunar resources are quantified and tracked so that space policies make long-term sense as we try to build a peaceful, sustainable lunar economy. - ESA challenged students from eight schools across Europe to create Artemis-inspired artwork as we return to the Moon with humans and more robots. From the [24 nice entries](https://blogs.esa.int/orion/category/art-for-artemis), a jury has [chosen two](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Art%5Ffor%5FArtemis%5Fjury%5Fselection) to accompany the third European Service Module for the crewed Orion spacecraft shipping soon to the US. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ff8f7f436-a3e9-4c31-bfe1-97d08d36fcc9_1800x1200-jpeg.jpg) [Credits: Selma Moseng and Linn Hansen](https://blogs.esa.int/orion/2022/05/17/art-for-artemis-selma-and-linn) --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### NASA and ESA are collaborating to better explore our Moon with Lunar Pathfinder URL: https://jatan.space/nasa-esa-collaborate-on-lunar-pathfinder/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:25.000Z At the ESA Ministerial Council meeting in Netherlands on June 15, 2022, NASA and ESA extended their space collaboration [in several ways](https://www.esa.int/Newsroom/Press%5FReleases/From%5Fthe%5FEarth%5Fto%5Fthe%5FMoon%5Fand%5Fon%5Fto%5FMars%5FESA%5Fand%5FNASA%5Ftake%5Fdecisions%5Fand%5Fplan%5Ffor%5Fthe%5Ffuture), including [agreeing to cooperate](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-esa-finalize-agreements-on-climate-artemis-cooperation) on the [Lunar Pathfinder](https://bsgn.esa.int/service/lunar-pathfinder) orbiter mission, whose spacecraft is being built by UK’s Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd. (SSTL) with input from [anchor customer](https://www.sstl.co.uk/media-hub/latest-news/2021/sstl-signs-up-esa-as-anchor-customer-for-lunar-pat) ESA. As part of the agreement, the Lunar Pathfinder spacecraft will be deployed into lunar orbit by 2025 by a Moon lander competitively selected by NASA under the agency’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). Lunar Pathfinder will operate in a frozen elliptical orbit for at least 8 years and relay communications between Earth and robotic mission hardware on or around the Moon. This includes aiding missions on the Moon’s farside, where such [a relay is required](https://www.planetary.org/articles/20180615-queqiao-orbit-explainer), and hardware on the poles, where Earth visibility is limited due to rocky terrain and our planet being low on the horizon. The latter will be especially useful for future rovers venturing into [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/), where line of sight to their landers or Earth can be quickly lost. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f82cada6a-7771-44d1-b778-57eaf2a4b6f9_1625x1000-jpeg.jpg) The Lunar Pathfinder will relay communications between Earth and robotic mission hardware at the Moon as a commercial service. [Credit: SSTL](https://www.esa.int/Applications/Navigation/Galileo%5Fwill%5Fhelp%5FLunar%5FPathfinder%5Fnavigate%5Faround%5FMoon) In return for NASA launching and deploying Pathfinder to lunar orbit, ESA will let NASA use Pathfinder to relay communications between Earth and its robotic hardware on the Moon, particularly for the agency’s CLPS missions on the farside. ## Aligning incentives This collaboration is a great move for both NASA and ESA. Because of Pathfinder’s availability, NASA doesn’t necessarily need to build or buy its own relay hardware for future farside missions while also gaining enhanced communications for its robotic polar missions taking place around the same time. In much the same vein, ESA intends to utilize Pathfinder’s communications for their multipurpose [Large Logistics Lander](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Exploration/European%5FLarge%5FLogistics%5FLander) (EL3) launching end of decade, whose capabilities include delivering cargo for astronauts, bringing lunar samples, and more. In fact, the Schrödinger crater is [one of the proposed landing sites](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Exploration/To%5Fthe%5FMoon%5Fdown%5Fsouth) for an EL3 sample return mission. On another note, the fact that NASA and ESA are willing to launch and deploy an important mission like Pathfinder using a ride-along CLPS lunar lander shows their confidence in the growing maturity of the program that can enable regular Moon landings at low costs. For ESA, Lunar Pathfinder also represents the first step of their [Moonlight ambitions](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-65/) to have a high-throughput lunar constellation that commercially provides communications and navigation services to robotic and crewed hardware at the Moon. In May 2021, ESA [selected SSTL](https://www.esa.int/About%5FUs/Corporate%5Fnews/ESA%5Fadvances%5Fits%5Fplan%5Ffor%5Fsatellites%5Faround%5Fthe%5FMoon) as one of the two companies leading a developmental study to demonstrate the feasibility of Moonlight. In the meanwhile, both ESA and SSTL are hoping to [find lunar hardware customers](https://www.sstl.co.uk/what-we-do/lunar-mission-services/lunar-pathfinder-mission-builder) right now whose missions could benefit from Lunar Pathfinder by achieving higher data rates with lower cost communication systems. [ESA intends](https://www.esa.int/Applications/Navigation/The%5FMoon%5Fwhere%5Fno%5Fsatnav%5Fhas%5Fgone%5Fbefore) for three to four more satellites to join Lunar Pathfinder by end of decade, and then progressively expand coverage to the entire Moon’s surface with more satellites and surface beacons to complete project Moonlight. ## Extending GPS to the Moon The Lunar Pathfinder mission also sports an intriguing experiment onboard, in which NASA and ESA are again collaborating. An ESA-provided *NaviMoon* receiver will be regularly oriented towards Earth by the spacecraft to [demonstrate a GPS fix at the Moon](https://www.esa.int/Applications/Navigation/The%5FMoon%5Fwhere%5Fno%5Fsatnav%5Fhas%5Fgone%5Fbefore) using signals millions of times fainter than those used by our phones. Positioning fixes from the receiver will be compared with conventional radio ranging methods to know how well it works. A NASA-provided retroreflector onboard will be used to test laser ranging capabilities and aid said GPS-fix demonstration. If successful, such systems can reduce operational costs of future lunar missions. NASA itself will be [testing a similar system](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2022/nasa-moon-mission-set-to-break-record-in-navigation-signal-test) on [Firefly’s CLPS mission](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-firefly-aerospace-for-artemis-commercial-moon-delivery-in-2023) in 2024. --- NASA and ESA collaborating on Lunar Pathfinder represents a third major vertical of collaboration between the two agencies in [exploring our Moon](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/), the other two being Europe’s contributions to NASA’s [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) program in the form of the crewed [Orion](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/orion/about/index.html) spacecraft’s critical [service module](https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/space/esm) and the NASA-led [Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) lunar station’s [i-HAB](https://liquifer.com/gateway-i-hab) habitation module as well as the [ESPRIT](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/European%5FGateway%5Fmodule%5Fto%5Fbe%5Fbuilt%5Fin%5FFrance%5Fas%5FThomas%5FPesquet%5Freadies%5Ffor%5Fsecond%5Fspaceflight) communications & refueling module. Here’s to many more such pieces of progress. ### Moon Monday #81: Lunar missions on the verge of launching and future hardware coming to life URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-81/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:25.000Z *There has been a plethora of updates last week as well as last month on upcoming lunar missions so today’s Moon Monday is presented a bit differently—developments are grouped by type. Despite some more mission delays, seeing so many spacecraft on the verge of launching and so much future mission hardware coming together, piece by piece, is exciting!* ## Upcoming Moon missions - The NASA-funded and Advanced Space-built [CAPSTONE spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/media-resources-for-capstone) is now encapsulated inside the fairing of its Rocket Lab Electron launch vehicle but [won’t launch on June 13](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/06/08/capstone-mission-launch-no-longer-targeting-june-13) anymore due to it requiring last minute flight software changes. The mission intends to prove the feasibility of the unique [fuel-saving elliptical lunar orbit](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/a-lunar-orbit-that-s-just-right-for-the-international-gateway) that the NASA-led international [Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) station will use later this decade. - On June 6, NASA’s fully stacked [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) [arrived at its launchpad](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/06/06/nasas-artemis-i-moon-rocket-arrives-at-launch-pad-ahead-of-tanking-test) for a fourth [wet dress rehearsal](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-readies-rocket-for-artemis-i-wet-dress-rehearsal) test attempt, currently scheduled for June 20\. If the test is successful this time around, NASA could launch the [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/around-the-moon-with-nasa-s-first-launch-of-sls-with-orion) mission to send an uncrewed [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/orion/about/index.html) around the Moon in [late August at best](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-i-mission-availability). - Astrobotic’s [first Moon landing mission](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-awarded-79-5-million-contract-to-deliver-14-nasa-payloads-to-the-moon) as part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) will likely launch early next year instead of later this year. The main engines for ULA’s Vulcan rocket that will loft Astrobotic’s lunar lander into space are [still being assembled](https://twitter.com/torybruno/status/1533908073483579392) at Blue Origin. After ULA receives the engines, [no earlier than August](https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/06/the-large-vulcan-rocket-is-unlikely-to-make-its-debut-in-2022), it would take about six months to test and integrate them into the rocket and prepare for launch. Astrobotic itself is [still assembling its lander](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-unveils-peregrine-lunar-lander-flight-model) after which the lander will undergo [space environmental testing](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/) to ensure it can survive launch and its time in space. - On the other hand, Astrobotic competitor Intuitive Machines hasn’t provided a recent update on [their first CLPS Moon landing mission](https://7c27f7d6-4a0b-4269-aee9-80e85c3db26a.usrfiles.com/ugd/7c27f7%5Fbc896cfc90ca4ae9a0643bfbf5ed214a.pdf)’s status or revealed its flight hardware. An [indirect NASA update](https://www.nasa.gov/centers/marshall/news/releases/2022/nasa-marshall-team-delivers-tiny-powerful-lunar-flashlight-propulsion-system.html) tells us that the mission is still launching later this year while announcing that the SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket carrying the lander to space will also host the agency’s 14-kilogram [Lunar Flashlight](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/cubesat/missions/lunar%5Fflashlight.php) CubeSat as a secondary payload. After attaining a polar lunar orbit, Lunar Flashlight will use near-infrared lasers and a spectrometer to identify locations and states of [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) inside [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s poles. Lunar Flashlight was originally supposed to fly on [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/around-the-moon-with-nasa-s-first-launch-of-sls-with-orion) along with [10 other small satellites](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-space-launch-system-s-first-flight-to-send-small-sci-tech-satellites-into-space) but couldn’t be completed in time. - Thankfully, ispace’s [first Moon landing mission](https://ispace-inc.com/hakuto-r/eng) still [seems to be on track](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-74/) for launch later this year, as is South Korea’s [Danuri/KPLO orbiter](https://jatan.space/kplo/) slated for its August launch while Russia’s [Luna 25 Moon landing mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-62/) might launch [in September 2022](https://tass.com/science/1458083) instead of August. - NASA [completed yet another test](https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/ames/VIPER-egress) of how its water-ice-studying [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) will drive out of a ramp on Astrobotic’s large [Griffin lander](https://www.astrobotic.com/griffin) after touchdown on the Moon’s south pole in 2023\. The test used the most realistic hardware design yet for the rover prototype and the lander ramps. NASA will begin constructing the VIPER flight rover in late 2022 at their Johnson Space Center, aiming to deliver it to Astrobotic in mid-2023 for integration with Griffin before launching soon after on a SpaceX Falcon Heavy rocket. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fe015418f-9ac9-4ead-8b80-7ae9d0c68fbb_800x540-jpeg.jpg) Artist’s impression showing NASA’s VIPER rover moving down a ramp of Astrobotic’s Griffin lunar lander. [Credit: Astrobotic](https://www.astrobotic.com/2020/6/11/astrobotic-awarded-199-5-million-contract-to-deliver-nasa-moon-rover) ## Future Moon mission hardware coming to life - NASA [is completing assembly](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/multimedia/artemis-ii-engine-section-moves-to-final-assembly.html) of the SLS rocket’s core stage to be used for the [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to) mission to carry crew around the Moon in 2024\. In the meanwhile, the mission’s nearly fully assembled Orion spacecraft, which the astronauts will be in, was [powered on for the first time](https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/engineers-power-up-crew-module-for-first-artemis-mission-with-astronauts) last month. Its systems will be extensively tested over the next few months chiefly to make sure its flight computers and components are communicating as expected. - NASA [completed manufacturing](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/nasa-supplier-completes-manufacturing-artemis-iii-sls-booster-motors.html) the 10 motor segments of the SLS rocket boosters to be used during launch of the [Artemis III crewed landing mission](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon). The booster segments will next be integrated with the avionics and the remaining booster hardware. In parallel, the mission’s second rocket stage [is taking shape](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/upper-stage-propulsion-system-for-future-artemis-mission-reaches-major-milestone.html) in ULA’s factory. - NASA is nicely [progressing through a test campaign](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/06/02/gateways-propulsion-system-testing-throttles-up) of 6-and-12-kilowatt [solar-electric propulsion](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/glenn/2020/the-propulsion-we-re-supplying-it-s-electrifying) developmental engines, whose flight versions [will maneuver](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-artemis-contract-for-lunar-gateway-power-propulsion) the NASA-led international [Gateway station](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) to and in lunar orbit after launch in 2024\. The tests are designed to demonstrate that Gateway’s propulsion system should work for at least 15 years around the Moon. - Related: Last year, NASA established the terribly acronym’d [Joint AdvaNced propUlsion inStitute](https://januselectricpropulsion.com) (JANUS) as the latest addition to their [Space Technology Research Institutes](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/strg/stri). To help NASA utilize high-power electric propulsion systems for human exploration of the solar system, JANUS will develop ways to overcome limitations in their ground testing. - Airbus has [completed building the structure](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2022/06/Frame%5Ffor%5FArtemis%5FIV) of the fourth [European Service Module](https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/space/esm) that will power the Orion spacecraft on NASA’s Artemis IV mission. The company will complete the module’s integration and conduct related tests over the next few months. The 15,000-kilogram module provides propulsion, water, oxygen, thermal control, and electrical power to Orion. - Artemis IV, launching no earlier than 2027, will not attempt a lunar landing but instead advance the Gateway’s assembly, which by that point would be in its [unique lunar orbit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-rectilinear%5Fhalo%5Forbit). Specifically, Artemis IV will deliver the ESA- and JAXA-developed [International Habitation module](https://liquifer.com/gateway-i-hab) (i-HAB) to the Gateway. Artemis IV will not only be the first mission to send astronauts to the Gateway but also be the first flight of the SLS rocket’s [Block 1B](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/sls%5Flift%5Fcapabilities%5Fand%5Fconfigurations%5F508%5F08202018%5F0.pdf) version with an upgraded upper stage. - NASA and Northrop Grumman [continue testing subscale versions](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/subscale-booster-motor-for-future-artemis-missions-fires-up-at-marshall) of a new solid rocket motor design to be used for the [more capable boosters](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2021/12/02/sls-booster-fired-up-to-test-improved-design-for-future-artemis-missions) debuting on Artemis IX on a SLS [Block 2 evolved](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/sls%5Flift%5Fcapabilities%5Fconfigurations%5F04292020%5Fwoleo.pdf) rocket sometime in the 2030s. The Orion spacecraft on top of SLS will feature [an upgraded main engine](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-orion-main-engine-contract-for-future-artemis-missions) for the second time during Artemis IX instead of its current Shuttle-era one. - If you’re wondering that “..if the big orange rocket must exist [by law](https://www.supercluster.com/editorial/the-ugly-bargain-behind-nasas-sls-rocket) anyway, at least these upgrades should’ve been in place since the very first Artemis mission..”, then you aren’t alone. But better late than never I guess. More importantly though, this update also means NASA is keen on keeping the momentum for our return to the Moon alive, something crucial in its own right considering past failed efforts. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fc3fb2d25-4862-446a-a999-563e7bb689c5_1920x1080-jpeg.jpg) **Left:** Structure of the fourth European Service Module for NASA’s Orion spacecraft. **Top right:** Testing of a Hall effect thruster to be part of the Gateway lunar station’s propulsion system. **Bottom right:** Hot fire test of a subscale model of an upgraded solid rocket booster to be used on NASA’s SLS Block 2 rocket. Credits: [NASA](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/06/02/gateways-propulsion-system-testing-throttles-up), [Thales Alenia](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2022/06/Frame%5Ffor%5FArtemis%5FIV), [Samuel Lott](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/subscale-booster-motor-for-future-artemis-missions-fires-up-at-marshall) ## The launch tower that’s still an artist’s render In a [scathing new report](https://oig.nasa.gov/docs/IG-22-012.pdf), NASA’s Office of Inspector General (OIG) painfully details the poor progress on the 118-meter [Mobile Launcher 2](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/final%5F-%5Fmobile%5Flauncher%5F2%5Ffact%5Fsheet.pdf) to be made for the SLS rocket’s [Block 1B and Block 2](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/sls%5Flift%5Fcapabilities%5Fconfigurations%5F04292020%5Fwoleo.pdf) configurations. The OIG points out that the launch tower’s cost-plus contract NASA originally awarded to Bechtel at $383 million in 2019 has ballooned to $960 million primarily because Bechtel underestimated the project’s scope and complexity. The cost will [likely rise further](https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/06/nasas-second-mobile-launcher-is-too-heavy-years-late-and-pushing-1-billion) during the construction phase, which hasn’t even begun because the design work is pending! The OIG also blames NASA for Bechtel’s shortcomings because the agency awarded the contract *before* the specifications of the SLS rocket’s upgraded upper stage were finalized. The OIG estimates that the Mobile Launcher 2 will be built no earlier than November 2026, after which it will need to tested, meaning Artemis IV has a very slim chance of actually taking off in 2027 on a SLS Block 1B rocket. NASA is considering converting parts of the contract from cost-plus to fixed-price to accelerate progress though there may not be enough room for significant improvements. --- > *Thanks to [Open Lunar Foundation](https://www.openlunar.org), [The Orbital Index](https://orbitalindex.com) and [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io) for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- ## More Moon - On June 7, France [became the 20th country](https://presse.cnes.fr/en/france-signs-artemis-accords-and-joins-international-space-exploration-programme) to sign the U.S. led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html) for cooperation in lunar and space exploration. It’s also the sixth such European country, following the UK, Luxembourg, Italy, Poland and Romania. Given that the French space agency CNES is not just a significant part of ESA but has also been a strong NASA partner, this is a notable bag for the Accords. - On June 1, Aegis Aerospace announced that they’re extending [their SaaS-model of providing scientific technology testing facilities](https://aegisaero.com/capabilities/#space-testing-as-a-service) at the International Space Station to the Moon. As the first step, Aegis is [putting a multi-hardware testing facility](https://aegisaero.com/news/two-leading-houston-based-commercial-space-companies-formalize-an-agreement-to-put-a-commercial-science-and-testing-facility-on-the-moon) for several customer experiments as a small, single-package paid payload on Intuitive Machines’ fourth Moon landing mission in 2025. - After putting out a [Request for Proposals](https://buyandsell.gc.ca/procurement-data/tender-notice/EPS-21-WS3189860897-Doc3189860944) late last year, Canada is [funding five of its companies to conduct concept studies](https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/funding-programs/programs/stdp/funding-potential-moon-infrastructure.asp) for developing infrastructure that can be contributed to NASA’s Artemis [Basecamp](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept) and beyond. The seven studies range from food production to mining and power generation. Canada will later fund five of these studies to start prototyping hardware. ### Moon Monday #80: New spacesuits for Moonwalking, a volcanic visit, and updates from around the globe URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-80/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:25.000Z ## The first Artemis astronauts to land on the Moon will wear privately developed spacesuits After [requesting proposals](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-seeks-spacesuit-services-proposals-for-artemis-space-station) from U.S. companies in October last year, [NASA has selected Axiom Space and Collins Aerospace](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-partners-with-industry-for-new-spacewalking-moonwalking-services) to provide advanced and highly flexible spacesuits and associated services for future astronauts on the Moon as well as the International Space Station (ISS). Collins, who designed the Apollo suits, and Axiom notably beat out [over 40 competitors](https://www.nasa.gov/jsc/procurement/xevas), including SpaceX, Blue Origin and Sierra Space. NASA itself is dropping the development of its in-house [xEMU suits](https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/exploration-extravehicular-mobility-unit-xemu) in favor of the new proposals. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f6dbaeffe-0e20-4cdc-aa3a-7440176d146c_2500x1406-jpeg.jpg) An illustration and prototype of suit designs to be advanced for use by astronauts on future Artemis missions. Credits: [NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-partners-with-industry-for-new-spacewalking-moonwalking-services) / [Collins Aerospace](https://www.collinsaerospace.com/newsroom/News/2022/06/Collins-Aerospace-selected-to-outfit-the-next-generation-of-space-explorers) This move sees NASA double down on its “commercial” model bet to sustain lunar exploration, following decisions to purchase, rather than build, [robotic](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) and [crewed](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-70/) lunar landers after success with equivalent ISS flights. This has implications for the process of developing and providing spacesuits. 1. The selected companies will bid to provide spacesuits for future [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) missions, starting with [the very first crewed landing](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) with Artemis III currently being targeted for a 2025 launch. Additional vendors might get on the bidding list in the future via an on-ramp option, just like how NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) to send payloads on commercial lunar landers [added 5 vendors in a later phase](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/new-companies-join-growing-ranks-of-nasa-partners-for-artemis-program), which notably included SpaceX, Blue Origin and Sierra Space. 2. NASA only [defined the technical and safety standards](https://sam.gov/api/prod/opps/v3/opportunities/resources/files/ecc034760ec1485b8a26b21a493de9a1/download) for the spacesuits but won’t control how they’re met so as to encourage innovation in design, development, and production. That being said, NASA is [making available](https://eva.jsc.nasa.gov) all of its research on the in-house [xEMU suits](https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/exploration-extravehicular-mobility-unit-xemu) to accelerate development of the new suits while reducing risk. Here are some notable NASA requirements for the lunar spacesuits. - Support six two-person spacewalks on the Moon during initial Artemis missions. After astronauts come back from spacewalks, the suits should release less than 100 grams of notorious lunar dust into the cabin to keep things safe. - Support more and longer duration spacewalks on latter Artemis missions focusing on [sustaining human presence](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept) on the Moon. - The most interesting part (for me anyway): NASA wants astronauts to venture inside the scientifically-valuable [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s south pole. The spacesuits therefore must let astronauts enter such regions, where temperatures are [well below -180 degrees Celsius](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/96), and function nominally for at least 2 hours. 3. The companies are investing their own money too to develop the suits, and they must find customers other than NASA to convert the technologies built into an actual commercial business. NASA wouldn’t state the exact funding the agency is providing to Axiom and Collins but said the combined value of all service purchases through 2034 will be no more than $3.5 billion. As usual, [Jeff Foust has detailed reporting](https://spacenews.com/nasa-selects-axiom-space-and-collins-aerospace-for-spacesuit-contracts) on the matter. Note though that the U.S. Presidential [FY 2023 NASA budget request](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/fy23%5Fnasa%5Fbudget%5Frequest%5Ffull%5Fopt.pdf) released in March asks for $276 million instead of the previous $100 million to accelerate development of lunar spacesuits, [crewed rovers](https://jatan.space/what-we-know-about-artemis-ltv/) and other mobility systems. Aside: The official NASA webpage for this advanced spacesuits program has a cool URL slug: [nasa.gov/](https://nasa.gov/suitup)**[suitup](https://nasa.gov/suitup)** ## NASA to explore a unique volcanic dome on our Moon NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) to send science instruments to the Moon on commercial landers continues its enhanced science phase under the young [PRISM initiative](https://science.nasa.gov/researchers/solicitations/roses-2021/amendment-22-payloads-and-research-investigations-surface-moon-prism-draft-text-released-community). After [selecting science instruments](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-new-science-investigations-for-future-moon-deliveries) to be launched in 2024 on missions [to a lunar swirl](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-mission-to-reiner-gamma/) and the [Schrödinger crater](https://jatan.space/the-crowned-crater-of-schrodinger/), NASA has now [selected two more instrument suites](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-new-instruments-for-priority-artemis-science-on-moon) for launches in 2026. The first selection is the Lunar Vulkan Imaging and Spectroscopy Explorer (Lunar-VISE), comprising two instruments on the lander and three on the CLPS-vendor-provided rover. Lunar-VISE will explore the summit of one of the over 15-kilometer wide [Gruithuisen volcanic domes](https://jatan.space/unique-volcanic-domes-of-gruithuisen/) and analyze its lunar soil. The mission will greatly expand our knowledge of the Moon’s volcanic past and its early makeup because the Gruithuisen domes formed from thicker flows of rare silicic materials instead of the thin flows of basalt most common on the Moon. [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f012c2155-1a4e-41c1-a2f5-82e132cbd6c7_1098x770-jpeg-1.jpg)](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=-42.5565303,34.9284874,-37.341902,37.881215&proj=16&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEoAsjYIHYFcA2vIBvAXwF1SiykUAmNDREW0dGAOgE5Id9Ly-SQA) The inset image shows the unique volcanic domes of Gruithuisen (Gamma and Delta). [Credit: NASA LRO](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/184) | [EXPLORE ON A MAP](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=-42.5565303,34.9284874,-37.341902,37.881215&proj=16&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEoAsjYIHYFcA2vIBvAXwF1SiykUAmNDREW0dGAOgE5Id9Ly-SQA) The second selection is similar to the [BioSentinel](https://www.nasa.gov/ames/biosentinel) CubeSat mission launching for solar orbit on [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/around-the-moon-with-nasa-s-first-launch-of-sls-with-orion) this year. Both teams of researchers want to see the effects of deep space radiation on yeast, chosen specifically because their cells and humans cells share similar DNA damage and repair mechanisms. Earth-bound research can’t fully simulate the unique radiation environment of deep space so these missions will provide us new insights on the deep space radiation effects on biological life as NASA seeks to establish long-term presence on the Moon. NASA will soon start the bidding process to select the commercial vendors providing the lunar touchdown for these two CLPS flights. ## More on Chang’e 7 China will launch [the Chang’e 7 mission](https://spacenews.com/china-targets-permanently-shadowed-regions-at-lunar-south-pole) in 2024 or 2025\. It will consist of an orbiter, a [relay satellite](https://spacenews.com/china-to-build-a-lunar-communications-and-navigation-constellation), and a lander. The lander will [likely deploy](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=CHANG-E-7) a rover and a hopper (here’s a candidate [six-legged design](https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/21/17/5680/htm)) to map resources in [permanently shadowed areas](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) near its landed region on the Moon’s south pole. Scientists have [begun assessing](http://jdse.bit.edu.cn/sktcxb/en/article/doi/10.15982/j.issn.2096-9287.2022.20210134) candidate landing sites for the mission, which [much like the case](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-s-artemis-rover-to-land-near-nobile-region-of-moon-s-south-pole) of NASA’s [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) will likely be near small permanently shadowed craters less than a kilometer across. Data from Chang’e 7, along with some of the upcoming Russian Luna missions, will help select a suitable site for the joint Sino-Russian long-term scientific base on the Moon’s south pole called the [International Lunar Research Station](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-32/). ## Moon-tech flowing back to Earth Last year, Astrobotic [successfully field-tested](https://www.astrobotic.com/one-step-closer-to-mapping-icy-moons-like-europa-enceladus/) their NASA-contracted laser mapping and navigation system with a drone that 3D-mapped part of an Alaskan glacier in real time. This technology will enable future spacecraft to autonomously navigate relative to any terrain they encounter, identify potential hazards, and select and touchdown on safe landing sites. This is very useful for landing in and around dark areas and rocky terrain as well as on icy moons in the outer solar system like [Europa](https://www.planetary.org/worlds/europa) or [Enceladus](https://www.planetary.org/worlds/enceladus). This research was based on Astrobotic’s hazard detection and avoidance work for its CLPS mission to land NASA’s [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) on the Moon’s south pole in 2023. Now Astrobotic has [won NASA-funding](https://sbir.nasa.gov/firm/node/62386) worth $1.5 million, under two *Small Business Innovation Research* (SBIR) contracts, to [further advance said technologies](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-wins-1-5m-to-mature-satellite-servicing-and-hazard-detection-systems-for-space) through 2024 for space qualification. NASA considers the ability to work in totally dark and foreign environments useful for satellite servicing and refueling in Earth orbit. If future funding allows Astrobotic to build a flight-ready system, there would be a test flight on a CubeSat or from onboard the ISS. > *Thank you [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io) for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* ## More Moon - JAXA [shared an image](https://twitter.com/SLIM%5FJAXA/status/1530104018973995009) of the flight model of its compact [SLIM lander](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/home/slim/SLIM/technology.html), which will launch [by March 2023](https://japannews.yomiuri.co.jp/science-nature/science/20220418-21574) to demonstrate *pinpoint lunar touchdown* (\~100-meter accuracy) with such a low mass spacecraft. Aside: JAXA has a [cool, jazzy website](https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/home/slim/SLIM) for the mission, the kind I haven’t seen in western outreach. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f48fcb537-531a-4e3e-a76f-da79ffea39f8_1813x1536-jpeg.jpg) [Credit: JAXA](https://twitter.com/SLIM%5FJAXA/status/1530104018973995009) - NASA says the [CAPSTONE spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/media-resources-for-capstone), built by Advanced Space, will now launch on its Rocket Lab Electron booster [no earlier than June 13](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/05/31/capstone-launch-june-13). The launch period extends until June 22\. The mission intends to prove the feasibility of the unique [fuel-saving elliptical lunar orbit](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/a-lunar-orbit-that-s-just-right-for-the-international-gateway) that the NASA-led [Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) station will be in later in the decade. - In a [public contest](https://www.hani.co.kr/arti/science/science%5Fgeneral/1037408.html) held earlier this year, the South Korean space agency has officially named its KPLO lunar orbiter mission as *[Danuri](https://en.yna.co.kr/view/AEN20220523006900320),* a blend of the Korean words “Moon” and “enjoy”. Launching this August, [the Danuri mission](https://jatan.space/kplo/) will show us new views of the Moon’s surface and provide critical information about the lunar polar terrain and its water to help plan future crewed and robotic missions. - Lunar Outpost, the U.S. company building several classes of Moon rovers—whose activities I [summarized in the previous Moon Monday](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-79/)—has [established an office in Europe](https://lunaroutpost.com/lunar-outpost-eu-opens-in-luxembourg) at Luxembourg. This EU office, funded by the Luxembourg government through an ESA Contract, will focus on developing thermal technologies to enable their rovers to survive the frigid lunar night and endure similarly harsh environments in our solar system. It’s notable that another lunar-centered company ispace inc. also has an EU presence, and at Luxembourg. I covered their lunar activities in [Moon Monday #76](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-76/). - [What we know about India's Chandrayaan 3 Moon landing mission](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-3-prelaunch-info/) ### Moon Monday #79: A Japanese landing on the Moon, a good Gateway, Lunar Outpost rovers and more updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-79/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:25.000Z ## A Japanese astronaut will land on the Moon with NASA’s help On May 23, the U.S. and Japan [extended their collaboration](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/president-biden-nasa-to-welcome-japanese-astronaut-aboard-gateway) on [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) human lunar exploration from the NASA-led [Gateway space station](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) to the Moon’s surface. In addition to the [previous arrangement](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-government-of-japan-formalize-gateway-partnership-for-artemis-program) of providing seats to Japanese astronauts on Gateway in return for the country’s crucial contributions to said station, the U.S. now intends to have a Japanese astronaut on an Artemis mission to the Moon’s south pole. This development comes after Japanese Prime Minister Fumio Kishida [announced a revised national space policy roadmap](https://spacenews.com/japan-wants-jaxa-astronaut-to-be-first-non-american-to-join-a-nasa-lunar-landing) last year, which made it a priority to put “Japanese boots on the moon” by the late 2020s. Also last year, Japan’s space agency JAXA [announced](https://astro-mission.jaxa.jp/astro%5Fselection) a plan to [recruit new astronaut candidates](https://spacenews.com/japan-to-recruit-first-new-astronauts-in-13-years-to-support-artemis-program) for the first time in 13 years. The selected astronauts, to be announced later this year, will be sent either to the International Space Station or the lunar Gateway and surface. The NASA announcement also [mentions](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/president-biden-nasa-to-welcome-japanese-astronaut-aboard-gateway) the potential inclusion of “Japan’s lunar rover” on Artemis surface missions, presumably referring to the JAXA-Toyota [autonomous, crewed pressurized rover](https://global.jaxa.jp/press/2019/03/20190312a.html). Note that the upcoming Artemis [Lunar Terrain Vehicle](https://jatan.space/what-we-know-about-artemis-ltv/), as versatile as it maybe, is the less capable type of the two rovers in [Artemis Base Camp](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept), which aims to build the infrastructure necessary for at least a few astronauts to live for long periods on the Moon. The other is a pressurized, habitable rover, which would enable astronauts to explore the Moon’s south pole up to 45 days at a time. It would seem that Japan’s rover is a candidate for the same. The aforementioned revised Japanese space policy roadmap also urges development of a crewed lunar rover and other systems essential for human lunar activities. *Update from JAXA’s presentation at the [LEAG 2022 Annual Meeting](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/leag2022): Their rover is being designed to work on the Moon for at least 10 years, and cumulatively travel more than 10,000 kilometers. It can even enter small [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) if traverse routes involve slopes less than 20 degrees.* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fcd408564-b509-4b27-88b5-be1cb1905056_2500x1651-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of the JAXA-Toyota crewed Lunar Cruiser rover. A large solar panel covers [the other side](https://global.jaxa.jp/press/2019/03/images/20190312a%5F02%5Fen.png). Astronaut added for (rough) scale. [Credits: JAXA, Toyota](https://global.toyota/en/album/images/27059582) ## Gateway’s collaborative goodness After Gateway launches in late 2024 as two combined U.S.-built modules—the [Power and Propulsion Element](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-artemis-contract-for-lunar-gateway-power-propulsion) (PPE) and the [Habitation and Logistics Outpost](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-northrop-grumman-finalize-moon-outpost-living-quarters-contract) (HALO)—on a SpaceX Falcon Heavy rocket, the station will attain its operational [unique lunar orbit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-rectilinear%5Fhalo%5Forbit) in 2025\. Extending Gateway’s capabilities starting 2027 will be modules built by other countries like Japan, Canada and Europe, each of which will get crew opportunities onboard in return for their contributions. NASA seems to be successfully extending the collaboration model of the International Space Station to the Gateway. In return for seats to Japanese astronauts on Gateway, the specific arrangement of which will be formalized later this year, Japan will provide life support systems to the station’s [International Habitation module](https://liquifer.com/gateway-i-hab) (i-HAB), which includes space for crew to live, work, and conduct research. Japan is also providing batteries, thermal control systems, and imagery components for i-HAB. These capabilities will reduce the Gateway’s logistical supply demands, allowing it to sustain crewed and uncrewed operations for much longer. Moreover, Japan is developing the advanced [HTV-X](https://humans-in-space.jaxa.jp/en/htv-x) spacecraft to supply cargo to the Gateway. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fbd007c66-bc8e-45e3-97da-eda3497bec6c_1173x814-jpeg-1.jpg) Illustration of Japan’s HTV-X cargo supply spacecraft approaching the NASA-led Gateway lunar station. [Credit: JAXA](https://japan-forward.com/japan-developing-spacecraft-to-deliver-supplies-to-moon-orbiting-station) Canada has a [similar arrangement](https://www.canada.ca/en/space-agency/news/2020/12/a-canadian-astronaut-will-fly-to-the-moon.html) with NASA to get two crewed lunar opportunities for Canadian astronauts—one seat on Gateway and one on [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to)—in return for Canada providing the Gateway’s highly autonomous [Canadarm3](https://asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/canadarm3/about.asp) robotics servicing system. Similarly, Europe has [bagged at least three Gateway seats](https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-55906695) for their astronauts in return for ESA contributing the [Orion](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/orion/about/index.html) spacecraft’s critical [service module](https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/space/esm) and the Gateway’s [i-HAB](https://liquifer.com/gateway-i-hab) habitation module as well as the [ESPRIT](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/European%5FGateway%5Fmodule%5Fto%5Fbe%5Fbuilt%5Fin%5FFrance%5Fas%5FThomas%5FPesquet%5Freadies%5Ffor%5Fsecond%5Fspaceflight) communications & refueling module. Despite Gateway’s collaborative benefits of letting multiple nations grow their lunar technologies and deep space operational experience, there’s a strong resistance in space communities to the very idea of the station being any useful. Bob Mahoney, a Space Shuttle spaceflight instructor, clears several misconceptions regarding Gateway in a [comprehensive article](https://www.thespacereview.com/article/4343/1) and convincingly argues that *the Gateway’s foundational idea* is worth preserving, chief of which is its ability to be a servicing facility for inbound and outbound deep space (and lunar) spacecraft. My takeaway from the article is that Gateway is best seen as an independent deep space campaign catering to numerous objectives rather than just a tool to the lunar surface. From the lens of this non-U.S. citizen, I also think such good faith international collaborations often outlast entire programs and specific projects while benefiting areas beyond space exploration. ## Lunar Outpost, the little Moon rover company that’s growing up Last week Lunar Outpost announced they’ve [raised $12 million in seed funding](https://lunaroutpost.com/lunar-outpost-announces-12-million-seed-investment-to-scale-mobility-technology-enabling-commercial-lunar-advancement), which will help them launch a bigger class of autonomous lunar rovers, improve existing offerings, and build more testing and manufacturing facilities. This is a good time to list everything Lunar Outpost has been up to in the Moon-sphere for context. - Intuitive Machines’ [second Moon landing mission](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-to-land-water-measuring-payload-on-the-moon), launching in mid-2023 as part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), will deploy [Lunar Outpost’s MAPP rover](https://lunaroutpost.com/nokia-and-intuitive-machines-select-lunar-outpost-for-first-rover-mission-at-lunar-south-pole) on the Moon’s south pole. The autonomous, rugged rover will test the first [4G/LTE communications system on the Moon](https://www.nokia.com/networks/insights/network-on-the-moon/). On the same mission, the rover [will collect lunar soil samples for NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-companies-to-collect-lunar-resources-for-artemis-demonstrations) to transfer its ownership to the agency (but not bring to Earth). The move is NASA’s first step in incentivizing the industry to build sample extraction technologies and setting precedence for resource use under the [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html). - Intuitive Machines’ [third (CLPS) Moon mission](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-mission-to-reiner-gamma/) will land in the magnetic [swirl of Reiner Gamma](https://jatan.space/swirls-on-the-moon/) in 2024 and deploy a Lunar Outpost rover., which will drive up to two kilometers over 13 Earth days. It will help scientists [study the swirl](https://www.jhuapl.edu/NewsStory/211018b-lunar-vertex) by determining its composition and mapping the strength and direction of magnetic fields on its surface, complementing observations from past orbiters. The mission will help us [better understand](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/decadal/leag/GeorgianaYKramer.pdf) the Moon’s past magnetic field as well as the effects of [solar wind](https://www.planetary.org/worlds/the-sun) and [bombarding micrometeorites](https://jatan.space/the-tiniest-of-impact-craters/) on planetary bodies across the solar system. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fe765e037-d425-436b-98f7-4756208fa9c3_2189x1440-jpeg-1.jpg) Artist’s impression of the solar-powered Lunar Outpost rover exploring the swirl of Reiner Gamma on the Moon. The cylindrical structure on top is the mast for the magnetometer. [Credits: JHU APL / Lunar Outpost / Ben Smith](https://www.jhuapl.edu/NewsStory/211018b-lunar-vertex) - One of the bidders of NASA’s upcoming versatile Artemis [Lunar Terrain Vehicle](https://jatan.space/what-we-know-about-artemis-ltv/) for astronauts is Northrop Grumman, who has [partnered with Lunar Outpost](https://www.northropgrumman.com/space/lunar-terrain-vehicle) to build the rover. - Lunar Outpost has [signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU)](https://lunaroutpost.com/lunar-outpost-made-in-space-announce-mou/) with Luxembourg’s ‘Made in Space Europe’ to equip their rovers with the latter’s advanced robotic arms. The partnership is to enable sample collection on the Moon, perform scientific analysis and support commercial operations. - One of the large rovers Lunar Outpost intends to develop thanks to the new funding is the design that forms the basis of Masten Space’s [Rocket-M](https://masten.aero/blog/masten-designs-rocket-mining-system/) rocket mining system, which aims to rapidly extract large quantities of [water ice and other resources](https://blog.jatan.space/p/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) from [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s poles. ## More Moon - The fully stacked [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) will [head back to the launchpad](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/05/27/june-6-set-for-artemis-i-moon-rocket-to-roll-for-next-tanking-test) on June 6 for another [wet dress rehearsal](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-readies-rocket-for-artemis-i-wet-dress-rehearsal) test attempt starting June 19\. If the test is successful this time around, NASA could launch the [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/around-the-moon-with-nasa-s-first-launch-of-sls-with-orion) mission in [late August at best](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-i-mission-availability). - In an update on the [webpage announcement](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/update-nasa-seeks-comments-on-moon-to-mars-objectives-by-june-3) regarding their [Moon to Mars objectives](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-78/), NASA acknowledged the short public feedback time they initially provided but then went on to extend it by only 3 days.. - The [second stage](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/fs/ICPS.html) of the SLS rocket to be used on the [first Artemis crewed landing](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) mission in 2025 [is taking shape](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/upper-stage-propulsion-system-for-future-artemis-mission-reaches-major-milestone.html) in ULA’s factory. ## A Moon Monday update - I’m so happy and proud to share that [Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/s/moon-monday/archive) is listed as a resource on the websites of the revered [Lunar-L](https://www3.nd.edu/~cneal/Lunar-L) Moon exploration and science community as well as the [NextGen](https://nextgenlunar.space/resources) group of young lunar scientists. ^\_^ - Here are the webpage traffic stats for Moon Monday: ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f24ece156-6a0f-4a83-9d6d-9109f86ae16e_1500x800-jpeg.jpg) To fellow and aspiring niche writers, this is what showing up every Monday can do. I know this is humble growth but for a niche, independent creator who doesn’t make videos or podcasts and only writes, I’m happy. This is a good time for a reminder that I’m publishing this newsletter in individual capacity and making it free to access. Please **[share Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/s/moon-monday)** with a relevant person or audience to help the newsletter reach more lunatics. I suck at social media marketing, and hate every time I need to do it, so help is definitely appreciated! If you or your organization would like to sponsor Moon Monday, [email me](mailto:hey@jatan.space). I’m offering discounts to non-profits, academic institutes and research labs. *Thank you [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io) for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* *Thanks also to [Joseph J. Biernat](https://www.linkedin.com/in/joseph-j-biernat-24858425) for supporting my independent writing.* ### Moon Monday #78: NASA’s Lunar-Mars vision, forward planning Artemis I, and more lunar updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-78/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:25.000Z ## Mapping NASA’s Moon to Mars objectives to efforts on Earth On May 17, NASA released a draft set of [50 one-liner, high-level Moon to Mars objectives](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/moon-to-mars-objectives-.pdf), notably the first time anything specific on the matter has been put out publicly. The objectives, aimed at establishing a permanent human presence on the Moon first and Mars after, are placed into the following four overarching categories: 1. Transportation and Habitation 2. Lunar and Mars infrastructure 3. Operations 4. Science ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fd11cbcbb-9d8a-4eac-b990-9735f158e4a6_4000x1920-jpeg.jpg) Moon to Mars graphic. [Credit: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-leadership-positions-agency-for-future) NASA doesn’t mention on its website or the [accompanying announcement](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-seeks-input-on-moon-to-mars-objectives-comments-due-may-31) the programs and efforts it has already undertaken, and is planning, to meet several of these objectives so I thought it would be useful to map the same. I’m quoting below the in-progress objectives followed by, *in italics*, their relevant ongoing or upcoming NASA activities along with some commentary. Let me know what you think! 1. **From the 12 objectives under Transportation and Habitation:** - TH-1: Develop cislunar systems that crew can routinely operate to lunar orbit and lunar surface for extended durations. - *The [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html), [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/orion/about/index.html), an [evolved](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-70/) [Human Landing System (HLS)](https://www.nasa.gov/nextstep/humanlander2) with [SpaceX (lunar) Starship](https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/starship) post [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon), and a competitive crewed landing provider from the [Sustaining Lunar Development (SLD)](https://www.nasa.gov/nextstep/humanlander4) program.* - TH-2: Develop systems that can routinely deliver large surface elements to the lunar surface. - *Cargo variants of the aforementioned HLS and SLD lunar landers. Contributions are also possible from an evolution of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) to send instruments and cargo on (currently small) commercial landers, assuming increased funding from the flat-levels in the [FY 2023 U.S. Presidential budget request](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/fy23%5Fnasa%5Fbudget%5Frequest%5Ffull%5Fopt.pdf). Note that SpaceX is also [among the 14 companies](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/new-companies-join-growing-ranks-of-nasa-partners-for-artemis-program) selected by NASA for CLPS, and that the [latest Planetary Science Decadal Survey](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-74/) encourages extending the CLPS model to leverage the greatly enhanced capabilities of Starship by setting up funding mechanisms to allow the U.S. scientific community to fly robotic payloads on such high-capacity flights.* - TH-3: Develop systems to allow crew to live and operate safely on the lunar surface and lunar orbit for extended periods of time with scalability to continuous presence to visit areas of interest for scientific research, conduct Mars analog activities, support industrial utilization, and conduct utilization activities. - *[Artemis Basecamp](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept) and beyond* - TH-4: Develop a habitation system for crew in deep space for extended durations, enabling future missions to Mars. - *The NASA-led [Gateway lunar orbiting station](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway), for the former part of the objective anyway.* - TH-9: Develop integrated human and robotic systems with inter-relationships that enable maximum science return from the lunar surface and from lunar orbit. - *A reference to hybrid missions like the Endurance-A rover [recommended in the latest Planetary Science Decadal Survey](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-74/).* - TH-11: Develop systems capable of returning large cargo mass from the lunar surface to the Earth, including the capabilities necessary to meet scientific sample return objectives. - *Aforementioned HLS and SLD landers. There has been chatter about evolving [CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) for sample return missions but it sadly remains fictitious.* 2. **From the 4 objectives under Lunar Infrastructure:** - LI-1: Develop an incremental lunar power grid that is evolvable to support continuous human/robotic operation and is capable of scaling to global power utilization and industrial power levels. - *No overarching project exists for this yet but there have been some bits of NASA-funded developments like [lunar polar solar panel design work](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-industry-to-mature-vertical-solar-array-technologies-for-lunar-surface) and [Sandia’s initial microgrid design](https://www.sandia.gov/labnews/2022/05/05/powering-the-moon-sandia-researchers-design-microgrid-for-future-lunar-base) for Artemis Basecamp.* - LI-2: Develop Lunar surface, orbital, & Lunar to Earth communications, position, navigation and timing architecture capable of scaling to support long term science, exploration, and industrial needs. - *[LunaNet](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2021/lunanet-empowering-artemis-with-communications-and-navigation-interoperability), which still hasn’t been formally approved yet unlike ESA’s similar [Moonlight initiative](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-66/).* 3. **From the 11 objectives under Operations:** - OP-3: Characterize accessible lunar resources, gather scientific research data, and analyze potential reserves to satisfy science and technology objectives and enable ISRU on successive missions. - *The [VIPER](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) rover, [Lunar Trailblazer](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/index.html) orbiter, a [2026 CLPS surface mission](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-australia-sign-agreement-to-add-rover-to-future-moon-mission) featuring [Australia’s first lunar rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-49/) and ESA’s [PROSPECT](https://exploration.esa.int/web/moon/-/59102-about-prospect) payload, international missions, and of course initial [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) crewed surface missions. See [Moon Monday #63](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-63/) for historical context to this push for understanding lunar volatile resources such as [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/).* - OP-5: Operate surface mobility systems using extra-vehicular activity (EVA), suits, tools and vehicles. - *The upcoming versatile Artemis [Lunar Terrain Vehicle](https://jatan.space/what-we-know-about-artemis-ltv/) and [spacesuits](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-47/), both capable of exploring frigid [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/).* - OP-6: Evaluate, understand, and mitigate the impacts on crew health and performance of a long deep space orbital mission, followed by partial gravity surface operations on the Moon. - *[Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) and [Artemis Basecamp](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept).* - OP-8: Demonstrate the capability to find, service, upgrade, or utilize instruments and equipment from robotic landers or previous human missions on the surface of the Moon and Mars. - *A very intriguing inclusion.* - OP-9: Demonstrate the capability of integrated robotic systems to support and augment the work of crew members on the lunar surface, and in orbit around the Moon. - *Planning of [hybrid surface sortie missions](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/site%5Fstudies/tp%5F2003%5F210793.pdf) is a great example of this objective in a scientific context.* 4. **From the 8 objectives under Exploration Science:** - ES-1: Conduct human field geology on the surface and select high priority sample specimens for return to Earth. | ES-3: Enable in-situ research by delivering science instruments to the lunar surface at various locations and returning high priority samples to Earth. | ES-4: Survey sites, conduct in-situ measurements, and identify/stockpile samples for later astronaut evaluation or retrieval. - *[Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) and subsequent surface crewed missions under the auspices of [Artemis Science Teams](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-68/).* - ES-5: Demonstrate retrieval of frozen volatile deep core samples from permanently shadowed regions on the Moon. - *Specifically mentioned in the [Science Definition report](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/artemis-iii-science-definition-report-12042020c.pdf) for as soon as the first crewed landing with Artemis III.* - ES-6: Establish methods and systems to allow a large number of science instruments to conduct planet-wide long-term measurements. - *The [Lunar Geophysical Network](https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/PSJ/ac0f82), as recommended in the [latest 2023-2032 Planetary Science Decadal Survey](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-74/).* 5. **From the 4 objectives under Lunar & Planetary Science:** - LPS-2: Collect fundamental data to understand the origin, distribution, abundance, composition, transport, and sequestration of volatiles throughout the solar system. - *The [VIPER](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) rover, [Lunar Trailblazer](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/index.html) orbiter, international missions like the [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/), [KPLO](https://jatan.space/kplo/) and [LUPEX](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-73/), and of course the critical sample return from Artemis crewed surface missions.* - LPS-3: Conduct analyses to constrain the chronology and dynamics of early Solar System history, including planetary differentiation, early bombardment history, and the formation of the Earth-Moon system. - *Sample return as the key to the [Earth-Moon origin](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/) and [evolution of our solar system](https://jatan.space/solar-system-history-101/)* - LPS-4: Collect samples over a long traverse/duration in the South Pole Aitken Basin and deliver the samples to astronauts for return to Earth. - *A direct reference to the Endurance-A rover [recommended in the latest Decadal Survey](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-74/).* 6. **Biological and Physical Science Goal:** Understand fundamental biological effects when organisms are present in fractional-gravity and deep-space environments, to gain new scientific understanding and information to guide system development. - *All of its 4 objectives fall under long-duration stays at the [Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) lunar station and on [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) surface missions.* 7. **Astrophysics Science (AS) Goal**: Preserve the far side of the Moon as a “radio-free zone” for future radio astronomy experiments. - AS-1: Monitor the radiofrequency environment on the lunar far side to enable future far side radioastronomy activities. - *Related: [Map of radio-quietness](https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/PSJ/abdfc3#psjabdfc3s2) on the Moon’s farside, and [a special issue](https://royalsocietypublishing.org/toc/rsta/2021/379/2188?volume=379&vol=379&issue=2188&publicationCode=rsta&) on the future of astronomy from the Moon published by The Royal Society in November 2020.* That was a long list. The other objectives in the document will act as guideposts for NASA to formally start programs on. For Mars, the connections between the lunar objectives leading to Mars ones aren’t explicitly made. A lot of the focus seems to be on Mars-analog learnings from lunar missions. This, to me, suggests that NASA isn’t as yet planning much more than a modest crewed landing on Mars, even though that in itself would be an enormous achievement. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f4afd01e6-6a02-4fb9-84a6-7c1bef079dbf_2850x1480-jpeg.jpg) From NASA’s FY 2023 Budget Request [summary slides](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/fy23%5Fnasa%5Fbudget%5Frequest%5Fsummary.pdf) All that being said, it isn’t clear why NASA chose to share these objectives *now,* and is [asking for informal feedback](https://socialforms.nasa.gov/m2m-objectives) from the industry, academia and international communities by May 31 i.e. on a notice of just two weeks. Though NASA will hold workshops with a subset of these industry and international partners in June and July respectively. This will help the agency [get a sense of](https://spacenews.com/nasa-seeks-input-on-human-exploration-objectives) their consensus and identify gaps in the objectives and capabilities needed to meet them, and then integrate the same. Related: Jeff Foust’s timely perspective piece on how [NASA is looking to move beyond the traditional contract](https://www.thespacereview.com/article/4386/1) as Artemis takes shape. > *Many thanks to [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io), [The Orbital Index](https://orbitalindex.com) and [Open Lunar Foundation](https://www.openlunar.org) for sponsoring Moon Monday, which allows me to spend time on such deep dives. The newsletter continues below.* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fdb7adbf4-297a-4c20-8041-9cc06f80e253_3687x2074-jpeg.jpg) An old illustration of SpaceX Lunar Starship’s cargo variant. [Credit: SpaceX](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/new-companies-join-growing-ranks-of-nasa-partners-for-artemis-program) ## More SLS rocket preparations before key test NASA is in the [final fixes and preparation phase](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/05/20/artemis-i-moon-rocket-to-return-to-launch-pad-39b-in-early-june) before the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) heads back to the launchpad in early June for a mid-month [wet dress rehearsal](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-readies-rocket-for-artemis-i-wet-dress-rehearsal) test. Notably, engineers took the opportunity to complete early some work to be originally done after the test, such as installing a bunch of hardware on the [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/orion/about/index.html) such as the [Callisto](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/callisto-technology-demonstration-to-fly-aboard-orion-for-artemis-i) assistant system and container assemblies for the [BioSentinel](https://www.nasa.gov/ames/biosentinel) CubeSat. If the wet dress rehearsal is successful this time around, NASA could launch the [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/around-the-moon-with-nasa-s-first-launch-of-sls-with-orion) mission in late August at best. Related: NASA has published an overview of [available launch periods for Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-i-mission-availability) from this July 26 to June next year, and launch and orbital constraints that decide the same. **About [BioSentinel](https://www.nasa.gov/ames/biosentinel):** It will be the first small satellite to perform a biological experiment in deep space. It will enter solar orbit, and measure the impact of space radiation on yeast over six months. The researchers chose yeast because their cells and human cells have many similar DNA damage and repair mechanisms. Earth-bound research can’t fully simulate the unique radiation environment of deep space so this study will provide us new insights on the deep space radiation effects on biological life as NASA seeks to establish long-term presence on the Moon. **About [Callisto](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/callisto-technology-demonstration-to-fly-aboard-orion-for-artemis-i):** Amazon voice assistant Alexa and Cisco’s Webex video conferencing software [will be onboard the Orion spacecraft](https://news.lockheedmartin.com/2022-01-05-Lockheed-Martin,-Amazon-and-Cisco-to-Bring-Voice-Technology-and-Video-Collaboration-to-the-Moon) in the form of a tailor-made tablet and associated hardware. Collectively called Callisto, [the system](https://www.lockheedmartin.com/callisto) will use NASA’s Deep Space Network for [Webex’s video conferencing](https://blog.webex.com/hybrid-work/leaving-earth-without-leaving-home-behind) and Orion’s local database for Alexa to function without an internet. Since Artemis I has no crew, operators will interact with Callisto remotely from the control center on Earth. [Specifically with Alexa](https://www.aboutamazon.com/news/devices/alexa-take-me-to-the-moon), the idea is that any crew interfacing with it should be able to access specific real-time mission telemetry data using voice alone. Callisto’s performance on Artemis I will allow for improvements on [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to), where actual crew will be present. NASA is [also considering](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/callisto-technology-demonstration-to-fly-aboard-orion-for-artemis-i) using similar technology on the [Gateway lunar station](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway). ## More Moon - The [latest issue](https://orbitalindex.com/archive/2022-05-18-Issue-169) of The Orbital Index has more details on the recent research of successfully growing plants in lunar soil. I’m glad that [my point](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-77/) about us lacking high-fidelity planetary soil simulants is being carried forward and discussed further in public. - NASA says the [CAPSTONE spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/small%5Fspacecraft/capstone), built by Advanced Space, will now launch [no earlier than June 6](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/05/20/capstone-spacecraft-launch-targeted-no-earlier-than-june-6), during a launch period that extends until June 22\. The spacecraft [safely arrived](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/05/18/capstone-spacecraft-arrives-at-launch-site-in-new-zealand) at the Rocket Lab Launch Complex 1 in New Zealand last week. Rocket Lab completed the launch rehearsal before that, and are now integrating the spacecraft with the Electron rocket and Photon spacecraft bus. The mission intends to prove the feasibility of the unique [fuel-saving elliptical lunar orbit](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/a-lunar-orbit-that-s-just-right-for-the-international-gateway) that the [Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) will be in later in the decade. - A [surreal view of the recent lunar eclipse](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2022/nasas-lucy-mission-observes-a-lunar-eclipse) from 100 million kilometers away by NASA’s Lucy spacecraft. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f98c0a2c0-d562-4a0a-807e-d795ec3d6e9c_820x160.gif) [Credits: NASA Goddard / APL / SwRI](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2022/nasas-lucy-mission-observes-a-lunar-eclipse) - Partly inspired by NASA’s [Astronomy Picture of the Day](https://apod.nasa.gov/apod/astropix.html) (APOD), I made [Luna Sights](https://jatan.space/lunasights/) to let people explore interesting geological places on our Moon and learn why we should visit them. Browse a world of craters, mountains, lava channels and more! [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f3cba9ffe-493e-4658-9f08-974469eef48e_2500x1712-jpeg.jpg)](https://blog.jatan.space/lunasights) **[Luna Sights →](https://blog.jatan.space/lunasights)** ### How Uranus and Neptune are key to unlocking how planets form URL: https://jatan.space/why-explore-uranus-and-neptune/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:26.000Z In the recent, most important U.S. [planetary science report](https://www.planetary.org/articles/the-2022-planetary-decadal-released) of the decade, scientists have endorsed that NASA undertake a flagship mission to [Uranus](https://www.planetary.org/worlds/uranus), the least-explored planet of our solar system alongside its cousin [Neptune](https://jatan.space/why-explore-neptune/). And for good reason: understanding how and where they formed has direct implications for the evolution of our own planet. Earth formed about 4.6 billion years ago as a result of [a violent process](https://jatan.space/solar-system-history-101/) where thousands of baby planets over 100 kilometers in size collided with each other and accreted over a few million years. Scientists think early Earth would’ve lost most of its water to space due to the high heat from this process. Our water instead likely came [during a brief period](https://www.nature.com/articles/nature03676) roughly 4 billion years ago when the [grand migration](https://arxiv.org/abs/0712.0553) of the giant planets of our solar system—[Jupiter](https://www.planetary.org/worlds/jupiter), [Saturn](https://jatan.space/why-explore-saturn/), Uranus and Neptune—scattered large asteroids and comets all over. Many of these bombarded Earth, depositing water and organic materials—essential ingredients for life as we know it. Yet beyond the existence of such a critical period, which is [also debated](https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1611535113), we don’t know exactly how the giant planets formed, where so, how they migrated and where from. ## The formation conundrum Jupiter & Saturn and Uranus & Neptune represent two different classes of planets. While each of their cores were forged from [rapidly accreting](https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/393/1/49/1081188) rock-metal baby planets in the outer disk of material surrounding the Sun, their outer layers accumulated differently. Since Jupiter and Saturn [were the first and most massive planets to form](https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Models-of-Jupiter's-growth-incorporating-thermal-Lissauer-Hubickyj/c7fd5cd8d552992e45fabeecd5e5b4150f770280), they gobbled up the majority of the outer solar disk’s hydrogen and helium to form their mantles and outer atmospheres. This left the still-growing mantles of Uranus and Neptune with [more fractions of ices](https://www.planetary.org/articles/not-a-heart-of-ice) like water and ammonia, and only a relatively thin hydrogen and helium atmosphere. This is why scientists call Jupiter & Saturn gas giants and Uranus & Neptune as ice giants. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f15356c59-1570-4280-afb8-4da8500544e8_2119x1277-jpeg.jpg) Artist’s impression of a star system forming around a young star, notably showing the snowline beyond which volatiles like water and ammonia accumulate on rock-metal cores to form ice giant planets. [Credits: A. Angelich / NRAO /ALMA / ESO](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/v883-orionis-an-infant) But here’s the conundrum: there simply wasn’t [enough material](https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1086/339975) in the solar disk for Uranus and Neptune to form where they currently orbit, 19 and 30 times farther from the Sun than Earth respectively. Scientists think they must have formed closer to the Sun where the disk was thicker, and then migrated to their current locations. But had the ice giants formed too close to the Sun, they wouldn’t be rich in water and ammonia. So how and where did Uranus and Neptune form? ## The need to dive inside the ice giants Figuring out the origin of ice giants isn’t just key to understanding our own solar system but countless others across the galaxy. Even though planets around other stars are incredibly far away, astronomers can use [certain techniques to infer their masses and sizes](https://www.planetary.org/articles/how-to-search-for-exoplanets), and thus their densities, to tell a gas giant apart from an icy one. In the thousands of [exoplanets](https://www.planetary.org/worlds/exoplanets) discovered to date, Uranus- and Neptune-scale worlds [are the most common](https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/ames/kepler/new-kepler-planet-candidates), followed by the gas giants. The giant planets in our backyard are thus key to understanding planetary formation across the Universe. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f40690f28-0c86-48b9-b458-35810437aa54_1920x1080-jpeg.jpg) Montage of the eight planets of our solar system to scale. [Credits: Emily Lakdawalla / The Planetary Society](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/scale-solar-system-for-powerpoint-widescreen840-planetsonly); image data courtesy NASA / JPL and JHUAPL / CIW; image processing by Bjorn Jonsson, Mattias Malmer, Ted Stryk and Gordan Ugarkovic. Clues to the origin and evolution of giant planets lie in the specific elements that make up their atmospheres, ones other than the hydrogen they amply inherited from the Sun’s disk. For example, noble gases like helium undergo very few chemical reactions inside giant planets so [measuring their abundance compared to other gases](https://arxiv.org/abs/1405.3752) will tell scientists how and where each planet acquired its heavy elements over time. The trouble is that other than the [direct gas measurements from inside Jupiter’s atmosphere](https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/1999JE001224) by NASA’s [Galileo probe](https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/galileo/in-depth) in 1995, we lack such information on Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. This is particularly pressing for the ice giants because their noble gases are [the most unaltered reflections](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11214-020-00677-8) of the planet-forming materials in the early outer solar disk. And yet Neptune and Uranus are the least-explored planets of our solar system, only flown past once by NASA’s [Voyager 2 spacecraft](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/voyager) in the last century, which also flew by Jupiter and Saturn. Sending spacecraft to Jupiter and Saturn again has already proved to be world-changing—literally. The most recent gravity data from NASA’s [Juno spacecraft](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/juno), which entered Jovian orbit in 2016, [provided evidence](https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-earth-081619-052855) that Jupiter doesn’t have a distinct rock-metal core. Jupiter’s core is [larger](https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/2017GL073160) and [fuzzier](https://arxiv.org/abs/2004.13534) than expected, likely caused by the intense gas pressures in its mantle dissolving the core into an exotic substance called metallic hydrogen, or due to Jupiter [absorbing a planet with 10 Earth masses](https://www.science.org/content/article/cataclysmic-collision-could-explain-jupiter-s-fuzzy-core) during its formation. Data from NASA’s [Cassini mission](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/cassini) suggests [Saturn has a fuzzy core too](https://www.caltech.edu/about/news/saturn-makes-waves-in-its-own-rings), spanning 60% of the planet’s diameter. These discoveries have led scientists to think that Uranus and Neptune might also have large diluted cores. The [only way to know](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11214-020-00660-3) is to send a mission to the ice giants. ## Upcoming exploration of Uranus and Neptune The [2023-2032 Planetary Science Decadal Survey](https://www.planetary.org/articles/the-2022-planetary-decadal-released), a report produced every 10 years by the U.S. scientific community to guide future NASA missions, recommends sending a spacecraft to Uranus as the highest priority. If commissioned, the Uranus Orbiter and Probe (UOP) mission will measure the planet’s [complex and unique magnetic field](https://phys.org/news/2021-03-strange-planets-neptune-uranus-mysterious.html), map gravity variations and note the nature of its atmospheric wobbles to determine if the planet really sports a fuzzy core and what it is made of. A probe would enter Uranus’ atmosphere and precisely measure gases and their relative abundance. The UOP mission will thus [paint us a clear picture](https://nap.nationalacademies.org/resource/26522/public-briefing-slides-april-19-2022.pdf) of where and how Uranus and Neptune formed, and how they subsequently evolved. This will also provide us with missing information necessary to understand the migration of the gas giants and the connected [evolution of our solar system](https://jatan.space/solar-system-history-101/) and early Earth. In the best case scenario, UOP can launch on a SpaceX Falcon Heavy rocket [in 2031 or 2032](https://nap.nationalacademies.org/resource/26522/public-briefing-slides-april-19-2022.pdf) and reach Uranus 12 to 13 years later. There’s strong international interest in the mission too. The [2021 report](https://www.cosmos.esa.int/documents/1866264/1866292/Voyage2050-Senior-Committee-report-public.pdf/e2b2631e-5348-5d2d-60c1-437225981b6b?t=1623427287109) of ESA’s [Voyage 2050 Senior Committee](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Space%5FScience/Voyage%5F2050%5Fsets%5Fsail%5FESA%5Fchooses%5Ffuture%5Fscience%5Fmission%5Fthemes) recommends that the agency contribute to an ice giant mission led by an international partner, similar to how ESA provided the [Huygens landing probe](https://sci.esa.int/web/cassini-huygens/-/55221-huygens-titan-science-highlights) to Saturn’s moon Titan as part of Cassini. ESA is also considering [a Uranus orbiter](https://sci.esa.int/web/future-missions-department/-/61471-epig-cdf-study-summary-report) mission. China is [considering](https://www.planetary.org/articles/china-voyager-like-interstellar-mission) a Voyager-like mission to interstellar space that would launch in 2024 and fly past Neptune in 2038\. The spacecraft would include an atmospheric probe. In the meanwhile, observing Jupiters and Neptunes in different star systems [lets us witness snapshots](https://skyandtelescope.org/astronomy-news/infant-hot-neptune-provides-clues-to-its-birth/) of planets forming, migrating and evolving. The next generation of telescopes, like the [Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/roman-space-telescope), will advance such studies by letting us observe ice giant worlds in various stages of formation. The ice giants in our backyard are essential to understanding how planets form and evolve. It’s high time we give them a proper visit. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f095c7794-1a43-453e-9744-ef7199cfb0dd_1648x1800-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of the Voyager 2 spacecraft approaching Uranus in 1986\. [Credits: NASA / JPL / Don Davis](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/voyager-at-uranus) *Originally published at [The Planetary Society](https://www.planetary.org/articles/uranus-neptune-how-planets-form).* --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### Moon Monday #77: Lunar soil plants, growing international synergy, more SLS fixes, and other lunar updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-77/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:26.000Z ## Plants grow in lunar soil, but barely like it For the first time ever, researchers have successfully [grown plants in lunar soil](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/biological-physical/scientists-grow-plants-in-soil-from-the-moon), particularly in several samples from Apollo 11, 12 and 17 missions. The plants [weren’t as healthy](https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-022-03334-8) as the control group plants were in lunar soil simulants made from terrestrial volcanic ash, chosen so as to mimic the volcanic plains of the [landing sites of each of those Apollo missions](https://jatan.space/apollo-landing-sites-overview/). Plants grew differently even among the Apollo samples, notably most poorly in soil from Apollo 11. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fb2f9ce7e-76eb-4191-b8b5-2085ff9eff00_1906x1796-jpeg.jpg) **Top:** Representative results showing near 100% germination rates for *Arabidopsis thaliana* in Apollo lunar soil, which until Day 6 of the experiment were indistinguishable from rates in a terrestrial simulant. **Bottom:** Plants grown in lunar soil show stunted growth post-germination. [Credits: Anna-Lisa Paul, et al.](https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-022-03334-8/figures/2) This experiment rooted in real lunar soil has implications for how we plan to sustain future astronauts and habitats on the Moon and beyond. It hints that even soil from broadly similar lunar regions can show wide variations in plant growth levels. Post-experiment, scientists performed RNA sequencing to identify the patterns of genes expressed by each plant, and are studying them to understand which genes enable better plant growth. Less noticeably but just as importantly, the growth differences between lunar-soil-grown plants and the control group ones yet again reminds us of the low fidelity of our lunar soil simulants. Without it, we can’t adequately test the trove of technologies we’re building for the Moon or any other world. Related: NASA published an [extensive document](https://standards.nasa.gov/standard/nasa/nasa-std-1008) last year to standardize methods and protocols to test Moonbound materials against the notoriously sticky and harmful lunar dust. This *Technical Standards* document includes guidance for preparing, handling, and testing lunar soil simulants in labs. This move will help efficiently test new lunar technologies, instruments, materials, and components. While the document currently only covers the lunar environment, given the immediate needs of [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/) missions, more planetary environments will be included in future revisions. ## NASA tightens its grip on SLS NASA is [progressing well](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/05/13/work-continues-to-return-artemis-i-moon-rocket-back-to-launch-pad-for-next-test) in preparing the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) to head back to the launchpad by end of May for a hopefully successful [wet dress rehearsal test](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-readies-rocket-for-artemis-i-wet-dress-rehearsal) this time around. In addition to [tightening flange bolts](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/05/06/artemis-i-rocket-spacecraft-prepare-for-return-to-launch-pad-to-finish-test) on the [tail mast umbilical](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/fs-2018-02-250-ksc-ml%5Fumbilical%5Ffact%5Fsheet.pdf) of the rocket’s mobile launcher to prevent a [hydrogen leak](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/04/14/artemis-i-wdr-update-third-test-attempt-concluded/), engineers have relocated a gas contaminant filter on the umbilical to also dismiss it as a possible leak source. They conducted checks at ambient temperatures and found no leaks although only the cryogenic fueling during the rehearsal next month will tell us if the issue is truly resolved. Engineers also found a damaged O-ring to be the source of [the piece of rubber](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/05/06/artemis-i-rocket-spacecraft-prepare-for-return-to-launch-pad-to-finish-test) in [the helium check valve](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/04/09/artemis-i-wet-dress-rehearsal-update) on the rocket’s second stage, and have replaced all the related hardware leading up to the valve. Next, the engineers will re-pressurize the second stage to test the replaced hardware. In the meanwhile, the launchpad’s gaseous nitrogen supplier has completed required upgrades to its facility. If SLS’s upcoming wet dress rehearsal proceeds smoothly, we will get to see the big orange rocket lift the [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/around-the-moon-with-nasa-s-first-launch-of-sls-with-orion) Moon mission in August at the earliest. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f6bf311e2-d7e7-4cf2-b565-3d61cf80f056_2600x1500-jpeg.jpg) NASA’s SLS rocket is seen here heading to the launchpad in March 2022 for a major wet dress rehearsal test, which ultimately failed. NASA is preparing the rocket for a repeat test in June 2022\. [Credits: NASA / Kim Shiflett](https://images.nasa.gov/details-KSC-20220317-PH-KLS04%5F0087) ## Colombia signs the Artemis Accords On May 10, [Colombia signed](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-welcomes-vice-president-of-colombia-for-artemis-accords-signing) the [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html) for cooperative lunar and space exploration. Colombia is the 19th nation to join the Accords and the third from Latin America after [Brazil](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/brazil-signs-artemis-accords) and [Mexico](https://spacenews.com/mexico-joins-artemis-accords). Mexico already has a Moon mission planned—five tiny autonomous rovers collectively called [COLMENA](https://www.dgcs.unam.mx/boletin/bdboletin/2022%5F087.html) to be deployed by Astrobotic’s [first lunar lander](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-awarded-79-5-million-contract-to-deliver-14-nasa-payloads-to-the-moon) later this year as part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/)—whereas Brazil and Colombia have signed the Accords hoping to kickstart their exploration of our Moon. [Payload Space reports](https://payloadspace.com/a-qa-with-carlos-moura-president-of-brazils-space-agency) that Brazil has started thinking about consistent, medium- and long-term contributions to global lunar exploration and Artemis in particular. ## More Moon - SpaceNews reports that Canoo Technologies [may not have enough cash](https://spacenews.com/electric-vehicle-company-with-nasa-contract-issues-financial-warning) to build their [next-generation, all-electric vans chosen by NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-astronauts-will-ride-in-style-in-new-crew-transportation-vehicles) to transport Artemis astronauts. The company says it intends to start full-scale production of its Gamma vehicle—on which the Artemis van is to be based—later this year if they raise enough funding to remain in operation. - NASA says the $10 million [CAPSTONE spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/small%5Fspacecraft/capstone), built by Advanced Space, will now launch [no earlier than May 31](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/05/11/capstone-spacecraft-launch-targeted-no-earlier-than-may-31). The mission intends to prove the feasibility of the unique [fuel-saving elliptical lunar orbit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-rectilinear%5Fhalo%5Forbit) that the NASA-led [Gateway station](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) will be in later in the decade. - [Alexandra Witze](http://alexandrawitze.com) has a nice overview of [the $93-billion plan to put astronauts back on the Moon](https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-022-01253-6), complete with its hopes and challenges. - ESA has a published a very nice [interactive site](https://blogs.esa.int/orion/2022/05/13/forward-to-the-moon-interactive-publication) for people at large to explore our Moon. - [Fun with serious SLS rocket headlines](https://jatan.space/fun-with-sls-headlines/) *Thank you [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io) for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* ### When to worry about an asteroid hitting Earth URL: https://jatan.space/when-to-worry-about-an-asteroid-strike/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:26.000Z We’re living in what is perhaps the most peaceful time in [our solar system’s history](https://jatan.space/solar-system-history-101/). It’s hard to imagine the period roughly 4 billion years ago when [our planet was being bombarded](https://www.nature.com/articles/nature03676) by huge asteroids and comets, an event scientists think brought water and carbon-rich materials to Earth and helped kickstart life [soon after](https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/ast.2013.1030). After this period, the solar system became calmer. Today most of what hits Earth’s atmosphere is small enough—dust to boulder sized—that it quickly evaporates in our atmosphere. But there are still asteroids and comets that have orbits that pass near Earth. These are called near-Earth objects, or NEOs. The chances of large impacts from NEOs capable of causing widespread damage at any given time are small but they [aren’t zero](https://www.planetary.org/articles/will-an-asteroid-hit-earth). Look no further than [our Moon](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) for evidence. About 108 million years ago, an asteroid or comet impacted the Moon and formed the 86 kilometers wide [Tycho crater](https://jatan.space/tycho-crater-mountain/)—a bright feature [you can see from Earth](https://www.planetary.org/articles/moon-features-you-can-see-from-earth)! The dinosaurs would’ve been alive and thriving to witness this event, only to be wiped out alongside roughly 70% of life on Earth 42 million years later when an asteroid 5 to 15 kilometers wide struck home and [caused global climate change](https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Extraterrestrial-Cause-for-the-Cretaceous-Tertiary-Alvarez-Alvarez/ec83cea32213224f76687725e5e4899b90c97cf4). While space rocks of this magnitude are likely to hit Earth only every hundred million years or so, NEOs 50 to 100 meters across can strike much faster, roughly [every thousand years](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/the-hazard-by-the-numbers), and can [destroy a large city](https://www.planetary.org/blogs/jason-davis/2018/20180620-new-neo-threat.html) or level similarly large areas, and also lead to ecological destruction. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f843cc31b-679b-4f0c-82ac-36e7283ef2c7_2305x1832-jpeg.jpg) The chances of a sizable asteroid impacting Earth aren’t zero. [Credits: Don Davis, Emily Lakdawalla and Loren A. Roberts for The Planetary Society](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/the-hazard-by-the-numbers) ## How to treat sensationalist headlines regarding asteroid strikes Unlike the dinosaurs, we can [find and track hazardous NEOs](https://www.planetary.org/video/rsf-51) and calculate the likelihood of them impacting Earth years, decades and even centuries before they do, giving us time to deflect them. We call this effort to save our planet from major impacts “[planetary defense](https://www.planetary.org/defending-the-earth-from-impacts).” It is the reason there isn’t a need to panic about an asteroid strike. Clickbaity media headlines about [small asteroids flying past Earth](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/asteroid-2010-rf12) or entering our atmosphere make the problem sound more alarming than it is. “There are no known (sizable) asteroids on a collision course with Earth for the foreseeable future. NASA always makes information about NEOs available at [cneos.jpl.nasa.gov/sentry](https://cneos.jpl.nasa.gov/sentry),” said [Nancy Chabot](https://hub.jhu.edu/experts/profiles/nancy-chabot), a planetary scientist at Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory. If and when we learn that a sizable asteroid will impact Earth for real, you can rest assured that NASA and other such space organizations globally will be sending out press releases and issuing ongoing updates on all their channels. That being said, the need to plan and prepare to avoid future asteroid strikes is *now*, and we’re already lagging behind. ## Why we need to prepare for an incoming asteroid now We simply [don’t know how many city-destroying NEOs are out there](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/wise-near-earth-asteroid) lurking in space and targeting Earth. While popular movies have brought to public attention the potential threat of an impact, it took [nearly 25 years](https://www.planetary.org/planetary-radio/lindley-johnson-dart-planetary-defense) to convince policymakers at space agencies and organizations around the world that investing resources to identify, track and deflect NEOs is necessary. And even then, significant funding [began only in the last decade](https://www.planetary.org/articles/nasas-planetary-defense-budget-growth) when the U.S. White House, catalyzed by [a key report from the National Research Council](https://www.nap.edu/catalog/12842/defending-planet-earth-near-earth-object-surveys-and-hazard-mitigation), proposed a five-fold fund increase to discover NEOs. Increased U.S. funding for planetary defense also led to the launch of the [Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART)](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/dart) mission in 2021\. Later this year in September, it will become the world’s first spacecraft to smash into an asteroid to change its trajectory and help test our deflection abilities. China is also [planning an asteroid impact mission](https://spacenews.com/china-to-conduct-asteroid-deflection-test-around-2025), launching in 2025, to test changing its trajectory. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f749d8469-460a-45ad-89ef-d0c81f009bc6_2000x1125-jpeg.jpg) This artist's concept shows NASA's DART spacecraft approaching Dimorphos, the moon of asteroid Didymos. [Credits: NASA / Johns Hopkins APL](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/dart-approaching-dimorphos) The next major upcoming mission dedicated to planetary defense is [NEO Surveyor](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/neosm), NASA’s long-planned space telescope aiming to discover at least 90% of the city-killer NEOs. Terrestrial telescopes aren’t as well suited for this task because of limiting factors, such as weather, the Sun’s interference and the [inflating number of satellites](https://spacenews.com/nasa-outlines-concerns-about-starlink-next-generation-constellation-in-fcc-letter/). The [2023-2032 Planetary Science Decadal Survey](https://www.planetary.org/articles/the-2022-planetary-decadal-released), a report produced every 10 years by the U.S. scientific community to guide future NASA missions, includes planetary defense as a theme for the first time and recommends NASA complete the NEO Surveyor mission on time. And yet NASA’s [FY 2023 presidential budget request](https://www.planetary.org/space-policy/nasas-fy-2023-budget) proposed a $100 million cut to the mission, delaying its launch to 2028 at best. This is a setback because taking [all the necessary steps](https://www.planetary.org/defending-the-earth-from-impacts) for identifying asteroids and predicting if and when they will strike Earth is vital to adequately deflecting them. No other space agencies are currently planning to build such a telescope. Despite only barely beginning to recover from a pandemic, we haven’t internalized that low-probability yet high-impact events can catch us by surprise. Chabot, who is also a project scientist for the DART mission, stressed the importance of warning time that missions like NEO Surveyor afford us. “Many movies have the plot line that an impact is happening very soon and then the characters scramble to try to prevent it. But a little bit of sustained effort now to find all the asteroids is key to not being in that situation, and that is the foundation of a good planetary defense strategy, starting with missions like NEO Surveyor.” ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f5da17245-b449-4dc6-8ffe-4e92080bf846_2000x1000-jpeg.jpg) NASA's NEO Surveyor space telescope will scan for near-Earth asteroids hidden in the Sun's glare. [Credit: The Planetary Society](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/how-neo-surveyor-works) ## What The Planetary Society is doing for planetary defense Since 2020, Planetary Society members and supporters have [sent letters to their representatives](https://secure.planetary.org/site/SPageServer?pagename=%2Factioncenter#/25) in government urging them to fund NEO Surveyor for a 2025 launch, and the mission has been a key talking point in the Society’s annual Day of Action congressional visits. NASA's 2021 budget [partially met that request](https://www.planetary.org/articles/nasa-fy2021-budget-wrap-up), and the agency [approved](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-approves-asteroid-hunting-space-telescope-to-continue-development) the mission for further development in June 2021\. The FY 2022 budget was even better; The Planetary Society helped secure the $143 million necessary to move NEO Surveyor forward. But the FY 2023 budget request sets the mission back again by slashing funding and delaying the mission to the late 2020s. The Planetary Society will work to reverse this cut in 2023. The Planetary Society has also been [funding astronomers across the globe](https://www.planetary.org/articles/announcing-the-2021-shoemaker-neo-grant-winners) for 24 years as part of the Shoemaker Grants to find, track and characterize NEOs. Separately, The Planetary Society [recently awarded a $44,842 grant](https://www.planetary.org/articles/step-grant-winners-2022) to a Serbian team to develop and test a novel method to determine the physical properties of as many as 150 NEOs. Knowing the physical nature of NEOs is crucial to building effective deflection technologies. Missions like DART are just the beginning; we need to test and build more such technologies. So, while we needn’t lose sleep over a large asteroid impacting Earth anytime soon, we should most certainly care about it and prepare like humanity will depend on it. Because one day, it will. *Originally published at [The Planetary Society](https://www.planetary.org/articles/asteroid-hitting-earth-when-to-worry).* *Update: I’m honored that this article was [shared by](https://twitter.com/AsteroidDay/status/1528766544888709121) the UN’s official Asteroid Day Twitter account.* --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### Moon Monday #76: The two worlds of Luna, ispace Europe and some crisp lunar updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-76/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:26.000Z ## The lunar dichotomy deepens ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fc9ab7324-4e50-49a3-8b83-8b12c71f1572_2400x1332-jpeg.jpg) [Credits: NASA LRO / GSFC / ASU / Jatan Mehta](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/298) In a [recent study](https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abm8475), Brown University scientists presented yet another hypothesis for why the two sides of our Moon [are completely different worlds](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/). They extensively [modeled various impact scenarios](https://www.brown.edu/news/2022-04-08/moonfaces) that could’ve created the farside 2,600-kilometer wide [South Pole-Aitken Basin](https://www.nasa.gov/mission%5Fpages/LRO/multimedia/lro-20100709-basin.html)—the largest, deepest confirmed impact structure on the Moon—and found that in each case the impact deposited high concentrations of [heat-producing elements](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KREEP) on the nearside. This lowered the melting temperatures of rocks in the nearside mantle, producing an order of magnitude more magma than beneath the farside crust. And since the [nearside crust is about 20 kilometers thinner on average](https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2018JE005826), this allowed nearside magma to ascend and volcanically erupt on the surface more easily than the farside, thus explaining its abundant, familiar dark plains. In the latest [Planetary Decadal Survey](https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/26522/origins-worlds-and-life-a-decadal-strategy-for-planetary-science), a report produced every 10 years by the U.S. scientific community to guide future NASA missions, scientists have proposed a sample return rover mission to the South Pole-Aitken Basin as the highest lunar exploration priority. [Sampling key areas within the basin](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-24626-3) to determine the ages and nature of the farside crust and mantle, and comparing it to the nearside, will help us unravel exactly [how the Moon formed](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/) and evolved, itself linked to Earth’s. While active geological processes have erased hints of our planet’s makeup, material from early Earth that formed the Moon remains largely preserved on our airless cosmic neighbor, especially on the farside where large regions haven’t been volcanically altered. Understanding what caused our Moon’s dichotomy will also allow us to better gauge why [Mars is asymmetric too](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/mars-orbiter-laser-altimeter), as are some other solar system bodies. ## What has ispace Europe been up to? While ispace Japan is set to launch [its first Moon landing mission](https://ispace-inc.com/hakuto-r/eng) later this year, its subsidiary ispace Europe has been developing an [agile micro-rover](https://ispace-inc.com/team-hakuto/en/technology/index.html) for the second ispace lunar lander to carry in 2024\. For testing the rover’s motion and navigation, ispace Europe created their own lunar soil simulant pit. Last week ispace Europe [announced opening up of two more facilities](https://ispace-inc.com/news/?p=2259): a rover manufacturing lab and a mission control room to complement the one in Japan. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f8c1ce31f-71c7-4793-b14c-c75a22a439a6_1800x1180-jpeg.jpg) ispace Europe’s lunar micro-rover will be an evolution of ispace’s earlier Hakuto rover (render pictured above), whose flight model was built and tested as part of the Google Lunar XPRIZE challenge preparations. [Credit: ispace](https://ispace-inc.com/team-hakuto/en/technology/index.html) I realized I’ve previously covered ispace Europe’s activities in bits and pieces on [Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/s/moon-monday/archive) so this is a good opportunity to collect them all in one place. In November 2021, [ESA selected ispace Europe and ArianeGroup](https://ispace-inc.com/news/?p=2144) for a potential commercial payload delivery program to the Moon similar to [NASA CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). If the selection is formalized this year, ispace could host ESA’s science instruments on their lunar landers and rovers in future missions. ESA has also selected ispace Europe to be a part of [PROSPECT](https://exploration.esa.int/web/moon/-/59102-about-prospect), a program aiming to demonstrate extracting [lunar water](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). ispace Europe is also [one of the four companies NASA selected](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-companies-to-collect-lunar-resources-for-artemis-demonstrations) to collect lunar samples and transfer its ownership to the agency (but not bring to Earth). The move is NASA’s first step in incentivizing the industry to build sample extraction technologies to set precedence for resource use under the [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html). The sample collection in question will be done by the micro-rover that ispace Europe is building for ispace’s [second Moon mission](https://ispace-inc.com/hakuto-r/eng). Note also that Israeli company Helios’ [(claimed) scalable technology](https://www.timesofisrael.com/making-oxygen-from-moon-sand-startup-eyes-long-term-life-in-space/) to extract oxygen from lunar soil [will be onboard](https://www.calcalistech.com/ctech/articles/0,7340,L-3912810,00.html) the mission. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fbb2a3a83-d473-430f-ad2b-7b2e79619a6f_2096x1078-jpeg-2.jpg) Illustration of the Hakuto-R lander to be used for ispace’s first two Moon landing missions. [Credit: ispace](https://ispace-inc.com/project) ispace Europe is also [collaborating with Stardust Canada and two Australian organizations](https://ispace-inc.com/news/?p=2062) to design and build a Moon mining rover. The collaboration will allow ispace to apply for potential contracts for future lunar missions by the Canadian and Australian space agencies respectively. Last year, Airbus, Air Liquide and ispace Europe [jointly launched EURO2MOON](https://www.airbus.com/en/newsroom/press-releases/2021-10-airbus-air-liquide-and-ispace-europe-launch-euro2moon-a-non-profit), a non-profit organization based in Luxembourg dedicated to promoting sustainable use of the Moon’s natural resources such as [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). EURO2MOON is open to European companies and research organizations developing technologies or services related to lunar resources. Notably, Luxembourg-ESA co-run *[European Space Resources Innovation Centre](https://www.esric.lu) (ESRIC)* joined EURO2MOON as a (non-founding) member. ## Canada to prosecute crimes committed during Moon missions Yeah, that’s a headline I didn’t think I’d write anytime soon. And yet last month, [Canadian lawmakers passed an amendment](https://phys.org/news/2022-04-canada-prosecute-crimes-moon.html) to the country’s Criminal Code that allows [prosecuting crimes committed during Moon missions](https://www.parl.ca/DocumentViewer/en/44-1/bill/C-19/first-reading) just as if they happened inside Canada. The development comes in the context of Canada’s long-term involvement in NASA’s [Artemis campaign](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis). A Canadian astronaut is expected to be onboard the [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to) lunar flyby mission in 2024\. Canada is also contributing to the NASA-led [Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) by providing the lunar station’s versatile robotic arm system called [Canadarm3](https://asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/canadarm3/about.asp). This is where it’s notable that the amendment says a foreign astronaut who “threatens the life or security of a Canadian crew member” on a Canadian-supported mission might be prosecuted too. *Thanks to [Jeffrey Gillis-Davis](https://physics.wustl.edu/people/jeffrey-gillis-davis) for sharing this story with me.* ## More Moon - NASA [has replaced](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/05/06/artemis-i-rocket-spacecraft-prepare-for-return-to-launch-pad-to-finish-test) the faulty [helium check valve](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/04/09/artemis-i-wet-dress-rehearsal-update/) on the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html)’s second stage, where apparently a small rubber piece somehow entered and prevented the valve from sealing correctly. [Progress is being made](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/05/06/artemis-i-rocket-spacecraft-prepare-for-return-to-launch-pad-to-finish-test) on the [hydrogen leak](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/04/14/artemis-i-wdr-update-third-test-attempt-concluded/) on the rocket’s mobile launcher which halted an earlier [wet dress rehearsal test](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-readies-rocket-for-artemis-i-wet-dress-rehearsal). NASA plans to roll the rocket back to the launchpad by the end of May for another wet dress rehearsal in early or mid June before the [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/around-the-moon-with-nasa-s-first-launch-of-sls-with-orion) Moon mission launches in August at best. - The LRO blog has a nice new blog post [explaining secondary craters](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/1256) and how studying them helps us determine ages of features on the Moon (or for that matter [features across the solar system](https://www.planetary.org/articles/0401-the-lunar-chronology)). This reminds me of the mind-blowing [large-town sized craters](https://jatan.space/outstanding-crater-chains-of-orientale/) constituting the secondary crater chains of the massive Orientale lunar basin. - The U.S. Senate has [voted against](https://spacenews.com/senate-rejects-effort-to-strip-nasa-lunar-lander-provision-from-authorization-bill) removing an upcoming bill section that would authorize funding for NASA’s [Human Landing System](https://www.nasa.gov/nextstep/humanlander2) program, allowing the agency to choose another provider to [compete with SpaceX’s Lunar Starship](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) to land the first Artemis astronauts on the Moon. - Jeff Foust reports that the NASA-funded $10 million [CAPSTONE spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/small%5Fspacecraft/capstone), built by Advanced Space, will now launch [no earlier than May end](https://spacenews.com/capstone-up-next-for-rocket-lab). The mission intends to prove the feasibility of the unique [fuel-saving elliptical lunar orbit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-rectilinear%5Fhalo%5Forbit) that the NASA-led [Gateway station](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) will be in later in the decade. - [NASA Goddard scientists begin studying 50-year-old frozen Apollo 17 samples](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2022/apollo-17-lunar-samples) - [China releases new dataset from scientific payloads on Chang’e 5](https://english.www.gov.cn/news/topnews/202205/07/content%5FWS6276217bc6d02e533532a5e9.html) *Thank you [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io) for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* *Thanks also to [Andrea Battisti](https://planet3.eu) and Aditya K [for supporting](https://jatan.space/support) my independent writing.* ### Moon Monday #75: One orbiter to rule them all, a pathfinder and a communications relay network URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-75/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:26.000Z *I’m delighted to welcome [Open Lunar Foundation](https://www.openlunar.org) as a sponsor of Moon Monday! I love [their work](https://www.openlunar.org/our-work) on space policy to help ensure that our return to the Moon with humans is sustainable and cooperative. [Jessy](http://jessykate.com/about) gave me feedback on the very first Moon Monday issue, and Open Lunar has been supportive ever since, so I’m really happy to have their extended support.* :) ## NASA’s underrated Moon orbiter gets critical extension Following an [extensive review process](https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/documents/senior-review), NASA [has extended](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-extends-exploration-for-8-planetary-science-missions) the 2009-launched [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html) (LRO) mission for the fifth time. During this [three-year phase](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2022/pdf/2326.pdf) called ESM5 that starts from September 2022, LRO will continue to study the Moon’s surface and geology with a particular focus near the poles, and keep aiding planning of upcoming robotic and [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) crewed landings by providing high-resolution imagery and related topographic data as well as enhancing tooling around data access. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fd1a40ca9-10eb-4f32-afa4-fb366210ff4c_2032x1364-jpeg-1.jpg) Illustration of the LRO spacecraft orbiting the Moon. [Credits: NASA / GSFC / Chris Meaney](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/images/lithos/LRO%20litho1%5Ffinal.pdf) Here are some of my key takeaways for ESM5 from the [Final Report](https://science.nasa.gov/files/science-red/s3fs-public/atoms/files/PMSR22%20Final%20Report%20Package.pdf) containing the mission review. - During ESM5, the LRO team will not only coordinate more closely with NASA’s two human exploration directorates for crewed Artemis missions but also enhance support for commercial Moon landing missions selected by NASA under its [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) by providing landing site selection analyses. - LRO will make targeted observations of the [permanently shadowed](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) Cabeus crater on the Moon’s south pole, where NASA’s [LCROSS](https://www.nasa.gov/ames/lcross) spacecraft impacted in 2009 and whose follow-up observations found [155 kilograms of water](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010Sci...330..463C/abstract). LRO’s new remote measurements of water ice in the crater will tell us how its distribution changes over time and seasons. Combined with improved imaging of the poles, ESM5 will tell us about the conditions under which [lunar water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) remains stable and preserved in such regions. These factors are also relevant in planning extraction of resources to sustain future habitats on the Moon. - All that being said, the report points out that NASA needs to plan a replacement of the aging LRO by 2026 to support the increasingly important NASA(-funded) Moon missions to come. It’s worth remarking that while NASA has a fleet of orbiters to support and enable surface science on Mars, LRO is single-handedly handling the equivalent part for all of Artemis. Even outside the U.S., LRO’s modern, comprehensive dataset—which at over 1.3 petabytes is the largest from any NASA planetary science mission—has been and continues to be critical for planning recent and upcoming Moon landing attempts such as India’s [Chandrayaan 2](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-2-moon-landing-mission/) and ispace Japan’s [M1 and M2](https://ispace-inc.com/hakuto-r/eng) landers. And yet there isn’t currently a planned NASA mission that can take over the baton from LRO. That makes me wonder if it might be a great idea for NASA and ISRO to collaborate on observations by LRO and the [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/). Not only are both of them reconnaissance missions with similarly broad instrument sets, the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter having launched a decade later is more capable in certain areas, such as having a best imaging resolution of [0.25 meters/pixel](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-51/), twice LRO’s best. The Chandrayaan 2 orbiter has enough fuel until at least 2027\. If NASA and ISRO can collaborate again, like the [excellent Chandrayaan 1 example](https://jatan.space/interviewing-isro-chandrayaan-1-mission-director/), to let the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter contribute observations and datasets for Artemis planning, such a move can also positively affect India’s undecided stance on the [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f3dbeeb64-d2b0-433e-aff0-f9dd91128955_425x364-2.png) Illustration of the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter. Credit: ISRO Related: The amazing [LROC Quickmap](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu) web app lets you explore LRO’s imagery and data on an interactive Moon map, complete with the ability to add instrument data layers from several other missions, and so much more! I’ve ~~wasted~~ spent more time exploring our Moon on Quickmap than I’d care to admit to my past employer. ## China to build a lunar communications and navigation constellation too Following ESA’s recently formally approved [Moonlight plan](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-65/) to build a lunar satellite network to provide communications and navigation services to landed and orbital lunar missions, and NASA’s similar [LunaNet](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2021/lunanet-empowering-artemis-with-communications-and-navigation-interoperability) concept, China has announced intentions to [build their own such constellation](https://spacenews.com/china-to-build-a-lunar-communications-and-navigation-constellation) to support their future missions and the upcoming joint Sino-Russian [long-term scientific base](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-32/) on the Moon’s south pole. The constellation’s first part will be a relay satellite launching in 2023 or 2024 to support the Chang’e 6 and 7 missions, both of which will launch by 2025\. While China already [has a relay satellite](https://www.planetary.org/articles/20180615-queqiao-orbit-explainer) to communicate with [Chang’e 4](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/change-4), it is aging and its halo orbit around Earth-Moon Lagrange point 2 isn’t ideal for the Chang’e 7 south polar mission or the Chang’e 6 sample return one from the south pole or the near-polar farside. In the meanwhile, China is considering using its [Chang’e 5](https://jatan.space/change-5-landing-site/) service module, currently [in a Distant Retrograde Orbit](https://skyriddles.wordpress.com/2022/01/25/change-5-returns-to-the-moon) around the Moon, to test different orbits as an input to designing the future constellation. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9cd7b63d-ed6f-466e-b384-7662d29d0cb9_1024x432-jpeg.jpg) Relative locations between the Earth, the Moon and the Queqiao relay satellite which communicates with the Chang’e 4 lander on the Moon’s farside. [Credit: Lunar Exploration and Space Engineering Center.](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/queqiao-relay) ## Pathfinding for Moonlight Last month ESA [delivered the NaviMoon receiver test hardware](https://www.esa.int/Applications/Navigation/The%5FMoon%5Fwhere%5Fno%5Fsatnav%5Fhas%5Fgone%5Fbefore) to SSTL, whose flight model will be on the latter’s [Lunar Pathfinder](https://bsgn.esa.int/service/lunar-pathfinder) orbiter launching in 2025 to demonstrate a GPS fix at the Moon using signals millions of times fainter than those used by our phones. While Lunar Pathfinder will use its own hardware to relay communications between Earth and robotic lunar missions, the spacecraft will regularly orient towards Earth to test the NaviMoon receiver. Positioning fixes from the receiver will be compared with conventional radio ranging methods to know how well it works. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fc36090eb-b575-45ca-922f-261c05320bbf_1625x1000-jpeg.jpg) The Lunar Pathfinder will relay communications between robotic mission hardware on or at the Moon and Earth as a commercial service. [Credit: SSTL](https://www.esa.int/Applications/Navigation/Galileo%5Fwill%5Fhelp%5FLunar%5FPathfinder%5Fnavigate%5Faround%5FMoon) ESA [signed a contract](https://www.sstl.co.uk/media-hub/latest-news/2021/sstl-signs-up-esa-as-anchor-customer-for-lunar-pat) with SSTL in September 2021 worth [$23.5 million](https://spacenews.com/esa-to-be-anchor-customer-on-commercial-lunar-satellite/) to get communications services from Lunar Pathfinder. NASA also intends to use Lunar Pathfinder as a data relay for their [2025 farside CLPS mission](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-new-science-investigations-for-future-moon-deliveries). Lunar Pathfinder represents the first part of ESA’s [Moonlight](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-65/) constellation. Further details aren’t available at the moment but [ESA intends](https://www.esa.int/Applications/Navigation/The%5FMoon%5Fwhere%5Fno%5Fsatnav%5Fhas%5Fgone%5Fbefore) for three to four more satellites to join Lunar Pathfinder initially, and then progressively expand coverage to the entire Moon’s surface with more satellites and surface beacons. ## NASA continues investing in surface solar panels The Sun always being close to the horizon on the Moon’s [rocky poles](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/SPole%5FSRidgemap%5FLOLA-Slope5m%5Fv20190515.pdf) means something as mundane as a small rock or a gentle slope in the wrong direction can deprive solar panels powering future lunar habitats of sunlight. Extensive studies [from ESA](https://arxiv.org/abs/1208.5587) and [NASA](https://trs.jpl.nasa.gov/handle/2014/45337) have shown that even the best high-altitude sites would need solar panels placed at least 2 meters above the surface to generate adequate power, and more than 5 meters for significant power. Transporting and deploying several such huge solar panels on the Moon to power future habitats can be challenging, which is why NASA recently [awarded Folditure with $750,000 funding](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-chooses-small-businesses-to-continue-exploration-tech-development) to further [mature their solar panels](https://sbir.nasa.gov/SBIR/abstracts/21/sbir/phase2/SBIR-21-2-H5.01-2752.html), which are foldable, compact and high-efficiency but need adapting for lunar conditions. Note that last year NASA made [similar awards of $700,000 each](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-industry-to-mature-vertical-solar-array-technologies-for-lunar-surface) to five companies to develop vertical solar arrays that auto-deploy up to 10 meters in height, retract for relocation, be stable on steep terrain, be resistant to abrasive lunar dust, all while minimizing mass and volume for easing delivery to the Moon. NASA had then said it would downselect up to two of those five companies this year and provide up to $7.5 million in funding each to mature their designs, build prototypes and perform lunar environmental testing before eventually deploying one such system for the [Artemis Moon base](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept). It isn’t clear where Folidture’s funding fits in. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9bbec859-8193-4d41-93f5-1aa218a6e34b_1920x1080-jpeg-1.jpg) Illustration of a large vertical solar array being used as a power source on the surface of the Moon. [Credit: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-industry-to-mature-vertical-solar-array-technologies-for-lunar-surface) ## More Moon - On April 26, NASA’s fully stacked SLS rocket [arrived at its assembly building](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/04/26/artemis-i-moon-rocket-arrives-at-vehicle-assembly-building) for repairs needed to complete the pending [wet dress rehearsal test](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-readies-rocket-for-artemis-i-wet-dress-rehearsal) before the [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/around-the-moon-with-nasa-s-first-launch-of-sls-with-orion) Moon mission launch. - The [Lunar Business Review](https://lunarbusinessreview.substack.com/archive), a monthly newsletter dedicated to the Moon (*yay!*), [notes](https://lunarbusinessreview.substack.com/p/a-bright-future-for-a-dark-moon) that [a Northern Sky Research report](https://www.nsr.com/nsr-developing-moon-market-propelled-by-250-missions-and-105-billion-in-revenue-through-decade) estimates that the lunar industry may generate $105 billion and witness over 250 missions by 2031, roughly in line with [PwC’s estimate](https://www.pwc.com.au/industry/space-industry/lunar-market-assessment-2021.pdf) last year of the lunar market passing $170 billion by 2040\. This implies the lunar market could by then make up at least 15% of the entire space industry. - Japan’s [SLIM](https://www.exploration.jaxa.jp/e/program/#slim) Moon landing mission to demonstrate *pinpoint* touchdown (\~100-meter accuracy) [will launch by end of March 2023](https://japannews.yomiuri.co.jp/science-nature/science/20220418-21574) instead of this year. - Russia’s Luna 26 and Luna 27 mission [will be delayed by some (unspecified) time](https://tass.com/science/1445135) to focus on the country’s (Earth) orbital technologies and needs. *Thank you [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io) and [Open Lunar Foundation](https://www.openlunar.org) for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### Gallery: Our Moon’s captivating craters URL: https://jatan.space/gallery-of-lunar-craters/ Last updated: 2024-02-24T10:35:40.000Z Our Moon hosts an incredible diversity of craters, many of which are well preserved since their formation over a billion years ago! Here’s a tour of some of the most intriguing lunar craters—from gigantic ones to literally micro and everything in between. This is the fourth blog post in a curated gallery series touring pretty sights on our Moon, following views of [marvelous mountains](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-moon-mountains/), [lovely lava channels](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-lunar-lava-channels/) and just some [weird yet wonderful features](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-weird-lunar-features/). **Note:* You can click on the images to learn about each feature.* [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fe3abe0a4-1603-48c1-b239-25c25223f1e3_1056x890-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/the-crowned-crater-of-schrodinger/) ****The 312 kilometers wide** [****Schrödinger crater**](https://jatan.space/the-crowned-crater-of-schrodinger/) **with its crown-shaped mountain ring.** [****Credit: NASA Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO)**](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Schr%C3%B6dinger%5F%28LRO%29%5F500%5Fkm.png) **|** ***Also see: The huge, peak-ringed** [***Apollo crater**](https://jatan.space/peak-ringed-apollo-crater/) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2feeb0c4fa-bfe5-4f15-b3a9-70dadb9879b3_541x461-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/the-lava-flooded-crater-of-letronne/) ****The lava-flooded and half-buried** [****crater of Letronne**](https://jatan.space/the-lava-flooded-crater-of-letronne/)****, stretching 120 kilometers across.** [****Credit: Apollo 16**](http://apollo.sese.asu.edu/LIW/20090310.html) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fd18d63bb-d0cb-4e99-94e5-322114ed8ef6_2500x1600-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/glorious-aristarchus/) ****A spectacular closeup view of the 40-kilometer wide** [****Aristarchus crater**](https://jatan.space/glorious-aristarchus/) **and its arc-shaped central mountain.** [****Credit: NASA LRO**](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/1022) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f6452fbfe-93cf-4b00-bafe-a3e9e0dec55c_999x825-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/y-shaped-mountains-in-king-crater/) ****The 77 kilometers wide** [****King crater**](https://jatan.space/y-shaped-mountains-in-king-crater/) **and its Y-shaped mountains on the Moon’s farside.** [****Credit: Apollo 16**](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/32) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ffebfe9ce-2f34-4b14-af34-1f24ef9e04ca_949x700-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/fresh-crater-like-hell/) ****The (geologically) fresh, 3.4-kilometer wide** [****Hell Q**](https://jatan.space/fresh-crater-like-hell/) **crater.** [****Credit: NASA LRO**](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/1003) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f1f4be91d-0c8d-4136-a61a-4bc416319648_1330x676-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/outstanding-orientale-multi-ring-basin-on-the-moon/) ****The striking 930 kilometers wide multi-ring impact basin of** [****Orientale**](https://jatan.space/outstanding-orientale-multi-ring-basin-on-the-moon/)****. Credit:** [****LROC Quickmap**](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=-180,-90,180,90&camera=-1025950.121073092,-4242892.829213939,-372279.1137270995,6.283185307179586,-1.5707963267948966,0&proj=22&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEoAsjZwLrc0A) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f63a1045f-9d29-4677-8b62-3bf517d491a7_1058x832-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/tycho-crater-mountain/) ****The 86 kilometers wide** [****Tycho crater**](https://jatan.space/tycho-crater-mountain/) **on the Moon and its central peak.** [****Credit: NASA LRO**](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tycho%5FLRO.png) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f1c754b5c-9763-431d-88c9-2d97d84abc42_1727x972-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/spectacularly-irregular-larmor-q-crater/) ****The wildly irregular 20-kilometer wide** [****Larmor Q crater**](https://jatan.space/spectacularly-irregular-larmor-q-crater/)****.** [****Credit: NASA LRO**](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/773) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f8930dba1-fd4a-4f6f-9911-4fe4224cd88d_1250x1000-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/copernicus-crater-moon-mountains/) ****The 93 kilometers wide** [****Copernicus crater**](https://jatan.space/copernicus-crater-moon-mountains/) **on the Moon and its two central peaks.** [****Credit: NASA LRO**](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Copernicus%5F%28LRO%29%5F2.png) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9fd586a1-5c67-4494-a739-ff12ceaa3703_1100x800-jpeg.jpg)](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/1007) ****The 13 kilometers wide** [****Hawke crater**](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/1007)****, formed on top of the rim of another crater.** [****Credit: NASA LRO**](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/1007) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fb209b06a-b6ba-41e8-8929-891d438a8e60_960x961-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/the-dynamic-terrain-of-aitken-crater/) ****The geologically rich, 135-kilometer wide** [****Aitken crater**](https://jatan.space/the-dynamic-terrain-of-aitken-crater/)****.** [****Credit: Apollo 17**](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aitken%5Fcrater%5FAS17-M-0341.jpg) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9c8a8519-7205-4481-ac05-cf62d6d7159b_1000x750-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/ghost-craters-on-the-moon/) ****A 650-700 meters wide** [****ghost crater**](https://jatan.space/ghost-craters-on-the-moon/) **with visible ejecta.** [****Credit: NASA LRO**](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/560) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f48a0c78b-58f6-46e1-bd42-acd21fafb00c_1600x1400-png.jpg)](https://jatan.space/lava-filled-gassendi-crater/) ****The incredibly geologically diverse 110-kilometer wide** [****Gassendi crater**](https://jatan.space/lava-filled-gassendi-crater/)****.** [****Credit: NASA LRO**](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/258) **|** ***Also see: The polygonal-shaped** [***Krieger crater**](https://jatan.space/crater-on-crater-and-a-meandering-rille-krieger/) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ffe8cebbe-0316-456d-ba3d-70442f300450_1026x768-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/change-4-landing-site-farside-von-karman-crater/) ****The 180 kilometers wide** [****Von Kármán crater**](https://jatan.space/change-4-landing-site-farside-von-karman-crater/) **on the Moon’s farside—home to the** [****Chang’e 4**](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/change-4) **spacecraft and rover—which formed on top of an even larger crater. Images:** [****NASA LRO**](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Von%5FKarman%5FLROC.jpg)****, Graphic: Jatan Mehta** [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2faf4f72bf-e243-4855-b3ca-f2c220d7bead_1500x1300-jpeg.jpg)](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/627) ****A beautiful impact crater 2 kilometers across,** [****deformed**](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/627) **by a tectonic ridge.** [****Credits: NASA LRO**](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/627) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f35b71bf1-f386-4f15-abdc-3565467d83f9_1000x850-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/a-chain-of-craters-catena-davy/) [****Catena Davy**](https://jatan.space/a-chain-of-craters-catena-davy/)****, a chain of 23 craters spanning over 50 kilometers, formed so because the Moon's tidal forces fragmented the incoming comet/asteroid.** [****Credit: Apollo 12**](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/resources/apollo/frame/?AS12-51-7485) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fd34e1cd8-a4d0-4d27-a55f-bcba990b4edb_1199x1041-jpeg.jpg)](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/269) ****The** [****Posidonius crater**](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/269) **and its long lava channel.** [****Credit: NASA LRO**](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/269) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f6fc98077-bd13-40c9-8236-4b163e6ec135_836x627-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/the-tiniest-of-impact-craters/) ****A** [****truly tiny crater**](https://jatan.space/the-tiniest-of-impact-craters/)****, little more than 10 microns wide, on a Moon rock brought to Earth by Apollo 12\.** [****Credit: NASA**](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2016/pdf/1465.pdf) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fa6bd5da2-b709-4693-bad0-3de097b2684b_2233x1597-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/exploring-moon-mountains/) [****Changing morphology**](https://jatan.space/exploring-moon-mountains/) **of craters on the Moon with increasing sizes. Image credits: NASA LRO, Graphic: Jatan Mehta** --- Hope you enjoyed these curated views of some of the most captivating craters on our Moon. If you’d like to browse more lunar craters, the NASA LRO outreach team has [a fantastic blog](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts?page=1&query=craters). ### Moon Monday #74: Bold new missions and pathways for more lunar science, and loaded hardware updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-74/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:27.000Z *I just want to start off by saying how glad I’m for receiving encouraging responses from readers to [taking the sponsorships route with Moon Monday](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-73/) last week. Hearing from people I look up to about how they liked the [laying out](https://blog.jatan.space/ethics) of the rationale and path forward was very reassuring. Thank you so much, I look forward to writing this newsletter for years to come.* *This is again one of those weeks where we have an exciting, fundamental lunar science development that seems to have been under-reported. So this week’s opening section is the coverage itself, enjoy!* ## Scientists want NASA to ensure breakthrough science with Artemis On April 19, the U.S. National Academies of Sciences released [the Planetary Science Decadal Strategy for 2023-2032](https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/26522/origins-worlds-and-life-a-decadal-strategy-for-planetary-science), a consensus-based report produced by the American scientific community every 10 years listing priority space destinations to explore next and key scientific objectives to achieve at each. While the document isn’t legally binding, NASA uses the Decadal as a guide to build its missions. Most of the report’s lunar-related content can be found in Chapter 19 (Page 526) and Chapter 22 (593), all of which is summarized below. The Decadal welcomes NASA’s [Artemis plans](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) to return humans to the Moon and re-emphasizes *(Page 628, Box 22.2)* how our cosmic neighbor can answer [fundamental questions](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) about our [solar system’s history](https://jatan.space/solar-system-history-101/), and lend us unique insights into how planets across the Universe form and evolve. It’s along those lines that the 2023-2032 Decadal made these recommendations to NASA. 1. *(Page 629)* Launch the Endurance-A mission later this decade, which will involve a robotic rover traversing 2,000 kilometers across the Moon’s pristine [South Pole-Aitken Basin](https://www.nasa.gov/mission%5Fpages/LRO/multimedia/lro-20100709-basin.html) to collect about 100 kilograms of samples to bring to Earth. Studying these samples will undoubtedly [lend us revolutionary insights](https://jatan.space/the-two-faced-moon/) into the conditions on the young Moon and in the early solar system shortly after Earth’s origin. The lander delivering the rover could be a commercial one chosen by NASA under its [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), and the collected samples will be brought to Earth on a crewed Artemis mission. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f2fae3650-3e58-42a6-8a5d-1d671b64d980_2500x1562-jpeg-1.jpg) Distribution of thorium-containing mantle material across the vast South Pole–Aitken Basin on the Moon’s farside. Studying such samples will lend us insights into the Moon’s evolution and that of planets in our solar system and beyond. [Credits: NASA / LRO / Lunar Prospector / Dan Moriarty, et al.](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2021/lro-deep-secrets-of-moon) 2. *(Page 646)* Implement the Lunar Geophysical Network (LGN), which will see at least four landers touchdown on strategically chosen varied locations on the Moon around the year 2030, each carrying a suite of geophysical instruments that include a seismometer, a retroreflector and a thermal probe. Over at least six years of multipoint observations, this network of instruments will paint us a clear picture of the Moon’s [layered interior](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Moon%5Fdiagram.svg), which itself is our solar system’s most pristine example of how insides of planets form and differentiate. If NASA’s future funding levels are lower than expected, the Decadal recommends planning the LGN mission later and prioritizing Endurance-A. Related: Recent [paper describing the LGN mission](https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/PSJ/ac0f82). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fb70ce0fa-dc82-4820-a911-f1b99f896087_1730x1000-jpeg.jpg) Near and farside maps depicting the thickness of the Moon’s crust as obtained by NASA’s GRAIL mission. The red squares indicate the proposed locations for LGN. [Credits: Heidi Fuqua Haviland, et al.](https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/PSJ/ac0f82#psjac0f82f7) 3. *(Page 552)* The Decadal repeatedly points out that NASA’s current organizational structure for planning crewed Artemis missions does not enable breakthrough science. NASA’s [Lunar Discovery and Exploration Program](https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/programs/lunar-discovery-exploration) (LDEP) is the organizational unit chiefly integrating and coordinating Artemis science efforts across the agency and its commercial plus international partners. They recently helped publish the [Science Definition report](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-defines-science-priorities-for-first-crewed-artemis-landing-on-moon) for the [first crewed landing with Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon). And yet LDEP lacks a Director or Chief Scientist position authorized to implement scientific objectives within Artemis. Even the organizational units above LDEP in hierarchy lack such powers. The Decadal strongly urges NASA to fix this. Scientists go on to say that NASA hasn’t formulated a dedicated Artemis Science Team either but that’s no longer correct. It was true when the report was being prepared but in March 2022, NASA [revealed a formal Artemis science structure](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-68/). 4. *(Page 626)* The Decadal lauds the competitive, firm-fixed price model of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) to purchase science & technology payload deliveries to the Moon on commercial landers. Scientists say once the landing systems prove reliable, their higher flight cadence will allow more focused and follow-up science as well as cost-effective testing and advancing of novel lunar technologies. As landing capabilities mature later in the decade, scientists say NASA should enhance the scope of CLPS missions and even extend the model to Mars, asteroids and other nearby bodies. The Decadal also vouches for extending the CLPS model to leverage the greatly enhanced capabilities of [SpaceX’s (lunar) Starship](https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/starship) *(Page 561)* by setting up funding mechanisms to allow community members to fly robotic payloads on such high-capacity flights. 5. *(Page 551)* The Decadal interprets the [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html)’ principle of sustainably using the Moon’s resources as being a balance between scientific and consumption needs. This automatically implies a critical need for NASA to map and understand the nature of all polar lunar resources, especially [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). This will help identify kinds of resources scientifically more pristine than others and accordingly allocate their purposes. The Decadal recommends forming an international oversight structure involving signees of the Accords to ensure appropriate and fair use of lunar resources. 6. *(Page 548)* While the basic geological training provided to Apollo astronauts was sufficient for their short lunar missions, Artemis astronauts exploring the Moon for decidedly longer periods will require more comprehensive and sustained field training and instrumentation handling. Related: ESA’s ongoing [Caves & Pangaea](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/blog) astronaut training campaign. ## Astrobotic unveils their Moon lander Last week Astrobotic [unveiled the in-progress flight model](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-unveils-peregrine-lunar-lander-flight-model) of its Peregrine spacecraft, [which will land on the Moon](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-awarded-79-5-million-contract-to-deliver-14-nasa-payloads-to-the-moon) in the fourth quarter of this year. The parts of the spacecraft left to be assembled are the engines, two fuel tanks, solar panels and the flight decks, the latter of which already have [several mission payloads](https://www.astrobotic.com/lunar-delivery/manifest) integrated onto them. After Peregrine is fully assembled, it will undergo all the standard, [extensive space-simulating tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/) followed by launch preparations. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f0da8cc99-5a17-4928-88a6-c513d6c23297_1899x1364-jpeg.jpg) The flight model of Astrobotic’s Peregrine lunar lander (background) and a flight deck integrated with payloads (foreground). [Credit: Astrobotic](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-unveils-peregrine-lunar-lander-flight-model) The mission, part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), will carry [11 NASA instruments](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/first-commercial-moon-delivery-assignments-to-advance-artemis), chief of which are three spectrometers to track the movements of water on the Moon’s surface. The mass spectrometer [will also measure](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2021/07/The%5Fheart%5Fof%5Fa%5Flunar%5Fsensor#.YORgAKilEK9.link) water and other volatiles released by [the solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) impinging the lunar soil. Such data will help scientists understand how water gets transported around the Moon, particularly from the equator to [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) on the poles, where it can remain [preserved for billions of years](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). ## NASA to conduct a full wet dress rehearsal for the SLS after all NASA [will roll back](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/04/22/nasas-artemis-i-rocket-readying-for-return-to-vehicle-assembly-building) the fully stacked [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) to its assembly building this week to repair its mobile launcher’s [hydrogen leak](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/?msclkid=e7617ce8c01811ecb6025e4ebd6a3b4f) and the [faulty helium check valve](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/04/09/artemis-i-wet-dress-rehearsal-update) on the rocket’s second stage while their nitrogen gas supplier upgrades the pipelines. NASA [says](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/04/22/nasas-artemis-i-rocket-readying-for-return-to-vehicle-assembly-building) the rocket will return to the launchpad for another full [wet dress rehearsal test](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-readies-rocket-for-artemis-i-wet-dress-rehearsal) attempt. If successful, NASA will roll back the rocket to the assembly building for final checkouts and launch preparations. So NASA has decided not to rush through the test after all, which is great. The [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/around-the-moon-with-nasa-s-first-launch-of-sls-with-orion) Moon mission to send an uncrewed [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/orion/about/index.html) around the Moon and back will now launch in August at best. ## ispace’s first Moon landing mission on time [ispace Japan says](https://ispace-inc.com/news/?p=2237) their [first Moon landing mission](https://ispace-inc.com/hakuto-r/eng) in on track to launch in Q4 2022, having almost completed [assembling the lander in Europe](https://ispace-inc.com/news/?p=2012). They aim to conduct the lander’s [space-simulating tests](https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/) in June, and then ship it to the U.S. around September or October to prepare for launch on a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket. Mission payloads include UAE’s [Rashid rover](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirates%5FLunar%5FMission), a [solid-state battery tech demo](https://ispace-inc.com/news/?p=1047), a [transformable lunar robot](https://ispace-inc.com/news/?p=1903) by the Japanese space agency, [multiple Canadian payloads and services](https://ispace-inc.com/news/?p=1905), and more. In a first for a commercial lunar mission, ispace is also [looking to get insurance](https://spacenews.com/japans-ispace-negotiating-first-commercial-moon-landing-insurance) for their lander. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fac130ba8-66bf-4c4d-87dc-1c5eb1482ced_2000x1414-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of ispace’s Hakuto-R lander, which will attempt the company’s first lunar landing. [Credit: ispace](https://ispace-inc.com/hakuto-r/eng/about/) ## More Moon - The NASA LRO Blog has a [great writeup on how the Apollo 16 landing site’s geology took astronauts by surprise](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/1252), and how geologists underestimated the role of meteorite impacts in the evolution of the Moon’s rocky highlands as opposed to volcanism. I wonder how many such stark finds Artemis will have in store for us. - Lonestar [will deploy small, virtual and hardware-based data centers](https://spacenews.com/lonestar-emerges-from-stealth-with-plans-for-lunar-data-centers) on Intuitive Machines’ [first](https://7c27f7d6-4a0b-4269-aee9-80e85c3db26a.usrfiles.com/ugd/7c27f7%5Fbc896cfc90ca4ae9a0643bfbf5ed214a.pdf) and [second](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-to-land-water-measuring-payload-on-the-moon) Moon landing missions respectively as a [proof-of-concept](https://spacenews.com/lonestar-emerges-from-stealth-with-plans-for-lunar-data-centers) of their future commercial service. Considering that [space-grade electronics](https://jatan.space/space-grade-electronics/) cost way more than terrestrial electronics while having limited processing capabilities, color me skeptical. Unless of course Lonestar sticks to selling for niche use cases. Or maybe I’m missing an entire bold new development in the space industry? - NASA is collaborating with the industry to build a portable, high-resolution [Lidar mapping system for future astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/centers/marshall/news/releases/2022/nasa-partners-develop-lunar-backpack-technology-to-aid-new-moon-explorers.html) to safely navigate regions on the Moon lacking Earth communications, such as when venturing into [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) or even exploring the shadowy polar terrain besides. *Thank you [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io) for sponsoring this week’s Moon Monday.* ### Moon Monday #73: An ‘over the Moon’ update, a dry rehearsal for SLS, Europe’s pull away from Russian Moon missions, and more lunar developments URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-73/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:27.000Z **I’m stoked to share and welcome [Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/s/moon-monday/archive)’s first sponsors!* By supporting this one-of-a-kind newsletter covering global lunar exploration, science and commercial developments, [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io) and [The Orbital Index](https://orbitalindex.com) are endorsing our Moon’s [unique and fundamental role](https://blog.jatan.space/our-moon) in space exploration.* *[Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io) is a web-based platform for managing complex spacecraft testing and operational procedures. It is designed to help engineers and mission operators building hardware for both Earth orbit and the Moon save time and reduce risk. Laura and Max have been supporting Moon Monday since its early days so I’m glad Epsilon3 is onboard the sponsorship launch.* *[The Orbital Index](https://orbitalindex.com/) is my absolute favorite technical space newsletter, and was in fact part of my inspiration for starting Moon Monday. I couldn’t have gotten a better validation of my work than having Andrew and Ben reach out to sponsor Moon Monday.* *Starting sponsorships for this newsletter is a huge step forward. It will help me sustain Moon Monday and hopefully also allow me to spare more time to keep creating [lunar articles and resources](https://blog.jatan.space/our-moon). If you or your organization would like to sponsor Moon Monday and support my independent writing on all things lunar, [email me](mailto:hey@jatan.space).* *To be clear, Moon Monday sponsors are more like super-supporters, that is, they help sustain the newsletter monetarily without having any editorial control or getting purely promotional perks. To address any ethical concerns my readers and supporters may have regarding this development, I have published an [Editorial Independence Policy](https://blog.jatan.space/ethics) laying out the exact way I run sponsorships.* ## The SLS rocket’s wet dress rehearsal comes out dry The NASA [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html)’s already delayed [wet dress rehearsal](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-readies-rocket-for-artemis-i-wet-dress-rehearsal) test to verify fueling and defueling procedures and practice launch countdowns before its much awaited liftoff for the [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/around-the-moon-with-nasa-s-first-launch-of-sls-with-orion) Moon mission later this year has turned out dry even on the third attempt on April 15\. After first [troubleshooting and fixing](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/04/14/artemis-i-wdr-update-core-stage-liquid-oxygen-loading-operations-resume) an issue with warmer-than-expected temperatures of liquid oxygen in the rocket’s core stage, operators later encountered another [issue when fast-filling liquid hydrogen](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/04/14/artemis-i-wdr-update-teams-working-solution-to-continue-propellant-loading-operations). The fueling of the core stage ultimately [had to be halted](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/04/14/artemis-i-wdr-update-third-test-attempt-concluded) after detecting a leak on its mobile launcher’s 10-meter [tail service mast](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/fs-2018-02-250-ksc-ml%5Fumbilical%5Ffact%5Fsheet.pdf) umbilical. Citing [issues experienced during the earlier tests](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/04/14/artemis-i-update-mission-management-team-go-to-proceed-with-tanking-pending-resolution-of-gaseous-nitrogen-supply-issue) with their gaseous nitrogen supplier, NASA [said they’ll use this opportunity](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-to-discuss-status-of-artemis-i-moon-mission) to roll back the fully stacked SLS rocket to its assembly building to fix both the tail service mast umbilical issue and the second stage’s [faulty helium check valve](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/04/09/artemis-i-wet-dress-rehearsal-update) that halted the previous test. During these fixes, NASA will “review schedules and options to demonstrate propellant loading operations ahead of launch”. Said liftoff of NASA’s Moon rocket now seems [most likely to be in August](https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/04/nasa-to-roll-back-its-mega-rocket-after-failing-to-complete-countdown-test) at best. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f6bf311e2-d7e7-4cf2-b565-3d61cf80f056_2600x1500-jpeg-1.jpg) NASA’s SLS rocket heading to the launchpad in March 2022 for a final major test before it can liftoff for the first Artemis Moon mission. Now it will be heading back to the assembly building with an incomplete test. The Moon provides a symbolic backdrop. [Credits: NASA / Kim Shiflett](https://images.nasa.gov/details-KSC-20220317-PH-KLS04%5F0087) These constant delays are certainly frustrating for fans and foes of the big orange rocket alike but it’s important to remember that at least future SLS launches should have such issues ironed out. If a rocket isn’t going anywhere, [by law](https://www.supercluster.com/editorial/the-ugly-bargain-behind-nasas-sls-rocket), we better be patient now than during the launches of its latter, much more crucial missions. ## ESA backs out of Russian Luna missions Prompted by Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, ESA [announced on April 13](https://www.esa.int/Newsroom/Press%5FReleases/Redirecting%5FESA%5Fprogrammes%5Fin%5Fresponse%5Fto%5Fgeopolitical%5Fcrisis) that it has severed all cooperation on the Russian Luna series of Moon missions, and will fly its various instruments on other international missions instead. ESA is also finding a mission for testing their precision lunar navigation and landing system called PILOT, originally to be onboard Luna 27’s launch in 2027\. PILOT is a critical part of ESA’s [European Large Logistics Lander](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Exploration/European%5FLarge%5FLogistics%5FLander) (EL3) launching end of decade. EL3 is being designed to support a variety of endeavors such as large rover explorations, sample return, and aiding NASA’s [Artemis missions](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) with cargo supplies. However, a render on [ESA partner OHB’s site](https://www.ohb.de/en/lsas-save-your-ticket) places EL3 first launch post-2030. Luna 27 was also supposed to deliver to the Moon ESA’s compact and power-efficient [oxygen-extracting](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0032063321001264) payload [PROSPECT](https://exploration.esa.int/web/moon/-/59102-about-prospect), which includes a drill, a sample handling system, spectrometers, and an oven to detect and study [water and other volatile resources](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). ESA says PROSPECT is now set to fly on a NASA-funded commercial Moon lander in 2025 part of the [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). I’m willing to bet this is actually [CLPS’ 2026 south polar mission](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-australia-sign-agreement-to-add-rover-to-future-moon-mission), which will also feature [Australia’s first lunar rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-49/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f5d6dd63b-0a1f-43cd-8c27-17e4fc71c163_2300x1750-jpeg.jpg) ProSPA, part of PROSPECT, is an automated miniaturized laboratory by ESA to measure the nature and abundance of volatile resources such as water ice on the Moon. [Credit: Open University](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2020/01/ProSPA%5Fa%5Fspace%5Flab%5Ffor%5Fthe%5FMoon) ESA’s pulling away from Russia on every major lunar and planetary science project, and towards enhanced cooperation with NASA, makes it almost certain that ESA member states will not join the upcoming joint [Chinese-Russian Moonbase](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-32/) and likely sign the NASA-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html) instead. Five ESA member states—the UK, Italy, Luxembourg, Poland and Romania—have already signed the Accords. France has expressed an interest in joining too. ## More Japanese-Indian LUPEX mission details In an [interview with Geospatial World](https://www.geospatialworld.net/blogs/isro-to-handhold-private-sector-to-create-innovative-space-ecosystem-in-the-country-s-somanath-chairman), ISRO Chief S. Somanath said the joint Japanese-Indian [LUPEX rover](https://www.exploration.jaxa.jp/e/program/lunarpolar/) to explore the nature of [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other resources on the Moon’s south pole will launch no earlier than 2025, thereby providing us with the first ever official tentative launch year for the mission. We knew previously that JAXA is building the mission’s 350-kilogram rover, and ISRO the lander to deliver it to the Moon’s south pole. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f913a003d-677a-4bb8-84b9-a17101a127ed_800x448-jpeg-1.jpg) Elements of the joint Indian-Japanese Lunar Polar Exploration (LUPEX) mission. Notice the heightened mast for the rover’s solar panel, something very useful at the lunar poles where the Sun is always near the horizon. [Credit: JAXA](https://www.exploration.jaxa.jp/e/program/lunarpolar/) The LUPEX rover will have both Indian and Japanese instruments—chiefly a drill and a bunch of complimentary spectrometers—to study the nature, amount and accessibility of water ice in its landed region between 89-90°S, making the mission similar to NASA’s [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/). LUPEX will explore its landed region for at least six months, and likely venture into [permanently shadowed areas](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) a few hundred meters across. On April 5, ESA [signed a collaborative agreement](https://twitter.com/AschbacherJosef/status/1511091280327200773) which includes having their [mass spectrometer](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2020/08/Sensing%5Fthe%5FMoon) onboard the rover to study the Moon’s exosphere. While the final instrument suite will be decided in the ongoing mission development phase that started in April, a ground penetrating radar and a thermal probe are key contenders neither of which VIPER has. Findings from them would thus nicely complement results from VIPER. A [February talk by ISRO scientist S. Megala](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E81SoGhVNe8&t=5454s) has juicier details on the mission. Here’s a PDF of slides from her talk. ![](https://substack.com/img/attachment_icon.svg) Slides: Early details on LUPEX mission3.72MB ∙ PDF file[Download](https://blog.jatan.space/api/v1/file/574497be-818c-4de4-b846-2bdcbab5833c.pdf)[Download](https://blog.jatan.space/api/v1/file/574497be-818c-4de4-b846-2bdcbab5833c.pdf) Megala also hinted that ISRO is considering making its next Moon mission after LUPEX to be a sample return one. They’re currently internally referring to it as Chandrayaan 5, meaning LUPEX is considered Chandrayaan 4. ## The van that will transport Artemis astronauts on Earth After [asking for proposals](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-seeks-input-from-potential-partners-on-next-generation-astromobile) last September, NASA has [selected Canoo Technologies](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-astronauts-will-ride-in-style-in-new-crew-transportation-vehicles) to provide the next-generation, all-electric vans to transport its future Moon-bound astronauts from suit-up facilities to the launchpad. Formally called the “Artemis Crew Transportation Vehicle”, each of the three vans will be able to carry up to 8 passengers, including 4 fully suited astronauts. NASA expects the van to be ready by June 2023, in time for the liftoff of their [first crewed Artemis mission](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to) the next year. The vans will also support other related tasks such as prelaunch operations, training and launch countdown tests. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fc0d7ee3f-326d-4c2d-9eb0-490b9d7d3ae9_6033x3469-jpeg.jpg) NASA astronauts will ride these sleek looking, all-electric vans ahead of launching on all Artemis missions. [Credit: Canoo](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-astronauts-will-ride-in-style-in-new-crew-transportation-vehicles) ## More Moon - NASA is [evaluating with new tests](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/new-tests-evaluate-mission-readiness-of-astronauts-upon-landing) the ability of astronauts to perform mission-related tasks soon after they would land on the Moon or Mars. - Shared as a small note in the [announcement of cutting lunar ties with Russia](https://www.esa.int/Newsroom/Press%5FReleases/Redirecting%5FESA%5Fprogrammes%5Fin%5Fresponse%5Fto%5Fgeopolitical%5Fcrisis) is that [Moonlight](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-65/), their envisioned commercial lunar communication and navigation service, has been approved by the ESA Council for further development. Moonlight isn’t the only communications network [being planned](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-69/) to be deployed around the Moon. Following [Aquarian Space](https://spacenews.com/another-startup-joins-race-to-provide-high-speed-lunar-communications) and [Plus Ultra](https://ispace-inc.com/news/?p=2156), Japanese startup ArkEdge Space also intends to [join the show](https://spacenews.com/japans-arkedge-space-closes-18-7-million-series-a-for-nanosatellite-projects), boosted by their recent $18.7 million funding. - The CHACE-2 mass spectrometer onboard India’s [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) has made [the first near-global distribution measurements of Argon-40](https://www.isro.gov.in/update/08-mar-2022/chace-2-onboard-chandrayaan-2-orbiter-makes-first-observations-of-global) in the Moon’s exosphere ([paper](https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2021GL094970)). Such noble gases released from underground elements via radioactive disintegration and then leaked out of the ground are crucial to understanding how the Moon’s surface and exosphere interact. --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### Launching Moon Monday sponsorships; the lack of a devil is definitely in the details URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-sponsorship-details/ Last updated: 2025-02-14T11:23:34.000Z *February 2023 update: I have published a more formal* [*Editorial Independence Policy*](https://jatan.space/ethics/) *that supersedes this post. Please refer to that to understand the specific ways in which I ensure editorial independence of* [*my space writings*](https://jatan.space/about) *as well as the exact way I run sponsorships.* --- **Dear readers and supporters,** Today I [welcomed the first sponsors](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-73/) of [Moon Monday](https://jatan.space/tag/moon-monday). This is a huge step forward for me to start sustaining this one-of-a-kind newsletter that covers global lunar exploration, science and commercial developments taking place amid renewed plans to return humans to our cosmic neighbor this decade. To address any ethical concerns you may have regarding this development, I’m writing this post to detail the need and mechanics of Moon Monday sponsorships. Some of the things in here maybe too raw or too open but I think for something as fundamental to modern civilization as Internet publishing and discourse, readers should be actively aware of the behind-the-scenes of professional writing and how consumption and creation are interlinked—in this case mine. Or maybe I’m simply overthinking this like everything else and by the time you finish reading the post, I’ll seem like a fool. Either way, grab a comfort beverage because this is a long one. ## How has Moon Monday been doing? Since [its inception](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-01/) in November 2020, I’m happy that the newsletter has been received well by all of its intended communities, including lunar folks. Moon Monday recently crossed 1,700 email subscribers, many of which are planetary scientists and engineers, personnel at national space agencies, executives at space companies, and fellow writers and journalists. I’m even more glad and satisfied that several of these people decided to [donate](https://jatan.space/support) in individual capacities to support Moon Monday. ## How has Moon Monday been doing financially? This is where the good stuff ends. While reader donations via Patreon and other options were increasing steadily until the first half of last year, things have since been practically flat. I saw a decent spike in supporters last month but the overall equation hasn’t budged. The reader support for Moon Monday is simply far from enough for me to sustain the effort. In order to accommodate publishing the newsletter along with my (nice) freelance “day job” of [writing space exploration and science articles](https://jatan.space/tag/articles), I’ve been preparing notes and writing Moon Monday mostly over the weekends since the beginning. But Moon Monday is a job in itself, one I want to sustain simply because I love writing it. And yet I’ve felt many times that I’m either not doing a good job or that it’s the kind of newsletter that simply can’t sustain financially in this day and age. To be honest, I’m also tired of having to explicitly ask for donations in every single issue, and I guess you may be tired of reading it too. As much as I abhor to admit it, the Web isn’t at a stage yet where niche writers like me can sustain independent creations purely from reader support. Apparently I need to be a social media or YouTube celebrity to pull that off. As someone who is also passionate about [an open Web culture](https://journal.jatan.space/start-a-blog-and-get-a-domain), I [refuse to play the engagement game](https://journal.jatan.space/leaving-social-media) forced upon us by ad-tech. ## What funding options did I consider to sustain Moon Monday? I evaluated the following five pathways. 1. **Make the newsletter paid:** I’m writing about the exploration of our Moon so that more people can get onboard the lunar bandwagon, not less! So I simply don’t want to make the newsletter paid or pursue some such freemium model. 2. **Display ads:** Ugh. Ads are distracting, evil when in the form of tracking ads, and create wrong incentives for publishers. This results in publishers prioritizing ad-viewing and traffic over content, which not only affects content quality but also frustrates readers. It will never be worth slapping ads on my blog or newsletter, period. 3. **Publish every two weeks or a month:** If I don’t change how I fund the newsletter, the only other option is to publish Moon Monday once every two weeks or a month. While it sounds like a reasonable solution from the perspective of my time and effort, I think even the former changes the essence of what Moon Monday is supposed to be—a newsletter that shows and lets you track the progress of all major pieces driving our global return to the Moon. 4. **Change nothing but sell lunar-themed merchandise:** Yeah, I don’t want to add even more physical crap into the world. Even if I did, I doubt that the numbers would be substantially higher than current supporters to achieve the goal. 5. **Accept sponsorships:** At first I thought, wait.. aren’t they just curated ads? And don’t many newsletter owners [literally sell](https://duuce.com/listings) their subscribers’ data to ad-tech companies? And don’t creators frequently create paid-for content for sponsors? Well, yes to all of that. But also, as I soon learned from people in the knowhow, it doesn’t have to be the case. And that was the opening I needed. Over the last few months, I’ve been talking to several experienced people in the space publishing and marketing industries about possible pros and cons of sponsorships, and how to avoid the latter. For example, I was concerned about inadvertently lending sponsors editorial leverage over the newsletter. I also wondered if organizations would even sponsor Moon Monday if they don’t get to promote their businesses like every sponsored segment on Youtube ever. Thankfully, these experienced professionals assured me that enough people run sponsorships without compromises. This allowed me to finalize how sponsorships would work on Moon Monday, and how I can be transparent to you, my readers. ## What kind of sponsors will I accept? I’ll accept sponsorships only from organizations that are pro-science, pro-space and pro-Moon, and are doing a legitimate business or activity. Their work and people must reciprocate my own thoughts on why we as a species should explore space and our Moon. For the same reason, I’ll not accept sponsorships from companies and organizations purely in the defense sector, or from their subsidiaries to that effect. ## What sponsors get, and don’t Moon Monday sponsors are more like super-supporters, that is, they help sustain the newsletter monetarily and get credited in return for their support. Specifically, they will be credited in Moon Monday issues and on my space blog’s [About page](https://jatan.space/about). When a sponsor first onboards, they get to share a brief welcome message to introduce themselves to my readers. Even then, the message’s final wording will be decided by me to ensure transparency to you all. I do have a provision to write an article for a sponsor on a *theme* of their choice but specifically not on their product in any way. Such an article will be a separate ask by the sponsor and will be written by me without their editorial input. For an example that best demonstrates such an article, check out my piece [*A brief history of space missions lost to human errors*](https://jatan.space/space-missions-lost-to-human-errors/). Sponsors don’t get any editorial control over the newsletter. They don’t get purely promotional perks. They, of course, don’t get access to any subscribers’ email addresses or any such related personal stats. At the same time, sponsors also don’t bear the weight of being seen as a supporter of any personal opinion I may express in the newsletter. Their support is for the newsletter’s existence as a whole, and not implicitly for any specific notes inside. What I do and will share with potential sponsors are the bulk newsletter stats, such as the number of subscribers and overall open rate, which aren’t individually identifying in any way. Nevertheless, you don’t even need to trust me when you can simply [subscribe to my blog via RSS](https://jatan.space/feeds) instead. I do think these policies will make it harder for me to find sponsors for Moon Monday but on the bright side only folks who really want to support what I do, like [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io) and [The Orbital Index](https://orbitalindex.com), will be onboard Ship Luna. ## Can someone sponsor anonymously? I will disclose the name of every sponsor that donates at least $1000/year. In an unlikely event that a circumstance causes me to consider otherwise, I’ll say that someone or some organization has donated an amount X and share the reason for granting them anonymity. ## Why donations from people still matter I’m pursuing sponsorships for the Moon Monday newsletter only, not for the several other things I publish on [my space blog](https://jatan.space/about). For example, sponsorships don’t apply to any of my [articles on the Moon](https://jatan.space/our-moon) or ‘popular science’ articles on space exploration and the solar system. So when you as an individual [donate to me](https://jatan.space/support), you’re supporting me as an [independent science writer](https://jatan.space/about) and a blogger. And thank you so much to all who have! Moreover, even as I seek and have sponsors for Moon Monday, donations from people will remain crucial in reducing sponsor-dependence, filling any gaps in sponsorships, and theoretically keeping the path to achieving reader-support-only publishing alive. ## How long do I see myself writing Moon Monday? At least 10 years. Humans are returning to our Moon this decade, this time to stay! Just as importantly, it’s being done amid [a renewed and truly global interest](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) in exploring our lovely cosmic neighbor. As someone who endorses our Moon’s [unique and fundamental role](https://jatan.space/our-moon) in space exploration and science, and who loves to write, I’m stoked to be living in this slice of time. Moon Monday is a newsletter that just makes sense to keep publishing for as long as I humanly can. ## Help me find sponsors? Starting sponsorships for Moon Monday is a huge step forward in seeing through these upcoming 10 years. It will help me sustain the newsletter, and hopefully also allow me to spare more time to keep creating [lunar articles and resources](https://jatan.space/our-moon). Thank you to every single person who has helped me pursue this path in an ethical manner. You know who you are. :) If you or your organization would like to sponsor Moon Monday and support all my lunar writing, [get in touch](https://jatan.space/connect). I’m offering discounts to non-profits, academic institutes and research labs. If you know of organizations that would be a great fit for sponsoring Moon Monday, please let me know. --- If you read all the way till here, thank you. You’re a reader and supporter who cares and is curious. If you’d like to let me know how you feel about this new direction, do [share your thoughts](https://jatan.space/connect) with me. I’m only a human being at the end of the day, and so it’s possible I’m still thinking about some of these things wrongly. Based on feedback from readers, I’ll refine these formal Moon Monday sponsorship and Editorial Independence policies, and then codify them on a separate page. So, am I a fool to pursue Moon Monday sponsorships semi-publicly? We’ll find out! If it works, it can set an example for other niche writers and creators. If not, it will help them know what not to do. *Here’s to going forward to the Moon!* 🚀🌗 ***–*** [***Jatan***](https://blog.jatan.space/about) ### When will we explore Saturn’s moon Enceladus to find alien life? URL: https://jatan.space/when-will-we-explore-enceladus-to-find-life/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:27.000Z [Saturn](https://jatan.space/why-explore-saturn/)’s small icy moon [Enceladus](https://www.planetary.org/worlds/enceladus) captured the imaginations of people worldwide when NASA’s [Cassini](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/cassini) spacecraft saw it spewing [plumes of water into space](https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/news/12399/cassini-pinpoints-hot-sources-of-jets-on-enceladus/). This water comes from [a global, liquid ocean](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/cassini-finds-global-ocean-in-saturns-moon-enceladus) concealed beneath Enceladus’ fissured crust. The liquid water isn’t due to the Sun’s heat but rather warmed by friction between parts of its interior being tugged by Saturn's gravity. When Cassini flew through Enceladus’ plumes between 2008 to 2015, its mass spectrometer found [a variety of organic molecules](https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/news/13148/complex-organics-bubble-up-from-ocean-world-enceladus/)—building blocks of life—as well as molecular hydrogen, carbon dioxide, methane and rock fragments likely coming from the moon’s ocean. Cassini’s observations suggest that Enceladus’ ocean seems to have [potentially habitable](https://jatan.space/saturn-moon-enceladus-habitable/) hydrothermal vents [similar to](https://www.washington.edu/news/2019/06/19/abundance-of-gases-in-enceladuss-ocean-are-a-potential-fuel-if-life-is-there-to-consume-it) those found in the deepest, darkest parts of Earth’s oceans. Not only do various microorganisms like [methanogens](https://portlandpress.com/emergtoplifesci/article/2/4/629/77362/Methanogens-pushing-the-boundaries-of-biology) thrive near such terrestrial vents void of sunlight, scientists think it’s [how life on Earth could’ve started](https://www.nature.com/articles/nrmicro1991) in the first place. Extensive simulations [support](https://jatan.space/saturn-moon-enceladus-habitable/) such microorganisms [hypothetically surviving](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-018-02876-y) on ocean floors of Enceladus too. The chance to sample and study potential fragments of life in Enceladus’ tantalizing plumes beg for a return to the Saturnian moon. ## Enceladus changes our approach to life Enceladus is part of [a class of icy worlds](https://www.planetary.org/articles/where-are-the-ocean-worlds-in-our-solar-system) in the outer solar system which likely have underground oceans. These worlds—including Jupiter’s moon [Europa](https://www.planetary.org/worlds/europa) and Neptune’s moon [Triton](https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/moons/neptune-moons/triton/in-depth)—suggest that sunlight, a surface and an atmosphere aren't necessary to make a world habitable. Finding life in any of these alien oceans of our solar systems would be nothing short of life-changing, perhaps even more so than detecting intelligent life elsewhere. That’s because if life formed and survived independently in our solar system on two completely different worlds, it boosts the idea that the universe is teeming with life. The active water plumes of Enceladus are an unprecedented opportunity to find out our universe’s potential for life and how it may exist outside Earth. And yet it’s not the only thing scientists find insightful about Enceladus. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fbae78558-3d51-410d-9400-b3d89f0fdd6e_1600x900-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of icy moons in our solar system with likely underground oceans. Left to right: Ganymede, Titan, Callisto, Europa, Triton and Enceladus. [Credit: Nick Oberg](https://www.astro.rug.nl/~oberg/art.html) ## How did Enceladus form? Microbial life isn’t the only explanation for organic molecules and high methane levels in Enceladus’ plumes, even if it may be [the most likely](https://www.planetary.org/articles/signs-of-life-enceladus) one. If comets bombarded Enceladus during its formation, the moon could’ve gotten methane and/or organic molecules from them directly. Methane in Enceladus’ interior could leak via outgassing, and organics in its heated core [could decompose](https://astronomycommunity.nature.com/posts/bayesian-analysis-of-enceladus-plume-data-to-assess-methanogenesis) to release hydrogen, carbon dioxide and methane. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f968d0758-07d4-49f9-b488-0f2694442c06_2160x1440-jpeg.jpg) Infrared views of Saturn’s moon Enceladus from Cassini. The red regions correspond to warmer surface temperatures. The bottom-right image shows Enceladus' south pole, where subsurface ocean water vents into space. [Credits: NASA / JPL-Caltech](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/infrared-views-of-saturns-moon-enceladus) Sending missions to know how Enceladus formed would tell us if its ocean is habitable yet uninhabited or teeming with microbial life. It will also lend us insights into the conditions that existed during the [formation and evolution of our solar system](https://jatan.space/solar-system-history-101/)’s outer worlds. Since Earth’s water and possibly even organic material are thought to have been deposited by [comets and/or asteroids hurtling in](https://www.nature.com/articles/nature03676) from the outer solar system around 4 billion years ago, learning about the outer solar system’s formation and evolution is vital. ## Future missions to Enceladus Some of the biggest planetary science missions launching this decade—like ESA’s [JUICE](https://jatan.space/esa-juice-mission-to-jupiter-moons/) spacecraft and NASA’s [Europa Clipper](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/europa-clipper)—are dedicated to finding if underground oceans of Jupiter’s icy moons are habitable. NASA is launching the [Dragonfly](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/dragonfly) mission later in the decade to explore the surface of [Titan](https://www.planetary.org/worlds/titan) in the hopes of understanding possible starting ingredients for life on early Earth and elsewhere. However, no space agency is currently funding a mission to Enceladus. Many [Cassini mission scientists](https://www.planetary.org/planetary-radio/0626-2019-cassini-update-spilker) have [endorsed the idea](https://www.planetary.org/articles/the-solar-system-according-to-carolyn-porco) of an Enceladus followup mission. They argue that the ability to sample an icy moon’s underground ocean via its plumes without having to drill or dig makes Enceladus the [most accessible place](https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/PSJ/abfb7a) to find life in the outer solar system. To that end, scientists have proposed several Cassini-successor missions such as the [Enceladus Life Finder](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/opag/feb2015/presentations/18%5FOPAG%5F2015%5FLunine.pdf) and [Tiger](https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/PSJ/ac19b7). They would also fly by Enceladus while orbiting Saturn but with much more powerful mass spectrometers to look for larger organic molecules and better biomarkers of life in the moon’s plumes. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f631941cc-8560-406f-8f75-4b7343da9bbb_2133x900-jpeg.jpg) This illustration taken from the [Cassini Grand Finale movie](https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/resources/17628/) shows the Cassini spacecraft flying through Enceladus’ plumes. [Credits: NASA / JPL-Caltech](https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/illustration-of-cassini-spacecraft-diving-through-plume-of-ocean-world-enceladus) Sending orbiters is even better because they can fly through the plumes more frequently and detect more material. More importantly, they can fly at lower altitudes and detect larger, intact particles not lifted high up in the plumes, giving us a better chance of detecting [molecular fragments](https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/PSJ/abfb7a#psjabfb7as6) of any microbes. A spacecraft landing near a plume source can double down on these advantages while also [imaging the surface up close](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/probing-for-life-in-the-icy-crusts-of-ocean-worlds) and using geophysical instruments like seismometers to study the moon’s interior. Spacecraft measuring carbon and nitrogen isotopes—different subatomic forms of the same element—in the plumes will also tell us Enceladus’ composition and help determine the moon’s origin. With these goals in mind, scientists recently pitched a hybrid flagship mission to NASA called the [Orbilander](https://www.planetary.org/articles/meet-orbilander-enceladus-mission), which would first orbit Enceladus and then land on it. Its instruments suite would specifically look for [chemicals conducive to life](https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/PSJ/abe4da) as we know it, such as amino acids, lipids and even cells. However, even if the mission is selected, Orbilander won’t launch until 2038. Another ambitious but very early phase mission concept is [SWIM](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/niac/2021%5FPhase%5FI/SWIM), which envisions deploying a swarm of robotic micro-swimmers into Enceladus’ ocean to directly study its composition and environment. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f43febe5a-fce3-4e33-8699-cb017a6140da_1570x1784-jpeg.jpg) This graphic illustrates hydrothermal vents on Enceladus’ ocean floor that could provide habitable environments for microbial life to form and thrive. [Credits: NASA / JPL / M. Neveu](https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/PSJ/abfb7a#psjabfb7af3) Even if NASA isn’t planning a mission to Enceladus anytime soon, studies on Earth and telescopic observations are shaping our understanding of moons like Enceladus. The [JWST](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/james-webb-space-telescope) infrared telescope might remotely observe Enceladus’ plumes and [potentially identify](https://arxiv.org/abs/1805.06941) non-biological sources of methane to help constrain the moon’s habitability. Research on [possibly intact molecular fragments](https://agu.confex.com/agu/fm20/meetingapp.cgi/Paper/722227) in the plumes belonging to any microbes is being used to study archived Cassini data, refine development of future instruments, and inform what upcoming icy moon missions like [JUICE](https://jatan.space/esa-juice-mission-to-jupiter-moons/) and [Europa Clipper](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/europa-clipper) should specifically look for. Here’s hoping that NASA’s increased investments since the last decade to build [landing technologies](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-receives-science-report-on-europa-lander-concept) and [advanced instruments](https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/PSJ/abfb7a#psjabfb7as7) to study ice-concealed habitable ocean worlds and find life within them inspires a return to Enceladus. *Originally published at [The Planetary Society](https://www.planetary.org/articles/alien-life-enceladus).* --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### Moon Monday #72: A rocket that won't move, a fancy landing simulator, and all lunar updates from last week URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-72/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:28.000Z ## NASA’s Moon rocket just won’t move fast enough The NASA [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html)’s already delayed [wet dress rehearsal](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-readies-rocket-for-artemis-i-wet-dress-rehearsal) test before its much awaited launch for the [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/around-the-moon-with-nasa-s-first-launch-of-sls-with-orion) mission later this year is just not getting done. Originally scheduled for April 1-3, it was first delayed by a standard hold procedure due to [four lightning strikes](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/04/02/teams-proceeding-with-overnight-operations-for-artemis-i-wet-dress-rehearsal) to the launchpad’s protective lightning towers on April 2 followed by [an unrelated issue on April 3](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/04/03/artemis-i-wet-dress-rehearsal-scrub) with safely pressuring the rocket’s mobile launcher. Technicians fixed the issue overnight and proceeded with fueling the rocket on April 4 [as planned](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/04/03/artemis-i-wet-dress-rehearsal-testing-continues) but [a vent control panel malfunctioning](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/04/04/artemis-i-wet-dress-rehearsal-called-off-for-april-4) due to physically incorrect positioning on the hydrogen tank halted the test. Correcting the issue allowed NASA to retry only to encounter another problem. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f87f12416-dab0-4906-b261-2e3e582ee3a1_2048x1365-jpeg-1.jpg) NASA’s SLS rocket, standing atop its mobile launcher, at Launch Pad 39B at the agency’s Kennedy Space Center on March 18, 2022\. [Credits: NASA / Kim Shiflett](https://flickr.com/photos/nasakennedy/51954827811) On April 9, a roughly three-inch long helium check valve on the rocket’s [second stage](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/fs/ICPS.html) [failed](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/04/09/artemis-i-wet-dress-rehearsal-update). Without it, helium can’t adequately clear the rocket’s fuel lines and purge the engines to enable safe, backflow-free fuel loading and draining. This valve needs to be either fixed or replaced. But NASA has [decided not to do so](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/04/09/artemis-i-wet-dress-rehearsal-update) and proceed with a reduced rehearsal scope on April 14, wherein they’ll only fully fuel and test the core stage while barely testing parts of the second stage. Assuming the reduced test is successful, NASA will roll back the SLS rocket to its assembly building to either fix or replace the fault second stage valve, and then decide the next steps. ## ESA astronaut tests fancy lunar lander simulator Italian ESA astronaut Roberto Vittori [recently tested a robotic motion simulator](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FEngineering%5FTechnology/ESA%5Fastronaut%5Fperforms%5Fsimulated%5Fpolar%5FMoon%5Flanding) at the German Aerospace Center DLR, which was configured to mimic a lander’s motions during a touchdown on the [challenging terrain](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/SPole%5FSRidgemap%5FLOLA-Slope5m%5Fv20190515.pdf) at the Moon’s south pole. ESA’s goal with this and future such activities is to help establish preliminary requirements for designing an eventual crewed lunar lander. Roberto tested multiple landing scenarios, including manually avoiding hazardous landing regions as well as overriding autonomous landing in favor of manual controls after experiencing technical faults. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f0bb1b0e9-6fd2-4a20-9f96-cf150dd1c190_2010x1508-jpeg.jpg) Test of the DLR Robotic Motion Simulator configured for a lunar polar landing. [Credit: ESA / DLR](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oIuJkGh8zvI) ## Watchdog agency concerned with NASA’s CLPS program planning The [latest report](https://oig.nasa.gov/docs/IG-22-010.pdf) from NASA’s Office of Inspector General (OIG) concerns NASA’s [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) mission, which is to be delivered to the Moon’s south pole onboard Astrobotic’s Griffin lander as part of the agency’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) in late 2023\. The OIG says that NASA doesn’t have a reliable true cost estimate for the mission because it separates its own costs to build and operate VIPER, currently at $433.5 million, from the funding the agency provides to Astrobotic to build their lander, which is currently estimated to be $235.6 million instead of the [originally awarded $199.5 million](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-astrobotic-to-fly-water-hunting-rover-to-the-moon) and the [later increased price of $226.5 million](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-rover-to-search-for-water-other-resources-on-moon). The OIG says the said unreliability and cost discrepancy is because NASA chose not to use two key project oversight tools for the CLPS program it otherwise uses as standard for other missions. These tools are the Joint Cost and Schedule Confidence Level (JCL) analysis and Earned Value Management suites respectively. ## More contenders for NASA’s Artemis crewed rover NASA’s Artemis Lunar Terrain Vehicle (LTV), [launching no earlier than 2028](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-71/), will be [far more capable](https://jatan.space/what-we-know-about-artemis-ltv/) than the [Apollo LRV](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/apollo%5Flrv.html), allowing astronauts to explore 20 kilometers across the Moon’s [rugged south polar terrain](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/SPole%5FSRidgemap%5FLOLA-Slope5m%5Fv20190515.pdf), including [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/). Unlike Apollo, the LTV will be used across multiple missions for at least 10 years. While we wait for NASA to solicit LTV proposals from U.S. companies in the coming months, here are all the proposers we know including the latest one. - Lockheed Martin is [partnering with](https://www.lockheedmartin.com/en-us/news/features/2021/lunar-terrain-vehicle.html) General Motors, who helped develop Apollo’s LRV, to build an LTV-class rover. It will be able to preposition itself near a landing site prior to astronauts arriving on future Artemis missions, and conduct autonomous science operations. They announced last week that the rover will sport an [MDA-provided robotic arm](https://mda.space/en/article/mda-joins-lockheed-martin-and-general-motors-on-lunar-rover) too. MDA is also building the robotic arm [Canadarm3](https://asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/canadarm3/about.asp) for the NASA-led crewed [Gateway lunar station](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway). - Northrop Grumman and its partners are building [an LTV-class autonomous rover](https://www.northropgrumman.com/space/lunar-terrain-vehicle) in both crew and cargo variants. - Astrolab will bid their [Flexible Logistics and Exploration (FLEX) rover](https://astrolab.space/news/blog/1). Unlike Lockheed and Northrop’s concepts, as far as we know, FLEX already has a [fully-functional terrestrial prototype](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SfT6HIc9OPw), which has been tested for mobility, crewed and remote operations, and to deploy a variety of large payloads. - Last week Teledyne Brown Engineering, Sierra Space and Nissan North America revealed their partnership to [bid an LTV-class rover](https://usa.nissannews.com/en-US/releases/teledyne-sierra-space-and-nissan-designing-next-generation-lunar-terrain-vehicle-for-nasa) as well. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fbf0a234b-c90a-485f-9bd6-661b25eb811b_2400x1300-jpeg.jpg) Concept image of the Northrop-Grumman-led crewed and cargo lunar rovers to be proposed for NASA’s Artemis program. [Credit: Northrop Grumman](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5Jak6yv2Hug) ## More Moon - The launch of Russia’s [Luna 25 Moon landing mission](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-62/) has been [delayed to August 2022](https://www.leonarddavid.com/russias-luna-25-back-to-the-moon-new-launch-date) instead of July. - India’s [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-3-prelaunch-info/) Moon landing mission will [launch in 2023](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/2-gaganyaan-abort-tests-in-august-december-relay-satellites-next-year/articleshow/90688885.cms) instead of 2022 in order to complete additional landing tests. - Did you know? India’s Chandrayaan 2 lunar orbiter [is also a Sun watcher](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-orbiter-is-also-a-sun-watcher/)! - On March 31, Northrop Grumman [successfully completed testing](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/final-nasa-test-qualifies-orion-s-abort-system-for-crewed-artemis-missions) its abort motor part of the [emergency abort system](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/orion%5Flas%5Ffact%5Fsheet%5F8.5x11%5F4page%5F11%5F19%5F15.pdf) on NASA’s [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/orion/about/index.html). It will be onboard [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to)’s launch in 2024, NASA’s first crewed Artemis mission. - The [Center for Lunar Science and Exploration](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/exploration) is [inviting High School students](https://sservi.nasa.gov/articles/2022-2023-exmass-high-school-research-program) to apply for the free, year-long planetary science academic research program called [Exploration of the Moon and Asteroids by Secondary Students](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/exploration/education/hsResearch) (ExMASS). ### India’s Chandrayaan 2 lunar orbiter is also a Sun watcher URL: https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-orbiter-is-also-a-sun-watcher/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:28.000Z India’s [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) doesn’t just [study the Moon’s surface](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-44/) but also observes the Sun. Its high-resolution *[Solar X-ray Monitor](https://arxiv.org/pdf/1910.09231.pdf)* (XSM) is used to [study solar flares](https://web.archive.org/web/20220804151604/https://www.isro.gov.in/update/22-jun-2021/unraveling-mysteries-of-solar-corona-new-results-chandrayaan-2-solar-x-ray) and [provide a reference](https://web.archive.org/web/20220804152429/https://www.isro.gov.in/update/10-oct-2019/solar-flare-observed-solar-x-ray-monitor-chandrayaan-2) for the *[Chandrayaan-2 Large Area Soft X-ray Spectrometer](http://oro.open.ac.uk/29976/1/CLASS%5F2011%5FLunar%5FPlanetary%5FScience%5FConf.pdf)* (CLASS) instrument, which maps elements on the Moon’s surface. ## Studying the Sun’s micro-flares In 2021, Indian scientists published two results based on unique observations by the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter that advance [our understanding of our Sun](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/). I’ll quote from the rare but good [announcement post](https://www.isro.gov.in/update/22-jun-2021/unraveling-mysteries-of-solar-corona-new-results-chandrayaan-2-solar-x-ray) ISRO put out on the results (links to research papers added by me): > A remarkable and surprising observation is the detection of [a large number (98) of extremely small flares](https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/abf0b0) in the quiet corona. These flares are so small that their intensity is well below the standard scale to classify solar flares (i.e. A, B, C, M, and X class flares, where each class is 10 times more intense than previous), and hence these are termed as “sub-A class micro-flares”. > > \[…\] > > This was the first observation and statistical study of such a large sample of micro-flares in the quiet Sun, supporting the hypothesis of the presence of even smaller scale flares everywhere on the solar corona that could be responsible for the coronal heating. > > The X-ray emission over these 76 days, excluding the durations of the micro-flares, is unusually constant. This is the lowest intensity of X-ray emission observed from the Sun since space-borne observations began. Analysis of the XSM spectra of the quiet Sun, excluding the micro-flares, provided the measurement of abundances of various elements. \[…\] For the first time, [absolute abundances of elemental Mg, Al, Si in the quiet solar corona are derived](https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/abf35d). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f46292acc-b030-4a0f-adc0-6abcb1efbf76_2179x1517-jpeg.jpg) Panel (a) shows the successful detection of a micro-flare on the Sun by India’s Chandrayaan 2 orbiter. Panels (b) and (c) show its location in a NASA SDO image. See linked paper for the full caption. [Credits: Santosh V. Vadawale, et al.](https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/abf0b0#apjlabf0b0f3) This detection of micro-flares is important because scientists think they’re relevant to unlocking a fundamental mystery about our Sun: why is its extended atmosphere, the corona, much hotter than its surface? Scientists have been [debating since the 1940s](https://science.nasa.gov/news-articles/the-mystery-of-coronal-heating) how the Sun’s atmosphere is heated to a million degrees Celsius while the surface remains a scant 6,000 degrees. The recently launched ESA-led [Solar Orbiter mission](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Space%5FScience/Solar%5FOrbiter/Why%5Fwe%5Fneed%5FSolar%5FOrbiter)’s initial close-up images of the Sun have already turned up a promising clue. In 2020, it saw numerous [tiny solar eruptions](http://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Space%5FScience/Solar%5FOrbiter/Solar%5FOrbiter%5Fs%5Ffirst%5Fimages%5Freveal%5Fcampfires%5Fon%5Fthe%5FSun) across the Sun’s surface for the first time, each with [temperatures around a million degrees Celsius](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2021/04/What%5Fdo%5Fwe%5Fknow%5Fabout%5Fsolar%5Fcampfires%5Fso%5Ffar), something which had only been predicted until now. Many scientists think these nano-flares play a major role in heating the corona. While the micro-flares observed by the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter are larger and more intense than these nano-flares, they’re thought to contribute significantly to coronal heating too. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f5d77daa9-4f8a-4b9a-bf4a-48d53786455e_4000x3500-jpeg.jpg) A high-resolution image of the Sun from ESA’s Solar Orbiter spacecraft, taken on May 30, 2020\. The lower left circle indicates Earth’s size for scale. The arrow points to one of the ubiquitous solar nano-flares. [Credit: ESA](http://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Space%5FScience/Solar%5FOrbiter/Solar%5FOrbiter%5Fs%5Ffirst%5Fimages%5Freveal%5Fcampfires%5Fon%5Fthe%5FSun) More images over the next few years from the Solar orbiter, including when its orbit will be inclined by 2025 to closely image the Sun’s poles, and continuing micro-flare observations from solar observatories like the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter should hopefully reveal more clues. ## Protecting future lunar explorers In addition to XSM, the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter’s CLASS instrument [can detect](https://www.isro.gov.in/update/03-oct-2019/studying-earth%E2%80%99s-extended-magnetosphere-geotailplasma-around-moon) some solar events too. In January 2022, CLASS [detected two highly energetic proton emission events](https://www.isro.gov.in/update/23-feb-2022/chandrayaan-2-detected-solar-proton-events-due-to-high-intensity-solar-flares) in [the solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/), the incessant stream of charged particles emanating from the Sun. NASA’s GOES-16 satellite couldn’t detect one of the two events because Earth’s magnetic field provided shielding from said particles. The Chandrayaan 2 orbiter being in lunar orbit could detect the particles, just as other solar observers outside Earth’s magnetic field can. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ff69dc278-18a0-4ba5-8e11-4e5192f1a7dc_1080x602-jpeg.jpg) The rate of protons recorded by India’s Chandrayaan 2 lunar orbiter (blue) and NASA’s GOES Earth orbiter (red). [Credits: ISRO / NASA](https://www.isro.gov.in/update/23-feb-2022/chandrayaan-2-detected-solar-proton-events-due-to-high-intensity-solar-flares) From August 4 through 7 in 1972, the Sun blurted [several bursts of flares](http://spaceweatherlivinghistory.org/timeline/31) and associated energetic particles between the Apollo 16 and 17 missions to the Moon. Had the astronauts been in lunar orbit or on the surface, they could’ve faced damaging levels of radiation. This could, in turn, lead to increased cancer risk. [As we prepare](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/) to send astronauts on much longer Moon missions and beyond, we’ll need to [protect our explorers](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/scientists-and-engineers-evaluate-orion-radiation-protection-plan) from such solar flaring and energetic particles that reach Earth-Moon space in a matter of hours. The Chandrayaan 2 orbiter and other such Sun-watchers are aiding in the same by improving our understanding of solar flares as well as the nature of solar energetic particle events at the Moon. *December 2022 update: Scientists have now published the orbiter’s [nano-flare related observations](https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/aca078) as well, studying which is helping unravel more coronal heating mechanisms.* --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### The Moon link list URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-link-list/ Last updated: 2025-03-22T16:39:10.000Z *This page is for my reference but you may find it useful too. I’ll add more links as and when I need to use them repeatedly.* --- ## USA - [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/artemis/) - [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords) - [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-i/) - [All secondary experiments](https://jatan.space/science-on-artemis-i/) - [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii) - [Artemis II astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis) - [Artemis astronauts corps](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-names-artemis-team-of-astronauts-eligible-for-early-moon-missions/) - [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/) - [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/reference/space-launch-system/) - [HLS program](https://www.nasa.gov/nextstep/humanlander2) - [HLS selections](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-selects-blue-origin-dynetics-spacex-for-artemis-human-landers) - [SpaceX Starship for Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) - [SpaceX Starship](https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/starship/), the vehicle - [Sustaining Lunar Development project](https://www.nasa.gov/nextstep/humanlander4) - [Artemis IV](https://www.nasa.gov/general/nasas-artemis-iv-building-first-lunar-space-station/) - [Contract to SpaceX](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-spacex-second-contract-option-for-artemis-moon-landing-0) - [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/meet-nasa-s-orion-spacecraft) - [European Service Module](https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/space/esm) - [Gateway lunar station](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) - [Habitation and Logistics Outpost (HALO)](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-northrop-grumman-finalize-moon-outpost-living-quarters-contract) - [Power and Propulsion Element (PPE)](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-artemis-contract-for-lunar-gateway-power-propulsion) - International contributions - [Canadarm3](https://asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/canadarm3/about.asp) - [International Habitation (i-HAB) module](https://liquifer.com/gateway-i-hab) - [HTV-X](https://humans-in-space.jaxa.jp/en/htv-x) - [LunaNet](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2021/lunanet-empowering-artemis-with-communications-and-navigation-interoperability) - [Artemis Base Camp](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept) - [Artemis Science priorites](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/artemis-iii-science-definition-report-12042020c.pdf) - [CLPS missions](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) ## China - [International Scientific Lunar Station](https://spacenews.com/china-russia-open-moon-base-project-to-international-partners-early-details-emerge/) ## India - [Chandrayaan 3](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-3-prelaunch-info/) - [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) - [Chandrayaan 1](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-1/) ## Europe - [Lunar Pathfinder](https://www.esa.int/Applications/Navigation/Galileo%5Fwill%5Fhelp%5FLunar%5FPathfinder%5Fnavigate%5Faround%5FMoon) - [Argonaut](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Exploration/Argonaut), aka the European Large Logistic Lander - [Moonlight](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-65/) ## Japan - ispace [Hakuto-R](https://ispace-inc.com/hakuto-r/eng/about): Mission 1 (2022) and Mission 2 (2024) - [SLIM lander](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=SLIM) - [LUPEX rover](https://www.exploration.jaxa.jp/e/program/lunarpolar/) (Joint mission with ISRO) ## General - [Permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) - [Unfavorable lighting conditions](https://www.nasa.gov/ames/feature/the-dark-side-of-the-crater-how-light-looks-different-on-the-moon-and-what-nasa-is-doing) - [Ultimate guide to water on the Moon](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) - [Curated Moon page](https://blog.jatan.space/our-moon) ### Moon Monday #71: NASA’s budget, Artemis mission delays, exploring Moon rocks in 3D, and more updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-71/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:28.000Z ## NASA’s latest budget request finally acknowledges overlooked parts of Artemis The U.S. Presidential [FY 2023 budget request](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/fy23%5Fnasa%5Fbudget%5Frequest%5Ffull%5Fopt.pdf) for NASA released on March 28 proposes nearly $26 billion in funding for the space agency, an 8% increase over the amount approved by the U.S. Congress for FY 2022\. The budget mostly continues to ask for similar levels of funding for lunar programs like the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) and [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/orion/about/index.html) while requesting increases to improve the state of other overlooked programs key to NASA’s [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) campaign to [sustainably](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept) return humans to the Moon. These latter bunch include the following. - NASA is asking $1.5 billion, compared to last year’s $1.2 billion, for development of crewed lunar landers by U.S. companies. This is modest at best because the funding would be divided between NASA’s selection of [SpaceX Lunar Starship for Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon), an alternative provider for the same mission, and the [previously discussed](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-70/) sustainability upgrades for Lunar Starship as well as the agency selecting a second company, as part of the [Sustaining Lunar Development (SLD) project](https://www.nasa.gov/nextstep/humanlander4), to compete with said Starship for future crewed missions. Related: NASA somewhat quietly [released](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-invites-us-industry-to-build-additional-astronaut-moon-landers) the [draft SLD solicitation](https://sam.gov/opp/69caee776b304322a256acd0b5deaf57/view) on March 31 to get industry feedback before releasing the final solicitation by August. - NASA is requesting $276 million instead of the previous $100 million to accelerate development of [lunar spacesuits](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-47/), which are delayed, as well as [crewed rovers](https://jatan.space/what-we-know-about-artemis-ltv/) and other mobility systems. - The agency also wants $48 million to begin meticulous planning for future Artemis missions, a [baseline sustainable habitat](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept), and more. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f58bfd696-65fb-4637-b02b-2c69d48edc2c_2260x1260-jpeg-1.jpg) NASA’s FY 2023 [Budget Request](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/fy23%5Fnasa%5Fbudget%5Frequest%5Ffull%5Fopt.pdf), [Fact Sheet](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/fy23%5Fagency%5Ffact%5Fsheets.pdf) and [Summary slides](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/fy23%5Fnasa%5Fbudget%5Frequest%5Fsummary.pdf) Of course, we’ll find out later this year how much of NASA’s budget request actually gets funded by the U.S. Congress. While the FY 2023 request starts working towards closing critical gaps in NASA’s planning of its lunar ambitions, the FY 2024 request will need to be bolder for hardware to materialize in time. ## More launch delays for Artemis Moon Missions A slide from the [FY 2023 budget request summary](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/fy23%5Fnasa%5Fbudget%5Frequest%5Fsummary.pdf) reveals that several Moon missions part of or related to NASA’s Artemis campaign have been delayed, including a couple of commercial lunar landings funded by the agency’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fa5bfe431-1a28-4ae1-90b3-2b0a348df7e0_2770x1560-jpeg.jpg) Launch timeline of missions related to NASA’s Artemis campaign. [Credit: NASA FY 2023 budget request summary](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/fy23%5Fnasa%5Fbudget%5Frequest%5Fsummary.pdf) - Intuitive Machines’ [second Moon landing mission](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-to-land-water-measuring-payload-on-the-moon) has been delayed from December 2022 to 2023. - Firefly’s [first Moon landing mission](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-firefly-aerospace-for-artemis-commercial-moon-delivery-in-2023) has been delayed from September 2023 to 2024. - The uncrewed landing demonstration of SpaceX’s Lunar Starship, before carrying crew for [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon), has been delayed from 2023 to 2024. - ESA’s [Lunar Pathfinder](https://bsgn.esa.int/service/lunar-pathfinder) has been delayed from 2024 to 2025 (NASA is planning to use Pathfinder as a relay service for an upcoming CLPS mission) - Artemis IV, which will not attempt a lunar landing and instead advance the assembly of the NASA-led international [Gateway lunar station](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway), has been delayed to 2027 instead of 2026\. Specifically, Artemis IV will deliver the ESA- and JAXA-developed [International Habitation module](https://liquifer.com/gateway-i-hab) (i-HAB) to the Gateway. By that point, Gateway would be in its [unique lunar orbit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-rectilinear%5Fhalo%5Forbit) and consist of its two initial modules—the [Power and Propulsion Element](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-artemis-contract-for-lunar-gateway-power-propulsion) (PPE) and the [Habitation and Logistics Outpost](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-northrop-grumman-finalize-moon-outpost-living-quarters-contract) (HALO)—launched on a SpaceX Falcon Heavy rocket in late 2024\. i-HAB will provide more space for crew to live, work, and conduct research in compared to the HALO module. Artemis IV will not only be the first mission to send astronauts to the Gateway but also be the first flight of the SLS rocket’s [Block 1B](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/sls%5Flift%5Fcapabilities%5Fand%5Fconfigurations%5F508%5F08202018%5F0.pdf) version with an upgraded upper stage. - The Artemis V mission, which will see humans landing on the Moon after visiting the Gateway, will now launch in 2028 instead of 2027\. The mission will deliver ESA’s [ESPRIT communications and refueling module](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/European%5FGateway%5Fmodule%5Fto%5Fbe%5Fbuilt%5Fin%5FFrance%5Fas%5FThomas%5FPesquet%5Freadies%5Ffor%5Fsecond%5Fspaceflight), the [Canadian robotic arm system](https://asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/canadarm3/about.asp), an advanced [crewed lunar rover](https://jatan.space/what-we-know-about-artemis-ltv/), and astronauts to the Gateway. A commercial human landing system, competitively selected by the [aforementioned process](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-70/), will dock with the Gateway and then land the astronauts and their rover on the Moon. ## The SLS rocket’s wet dress rehearsal starts today The NASA SLS rocket’s [wet dress rehearsal](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-readies-rocket-for-artemis-i-wet-dress-rehearsal) test originally scheduled for April 1-3 was first delayed by a standard hold procedure due to [four lightning strikes](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/04/02/teams-proceeding-with-overnight-operations-for-artemis-i-wet-dress-rehearsal) to the launchpad’s protective lightning towers on April 2 followed by [an unrelated issue on April 3](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/04/03/artemis-i-wet-dress-rehearsal-scrub) with safely pressuring the rocket’s mobile launcher. Technicians fixed the issue overnight and as of the time of this post being published, the rocket’s fueling and ensuing countdown rehearsals are [planned for April 4](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/04/03/artemis-i-wet-dress-rehearsal-testing-continues) . If NASA doesn’t complete the test today, there [might be more delays](https://spacenews.com/nasa-scrubs-first-attempt-at-sls-countdown-rehearsal) due to logistical challenges. Related: Here’s the [detailed countdown timeline](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/03/31/artemis-i-wet-dress-rehearsal-preparations-underway) for the test, which will be similar to the one during the launch of the SLS rocket for the [Artemis I Moon mission](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/around-the-moon-with-nasa-s-first-launch-of-sls-with-orion) in June or later. ## Astromaterials 3D lets you hold Moon rocks Bringing samples from the Moon and other worlds is exciting as it allows us a really close and definitive look at [our solar system’s history](https://jatan.space/solar-system-history-101/). But getting access to [Moon rocks](https://curator.jsc.nasa.gov/lunar/lsc) is difficult for average folks like me. This is where NASA [ARES division’s](https://ares.jsc.nasa.gov/) website [Astromaterials 3D](https://ares.jsc.nasa.gov/astromaterials3d/) comes in. The site, which recently added 20 new samples, allows us to view Apollo rocks and lunar meteorites in an information-rich 3D viewer and manipulator, almost [as if a rock is in your hands](https://ares.jsc.nasa.gov/astromaterials3d/explorer/?sample=10021-79). Note: If opening the Explorer on a mobile browser, request the site’s Desktop version to be able to use it. [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f2c04e351-bd81-4a81-b65d-eea53b7554a2_2840x1560-jpeg.jpg)](https://ares.jsc.nasa.gov/astromaterials3d/explorer/?sample=10021-79) Screenshot of [Apollo 11 sample 10021,79 in Astromaterials 3D explorer](https://ares.jsc.nasa.gov/astromaterials3d/explorer/?sample=10021-79) With the Astromaterials 3D explorer, we can follow each rock’s history, watch actual footage of the specimen being collected by an astronaut in case of Apollo, slice the sample, browse curated descriptions by scientists, and download high-resolution 3D model files. The Astromaterials 3D [team](https://ares.jsc.nasa.gov/astromaterials3d/project-team.htm) created these models using [an elaborate process](https://ares.jsc.nasa.gov/astromaterials3d/project-technology.htm) that includes manually photographing the rocks from at least 240 different angles in a nitrogen cabinet in a cleanroom and using a raft of scanning tools. **Related:** - [virtualmicroscope.org](https://www.virtualmicroscope.org/collections/apollo) lets you see more than 500 Apollo samples with a virtual microscope. - The UK has a nice [Borrow the Moon program](https://www.ukri.org/what-we-offer/teaching-resources/borrow-the-moon/), wherein schools can get a box containing a slice of moon rock, meteorite samples and related learning activities for up to a week. - [Recent re-research](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-021-26841-4#Sec7) on the lunar rock sample troctolite 76535, collected by Apollo 17 in 1972, finds that the Moon’s magma [may have cooled much faster](https://www.soest.hawaii.edu/soestwp/announce/news/advanced-analysis-of-apollo-sample-illuminates-moons-evolution) after [our Moon’s formation](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/) than previously thought. It’s yet another example of how reexamining Apollo samples using modern techniques is reshaping our understanding of planetary evolution. ## More Moon - As one of the first benefits of a [broader technical support agreement](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Operations/ESA%5FGround%5FStations/ESA%5Fand%5FIndian%5Fspace%5Fagency%5FISRO%5Fagree%5Fon%5Ffuture%5Fcooperation) signed last year between ESA and ISRO, [ESA will provide backup communications](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Operations/ESA%5FGround%5FStations/ESA%5Fsupports%5FIndian%5Flunar%5Fand%5Fsolar%5Fmissions) via their [Estrack network](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Operations/ESA%5FGround%5FStations/Estrack%5Fground%5Fstations) for India’s Chandrayaan 3 mission launching later this year. This development follows a similar agreement between ISRO and NASA last month, the details of which and that of the mission I’ve covered in the [previous Moon Monday issue](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-70/). - On March 28, Singapore [became the 18th country to sign](https://spacenews.com/singapore-signs-the-artemis-accords) the U.S.-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html) for cooperative space exploration. It’s the third Asian country to sign the Accords, following Japan and South Korea. - ESA has [awarded €75 000 each to five winning teams](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FEngineering%5FTechnology/Winning%5Frovers%5Fof%5Flunar%5Fpolar%5Fchallenge) part of [a challenge](https://www.spaceresourceschallenge.esa.int) for proving their rover’s ability to prospect for resources in a lunar polar terrain analogue testbed. This award will be used to enhance their designs for a final test, the winning one of which will be considered for a future ESA mission. - [Gallery of weird yet wonderful features on our Moon](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-weird-lunar-features/): [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f987acf2b-4285-482b-b86a-c494b408dd4f_2000x1600-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-weird-lunar-features/) --- > *Thank you [The Orbital Index](https://orbitalindex.com) for supporting me and powering this week’s Moon Monday!* > > *Everyone, I’m writing this world’s only newsletter dedicated to covering global lunar exploration and science developments. It’s free, with no ads. Donate to keep it going.* [Donate to Moon Monday 🌗](https://jatan.space/support) ### Gallery: Just some weird yet wonderful features on our Moon URL: https://jatan.space/gallery-of-weird-lunar-features/ Last updated: 2024-02-24T10:36:05.000Z This is the third blog post in a curated gallery series touring pretty sights on our Moon, following views of [marvelous mountains](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-moon-mountains/) and [lovely lava channels](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-lunar-lava-channels/). This time around I’m picking sights which either aren’t a popular geologic feature or are just plain weird, and all of which formed via unique mechanisms, some of which aren’t yet understood. **Note:* You can click on the images to learn about each feature.* [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9f2ed3b5-039c-468d-a19f-bb4811bb849d_2000x1600-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/ina-irregular-mare-patch/) ****The enigmatic volcanic feature of** [****Ina**](https://jatan.space/ina-irregular-mare-patch/) **on the Moon.** [****Credit: NASA LRO**](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ina%5F%28LRO%29.jpg) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fc8e5981a-2662-4bee-b440-92fb7b1861eb_1407x1141-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/the-moon-has-wrinkles-dorsum-zirkel/) ****The 190 kilometers long wrinkled ridge of** [****Dorsum Zirkel**](https://jatan.space/the-moon-has-wrinkles-dorsum-zirkel/) **on the Moon, as captured by Apollo 15 from orbit.** [****Credits: NASA / James Stuby**](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dorsum%5FZirkel%5FA15-M-1554.jpg)****.** ***Also see:** [***A fault on the Moon**](https://jatan.space/a-fault-on-the-moon/) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fd2ea9eae-62d6-4cdb-9c81-53e4a288dd3c_1000x750-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/swirls-on-the-moon/) ****Beautiful and bright magnetic lunar swirl of** [****Reiner Gamma**](https://jatan.space/swirls-on-the-moon/)****. It spans well over a hundred kilometers.** [****Credit: NASA LRO**](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Reiner%5FGamma.jpg) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f6c2d0758-9792-488d-ba25-a78ba725ca02_1779x1000-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/the-collapsed-crater-of-hyginus/) ****The 220 kilometers long collapsed volcanic** [****caldera and rilles of Hyginus**](https://jatan.space/the-collapsed-crater-of-hyginus/)****.** [****Credits: NASA / James Stuby**](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rima%5FHyginus%5F3073%5Fmed.jpg) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f61064e30-152b-41f5-8d38-d12c7eabec84_1499x1368-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/cone-shaped-flows/) [****Cone-shaped landslide material flows**](https://jatan.space/cone-shaped-flows/)****, also** [****observed on Earth**](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:TalusConesIsfjorden.jpg) **at similarly large scales. Image is about 600 meters across.** [****Credit: NASA LRO**](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/477) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f31d533d0-250a-4c5e-99b5-f608a9130826_800x780-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/lunar-kipuka/) ****A** [****lunar kipuka**](https://jatan.space/lunar-kipuka/)****—a crater breached by lava flows and filled almost to the brim during the time of active volcanism on the Moon. Image is about 2.7 kilometers across.** [****Credit: NASA LRO**](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/671) --- Hope you enjoyed these curated views of some of the most weird yet intriguing lunar features. If you’d like to browse more nifty places on our Moon, the NASA LRO outreach team has [a fantastic blog](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts). ### Moon Monday #70: NASA’s brilliant move for crewed Moon landings, and all lunar updates from last week URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-70/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:28.000Z ## NASA’s new plan to keep sending humans to the Moon On March 23, NASA announced [a change in strategy](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-provides-update-to-astronaut-moon-lander-plans-under-artemis) for one of the most important pieces of [sustaining human presence on the Moon](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept)—ferrying [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) astronauts to and fro the lunar surface after [the first crewed landing on a SpaceX Starship](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) in 2025\. While NASA was [previously planning](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-45/) to award at least two sustainable, commercial crewed lunar lander proposals by U.S. companies under the [Lunar Exploration Transportation Services](https://www.nasa.gov/nextstep/humanlander3) (LETS) program, of which SpaceX was a contender, the agency is now pursuing two parallel paths. - NASA has extended SpaceX’s original contract to land the first Artemis astronauts on the Moon, by exercising ‘Appendix H Option B’, to include another crewed landing with an upgraded Starship lunar lander. This Starship will have enhanced lander capabilities that NASA desires, and will co-fund development of, such as supporting longer stays, carrying more astronauts and science & technology payloads to the surface, and the ability to dock with the NASA-led [Gateway lunar station](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway). - NASA will seek proposals from companies other than SpaceX [later this year](https://www.nasa.gov/nextstep/humanlander4) to select another similarly capable lander. The selected company will be awarded a fixed-price, milestone-based contract, just like SpaceX’s case, to demonstrate an uncrewed lunar landing and crewed-landing-readiness by 2027\. This will ensure competition while providing NASA redundancy in transporting astronauts and large amounts cargo to the Moon in all future Artemis flights, something demonstrated to be a good model at the International Space Station. May I note just how brilliant this move by NASA is. The agency now gets to continue to [tap into Starship’s potential for their own needs](https://www.planetary.org/articles/why-nasa-picked-spacex-to-land-humans-on-the-moon) by ensuring continued system upgrades while also enabling healthy competition to keep incessant (and sometimes hypocritical) U.S. Congress complaints at bay. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fd5a30423-5771-44e3-95df-a8676b593439_4800x2500-jpeg.jpg) An illustration of SpaceX’s Lunar Starship that will land the first Artemis astronauts on the Moon this decade. SpaceX will upgrade the lander for NASA’s future, more ambitious crewed missions. [Credit: SpaceX](https://www.spacex.com/updates/starship-moon-announcement/index.html) The new direction for crewed lunar landers does build on [progress](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-45/) being made by NASA’s cumulative [$146 million funding](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-five-us-companies-to-mature-artemis-lander-concepts/) last year to Blue Origin, Lockheed Martin, Northrop Grumman, SpaceX and Dynetics to [specifically conduct risk reduction studies](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/source-selection-statement-appendix-n.pdf) on their otherwise good lunar lander proposals. ## ISRO continues to bag NASA support for Chandrayaan Shared as a small note in the [February monthly summary of India’s Department of Space](https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/article-files/monthly-summary-of-department-of-space-last-1-year/february-2022-monthly%5Fsummary.pdf) is ISRO and NASA’s signing of an agreement in February to use the latter’s [Deep Space Network](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/heo/scan/services/networks/deep%5Fspace%5Fnetwork/about) (DSN) to support communications for the Chandrayaan 3 Moon landing mission later this year. The agreement also continues support for the active [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/). ISRO uses its own [Indian Deep Space Network](https://www.isro.gov.in/indian-space-science-data-centre-issdc-gateway-to-indias-space-science-data) as a primary means for communicating with its planetary spacecraft but partners with NASA and other agencies for backup and secondary options. India’s Chandrayaan 1 orbiter had DSN support too. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f8828086a-9842-46e8-bdca-659f0191bcca_1500x1000-jpeg.jpg) An artist’s impression of Chandrayaan 2’s lander and rover on the Moon. Since the mission’s landing part failed, India is reattempting it with Chandrayaan 3\. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=--8ORixBXQE) After India’s [Chandrayaan 2 lander](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-2-moon-landing-mission/) unfortunately [failed](http://www.planetary.org/blogs/jason-davis/vikram-apparently-crash-lands.html) in the final mission phase, ISRO undertook a repeat mission with Chandrayaan 3, this time with upgrades such as software improvements, strengthened legs, and better power and communication systems. The mission will also have an orbiter to propel the lander to the Moon as well as to relay communications during and after landing. The Chandrayaan 2 orbiter will serve as a backup (and secondary) relay provider. The Chandrayaan 3 lander will carry, among other experiments, a thermal probe and a seismometer to study the Moon’s interior. Being a repeat of Chandrayaan 2’s landing attempt, Chandrayaan 3’s landing region is expected to be [in a near-polar lunar highland too](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-landing-site-in-the-southern-highlands/). As such, its rover will have a pair of spectrometers to determine what the ancient lunar crust is made of. For a mission launching this year, and a critical one at that, it’s frustrating as an Indian to see ISRO not even have a one-pager on their website about Chandrayaan 3. ## Firefly selects goldilocks landing site for its first Moon mission Firefly has selected the landing site for [their first lunar mission](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-firefly-aerospace-for-artemis-commercial-moon-delivery-in-2023) in September 2023 part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). Their 2-meter tall Blue Ghost lander, carrying 155 kilograms of NASA and commercial payloads, will attempt to touchdown in a landing ellipse centered at [18.56°N, 61.81°E](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/layers?extent=32.3183354,2.1767335,87.4184986,28.5573354&camera=1324706.9857147879,2282338.9394414215,804946.1147374101,6.2831853071795845,-1.5707963267948966,0,2758959.5647857916&proj=22&features=61.80687753,18.56119270@@{%22label%22:%22Firefly%20CLPS%20Mission%201%20landing%20site%22}&selected=0&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFaaKBJ-Im64NOZFkRdi5KjwpA), which lies in the lava plains of Mare Crisium as required by NASA. The [landing site selection process](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2022/pdf/1390.pdf) involved down-selecting sites within Crisium based on some of the following main criteria. - Analyze data from NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html) and Earth’s Arecibo radar to find areas with the lowest density of large craters (> 2 meters), gentle slopes of less than 5°, and no boulders at the 1-2-meter scale for a safe landing - Take into account other engineering requirements such as having an obstruction-free line of sight from the lander to the Sun and Earth - Balancing (as is usual) several conflicting requirements from various scientific instruments onboard This completes another milestone for Firefly after [successfully passing NASA’s Critical Design Review](https://firefly.com/firefly-aerospace-is-one-step-closer-to-landing-on-the-moon) in October 2021, which allowed it to start building the lander hardware. [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f3728f986-0bae-4be6-a4d4-dd6255ef5f03_1772x1318-jpeg.jpg)](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/layers?extent=32.3183354,2.1767335,87.4184986,28.5573354&camera=1324706.9857147879,2282338.9394414215,804946.1147374101,6.2831853071795845,-1.5707963267948966,0,2758959.5647857916&proj=22&features=61.80687753,18.56119270@@{%22label%22:%22Firefly%20CLPS%20Mission%201%20landing%20site%22}&selected=0&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFaaKBJ-Im64NOZFkRdi5KjwpA) Firefly’s first Moon mission’s landing site within Mare Crisium on the Moon, marked by a blue dot. [Click to explore](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/layers?extent=32.3183354,2.1767335,87.4184986,28.5573354&camera=1324706.9857147879,2282338.9394414215,804946.1147374101,6.2831853071795845,-1.5707963267948966,0,2758959.5647857916&proj=22&features=61.80687753,18.56119270@@{%22label%22:%22Firefly%20CLPS%20Mission%201%20landing%20site%22}&selected=0&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFaaKBJ-Im64NOZFkRdi5KjwpA) on a map. [Credit: LROC Quickmap](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/layers?extent=32.3183354,2.1767335,87.4184986,28.5573354&camera=1324706.9857147879,2282338.9394414215,804946.1147374101,6.2831853071795845,-1.5707963267948966,0,2758959.5647857916&proj=22&features=61.80687753,18.56119270@@{%22label%22:%22Firefly%20CLPS%20Mission%201%20landing%20site%22}&selected=0&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdC0ypcOKbRFaaKBJ-Im64NOZFkRdi5KjwpA) The [10 NASA instruments](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-firefly-aerospace-for-artemis-commercial-moon-delivery-in-2023) onboard the mission not only span a spectrum of purposes but many of them are first of a kind. For example, the spacecraft will have hardware for NASA’s first attempt to get a [GPS lock from the Moon](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2021/nasa-explores-upper-limits-of-global-navigation-systems-for-artemis). One of the lander’s legs will feature [PlanetVac](https://www.planetary.org/sci-tech/planetvac), a low-cost soil sampling technology partially funded by The Planetary Society to enable future sample return missions from the Moon, Mars and other planetary bodies. A sounder instrument onboard, a flight spare from NASA’s [MAVEN orbiter](https://jatan.space/nasa-maven-mars-orbiter/) at Mars, will study local electric and magnetic fields with high sensitivity to infer the structure of the Moon’s interior. A probe will dig 2 to 3 meters below the surface to investigate heat flow from the Moon's interior. ## Metalysis’ progress on tech to extract lunar oxygen Earlier this month, the UK announced [£218,000 in funding](https://www.gov.uk/government/news/new-space-funding-paves-the-way-for-pioneering-approaches-to-energy-communication-and-resources) to the British metallurgy company Metalysis and their partners for an end-to-end demonstration of the company’s reactor which will [efficiently extract](https://www.thechemicalengineer.com/features/fly-me-o2-the-moon) nearly all oxygen from collected lunar soil in a future mission. More specifically, the funding is to understand the nature of uncertainties in several areas of the whole process. It follows previous funding part of ESA’s Space Resources Strategy initiative, which allowed Metalysis to [optimize their extraction process](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Turning%5FMoon%5Fdust%5Finto%5Foxygen). A version of Metalysis’ oxygen extractor was recently selected via Thales Alenia to [fly on a ESA mission](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FEngineering%5FTechnology/Team%5Fchosen%5Fto%5Fmake%5Ffirst%5Foxygen%5Fon%5Fthe%5FMoon) no earlier than 2030 for a demonstration. Having this ability is crucial for lunar habitats to ultimately survive without constant resupply from Earth. Based on Metalysis’ process, 1.5 litres of lunar soil volume would provide enough oxygen for one astronaut to breathe [for 24 hours](https://www.thechemicalengineer.com/features/fly-me-o2-the-moon). This high oxygen yield also opens up the possibility to generate oxygen at the Moon in sufficient quantities to allow future rockets to be fueled there itself for return to Earth or to [travel further ahead](https://jatan.space/the-moon-as-a-rocket-platform/). The process will also provide us valuable metallic alloys as byproducts to use for manufacturing and constructing things on the Moon. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f02462f1d-3a7d-46ab-a3bc-73ad2176e0bd_3000x1784-jpeg.jpg) **Left:** A pile of simulated lunar soil. **Right:** The same pile after nearly all the oxygen has been extracted from it, leaving behind a mixture of metal alloys. [Credits: ESA / Beth Lomax / University of Glasgow](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2019/10/Oxygen%5Fand%5Fmetal%5Ffrom%5Flunar%5Fregolith) ## More Moon - The excellent [Spudis Lunar Resources site](https://spudislunarresources.nss.org), created by renowned planetary geologist [Paul Spudis](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/features/083018/paul-spudis) (1952-2018), is now archived and being maintained by the National Space Society. - After NASA [successfully transported](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-69/) the fully stacked [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) to its launchpad this month, [preparations have begun](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/03/23/nasa-continues-artemis-i-preparations-at-pad-wet-dress-rehearsal-test) for conducting the key [wet dress rehearsal](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-readies-rocket-for-artemis-i-wet-dress-rehearsal) test in April first week. Teams have brought online ground support equipment and successfully powered up elements of the system at the pad. Next up, technicians will wear protective [SCAPE suits](https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/scape-operators-prepare-for-artemis-1) to practice emergency operations. As usual, NASASpaceflight has [more details on the preparations](https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2022/03/artemis-1-wdr-prep). In the meanwhile, NASA is [nearing completing assembly](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/four-major-sls-rocket-parts-joined-to-form-artemis-II-core-stage.html) of the SLS rocket’s core stage to be used on the crewed [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to) mission in 2024. - DARPA is [funding early studies](https://www.leonarddavid.com/novel-orbital-moon-manufacturing-materials-and-mass-efficient-design-darpa-teams-selected) on systems that will mine materials from the Moon but manufacture things using them in lunar or Earth orbit. --- > *Thank you [David Draper](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-names-new-deputy-chief-scientist/), [Parvathy Prem](https://civspace.jhuapl.edu/people/parvathy-prem), Steve B, [Open Lunar Foundation](https://www.openlunar.org/), [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io/) and [SWISSAPOLLO](https://www.swissapollo.com/en/) for supporting me and powering this edition of Moon Monday!* > > *Everyone, I’m publishing this one-of-a-kind Moon exploration newsletter for free, with no ads. And it will stay that way. [Support me](https://jatan.space/support) to keep it going.* [Support Moon Monday 🌗](https://jatan.space/support) ### My articles on our search for alien life URL: https://jatan.space/search-for-life/ Last updated: 2024-11-10T12:31:25.000Z Countless worlds beyond Earth are brimming with possibilities of life. Our exploration of the Solar System and the exploding field of exoplanets have already expanded our notions of places where life might arise and take solace—from [Earth-like planets](https://www.planetary.org/articles/earth-like-worlds) to [icy moons with underground oceans](https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/resources/16179/ocean-worlds-infographic). Here are articles and notes I’ve published on humanity’s search for life in our solar system and the Universe, and some of our missions that lead or support the endeavor. ## 🪐 Places of promise - [Water plumes from Saturn’s icy moon may show promising signs of life](https://jatan.space/saturn-moon-enceladus-habitable/) - [When will we explore Saturn’s moon Enceladus to find alien life?](https://jatan.space/when-will-we-explore-enceladus-to-find-life/) - [Are the Universe's smallest stars promising places for life?](https://jatan.space/life-around-red-dwarfs/) - [Is life possible on rogue planets and moons?](https://jatan.space/is-life-possible-on-rogue-planets/) - [Are planets with two stars promising places for life?](https://jatan.space/is-life-possible-around-two-stars/) - [Possibilities of life in globular clusters](https://jatan.space/possibilities-of-life-in-globular-clusters/) ## 🛰️ Missions - [How JUICE will explore Jupiter’s icy moons](https://jatan.space/esa-juice-mission-to-jupiter-moons/) - [TESS is finding Earth-like planets around the galaxy's most common stars](https://jatan.space/nasa-tess-space-telescope/) - [ExoMars: The Kazachok lander and Rosalind Franklin rover](https://jatan.space/exomars-2022-esa-rover/) ## 👽 The Big Questions - [Timeline for life until the end of the Universe](https://jatan.space/timeline-for-life-until-the-end-of-the-universe/) - [Is the Fermi Paradox really a paradox?](https://jatan.space/is-the-fermi-paradox-really-a-paradox/) ## Notes - [How NASA defines "Special Regions" for Mars missions](https://jatan.space/how-nasa-defines-special-regions-for-mars-missions/) --- [Support my work ♡](https://jatan.space/support) ### Moon Monday #69: NASA’s Moon rocket crawls to the launchpad; confusing Artemis funding; dedicated lunar communications infrastructure; and more updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-69/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:29.000Z *Several readers told me they like Moon Monday’s new focus on providing more context on major developments rather than being too brief in order to cover all developments. I’m doubling down on the same with this issue by debuting a new format while also making sure to not miss sharing minor developments, the latter of which is a key utility of this newsletter for many. Please let me know what you think of this new format.* ## NASA’s Moon rocket crawls to the launchpad On March 17, NASA put its fully stacked 20-plus-billion-dollar, 1.6-million-kilogram [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html), sitting on its [5.1-million-kilogram](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/combined%5Fcrawler-transporters%5Ffact%5Fsheet%5Ffinal.pdf) mobile launcher, on to the 3-million-kilogram [Crawler-Transporter](https://www.nasa.gov/content/the-crawlers). Traveling at a top speed of 1.3 kilometers per hour, the crawler-transporter safely carried the rocket 6.8 kilometers [from the assembly building to the launchpad](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-s-mega-moon-rocket-spacecraft-complete-first-roll-to-launch-pad) in 10 hours and 28 minutes. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f6bf311e2-d7e7-4cf2-b565-3d61cf80f056_2600x1500-jpeg-2.jpg) NASA’s SLS rocket heading to the launchpad for a final major test before it can liftoff for the first Artemis Moon mission. The Moon provides a symbolic backdrop. [Credits: NASA / Kim Shiflett](https://images.nasa.gov/details-KSC-20220317-PH-KLS04%5F0087) The move is for the rocket’s [wet dress rehearsal](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-readies-rocket-for-artemis-i-wet-dress-rehearsal) in April, the final major test before its theatrical launch in the coming months for the [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/around-the-moon-with-nasa-s-first-launch-of-sls-with-orion) mission to send an uncrewed [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/orion/about/index.html) around the Moon, marking the beginning of a long string of missions and [ambitions to sustain human presence](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept) on the Moon and in lunar orbit as part of NASA’s [Artemis program](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis). The wet dress rehearsal, spanning at least two days, will test the team’s ability to load 2.65 million liters of super-chilled propellants into the rocket, practice every phase and permutation of launch countdown right until T-10 seconds, and demonstrate safe unloading of propellants to simulate launch delay scenarios such as [Artemis I weather criteria](https://www.nasa.gov/content/artemis-i-weather-criteria) not being met. After the wet dress rehearsal, NASA will roll the rocket back to the assembly building for final checkouts before launch, NASA will only decide a launch date based on how the wet dress rehearsal goes but as of now they’re targeting an early June liftoff. If you’re not sure how to feel about the SLS rocket, or want to read in plain words what you do feel, Eric Berger’s [perspective piece on SLS](https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/03/its-huge-expensive-and-years-late-but-the-sls-rocket-is-finally-here) is apt. Or better yet, let NASA unintentionally show you with its [Apollo and Artemis rocket comparison piece](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/then-and-now-apollo-to-artemis) just how uncannily old the new big orange rocket is. That being said, here’s a fun fact from a NASA [piece on the crawler-transporter](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/rocks-and-rockets-from-alabama-rivers-to-kennedy-florida-crawlerway.html). > Their initial design called for asphalt roads, but engineers quickly encountered issues. Asphalt couldn’t handle the weight of the 6.65-million-pound crawler on its own, much less with the weight of a rocket added to it. The asphalt also proved too sticky and therefore would not allow the crawler-transporter to turn properly, causing damage to its roller bearings. NASA conducted a study to find a material that would allow the crawler to make a proper turn and hold the weight required. The results: river rock. > > River rocks are mostly quartz, round and 3-4 inches in diameter, important features for high weight tolerances. They act as ball bearings that allow the crawler to turn with minimal issues. When the weight of the crawler rolls over the rocks, they absorb energy from compaction, helping to reduce the vibration on the surface that could cause damage to any flight hardware being transported. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f7260a5c0-94e0-4245-86dc-bf6c26adddef_2048x1365-jpeg.jpg) An image of NASA’s massive Crawler-Transporter 2 during a test crawl in 2018\. My Mom was taken aback by its sheer size. [Credits: NASA/Leif Heimbold](https://www.nasa.gov/content/the-crawlers) ## Funding for NASA Artemis continues to be confusing On March 15, U.S. President Biden [signed into law](https://www.wsj.com/livecoverage/russia-ukraine-latest-news-2022-03-15/card/biden-signs-spending-package-including-13-6-billion-in-aid-for-ukraine-TvIYlggXs6tvIVpP7GON?mod=article%5Finline) the nearly six months late U.S. FY2022 omnibus appropriations bill, which [includes $24 billion in funding for NASA](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-to-get-24-billion-for-fy2022-more-than-last-year-but-less-than-biden-wanted). With it, the U.S. Congress is once again providing NASA more money for the SLS rocket than the agency requested, and has directed it to use $600 million specifically to accelerate development of the rocket’s more performant Block 1B version sporting the [Exploration Upper Stage](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/multimedia/rocket-to-the-moon-what-is-the-exploration-upper-stage.html). NASA did get the full $1.2 billion it requested for its [Human Landing System](https://www.nasa.gov/nextstep/humanlander2) (HLS) program as opposed to [only 25 percent](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/final-fy2021-nasa-funding-provides-only-25-percent-of-hls-request/) of the same last year, which should accelerate development of the [agency-chosen](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) SpaceX Starship and its lunar variant to land humans on the Moon later this decade. But NASA is also [being asked](https://docs.house.gov/billsthisweek/20220307/BILLS-117RCP35-JES-DIVISION-B.pdf) to provide a plan for how it will get a HLS competitor onboard with the amount provided. *Sighs.* ## The Moon to get dedicated communications infrastructure Norway based KSAT [announced more detailed plans](https://www.ksat.no/news/news-archive/2022/ksat-to-invest-in-antenna-network-for-lunar-missions) to establish dedicated lunar ground stations on Earth to serve end-to-end communications needs of the increasing number of (commercial) Moon missions. The company has previously bagged two key commercial communications contracts for lunar missions. The first is supporting communications of the [Lunar InfraRed Imaging CubeSat](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-selects-lockheed-martin-s-lunir-cubesat-for-artemis-i-secondary-payload) launching on Artemis I. The second is a [big agreement](https://www.ksat.no/news/news-archive/2021/ksat-to-support-intuitive-machines-missions-to-the-moon) with Intuitive Machines to provide communications for the company’s [first](https://7c27f7d6-4a0b-4269-aee9-80e85c3db26a.usrfiles.com/ugd/7c27f7%5Fbc896cfc90ca4ae9a0643bfbf5ed214a.pdf), [second](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-to-land-water-measuring-payload-on-the-moon) and all future Moon missions, at least the first three of which are part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). NASA requires CLPS companies to source their own mission infrastructure instead of using NASA’s services, including getting a launch vehicle and availing ground stations. Notably, [KSAT is part of](https://www.ksat.no/news/news-archive/2021/ksat-part-of-selected-consortium-for-esas-moonlight-initiative/) one of the two [consortia selected by ESA](https://www.esa.int/About%5FUs/Corporate%5Fnews/ESA%5Fadvances%5Fits%5Fplan%5Ffor%5Fsatellites%5Faround%5Fthe%5FMoon) for the agency’s [Moonlight initiative](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-65/), an envisioned commercial lunar communication and navigation service. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f8cd3a702-655a-4464-bd13-527eaf71c266_1920x1080-jpeg.jpg) ESA envisions a communications and navigation service as a basis for sustained lunar exploration. [Credit: ESA](https://www.esa.int/About%5FUs/Corporate%5Fnews/ESA%5Fadvances%5Fits%5Fplan%5Ffor%5Fsatellites%5Faround%5Fthe%5FMoon) Moonlight isn’t the only satellite communications network being planned to be deployed around the Moon. Last week Aquarian Space [revealed plans to deploy](https://spacenews.com/another-startup-joins-race-to-provide-high-speed-lunar-communications) a 100 Mbps high-speed communications network, starting with their first lunar satellite in 2024\. In January this year, competitor Plus Ultra [announced a collaboration](https://ispace-inc.com/news/?p=2156) with ispace Japan, which would involve ispace deploying the former’s commercial [communications and navigation satellites](https://www.plus-ultra.space/post/enabling-future-of-lunar-industry-with-harmony) in lunar orbit later this decade. ## The promise of lunar lava tubes and an ESA mission [Lava tubes on the Moon](https://jatan.space/underground-lava-tubes-on-the-moon-marius-hills/), formed by cooling of underground tunnels carved by now-receded lava flows, are promising places for future missions. They’re protected from significant radiation and [micrometeorite bombardment](https://jatan.space/the-tiniest-of-impact-craters/) on the surface, making them pristine places to study the Moon’s volcanic past and analyze rocks untouched for well over a billion years. These traits combined with relatively stable temperatures also make them potentially good places for sustainable habitats. Some of these lava tubes have [openings](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/286), formed when lava flows breach the surface or if part of a surface collapses due to hot flows beneath. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f132905e1-e774-4e36-99e5-44e450333923_460x380-jpeg.jpg) A 65 meters wide pit, an entrance to a lava tube, in the Marius Hills region on the Moon. [Credit: NASA LRO](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/286) ESA is [considering a 2033 mission](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Preparing%5Ffor%5Fthe%5FFuture/Discovery%5Fand%5FPreparation/Lunar%5Fscientists%5Fand%5Fengineers%5Fdesign%5FMoon%5Fcave%5Fexplorer) to explore a lunar pit which is an opening to a lava tube. Two such [ESA-funded mission concepts](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Preparing%5Ffor%5Fthe%5FFuture/Discovery%5Fand%5FPreparation/ESA%5Fplans%5Fmission%5Fto%5Fexplore%5Flunar%5Fcaves), [RoboCrane](https://sea.grupos.uniovi.es/en/-/robotic-crane-for-wireless-power-and-data-transmission-between-surface-and-cave) and [Daedalus](https://www.informatik.uni-wuerzburg.de/space/mitarbeiter/nuechter/projects/daedalus/), were recently merged into one [complete, feasible mission plan](https://esamultimedia.esa.int/docs/preparing%5Ffor%5Fthe%5Ffuture/Lunar%5FCaves%5FExecutive%5FSummary.pdf) through ESA's [Concurrent Design Facility](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FEngineering%5FTechnology/CDF). The mission would use a crane (RoboCrane) on a rover to lower a mobile robot (Daedalus) into a lunar pit to explore its entrance and interior to study its geology, map resources, and find favorable spots for future habitats. Related: As part of ESA’s [Pangaea campaign](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/CAVES%5Fand%5FPangaea/What%5Fis%5FPangaea), the agency [trained future lunar astronauts](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2021/12/01/goodbye-volcanoes-hello-moon) last December to explore the 8-kilometer long terrestrial lava tube [La Corona](https://www.lanzarotecaves.com/corona-lava-tube-system) at the Canary Islands. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f00bdcb99-ed32-4070-af74-8bfeb0d658f7_593x344-jpeg.jpg) Illustration showing a rover with a crane lowering a mobile robot into a lunar pit to explore its interior. [Credits: ESA / Francesco Sauro](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2020/10/Three%5Fkey%5Fstages%5Fof%5Fa%5Fmission%5Fto%5Fexplore%5Fand%5Fmap%5Flunar%5Fcaves) If lunar lava tubes are nice shelters for future astronauts, and if [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s poles are resource-rich to serve future habitats, why not consider near-polar lunar pits which are permanently shadowed too as ideal “best of both worlds” lunar homes? That’s the question scientists explored in a [new study](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2022/pdf/2598.pdf) by modeling thermal environments of lunar pits. They found that floors of even high-latitude lunar pits don’t get cold enough to trap and accumulate [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other volatile resources the way permanently shadowed regions do. This means we still need to fetch resources from polar regions. However, if we can find polar or near-polar lunar pits for future mission sites, their low-and-stable-temperatures at least slow down escape of volatiles and make them good homes to launch resource fetching campaigns from. ## More Moon - The UK announced [£1 million in funding](https://www.gov.uk/government/news/new-space-funding-paves-the-way-for-pioneering-approaches-to-energy-communication-and-resources) to further develop four key lunar technology projects for future Moon missions and sustained habitats. The projects are: - Autonomous micro nuclear reactors - A rugged and autonomous resource-mapping mobile robot - A microwave-heating based lunar construction method - An advanced 3D-surface-mapping LIDAR for future lunar landers - LEGO rolled out [Artemis toy sets](http://www.collectspace.com/news/news-030222a-lego-city-space-nasa-artemis-sls.html) ahead of NASA’s Artemis Moon missions - [Fly your name around the Moon](https://www.nasa.gov/send-your-name-with-artemis) in a flashdrive on NASA’s Artemis I mission. It’s a pointless thing to do in my opinion, unless of course the point of it (for NASA) is to spread the word about the mission. --- > *Thank you [James Tuttle Keane](https://www.jamestuttlekeane.com), [Cyrus Khan](https://cyruskhan.com), [Daniel Wrench](https://www.linkedin.com/in/daniel-wrench-b475aa1a4) and [Karan Maindan](https://www.linkedin.com/in/karanmaindan) for supporting me and powering this edition of Moon Monday!* > > *Everyone, I’m publishing this one-of-a-kind Moon exploration newsletter for free, with no ads. And it will stay that way. [Support me](https://jatan.space/support) to keep it going.* [Support Moon Monday 🌗](https://jatan.space/support) ### Moon Monday #68: NASA Artemis Science teams, Canada's robotic arm for lunar Gateway, and more updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-68/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:29.000Z *NASA shared new details on science planning for its first crewed Artemis Moon landing and yet apart from a few tweets I didn’t notice anyone covering it! So this week’s Highlight section is the coverage itself instead of a summary.* ## Highlight & Science At the [Artemis Town Hall](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QHL2bHeEjR4) meeting part of the [53rd Lunar and Planetary Science conference](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2022/index.shtml), NASA Artemis Science Lead Sarah Noble and Exploration Lead Jacob Bleacher provided an update on science planning for [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon), the first crewed [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) Moon landing mission currently targeting a 2025 touchdown with a lunar variant of [SpaceX Starship](https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/starship). While Artemis III’s landing site hasn’t been decided yet, it will be within six degrees of the Moon’s south pole. The mission won’t have a rover, as we already knew, and so astronauts will take short trips from the landing site to deploy and setup experiments, study local geology, and collect samples. In preparation for the mission, NASA has begun analog field training on Earth for [Artemis astronaut candidates](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-artemis-team-of-astronauts-eligible-for-early-moon-missions), who completed several test campaigns last year. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f803cabcb-cf5f-4351-9077-e627c7aa72c6_4800x2700-jpeg.jpg) An illustration of SpaceX’s Starship crewed lunar lander. [Credit: SpaceX](https://www.spacex.com/updates/starship-moon-announcement/index.html) Every crewed Artemis mission’s Science group will be organized as follows. - **An Artemis Geology Team**, a roughly 10 member team per mission, which will specify science objectives for each mission, plan and coordinate crew activities and traverses, provide sampling strategies, and be involved in pre- and post-mission activities such as astronaut training and preliminary studies of returned samples. - There will be **additional participating scientists** chosen per mission, wherein international scientists are welcome. NASA is currently collaborating with ESA, JAXA and CSA for the same. Artemis III will have roughly 10 participating scientists. - **An internal Artemis Science Team**, which comprise several NASA scientists common across all Artemis science missions. They are tasked with ensuring that high-level lunar science goals of the U.S. scientific community are kept in mind during every stage of Artemis planning at the agency. They will also interface between the Artemis Geology Team and the rest of NASA. - **Artemis Instruments Teams**, which will propose long-lived autonomous surface payloads to chiefly study local geophysical and environmental conditions at the Moon’s south pole. For Artemis III, instruments must specifically address [identified science priorities](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-defines-science-priorities-for-first-crewed-artemis-landing-on-moon) by the mission’s [Science Definition Team](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/Artemis/). The same report has also expressed the need for having cryogenic sampling capabilities to [bring precious volatiles](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) from the Moon’s [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) to Earth for meticulous studies. The Geology Team, participating scientists, and Instruments Teams for Artemis III will all be competitively selected by NASA. The solicitations for these proposals will be published later this year on the agency’s [ROSES-2022 Blog](https://science.nasa.gov/researchers/sara/grant-solicitations/roses-2022). Here are the talk slides of the [Artemis Town Hall](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QHL2bHeEjR4) meeting. ![](https://substack.com/img/attachment_icon.svg) NASA Artemis III LPSC 2022 Presentation6.55MB ∙ PDF file[Download](https://blog.jatan.space/api/v1/file/718ce91a-c67b-4bd1-b740-24a39cfac555.pdf)[Download](https://blog.jatan.space/api/v1/file/718ce91a-c67b-4bd1-b740-24a39cfac555.pdf) **Related:** - [Artemis recommendations](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/leag2020/LEAG2020AnnualMeetingFindings%5FFINAL.pdf) by the Lunar Exploration Analysis Group (LEAG), which supports NASA by providing scientific, technical, commercial, and operational analysis of the agency’s lunar exploration objectives. - ESA’s [Caves & Pangaea campaign](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/blog) - NASA’s [VIPER rover mission](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/), scientific precursor to Artemis III ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fd775ce14-7a2d-4f0b-9f11-57c232440c2a_1636x1128-jpeg.jpg) Landing sites of interest near permanently shadowed regions on the Moon’s south pole that NASA identified in 2020 for Artemis missions. [Credit: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/artemis-iii-science-definition-report-12042020c.pdf) ## Exploration Bahrain [signed](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/bahrain-signs-artemis-accords) the NASA-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html) for cooperation in lunar and space exploration. It’s the 17th nation to sign the Accords, and the third such country from the Middle East after the UAE and Israel. This decision follows the recent successful launch of the joint Bahrain-UAE [Light-1](https://nyuad.nyu.edu/en/news/latest-news/science-and-technology/2022/february/cubesat-launch-iss.html) Earth satellite from the International Space Station in cooperation with JAXA (Japan is an Accords signee too). The Canadian Space Agency (CSA) has [awarded a USD $210 million contract](https://asc-csa.gc.ca//eng/astronomy/moon-exploration/news.asp#20220310) to MDA to begin preliminary design of [Canadarm3](https://asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/canadarm3/about.asp), Canada's contribution to the NASA-led [Gateway](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) lunar station. The contract also includes funding to procure some of Canadarm3's components. The highly autonomous Canadarm3 robotics system, including its small dextrous arm, will inspect, maintain and repair the Gateway station, help assemble new station modules, capture visiting spacecraft, aid astronauts during spacewalks, install and support scientific instruments, and more. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f281890a6-67a2-410b-ba14-a022a959eda4_2450x1440-jpeg.jpg) Artist’s impression of Canadarm3 capturing an incoming spacecraft on the NASA-led Gateway lunar station. [Credit: CSA](https://asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronomy/moon-exploration/news.asp#20201208) NASA and CSA are targeting delivering Canadarm3 to the Gateway in 2027 but it’s to be noted from a [previous CSA contract to MDA](https://mda.space/en/article/mda-awarded-next-contract-for-flagship-canadarm3-program) that external robotic *interfaces* of the Canadarm3 system will be delivered before, on the [planned 2024 launch of a SpaceX Falcon Heavy](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-contract-to-launch-initial-elements-for-lunar-outpost) rocket carrying Gateway’s two principal modules—the Habitation and Logistics Outpost ([HALO](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-northrop-grumman-finalize-moon-outpost-living-quarters-contract)) and the Power and Propulsion Element ([PPE](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-artemis-contract-for-lunar-gateway-power-propulsion)). NASA’s Artemis Lunar Terrain Vehicle (LTV), [launching no earlier than 2027](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-61/), will be [far more capable](https://jatan.space/what-we-know-about-artemis-ltv/) than the [Apollo LRV](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/apollo%5Flrv.html), allowing astronauts to explore 20 kilometers across the Moon’s [rugged south polar terrain](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/SPole%5FSRidgemap%5FLOLA-Slope5m%5Fv20190515.pdf), including [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/). Unlike Apollo, the LTV will be used across multiple missions for at least 10 years. While we wait for NASA to solicit LTV proposals in the coming months, [Lockheed Martin](https://www.lockheedmartin.com/en-us/news/features/2021/lunar-terrain-vehicle.html) and [Northrop Grumman](https://www.northropgrumman.com/space/lunar-terrain-vehicle) had already revealed their concepts last year. Now Astrolab has announced its intentions to bid their [Flexible Logistics and Exploration (FLEX) rover](https://astrolab.space/news/blog/1) as NASA’s LTV. Unlike Lockheed and Northrop’s concepts, as far as we know, FLEX already has a full-scale, fully-functional terrestrial prototype. It has been tested for mobility, crewed and remote operations, and to deploy a variety of large payloads. Astrolab has posted a neat [video on FLEX’s cargo use cases](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SfT6HIc9OPw). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fbf170640-dee7-42fc-b5ae-32bd886e4bbc_2002x1339-jpeg.jpg) Field testing of a terrestrial prototype of the FLEX lunar rover and the solar panel payload it helped deploy. [Credit: Astrolab](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=79fAZKI6FJ8) ## More Moon Why is our Moon's farside so different from its nearside? What can exploring this dichotomy tell us about the origin of the Moon, Earth and other planets? How will planned future missions to the Moon advance this front? My latest article for The Planetary Society [takes a look at all these questions](https://www.planetary.org/articles/the-two-faced-moon) and more. [The two-faced Moon 🌗](https://www.planetary.org/articles/the-two-faced-moon) --- > *Thank you [Andrew Cantino](https://orbitalindex.com), [Mat Kaplan](https://www.planetary.org/planetary-radio) and [Andrea Battisti](https://www.linkedin.com/in/andreabattisti) for supporting me and powering this edition of Moon Monday!* > > *Everyone, I’m publishing this one-of-a-kind Moon exploration newsletter for free, with no ads. And it will stay that way. If you like my work, [support me](https://jatan.space/support) to keep it going.* [Support Moon Monday 🌗](https://jatan.space/support) ### How we test spacecraft before launch URL: https://jatan.space/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch/ Last updated: 2024-07-17T13:35:48.000Z A space mission is an immensely complex undertaking. Hundreds to thousands of experts from several distinct fields come together to build the thousands of parts and functions of a spacecraft. To ensure these orchestrate in the harshness of space, where fixing major issues post-launch is either impossible or limited in scope, every spacecraft is extensively tested in facilities that mimic mission conditions. For example, most major NASA spacecraft get tested in the [Space Environments Complex](https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/facilities/sec) (SEC) at the agency’s Neil A. Armstrong Test Facility. ## Launch testing Anyone who has seen a rocket launch in person ([I have!](https://jatan.space/i-saw-a-rocket-launch/)) knows how noisy rockets are, the rumbles of which can be heard several kilometers away. A spacecraft sitting on top of a rocket needs to avoid mechanical damage from this intense, sustained acoustic noise. To ensure this, spacecraft are tested before launch in special [acoustic chambers](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FEngineering%5FTechnology/Test%5Fcentre/Large%5FEuropean%5FAcoustic%5FFacility%5FLEAF), like the European Space Agency’s (ESA) [Large European Acoustic Facility](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FEngineering%5FTechnology/Test%5Fcentre/Large%5FEuropean%5FAcoustic%5FFacility%5FLEAF). The chamber has large stereo-speaker-like noise horns that simulate launch sounds while noise absorption coatings sustain the noise and cause reverberations. A spacecraft’s structure also needs to survive the jolt from rocket engines turning on and the vibrations they generate during flight. For this, all spacecraft—and sometimes even their individual components—are tested pre-launch on electric or hydraulic [shaker tables](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FEngineering%5FTechnology/Test%5Fcentre/Electrodynamic%5Fshakers), which simulate a rocket’s intense vibrations. ESA’s [HYDRA](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FEngineering%5FTechnology/Test%5Fcentre/Hydraulic%5Fshaker) facility can generate vibrations equivalent to an earthquake of 7.5 on the Richter scale. [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9ea28e93-54e1-4db9-bc71-55057380aa60_800x583.gif)](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9ea28e93-54e1-4db9-bc71-55057380aa60%5F800x583-1.gif) Launch vibration test of ESA’s [CHEOPS](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/cheops) planet-hunting space telescope. [GIF: ESA / Airbus / RUAG](https://sci.esa.int/web/cheops/-/60585-vibration-test-of-the-cheops-satellite-longitudinal-shaking) ## Simulating space A spacecraft orbiting a world can experience environmental temperature swings from over a hundred degrees when sunlit to frigid cold at night in a matter of hours. The sudden, repeated heat variations can cause materials of the spacecraft to unevenly expand and contract, potentially leading to fractures over time. Moving parts may also fail. For this purpose, every spacecraft’s range of functionality is tested for weeks or even months in [thermovac chambers](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FEngineering%5FTechnology/Test%5Fcentre/Large%5FSpace%5FSimulator%5FLSS), or space simulators. These achieve a space-like vacuum and simulate its extreme temperature swings. Powerful xenon lamps and mirrors simulate space’s unfiltered sunlight, with varying intensities based on if the mission will take a spacecraft closer to the Sun, like NASA’s [Parker Probe](https://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard/parker-solar-probe-humanity-s-first-visit-to-a-star), or away from the Sun, like [Juno](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/juno). Spacecraft that will explore a planetary surface such as Mars go through additional tests with temperatures and atmospheric pressures similar to that on the planet. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fff5c2af0-1832-4cf1-bd0d-070feff20836_1901x1400-jpeg.jpg) ESA’s Jupiter-bound [JUICE spacecraft](https://jatan.space/esa-juice-mission-to-jupiter-moons/) undergoing an extreme temperature test in a thermovac chamber. [Credits: ESA / M. Cowan](https://sci.esa.int/web/juice/-/60401-juice-thermal-development-model-and-the-sun-simulator) NASA’s [Space Power Facility](https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/facilities/sec/#space-simulation-vacuum-chamber) at the SEC is the world’s largest vacuum chamber, and has been used to test not just spacecraft but also rocket fairing separations, Mars landing systems, solar array deployments, and much more. ## More core tests Since terrestrial electronics don’t (reliably) work in harsh space environments, spacecraft computers are built using [hardened components](https://jatan.space/space-grade-electronics/) tested in [more than 100 ways](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIL-STD-883) to reduce radiation and mechanical damage. Each spacecraft’s software is also tested rigorously, because while it can be patched post-launch, the extent is limited. Testing often happens in stages. For example, NASA tested the [Perseverance](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/perseverance) rover’s [navigation and landing software](https://mars.nasa.gov/news/8421/nasas-mars-2020-rover-is-put-to-the-test) over seven years, starting with it running on Mars rover computer models, followed by mission-relevant sensors, and lastly on actual Marsbound hardware. There are also tests to prevent a spacecraft’s own instrument noises from ruining the mission. [Faraday Cage chambers](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FEngineering%5FTechnology/Test%5Fcentre/Electromagnetic%5Fcompatibility), which have foamy interiors to block outside electromagnetic radiation, are used to understand a spacecraft’s own electrical and radio noises, and ensure they don't interfere with each other and affect scientific observations or damage onboard electronics. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fc57baab5-233d-4d5f-bc4c-c9beb8a3eae2_2500x2144-jpeg.jpg) The [Rosetta spacecraft](https://sci.esa.int/web/rosetta/-/54456-highlights-from-the-rosetta-mission-thus-far) being tested for electromagnetic interference in a Faraday cage chamber. [Credit: ESA](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2014/01/Rosetta%5Felectromagnetic%5Ftesting) Likewise, spacecraft that will study magnetic fields—such as those of Earth, the Sun or Jupiter—are placed in special chambers to ensure magnetic noises from their instruments are contained. ESA’s [IABG](https://www.iabg.de/en/business-fields/space/electromagnetic-tests/magnetic-field-measurement-magnetic-field-simulation) has one such remote test facility, which avoids interference from civilization-generated magnetic fields by existing in a forest and being [made of](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2019/09/The%5FIABG%5Fmagnetic%5Ffield%5Fsimulation%5Ffacility) non-magnetic materials such as wood. It also has large 15-meter coils to offset Earth's magnetic field to ease spacecraft testing. Additional tests for each spacecraft can vary as greatly as the missions themselves. These include specialized [antenna testing](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FEngineering%5FTechnology/Antenna%5FLaboratory) for communications, [optical testing](https://www.csl.uliege.be/cms/c%5F10308408/en/csl-optical-design-metrology) for cameras and telescopes, [helicopter-based radar testing](https://sci.esa.int/web/juice/-/59610-helicopter-test-for-jupiter-icy-moons-radar) for missions studying subsurfaces of planets and moons, [deployment mechanism tests](https://jwst.nasa.gov/content/observatory/sunshield.html) for space telescopes like [JWST](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/james-webb-space-telescope), [heat shield](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/results-of-heat-shield-testing) and [parachute testing](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Exploration/ExoMars/First%5Fhigh-altitude%5Fdrop%5Ftest%5Fsuccess%5Ffor%5FExoMars%5Fparachute) for Mars landing missions as well as crew capsules returning to Earth, and more. ## Meeting mission-specific needs Many times entirely new facilities have been created for cutting-edge missions. For example, ESA [created the Wide Range Test Facility](https://sci.esa.int/web/juice/-/-7-all-panels-delivered-for-juice-s-solar-wings) to test their upcoming [JUICE](https://jatan.space/esa-juice-mission-to-jupiter-moons/) spacecraft’s ability to survive temperatures as low as -230 degrees Celsius, which is what it can experience when Jupiter or its moons eclipse the Sun. The Indian space agency ISRO [developed](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0032063320303299) a [lunar soil simulant](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0032063321001938) and terrain to test their Chandrayaan landers and rovers. For the [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) mission, which will traverse through some of the most challenging terrain in the solar system, NASA [tested roving a model of its wheel](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/artemis-moon-rover-s-wheels-are-ready-to-roll) in simulated lunar terrain for more than 40 kilometers of varying slopes and rock distributions. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2facea94c1-69c1-44c8-b4bd-0f9157246773_2890x1926-jpeg.jpg) A prototype model of NASA’s VIPER rover, reduced to its mobility elements, being tested in a terrain-adjustable bin containing lunar soil simulant. [Credit: NASA Glenn Research Center](https://www.nasa.gov/glenn/image-feature/2020/nasa-s-new-moon-rover-tested-in-lunar-operations-lab) As NASA prepares to [send humans to the Moon again](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/artemis), it’s been thoroughly testing the design of its crewed [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/orion/about/index.html) that will splash down in the Pacific Ocean at the end of each mission. This includes [practicing recovering mock Orion capsules in sea](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2021/11/01/final-certification-run-for-orion-recovery), [wind tunnel testing](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/wind-tunnel-testing-prepares-orion-for-return-to-earth) of heat shield components, [water drop tests](https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/a-swing-and-a-hit) and more. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f209ce295-71c8-4eb3-a109-d0d7f0630aca_2100x1352-jpeg.jpg) Splashdown of a mock version of NASA’s Orion capsule to test the structural integrity of the spacecraft before using it with crew. [Credit: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/a-swing-and-a-hit) ## The road to space All spacecraft tests aren’t necessarily done with final mission hardware since damage to some delicate parts or intricate functions could cost a lot of money and delay the mission. This risk is often worked around by building representative models of spacecraft or their parts for testing. But even in a scenario where things proceed smoothly to the launchpad, spacecraft testing is a time consuming process. This is why space agencies often have several test facilities in one place, such as ESA’s [European Space Research and Technology Center](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FEngineering%5FTechnology/Test%5Fcentre/About%5FESTEC%5FTest%5FCentre) (ESTEC), India’s [ISRO Spacecraft Integration Test Establishment](https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/tenders/kahts%5Fpresentation1%5Fait%5Ffacilities.pdf) (ISITE), and NASA’s [Space Environments Complex](https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/facilities/sec) (SEC). To learn more about how spacecraft are tested, you can check out the virtual tours of test facilities [by ESA](https://esamultimedia.esa.int/multimedia/ESTEC/virtualtour) and [NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/sec360). *Originally published at* [*The Planetary Society*](https://www.planetary.org/articles/how-we-test-spacecraft-before-launch)*, and* *honored that ESA* [*shared the article*](https://twitter.com/esa/status/1501582945705996288) *from their official Twitter account.* --- *Aside: This is one topic where I found it fairly difficult to find information from NASA’s main portals. On the other hand, ESA’s flagship website had information as well as some neat pictures of spacecraft testing in action accessible in 3 clicks! NASA is well know for its public outreach, as is deserved, but ESA seems to be underrated despite doing a fine job too.* --- **→** [**Browse the Blog**](https://blog.jatan.space/start) **|** [**About**](https://blog.jatan.space/about) **|** [**Donate ♡**](https://jatan.space/support) ### Moon Monday #67: NASA Artemis concerns, ESA contracts Thales Alenia for future technologies, and more updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-67/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:30.000Z *I [repeat](https://thoughts.jatan.space/p/help-ukraine-directly): To minimize damage in the Ukraine crisis, identify something specific you can do to constructively contribute instead of hollow posting on social platforms. One option is to [donate](https://giving.unhcr.org/en/ukraine) specifically to help people displaced from their homes.* ## Highlight At a March 1 hearing, members of the U.S. Congress and watchdog organizations [pressed NASA for long-promised details](https://spacenews.com/congress-presses-nasa-for-more-details-on-artemis-costs-and-schedules) about the costs, management and overall strategy of the agency’s [Artemis program](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) to land and sustain humans on the Moon. Paul Martin from NASA’s Office of Inspector General (OIG) [recapped](https://science.house.gov/imo/media/doc/Martin%20Testimony4.pdf) findings from the organization’s [November 2021 report](https://oig.nasa.gov/docs/IG-22-003.pdf), highlighting that a single Artemis launch currently costs an unsustainable $4.1 billion. This figure doesn’t include the tens of billions of dollars already spent on development costs, and more that will be spent. Martin said NASA will spend $93 billion from 2012 to 2025 on Artemis. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fa7d48c20-cf3e-47d0-b80e-d5fcb399a683_1468x1036-jpeg.jpg) Estimated cost for the launch of one SLS rocket with Orion spacecraft on top for NASA Artemis missions I through IV. [Credit: NASA OIG](https://oig.nasa.gov/docs/IG-22-003.pdf) NASA’s obscuring of true costs of Artemis is a concern also previously raised by the Aerospace Safety Advisory Panel (ASAP), a committee that reports to NASA and the U.S. Congress. In [its 2021 annual report](https://oiir.hq.nasa.gov/asap/documents/2021%5FASAP%5FReport-TAGGED.pdf) based on the panel’s frequent and periodic observations of NASA’s operations and interactions with personnel, it [noted](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasas-aerospace-safety-advisory-panel-releases-2021-annual-report) that Artemis isn’t actually a single program but a massive collection of related programs none of which answer to a common program manager or board. From the report: > There is no clearly defined leader of the enterprise, transparently endowed with the ultimate authority, responsibility, and accountability to direct all Artemis-related programs and ensure full synchronization and integration of effort. NASA leadership [didn’t agree](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-ig-disputes-nasas-optimism-on-artemis-schedule) then on how Artemis costs should be tracked, essentially saying that Artemis is a “campaign” of lunar exploration efforts and not a defined program. Now Jim Free, NASA associate administrator for Exploration Systems Development, [said](https://spacenews.com/congress-presses-nasa-for-more-details-on-artemis-costs-and-schedules) he is establishing an “Artemis campaign development division” to run and provide centralized oversight of all Artemis missions, each with a mission manager. The other concern very few people are talking about but the OIG raised in its [January 2022 report](https://oig.nasa.gov/docs/IG-22-007.pdf) is the low number of astronauts NASA has in its corps right now. At just 44, as opposed to over a hundred available during the Space Shuttle’s last two decades, it’s an uncomfortably small number to work with and grow quickly to meet the agency’s simultaneously expanding goals for sending humans to the Moon and maintaining presence in Earth orbit. From the report: > The Astronaut Office is in the process of developing a framework for Artemis training, but this framework has not been formally chartered nor have any Artemis crews been announced. As such, specific mission-focused training for the Artemis II mission—the first crewed Artemis flight—has not yet begun. The Agency could be overestimating the time available to develop and implement the necessary training framework and regimen across key Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle (Orion), next-generation spacesuits, and Human Landing. Delays in moving beyond the current ISS-focused approach for current and future astronauts increase the risk of delays in developing the necessary training to meet Artemis mission goals. ## Exploration On March 1, Romania [signed](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/romania-signs-artemis-accords) the NASA-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html) for cooperation in lunar and space exploration. Romania is the 16th country to sign the Accords, and the fifth such ESA member after the UK, Italy, Luxembourg and Poland. France has expressed an interest in signing the Accords too but hasn’t yet done so. As part of its 2022 [BIG Idea Challenge](https://bigidea.nianet.org/competition-basics), last month NASA awarded a total of about $1.2 million to seven university teams to [develop and demonstrate versatile mobile robot prototypes](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/university-teams-take-off-the-training-wheels-to-develop-alternative-rovers) by November 2022 that could be advanced for use in future lunar missions to explore currently inaccessible or difficult areas such as [lava tubes](https://jatan.space/underground-lava-tubes-on-the-moon-marius-hills/), [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/), [rocky and steep terrain](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/SPole%5FSRidgemap%5FLOLA-Slope5m%5Fv20190515.pdf), and more. The [proposed prototypes](https://bigidea.nianet.org/wp-content/uploads/2022-BIG-Idea-Challenge-Finalist-Team-Synopses.pdf) range from legged rovers of different types to tethered and snake-like mobile robots. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f89c56699-30cf-47ab-98aa-fa9a97d0353c_1544x993-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of some novel mobile robot designs to explore uncharted terrain on the Moon. [Credit: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/university-teams-take-off-the-training-wheels-to-develop-alternative-rovers) The U.S. Air Force [announced](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yOnPBE1rZNY) that the U.S. military will launch a satellite into cislunar space to identify “potential threats to U.S. activities” as the number of Moon missions increase. Proposals to build this satellite, called the Cislunar Highway Patrol System (CHPS), will open to on March 21 and a contract will be awarded in July. Related: Last month, the U.S. Air Force [entered into an agreement](https://www.prweb.com/releases/advanced%5Fspace%5Fu%5Fs%5Fair%5Fforce%5Fsign%5Fcooperative%5Fagreement%5Fto%5Fcollaborate%5Fon%5Fcislunar%5Factivities/prweb18492902.htm) with Advanced Space to share data collected by their upcoming NASA-funded [CAPSTONE spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/small%5Fspacecraft/capstone), which intends to prove the feasibility of the unique [fuel-saving elliptical lunar orbit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-rectilinear%5Fhalo%5Forbit) that the NASA-led [Gateway space station](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) will be in later in the decade. After awarding [competing study contracts](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FEngineering%5FTechnology/Competing%5Fcompanies%5Fdeveloping%5Fpayload%5Fto%5Fmake%5Fair%5Ffrom%5Fmoondust) in July 2021 to Airbus Space and Thales Alenia Space, ESA has now [awarded a €1 million contract](https://www.thalesgroup.com/en/worldwide/space/press-release/thales-alenia-space-wins-study-contract-develop-payload-extract) to a Thales-Alenia-led consortium for developing a demonstration payload that extracts oxygen from Moon rocks. The [ESA announcement](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Space%5FEngineering%5FTechnology/Team%5Fchosen%5Fto%5Fmake%5Ffirst%5Foxygen%5Fon%5Fthe%5FMoon) mentions the payload could potentially ride on the [European Large Logistics Lander](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Exploration/European%5FLarge%5FLogistics%5FLander) (EL3), for the design of which too ESA has chosen Thales Alenia Space. ESA intends EL3 to be a “free-standing part of international lunar exploration activities”, designed to support a variety of missions such as large rover explorations, sample return, and aiding NASA’s Artemis missions with cargo supplies. A render on [ESA partner OHB’s site](https://www.ohb.de/en/lsas-save-your-ticket) places EL3 first launch post-2030, much delayed compared to the originally intended 2027. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f6e85c64f-f3b3-4224-bf4d-3bf881d11ed3_3500x2450-jpeg.jpg) An artist's impression of the cargo configuration of European Large Logistics Lander, delivering supplies to the Moon’s surface for astronauts. [Credit: ESA](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2019/11/European%5FLarge%5FLogistic%5FLander%5Funloading%5Fcargo) ## Science NASA knew future technology would allow scientists to study [lunar samples brought by Apollo](https://curator.jsc.nasa.gov/lunar/lsc) in new ways to answer new questions, which is why it formed the [Apollo Next Generation Sample Analysis Program](https://sservi.nasa.gov/articles/apollo-next-generation-sample-analysis-program) (ANGSA) initiative to examine specially stored and sealed samples. In February, NASA [begun the meticulous, months-long process](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-studies-new-50-year-old-lunar-sample-to-prep-for-return-to-moon) of opening and studying one such vacuum-sealed lunar sample [collected](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/apollo/apollo%5F17/samples) 50 years ago by Apollo 17 astronauts. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ff6f313a6-a7cf-44c4-a5cf-fa8ef29c591e_2589x1704-jpeg.jpg) NASA’s Dr. Juliane Gross (left) and ESA’s Dr. Francesca McDonald (right) taking precise measurements of gas contents from the sealed tube of the ANGSA 73001 Apollo 17 lunar sample. [Credits: NASA / James Blair](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-studies-new-50-year-old-lunar-sample-to-prep-for-return-to-moon) As part of [funding awarded to 10 projects](https://www.gov.uk/government/news/funding-for-next-generation-of-space-science-missions) to develop technologies and instrumentation for future space science missions, the UK is funding two £50,000 proposals related to lunar exploration. The first proposal led by researchers at University of Cambridge and RAL Space is for developing miniature high-precision radio receivers to observe the early Universe from the [most radio-quiet vantage point](https://jatan.space/radio-astronomy-from-the-moon/) in the solar system that is the Moon’s farside. Such a receiver could debut on a future CubeSat lunar orbiter before being advanced and adapted for bigger missions. The second proposal, by Surrey Space Center and University of Surrey, is for determining the orbital feasibility of a lunar spacecraft studying [our Sun’s outer atmosphere and the solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) using Moon-enabled total solar eclipses. ## More Moon [More than 20 European companies](https://www.esa.int/About%5FUs/Business%5Fwith%5FESA/Small%5Fand%5FMedium%5FSized%5FEnterprises/Small%5Fcompanies%5Fpartake%5Fin%5FESA%5Fs%5FEuropean%5FService%5FModule) build ESA’s [European Service Module](https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/space/esm) part of NASA’s [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/orion/about/index.html), the ride for future Artemis astronauts. The 15,000-kilogram European Service Module provides propulsion, water, oxygen, thermal control, and electrical power to Orion. For Europe, delivering the modules [ensures at least three seats](https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-55906695) for their astronauts in Artemis missions to the NASA-led [Gateway lunar station](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f635b27ce-05a3-47d6-a457-57aa6c903b96_2500x1451-jpeg.jpg) Parts and systems of the Orion’s spacecraft’s European Service Module (middle segment in the picture on the left) come from more than 20 European companies. Credits: ESA ([1](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2022/02/Orion%5Ffor%5FArtemis%5FI), [2](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2018/11/Orion%5Fan%5Finternational%5Fcollaboration)) It’s nice when we come together and align our incentives to do great things. --- > *Thank you [Dr. Gordon Roesler](http://www.robots-in.space/), [Arun Raghavan](https://arunraghavan.net), [Open Lunar Foundation](https://www.openlunar.org/), [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io/) and [SWISSAPOLLO](https://www.swissapollo.com/en/) for supporting me and powering this edition of Moon Monday!* > > *Everyone, I’m publishing this one-of-a-kind Moon exploration newsletter for free, with no ads. And it will stay that way. If you like my work, [support me](https://jatan.space/support) to keep it going.* [Support Moon Monday 🌗](https://jatan.space/support) ### Moon Monday #66: ESA plans commercial Moon landings, initial NASA Artemis launches near, and more updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-66/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:30.000Z *If you’re reading this, take a moment to acknowledge the freedom that you have, and the privilege to indulge in the finer aspects of a topic not yet core to living itself. Just as I (must) acknowledge the sheer affordance of publishing this issue of Moon Monday, even if it was difficult to focus while writing it. In this so called modern time where a country feels entitled to invade another, misinformation spreads faster than usual, and provocation and thought-policing is normalized, I urge you to consider two things.* 1. *Do not post or share things, especially short takes, just to show that you care or are in the know. Vet a source before you do share something important. Despite what it seems like, reacting immediately is more likely to fuel more issues than solve them.* 2. *Identify something specific you can do to help in a tangible way. For most people, it isn’t a tweet or two. For example, I’m dissatisfied with the fact that [my country abstained](https://thewire.in/diplomacy/india-abstains-on-unscs-call-to-convene-a-general-assembly-emergency-session-on-ukraine) the UN Security Council’s call for an emergency session of the General Assembly on the conflict in Ukraine. Before you judge though, you should read up on India’s history of relations with all countries involved. Nevertheless, I’m personally not happy with my country’s overall response, and the one thing I could do as an observer is support relief efforts for people displaced from their homes. The UN Refugee Agency is [accepting donations](https://giving.unhcr.org/en/ukraine) specifically to provide basic life-saving protection to families forced to leave their homes. Please consider doing so too if that’s the best you can do.* --- ## Highlight ESA has started to move pieces to forge a program similar to [NASA CLPS](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), the latter of which has funded seven commercial landers across four companies so far to deliver the agency’s science and technology payloads to the Moon. ESA and OHB, a major European company who has been [involved in several ESA Science missions](https://www.ohb.de/en/space-systems/exploration), are [soliciting international payloads](https://bsgn.esa.int/2022/02/09/lsas-call-for-payloads) for three Moon landing missions part of OHB’s Lunar Surface Access Service (LSAS) program. OHB’s first Moon mission is targeted for launch in 2025 and will land on the south pole, preferably in a region sunlit for months to extend mission lifetime beyond the usual 14 Earth days of non-polar missions. The lander, based on Israeli [SpaceIL’s Beresheet lander](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/beresheet), can carry [up to 110 kilograms](https://www.ohb.de/en/lsas-save-your-ticket) of payload to the lunar surface, or more to lunar orbit. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f2531a239-1dd5-4367-bbce-c2a8356fef21_2327x1847-jpeg.jpg) Israeli SpaceIL’s privately made Beresheet lander prior to its launch in 2019\. [Credit: SpaceIL](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/spaceil-lander) Last year in November 2021, just as ispace Japan was [assembling](https://ispace-inc.com/news/?p=2012) the lander for [their first Moon mission](https://ispace-inc.com/hakuto-r/eng) launch in 2022, [ESA selected ispace’s European subsidiary and ArianeGroup](https://ispace-inc.com/news/?p=2144) for a potential commercial payload delivery to the Moon. If the selection is formalized this year, ispace could host ESA’s science instruments on their lunar landers and rovers in future missions. ESA intends such commercial Moon flights aided or funded by it to launch on their Ariane 6 rockets starting in 2024. ## Exploration NASA [will roll out](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/artemis-i-still-on-track-for-major-test-in-march) the fully stacked [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) plus [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/orion/about/index.html) to the launchpad on March 17 to test fueling and related procedures, rehearse several launch countdowns over a month right until T-10 seconds, and then defuel the rocket before rolling it back for final preparations. The test results will determine the actual launch date for the [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/around-the-moon-with-nasa-s-first-launch-of-sls-with-orion) mission to send an uncrewed Orion around the Moon and back, which would be no earlier than May. The NASA-funded $10 million [CAPSTONE spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/small%5Fspacecraft/capstone), built by Advanced Space, is [undergoing operational tests](https://spacenews.com/capstone-lunar-cubesat-mission-to-launch-this-spring) before final preparations begin for its launch by May on a Rocket Lab Electron rocket. Since CAPSTONE won’t get enough of a push from the small rocket, it will instead be put on a fuel-saving 3-month ballistic lunar transfer that will take it out as far as 1.5 million kilometers before returning to the Moon and entering its final unique [elliptical lunar orbit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-rectilinear%5Fhalo%5Forbit)—the same one that the NASA-led [Gateway space station](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) will be in later in the decade. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ff3f47f85-08ee-4fcb-85a6-e82aa7ba83ad_3261x2160-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of the CAPSTONE spacecraft orbiting the Moon. [Credits: NASA / Daniel Rutter](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/small%5Fspacecraft/capstone) CAPSTONE’s team will also collaborate with that of NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html) (LRO) to have both spacecraft communicate with each other and demonstrate autonomous navigation in lunar orbit, that is, without relying on ground stations on Earth. This is a capability key to efficient operations when many spacecraft will be around the Moon in the near future. In May 2021, NASA awarded a total of [$500,000 to 7 winning teams](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/centennial%5Fchallenges/500k-awarded-in-first-phase-of-5m-watts-on-the-moon-challenge.html) in Phase 1 of the agency's [Watts on the Moon Challenge](https://www.nasa.gov/solve/Watts%5Fon%5Fthe%5FMoon%5FChallenge) to design future power systems for sustainable human and robotic outposts on the Moon. NASA is now inviting both previous and new participants [for the second phase with competitive awards up to $4.5 million](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/centennial%5Fchallenges/second-phase-open-of-5-million-lunar-power-prize-competition.html) to demonstrate efficient, low-mass prototypes in about 2.5 years which address technology gaps in power transmission and energy storage on the Moon and have a short path to flight-readiness. ## Science India’s [Chandrayaan-2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) doesn’t just study the Moon’s surface but is also a solar telescope. While its Solar X-ray Monitor (XSM) has been [previously used to study solar flares](https://www.isro.gov.in/update/22-jun-2021/unraveling-mysteries-of-solar-corona-new-results-chandrayaan-2-solar-x-ray), the latest observations come from the Chandrayaan-2 Large Area Soft X-ray Spectrometer (CLASS) instrument. In January, CLASS [detected two highly energetic proton emission events](https://www.isro.gov.in/update/23-feb-2022/chandrayaan-2-detected-solar-proton-events-due-to-high-intensity-solar-flares) in [the solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/), the incessant stream of charged particles emanating from the Sun. NASA’s GOES-16 satellite couldn’t detect one of the two events because Earth’s magnetic field provided shielding from said particles. The Chandrayaan-2 orbiter being in lunar orbit could detect the particles, just as other solar observers outside Earth’s magnetic field can. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ff69dc278-18a0-4ba5-8e11-4e5192f1a7dc_1080x602-jpeg-1.jpg) The rate of protons recorded by India’s Chandrayaan 2 lunar orbiter (blue) and NASA’s GOES Earth orbiter (red). [Credits: ISRO / NASA](https://www.isro.gov.in/update/23-feb-2022/chandrayaan-2-detected-solar-proton-events-due-to-high-intensity-solar-flares) From August 4 through 7 in 1972, the Sun blurted out [several bursts of flares](http://spaceweatherlivinghistory.org/timeline/31) right between the Apollo 16 and 17 missions to the Moon. Had the astronauts been in lunar orbit or on the surface, they could’ve faced damaging levels of radiation. This could, in turn, lead to increased cancer risk. [As we prepare](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/) to send astronauts on much longer Moon missions and beyond, we’ll need to [protect our explorers](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2019/how-nasa-protects-astronauts-from-space-radiation-at-moon-mars-solar-cosmic-rays) from such flaring and energetic particle events that reach Earth-Moon space in a matter of hours. ## More Moon A rocket’s upper stage [will impact the Moon’s farside](https://www.projectpluto.com/temp/correct.htm), near the equator, on March 4 at approximately 12:25 UTC. The upper stage seems most [likely to be from the rocket that launched China’s Chang’e 5-T1 mission](https://www.projectpluto.com/temp/correct.htm) in 2014, despite China [denying the claim](https://spacenews.com/china-claims-rocket-stage-destined-for-lunar-impact-is-not-from-its-2014-moon-mission), and not a SpaceX Falcon 9 [as first thought](https://www.projectpluto.com/temp/dscovr.htm). NASA [LRO](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html) will pass over the predicted impact site on March 28 and then again roughly a month later. The Chandrayaan-2 orbiter will be looking for visual signs too after March, and its mass spectrometer could pick up gas signatures in the Moon’s exosphere due to the impact. Due to our poor tracking of deep space objects, it will be very difficult to confirm what is it that actually hit the Moon. --- [Donate to aid refugees from Ukraine ♡](https://giving.unhcr.org/en/ukraine) ### Moon Monday #65: ESA’s Moonlight infrastructure plans, Astrobotic’s progress on key NASA mission, Apollo 17 landing site in 3D, and more updates URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-65/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:30.000Z ## Highlight --- *This section is superseded by [Moon Monday #98: ESA’s Moonlight plans forge forward](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-98/)* --- In May 2021, ESA [funded two consortia of companies](https://www.esa.int/About%5FUs/Corporate%5Fnews/ESA%5Fadvances%5Fits%5Fplan%5Ffor%5Fsatellites%5Faround%5Fthe%5FMoon) to design and analyze feasibility of a “lunar communications and navigation service” by end of 2022 as part of the agency’s [Moonlight initiative](https://www.esa.int/Applications/Telecommunications%5FIntegrated%5FApplications/Lunar%5Fsatellites). Such a system will enable cost-effective Moon missions, who’d no longer need their own hefty communications hardware and rented infrastructure. It will also facilitate missions to the Moon’s farside and poles, and allow rovers to communicate even when exploring areas with no Earth visibility. Such a service could also provide a common time reference for lunar-based fundamental physics and astronomy experiments, including [farside radio astronomy](https://jatan.space/radio-astronomy-from-the-moon/). NASA is planning a similar service called [LunaNet](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2021/lunanet-empowering-artemis-with-communications-and-navigation-interoperability) but ESA is farther ahead right now. Surrey Satellite Technology Limited (SSTL) is leading the first consortium for Moonlight, with Airbus as one of the partners, while Telespazio is leading the second one, with Thales Alenia Space as one of the partners. ESA will eventually select either one of the two consortia, or a mix of both, to build and (optimistically) start operating Moonlight by 2028\. ESA plans to make the service available commercially, and hopes that nations with smaller budgets or scope will take advantage of the cost effectiveness to send their own lunar missions. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f8069f994-4c11-4184-a06e-752928e1a10a_1337x821-jpeg.jpg) A notional preliminary top-level system concept of ESA’s Moonlight initiative. The envisioned communications and navigation service will be composed of several commercial nodes strategically placed to serve specific mission needs, and thus form the basis of sustained lunar exploration. [Credit: ESA](https://ideas.esa.int/servlet/hype/IMT?documentTableId=45087669056462156&userAction=Browse&templateName=&documentId=335dbe1a8f262b8e3fbd02bcfb89de12) Now, ESA has provided [specific details](https://ideas.esa.int/servlet/hype/IMT?documentTableId=45087669056462156&userAction=Browse&templateName=&documentId=335dbe1a8f262b8e3fbd02bcfb89de12) on what capabilities we can actually expect from their commercial lunar communications and navigation network. One of the reasons ESA did this is because it wants to hear and integrate into Moonlight novel use cases and applications from companies, academic & scientific users, space agencies & governments, and anyone else relevant. [Applications](https://bsgn.esa.int/2022/02/10/lcns-call-for-ideas) are due April 30, after which ESA will invite those with the best ideas to agency centers and related forums to mature their concepts, direct them to appropriate ESA funding mechanisms, and potentially integrate ideas into mission concepts too. Related past development: As a pathfinder to Moonlight, ESA [signed a contract](https://www.sstl.co.uk/media-hub/latest-news/2021/sstl-signs-up-esa-as-anchor-customer-for-lunar-pat) with SSTL in September 2021 worth [$23.5 million](https://spacenews.com/esa-to-be-anchor-customer-on-commercial-lunar-satellite/) to get lunar communications services from the company’s aptly named [Lunar Pathfinder](https://www.esa.int/Applications/Navigation/Galileo%5Fwill%5Fhelp%5FLunar%5FPathfinder%5Fnavigate%5Faround%5FMoon) orbiter. It will launch in 2024 and operate in a frozen elliptical orbit for at least 8 years to relay communications between Earth and robotic mission hardware on or orbiting the Moon. SSTL hopes for this service to be commercially used, especially by robotic missions to the lunar farside and poles. Also related: Open Lunar Foundation’s [timely blog post](https://www.openlunar.org/library/last-mile) proposes that we can sustain lunar communications infrastructure such as Moonlight by deriving from best practices followed by network infrastructure providers on Earth coupled with strategies adopted by open source communities. ## Exploration As NASA [prepares to launch](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-fully-stacked-for-moon-mission-readies-for-artemis-i) the [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/around-the-moon-with-nasa-s-first-launch-of-sls-with-orion) mission on a roundtrip around the Moon in April or May, the agency has [successfully tested](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/01/14/artemis-i-core-stage-engineering-testing-complete/) all four [RS-25 engine controllers](https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/nasa-picks-up-where-it-left-off-in-2017-tests-rs-25-flight-controller) on their [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html). Meanwhile, engineers diagnosed [the faulty controller](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2021/12/17/artemis-i-integrated-testing-update) which had delayed the launch earlier and found [the problem](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/02/18/artemis-i-update-engine-controller-resolution-closeout-tasks-continue) to be a fault memory chip used to start the controller. Since that faulty unit was replaced, the issue doesn’t affect the controllers on SLS right now, and things look okay for fueling and defueling tests late next month. Astrobotic has [passed a key mission milestone](https://www.astrobotic.com/griffin-lunar-test-model-complete) by completing building a full-scale structural model of their [Griffin lander](https://www.astrobotic.com/lunar-delivery/landers/griffin-lander), whose flight version will deliver NASA’s [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) to the Moon’s south pole in late 2023 to study water ice as part of the agency’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/). The 5900-kilogram structural model will soon undergo a series of environmental tests, followed by ramp egress testing at NASA Glenn with a VIPER rover test model. These tests will inform Griffin’s flight build later this year. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f0d3aadd8-8217-460b-8558-8a6c2f82311a_1658x1382-jpeg.jpg) Structural model of the Griffin lander. [Credit: Astrobotic](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AIuzfKljr0o) NASA is [seeking specific technology development proposals](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-offers-up-to-200-million-to-help-push-new-technologies-to-market) for another round of its “Tipping Point” awards, which help companies accelerate building of promising technologies. NASA will fund proposals chiefly concerning infrastructure required by future [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) astronauts to [sustainably live and work](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-outlines-lunar-surface-sustainability-concept) on the Moon. This includes but isn’t limited to lunar resource utilization, power distribution, and autonomous construction. For context, here are some lunar-infrastructure-related Tipping Point contracts NASA has awarded within the past two years. - A $2.8 million award to Masten Space to accelerate development of its [lunar night survival system](https://masten.aero/blog/surviving-the-lunar-night-with-mastens-nite-system). - A [$2.4 million contract](http://www.sncorp.com/press-releases/snc-selected-for-nasa-tipping-point-contract/) to Sierra Space to further develop its carbothermal reduction process to extract oxygen from lunar minerals. - Nokia’s [4G/LTE communications system](https://www.nokia.com/networks/insights/network-on-the-moon/) to be tested on Intuitive Machines’ [second Moon landing mission](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-to-land-water-measuring-payload-on-the-moon) in December 2022 at the earliest. - This next one’s not a Tipping Point contract but in March 2021, NASA [awarded $700,000 each to five companies](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-industry-to-mature-vertical-solar-array-technologies-for-lunar-surface) to design [optimal vertical solar arrays](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-20/) that auto-deploy up to 10 meters in height, retract for relocation, be stable on steep terrain, are resistant to abrasive lunar dust, all while minimizing mass and volume to ease delivery (of the eventual contracted hardware) to the Moon. ## Science The outreach team of NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html) (LRO) [has released](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/1112) nice 5-meter/pixel 3D terrain views of Apollo 17’s landing site so we can appreciate the topography of [Taurus-Littrow valley](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/layers?extent=29.8179737,19.6416649,31.4336391,20.5565182&proj=16&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEoAsjYIHYFcA2vIBvAXwF1Siylw4oNEQBmaaKBenfSi4RuORukScCJct1JA). The [released products](http://wms.lroc.asu.edu/lroc/view%5Frdr/NAC%5FDTM%5FAPOLLO17) include color-shaded and slope-shaded relief maps, a topophoto map, orthophoto mosaics, and individual stereo pairs from LRO’s Narrow Angle Camera that helped make this all possible. Part of the astronaut traverse area is also [available at 2 meters/pixel](http://wms.lroc.asu.edu/lroc/view%5Frdr/NAC%5FDTM%5FAPOLLO17%5F2M). The LRO outreach team maintains a [Featured Downloads](http://www.lroc.asu.edu/archive/downloads) page where we can find more such visual products. [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f51681ed7-cd82-4b48-b1cc-ea6b57b32e07_2266x1728-jpeg.jpg)](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/1112) Color-shaded relief map of the Apollo 17 landing site with traverse paths of astronauts shown on top. [Credits: NASA / GSFC / ASU](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/1112) **How does NASA LRO capture 3D images?** LRO pulls off the feat using a single camera. When passing above a feature of interest, it tilts itself by a certain degree and snaps an image as per pre-sent commands by missions operators on Earth. As the same feature comes into view about two hours later in the next orbit, LRO is made to tilt again, this time in the opposite direction, to get another image. These two images are then processed here on Earth to make stereographic images just like we do for 3D movies. With this method, LRO mission designers are taking advantage of the fact that the Moon rotates slowly about itself—once every 27 days. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f6b796acf-aaa0-4990-90d4-738970483d87_1200x900-jpeg.jpg) Two images of the same feature being captured by NASA’s LRO spacecraft at different angles in consecutive orbits to create a 3D image. Credit: NASA Related: I made a video out of some LRO stereo images so you can [watch features on the Moon in 3D](https://jatan.space/the-moon-in-3d/). ## More Moon My latest lunar article is on the sheer diversity of mobile robots which will explore the Moon’s surface over the next five years. [The bevy of rovers heading for the Moon](https://jatan.space/lunar-rovers-launching-in-2020s/) --- > *Dear reader, I’m publishing this one-of-a-kind Moon exploration newsletter for free, with no ads. And it will stay that way. If you like my work, [support me](https://jatan.space/support) to keep it going.* [Support Moon Monday 🌗](https://jatan.space/support) ### Moon Monday Issue #64 URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-64/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:30.000Z ## Highlight & Science In a matter of years at the end of the first decade of this century, we went from [discovering water on the Moon](https://jatan.space/how-nasa-and-chandrayaan-discovered-water-on-the-moon/) to putting [lower bounds](https://www.nasa.gov/mission%5Fpages/Mini-RF/multimedia/feature%5Fice%5Flike%5Fdeposits.html) on the amount it hosts. Soon after, scientists shifted focus to nailing down exactly [where the Moon’s water and volatiles come from](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-63/) and how so. Two more notable developments transpired this week along those lines. ### 1\. Not many volatiles from lunar volcanoes In 2009, the NASA LCROSS spacecraft’s upper stage deliberately impacted one of the [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s south pole. The other half of LCROSS followed, and detected [155 kilograms of water](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010Sci...330..463C/abstract) and other volatiles in the plume kicked up by the crash. In a [new study](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-28289-6), researchers analyzed the abundance of key volatile elements LCROSS detected to determine how likely is it for them to be sourced from comets, volcanoes, [micrometeorites](https://jatan.space/the-tiniest-of-impact-craters/), and the [solar wind](https://www.planetary.org/worlds/the-sun). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fc0107104-6cac-4edb-82fb-d76725984b78_1000x683-jpeg.jpg) Artist’s rendering of LCROSS following its upper stage en route to impact the Moon in 2009\. [Credit: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/mission%5Fpages/LCROSS/main/prelim%5Fwater%5Fresults.html) ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fd207400d-3452-4f83-b0e9-f4d66c0b3b71_529x378-jpeg.jpg) LCROSS image showing the plume ejected by the impact of its separated upper stage on the Moon. [Credit: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/mission%5Fpages/LCROSS/main/prelim%5Fwater%5Fresults.html) Ratios of the detected volatile elements suggested that they weren’t a result of past volcanic outgassing on the Moon i.e. they didn’t come from the Moon’s interior. This [implies](https://www.swri.org/press-release/swri-scientists-help-determine-comet-delivery-moon) that the first few meters of Moon’s polar surface is likely younger than a billion years, much younger than previously thought. The elemental ratios instead were a best match for comets, based on [similar measurements](http://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Space%5FScience/Rosetta/Rosetta%5Ffuels%5Fdebate%5Fon%5Forigin%5Fof%5FEarth%5Fs%5Foceans) of comet 67P by ESA’s Rosetta spacecraft. Effects from micrometeorites bombarding the lunar surface seem to be the second major source of volatiles. The significance of this result isn’t what it suggests are the sources of lunar volatiles but that it categorically rules out volcanoes being a major source. A [related study](https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2020GL089509) from last year supports this result, which found that even the temporary atmosphere created when the Moon was most volcanically active over 3 billion years ago was likely inefficient in transferring and depositing lots of volatiles to permanently shadowed regions on the poles. ### 2\. LUPEX rover We now have early details on the joint Japanese-Indian [LUPEX rover](https://www.exploration.jaxa.jp/e/program/lunarpolar/) mission to explore the nature of [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other volatiles on the Moon’s poles. We knew previously that JAXA is building the mission’s 350-kilogram rover, and ISRO the lander to deliver LUPEX to the Moon’s south pole. A [talk by ISRO scientist S. Megala](https://youtu.be/E81SoGhVNe8?t=5454) at the 21st (Indian) National Space Science Symposium reveals juicier details from the mission’s ongoing initial study phase. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f913a003d-677a-4bb8-84b9-a17101a127ed_800x448-jpeg-2.jpg) Elements of the joint Indian-Japanese Lunar Polar Exploration (LUPEX) mission. Notice the heightened mast for the rover’s solar panel, something very useful at the lunar poles where the Sun is always near the horizon. [Credit: JAXA](https://www.exploration.jaxa.jp/e/program/lunarpolar/) The LUPEX rover, launching post-2023, will have both Indian and Japanese instruments—chiefly a drill and a bunch of complimentary spectrometers—to study the nature, amount and accessibility of water ice in its landed region between 89-90ºS, making the mission similar to NASA’s [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/). LUPEX will explore its landed region for at least six months, and likely venture into [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) a few hundred meters across. While the instruments will be finalized in the next mission development phase starting in April, a ground penetrating radar and a thermal probe are key instruments being considered, both of which VIPER doesn’t have. Findings from them would thus nicely complement results from VIPER. Here’s a PDF of mission slides from the talk. ![](https://substack.com/img/attachment_icon.svg) Slides: Early details on LUPEX mission3.72MB ∙ PDF file[Download](https://blog.jatan.space/api/v1/file/aaf90dda-5bf7-488a-96ac-b28cd5a142bd.pdf)[Download](https://blog.jatan.space/api/v1/file/aaf90dda-5bf7-488a-96ac-b28cd5a142bd.pdf) Megala also hinted that ISRO is considering making its next Moon mission, the one after LUPEX, to be a sample return one. They’re currently internally referring to it as Chandrayaan 5, meaning LUPEX is considered Chandrayaan 4. ## Exploration NASA continues to prepare the fully stacked [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) ahead of its [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/around-the-moon-with-nasa-s-first-launch-of-sls-with-orion) mission launch this April or May to send an uncrewed [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/orion/about/index.html) around the Moon and back. Last week, engineers [installed the flight termination system](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/02/11/progress-on-testing-and-instrumentation-installation-ahead-of-artemis-i-launch) and started the first of its two tests. The system’s second text will be after the rocket’s fueling and defueling rehearsal in late March, for which preparations are also ongoing. In the meanwhile, hardware for the [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to) mission in 2024, which will carry astronauts around the Moon, [is progressing](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/nasa-prepares-to-join-two-major-parts-for-artemis-II-core-stage.html). The SLS rocket’s core stage for the mission is approaching [its full assembly](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/multimedia/infographics/corestage101.html). Engineers will soon join the roughly 40-meter liquid hydrogen tank with the roughly [20-meter forward assembly](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/forward-join-infographic.html), the latter of which consists of the forward skirt, intertank, and and liquid oxygen tank. This will complete assembly of majority of the core stage’s structure, with the last remaining engine section to follow. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fdd2ad114-6212-47a1-a235-095a63caa4b4_1733x1153-jpeg.jpg) The SLS rocket core stage’s liquid hydrogen tank. [Credit: NASA / Jared Lyons](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/nasa-prepares-to-join-two-major-parts-for-artemis-II-core-stage.html) The NASA-funded $10 million [CAPSTONE spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/small%5Fspacecraft/capstone), built by Advanced Space, will launch in the first half of this year to prove the feasibility of the unique [fuel-saving elliptical lunar orbit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-rectilinear%5Fhalo%5Forbit) that the NASA-led [Gateway space station](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) will be in later in the decade. CAPSTONE’s team will also collaborate with the [NASA LRO](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html) team to have both spacecraft communicate with each other and demonstrate autonomous navigation in lunar orbit, a capability key to efficient operations when many spacecraft will be around the Moon in the near future. It turned out last week that Advanced Space has entered into an agreement with the U.S. Air Force to share orbital data collected by the spacecraft. Here’s what [the press release](https://www.prweb.com/releases/advanced%5Fspace%5Fu%5Fs%5Fair%5Fforce%5Fsign%5Fcooperative%5Fagreement%5Fto%5Fcollaborate%5Fon%5Fcislunar%5Factivities/prweb18492902.htm) says (emphasis mine): > The opportunity to analyze data retrieved from the mission will be beneficial for future mission design and navigation strategies *for defense and other customers*. --- Astrobotic’s first [lunar lander](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-awarded-79-5-million-contract-to-deliver-14-nasa-payloads-to-the-moon), launching later this year as part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), will deploy five tiny autonomous rovers collectively called [COLMENA](https://www.dgcs.unam.mx/boletin/bdboletin/2022%5F087.html), representing Mexico’s first Moon mission. Weighing about 60 grams and spanning 12 centimeters across each, they really are tiny. COLMENA aims to demonstrate how such small robots working in tandem can survive and navigate the harsh lunar environment. COLMENA is developed by the Space Instrumentation Laboratory (LINX) at the National Autonomous University of Mexico, with support from the Mexican Space Agency. *(Thanks to [Yazmín](https://twitter.com/DiJoandi) for helping me with the content and translation of the official statement.)* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9445a044-15b3-43d8-8100-3421146adbe2_3619x2500-jpeg-1.jpg) Closeup image of a COLMENA rover. [Credits: UNAM / AEM](https://www.dgcs.unam.mx/boletin/bdboletin/2022%5F087.html) It’s been interesting to see Mexican entities forge international partnerships for lunar exploration. Another notable example from last year is the [collaboration on lunar resource extraction technologies](https://www.airbus.com/newsroom/press-releases/en/2021/09/airbus-defence-and-space-the-mexican-space-agency-and-mexican-startup-dereum-labs-to-collaborate-on-lunar-resources-extraction-technologies.html) between the Mexican Space Agency, the Mexican startup Dereum Labs and Airbus. Dereum is developing swarms of modular rovers to map lunar resources whereas Airbus is making technologies to extract and covert those resources using its [ROXY system](https://www.airbus.com/newsroom/press-releases/en/2020/10/roxy-turns-moon-dust-into-oxygen.html). This collaboration is part of Mexico’s new In-Situ Resources Utilisation (ISRU) program to indigenously develop said technologies. ## More Moon? Long-time readers of Moon Monday may have noticed that lately I’ve been trying to provide more context for major news items. It does mean lengthier reporting for some developments but (I hope) it also helps you clearly see how multiple related events unfolded over time. Relatedly, when I asked for feedback on Moon Monday late last year, a common voice was that the issues are slightly longer than people would like. So to balance length and context, I’ve decided that instead of making each news item too brief, I’ll omit mentioning some really small developments entirely. Do you like it this way? If not, why not? Thoughts? --- > *Thank you [Pratik Mhatre](https://pratikmhatre.com) for supporting me and powering this edition of Moon Monday.* > > *Everyone, I’m publishing this one-of-a-kind Moon exploration newsletter for free, with no ads. And it will stay that way. If you like my work, [support me](https://jatan.space/support) to keep it going.* [Support Moon Monday 🌗](https://jatan.space/support) ### Moon Monday Issue #63 URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-63/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:30.000Z ## The key scientific difference between Apollo and Artemis? Moon water missions If there’s going to be one stark difference between scientific investigations of our Moon by [Apollo missions](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/celebrating-apollo-at-50) and upcoming [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) ones, it will be the study of [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other such volatiles. Lunar samples returned by Apollo astronauts supported a long-held consensus of our cosmic neighbor being extremely dry. Almost four decades later though, technological advances allowed discovering water [within lunar volcanic glasses](https://www.nature.com/articles/nature07047) and in [apatite mineral samples](https://www.pnas.org/content/107/25/11223). Around the same time, ISRO and NASA [co-discovered relatively large amounts of water ice](https://jatan.space/how-nasa-and-chandrayaan-discovered-water-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s poles. The Moon turned out not to be bone dry after all. These developments, enhanced by more such sample studies and remote orbital measurements, helped rekindle widespread interest in [exploring our Moon](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) both from a scientific and resource utility standpoint. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fa75ec4a5-a025-4393-aaf8-bec730c9a13d_1400x788-jpeg.jpg) Distribution of water ice on the Moon’s south pole (left) and the north pole (right) as indicated by ISRO’s Chandrayaan 1 spacecraft. [Credit: NASA](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=7218) Since then, lunar scientists have been trying to understand exactly how water and other volatiles get produced on the Moon, and then get [transported](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasa-study-highlights-importance-of-surface-shadows-in-moon-water-puzzle) from the equator to its poles where they can get sequestered in [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) for billions of years. Knowing the exact nature and availability of lunar volatiles is so crucial that even before NASA lands humans on the Moon, a slew of agency-funded robotic missions will take specific measurements to help scientists construct mechanisms governing lunar volatiles. - The [Lunar Flashlight](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/lunar-flashlight), [Lunar IceCube](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2019/lunar-icecube-mission-to-locate-study-resources-needed-for-sustained-presence-on-moon) and [LunaH-Map](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/lunah-map-university-built-cubesat-to-map-water-ice-on-the-moon) CubeSat orbiters will launch on [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/around-the-moon-with-nasa-s-first-launch-of-sls-with-orion). Lunar Flashlight will use near-infrared lasers and a spectrometer to identify locations and states of [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) inside [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s poles. Lunar IceCube’s infrared spectrometer will map water across the Moon’s surface as well as measure water vapor in the thin lunar exosphere. LunaH-Map will use two neutron spectrometers to map hydrogen—an indicator of water—in the highest resolution to date across the Moon’s south pole over 60 days, both in [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) and on the surface as well as a meter below it. - A mass spectrometer onboard [Astrobotic’s first Moon mission](https://www.astrobotic.com/2019/5/31/astrobotic-awarded-79-5-million-contract-to-deliver-14-nasa-payloads-to-the-moon) this year [will measure](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2021/07/The%5Fheart%5Fof%5Fa%5Flunar%5Fsensor#.YORgAKilEK9.link) water vapor at its landing site of Lacus Mortis at 45° N, and note changes in its amount over time. Related: Russia’s Luna-27 mission to the Moon’s south pole in 2025 [will carry a similar instrument](https://exploration.esa.int/web/moon/-/59102-about-prospect). - NASA is putting a [drill](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/game%5Fchanging%5Fdevelopment/projects/PRIME-1) and a mass spectrometer onboard Intuitive Machines’ [second Moon mission](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-to-land-water-measuring-payload-on-the-moon) in December 2022 to [the Moon’s south pole](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-intuitive-machines-announce-landing-site-location-for-lunar-drill). The lander will drill up to 1 meter below the surface and analyze the soil for [water ice](https://www.planetary.org/articles/water-on-the-moon-guide). - [Instruments](https://masten.aero/blog/masten-mission-1-instruments-lunar-south-pole) onboard Masten Space’s [2023 Moon mission](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-contract-to-deliver-science-tech-to-moon-ahead-of-human-missions) will detect water ice and other volatiles such as methane and carbon dioxide to help us better understand the Moon’s polar environment. Aiding the task will be Astrobotic’s [MoonRanger](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotics-moonranger-moves-into-final-production/) rover onboard carrying a NASA-provided [neutron spectrometer](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/where-s-the-water-two-resource-hunting-tools-for-the-moon-s-surface) to detect signs of water ice below the surface. - NASA’s [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) will explore lunar areas in and around [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) for over 100 days, and use its drill and three instruments to unravel the nature of the Moon’s water ice deposits, assess their resource potential, and determine how accessible they are. This will be the most crucial mission in helping us plan near-future human exploration of the Moon’s poles. - NASA’s [Lunar Trailblazer](https://jatan.space/nasa-lunar-trailblazer/) orbiter will use its [two instruments](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/instruments.html) to [map the form, abundance, and distribution](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/objectives.html) of water on the Moon, both in permanently shadowed regions and sunlit areas. The mission will also monitor changes in water in sunlit regions over time, and is expected to [provide holistic insights](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/files/NESFELS%5F210720.pdf) on the lunar water cycle. The spacecraft is expected to be ready in October 2022 but [its launch](https://trailblazer.caltech.edu/gettingToTheMoon.html) is currently scheduled for 2025 as a secondary payload along with NASA’s IMAP mission. The mission team and NASA are looking into earlier launch options. - As part of the [identified science priorities](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-defines-science-priorities-for-first-crewed-artemis-landing-on-moon) for Artemis III, NASA’s [first Artemis human landing mission](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) launching in 2025, the [Science Definition Team](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/Artemis/) has expressed the need for having cryogenic sampling capabilities to bring precious volatiles from the Moon’s permanently shadowed regions to Earth for meticulous studies. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f78f0330f-2ba2-46e7-a3b3-bdbc3392fc66_2233x1597-jpeg-2.jpg) A reference traverse path for NASA’s VIPER rover (shown in the inset image) in its landing region on the Moon’s south pole near Nobile crater. The water ice and other volatile deposits it could explore are depicted in blue. [Credit: NASA](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bd7ekqMrHkg) A recent [review paper on lunar volatiles](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0009281921001239) provides an exhaustive look at everything we know about the Moon’s current volatile inventory, where they come from, how they are likely transported, and how much of it all gets potentially preserved on the poles and below the surface. The paper also mentions specific future measurements by lunar missions, chiefly by VIPER and India’s [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/), that could answer many of our questions regarding the Moon’s volatile resource potential. Some recent results from the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter have already been advancing our knowledge on the matter. Apart from a promising [initial result](https://arxiv.org/abs/2104.14259) from the orbiter’s dual-frequency radar, the spacecraft’s infrared spectrometer detected even [more water on the sunlit Moon](https://www.currentscience.ac.in/Volumes/121/03/0391.pdf) last year. Read my [past Moon Monday coverage](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-40/) to know its specific importance and how it improves things over SOFIA’s water discovery. ## Exploration NASA’s [Artemis I mission](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/around-the-moon-with-nasa-s-first-launch-of-sls-with-orion) to send an uncrewed [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/orion/about/index.html) around the Moon and back has been delayed to at least April. NASA [says it needs an additional month](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/02/02/artemis-i-update) to complete [integrated testing](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-fully-stacked-for-moon-mission-readies-for-artemis-i) of the fully stacked [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) before the vehicle can be rolled out to the launchpad for a wet dress rehearsal. Based on exactly how this critical final test of fueling, defueling and related procedures goes in late March, NASA will decide the launch date to be either in April or May. The current launch windows available for the same are April 8-23 and May 7-21. --- A [response to a query](http://164.100.24.220/loksabhaquestions/annex/178/AU59.pdf) put forth to the Lok Sabha—Indian equivalent to the U.S. House of Representatives—reveals that the Chandrayaan 3 Moon landing mission is scheduled for launch in August 2022\. ISRO Chief S. Somanath [told the Times of India](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/chandrayaan-3-targeted-this-year-corrections-in-progress-hardware-realisation-almost-done/articleshow/89322779.cms) that based on lessons learnt from the Chandrayaan 2 lander’s close but failed landing, Chandrayaan 3 includes software improvements, strengthened legs, and better power and communication systems. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f8828086a-9842-46e8-bdca-659f0191bcca_1500x1000-jpeg-1.jpg) An artist’s impression of Chandrayaan 2’s lander and rover on the Moon. Since the landing part of the mission failed, India is reattempting the same with Chandrayaan 3\. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=--8ORixBXQE) We know so far that the mission consists of a [Chandrayaan-2-like](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-2-moon-landing-mission/) lander, and an orbiter to propel the lander to the Moon as well as to relay communications during and after landing. The [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) will serve as a backup (and secondary) relay provider. The Chandrayaan 3 lander will carry, among other experiments, a thermal probe and a seismometer to study the Moon’s interior. Being a repeat attempt of Chandrayaan 2’s surface part of the mission, Chandrayaan 3’s landing region is expected to be [in a near-polar lunar highland too](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-landing-site-in-the-southern-highlands/). As such, its rover will have a pair of spectrometers to determine what the ancient lunar crust is made of. --- Masten Space, in partnership with Penn State University and Honeybee Robotics, is working on an intriguing new technology to enable landers, rovers and instruments to survive the frigid lunar night, where temperatures can go well below -180 degrees Celsius. Masten’s [NITE system](https://masten.aero/blog/surviving-the-lunar-night-with-mastens-nite-system) uses exothermic chemical reactions to provide heat and power through the oxidation of metals using leftover spacecraft propellant or mined water. Masten says that compared to other solutions based on batteries and fuel cells, NITE has more than seven times lower mass, a longer lifespan, lunar-dust resistance, and lesser complexity while being over $10 million cheaper. Compared to nuclear-based solutions, Masten says NITE is cheaper, safer and (will be) readily available. Most interestingly, NITE can allow surface hardware to better explore [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) and even [lava tubes](https://jatan.space/underground-lava-tubes-on-the-moon-marius-hills/). NASA accelerated development of the NITE system with a [$2.8 million Tipping Point award](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/solicitations/tipping%5Fpoints/2020%5Fselections) in 2020 so that Masten can complete the core technology in 2022. --- In August 2021, keen observers noted that the service module of the [Chang’e 5 lunar sample return mission](https://jatan.space/change-5-landing-site/) moved from [near Sun-Earth L1 point](http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2021-03/19/c%5F139822288.htm), where it was stationed since March 2021, towards the Moon again. After careful observations and modeling, they have now confirmed that the Chang’e 5 service module [is in a Distant Retrograde Orbit](https://skyriddles.wordpress.com/2022/01/25/change-5-returns-to-the-moon) around the Moon. The orbit’s parameters are [similar to that planned](https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20180001259/downloads/20180001259.pdf) for the upcoming NASA’s [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/around-the-moon-with-nasa-s-first-launch-of-sls-with-orion) mission. China’s lack of a public statement on the new orbit is curious because this is the first time a spacecraft has entered such a lunar orbit. ## More Moon I wrote an article on [NASA’s upcoming CLPS Moon landing missions](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/clps) as part of The Planetary Society’s [collection of resource pages](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions) on missions and worlds. The CLPS page is intended to be an evergreen resource; notice the plethora of links in there so that people can access more and nuanced information easily. [Upcoming NASA CLPS Moon missions](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/clps) I’ll be keeping the page up to date as and when major new developments happen so bookmark it maybe? --- > *Everyone, I’m publishing this one-of-a-kind Moon exploration newsletter for free, with no ads. And it will stay that way. If you like my work, [support me](https://jatan.space/support) to keep it going.* [Support Moon Monday 🌗](https://jatan.space/support) ### NASA is funding a Moon mission to the magnetic swirl of Reiner Gamma URL: https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-mission-to-reiner-gamma/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:31.000Z The Moon is host to a type of bright feature quite glaringly called [swirls](https://jatan.space/swirls-on-the-moon/). Here is the lunar swirl of Reiner Gamma. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fbbbbe8ab-7263-4171-8de6-6d5162472d55_1000x750-jpeg.jpg) Beautiful and bright lunar swirl of Reiner Gamma. It spans well over a hundred kilometers. [Credit: NASA Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Reiner%5FGamma.jpg) Reiner Gamma is large enough to be faintly visible on the Moon with the naked eye under favorable conditions. [![02-reiner-gamma-map](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9d1a1f91-5724-42a8-926f-3bb34b66c646_1098x770-jpeg.jpg)](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=-67.0083039,2.4397067,-49.8557308,11.9165646&camera=1117512.058560295,-1818766.4416265273,271818.1425204457,6.283185307179586,-1.5707963267948966,0,2151889.791048267&proj=22&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEoAsjYIHYFcA2vIBvAXwF0lRR1Ed8izyTzhw4oNEQBmOOL6rHgJNGDIA) [Click to explore Reiner Gamma on a map](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=-67.0083039,2.4397067,-49.8557308,11.9165646&camera=1117512.058560295,-1818766.4416265273,271818.1425204457,6.283185307179586,-1.5707963267948966,0,2151889.791048267&proj=22&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEoAsjYIHYFcA2vIBvAXwF0lRR1Ed8izyTzhw4oNEQBmOOL6rHgJNGDIA) The Moon [lost its global magnetic field](http://advances.sciencemag.org/content/3/8/e1700207) well over 3 billion years ago but it does have local areas that are still magnetic. Interestingly, all swirls on the Moon are associated with a local magnetic field. These fields [protect parts of the swirl’s surface](https://arxiv.org/abs/1605.05778) from being degraded by [the solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) and [micrometeorites](https://jatan.space/the-tiniest-of-impact-craters/), making them brighter than their surroundings. On the other hand, the magnetic field lines accelerate solar radiation weathering on regions just besides them. These two mechanisms together are what give [all swirls](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts?page=1&query=swirl) their distinctive bright and dark look. How do (magnetic) swirls form in the first place though? We don’t know. Scientists have some [interesting ideas](https://arxiv.org/abs/1207.2076) on the matter but ultimately we need to precisely measure the local magnetic field strength of regions within the swirl by sending a surface mission. We also need to measure exactly how radiation particles from the solar wind interact with the swirl's magnetic field, and how it affects and shapes the local environment. In November 2021, NASA [funded a commercial Moon mission](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-for-new-lunar-science-delivery) part of their [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) to do exactly that. NASA selected Intuitive Machines to deliver 92 kilograms of science and technology payloads to Reiner Gamma. For a bargain price of $77.5 million, Intuitive Machines will land and jointly operate five rovers and a bunch of science instruments in 2024. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fbd337403-e8ab-49ef-be13-bc172879ef49_1600x1100-png.jpg) Illustration of Intuitive Machines’ Nova-C lander touching down on the Moon. [Credit: Intuitive Machines](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-to-deliver-4-lunar-payloads-in-2024) The mission’s primary payload suite [Lunar Vertex](https://www.jhuapl.edu/NewsStory/211018b-lunar-vertex) is a collection of spectrometers and magnetometers on the lander and a rover. The rover, which Lunar Outpost will provide, will drive up to two kilometers over 13 Earth days, exploring at least one bright and dark section of Reiner Gamma. Lunar Vertex will study the swirl’s composition, and map the strength and direction of magnetic fields on its surface, complementing observations from past orbiters. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fe765e037-d425-436b-98f7-4756208fa9c3_2189x1440-jpeg-2.jpg) Artist’s impression of the solar-powered Lunar Outpost rover on the Moon with NASA-funded Lunar Vertex instruments. The cylindrical structure on top is the mast for the magnetometer. [Credits: JHU APL / Lunar Outpost / Ben Smith](https://www.jhuapl.edu/NewsStory/211018b-lunar-vertex) This will be the world’s first mission to a swirl, and will [provide us insights](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/decadal/leag/GeorgianaYKramer.pdf) into how they form and evolve, better understand effects of the solar wind and bombarding micrometeorites on planetary bodies across the solar system, and shape our understanding of the Moon’s magnetic evolution. The other four rovers Intuitive Machines’ lander will carry are part of NASA’s [CADRE project](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/game%5Fchanging%5Fdevelopment/projects/CADRE). The shoebox-sized rovers will autonomously navigate the landed region and collectively better map it than a single rover can. Onboard the lander will also be a South Korean instrument to [monitor high-energy particles](http://planetary.kasi.re.kr/clps) as the Moon passes in and out of Earth’s magnetic tail. The lander will also host an ESA-provided [MoonLIGHT retroreflector](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0032063312002814), which will reflect laser beams from Earth to make precise distance measurements so as to infer properties of the Moon’s core, the rate at which the Moon is drifting away from Earth, and test parts of General Relativity. --- This science-packed mission represents a new phase for NASA’s [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/), to send instruments on commercial lunar landers, enhanced by the recent [PRISM initiative](https://science.nasa.gov/researchers/solicitations/roses-2021/amendment-22-payloads-and-research-investigations-surface-moon-prism-draft-text-released-community). The [second mission in this enhanced phase](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-new-science-investigations-for-future-moon-deliveries) will visit the [Schrödinger crater](https://jatan.space/the-crowned-crater-of-schrodinger/) on the Moon’s farside in 2024, for which NASA will announce the winning commercial landing bidder next. The Reiner Gamma landing is Intuitive Machines’ third such NASA contract and also their third Moon mission, to follow their [first](https://7c27f7d6-4a0b-4269-aee9-80e85c3db26a.usrfiles.com/ugd/7c27f7%5Fbc896cfc90ca4ae9a0643bfbf5ed214a.pdf) [two](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-to-land-water-measuring-payload-on-the-moon) missions in 2022\. All three missions will see the launch of Intuitive Machines’ Nova-C lander on a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket. --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### Moon Monday Issue #62 URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-62/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:31.000Z ## Highlight The Russian space agency Roscomos has shared that their [Luna 25 Moon landing mission](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2021/pdf/2032.pdf) is [on track](http://en.roscosmos.ru/22691) for a July launch on a Soyuz 2 rocket. All of its scientific instruments have been installed, and engineers are currently progressing with ground tests on the spacecraft, aiming to complete them in March. Onboard software tests will follow, and should be completed in April. [According to NPO Lavochkin](https://tass.com/science/1393447), the veteran Russian space company who built the spacecraft, the current target launch date is July 23. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f04dd4ac3-b72b-4bb7-9698-f69272f33f60_950x649-jpeg-3.jpg) Russia’s Luna 25 Moon landing spacecraft as pictured during its assembly. [Credits: Sergey Bobylev / TASS](https://tass.com/science/1393447) We know from [past presentations](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2021/pdf/2032.pdf) that Luna 25 will have nine instruments, including an arm to sample material from 20 to 30 centimeters below the surface and feed it to a laser spectrometer to determine elements and isotopes within. There’s also an ESA camera onboard to image the landing, and a neutron and gamma ray spectrometer to identify the composition of the subsurface. The mission’s landing site, while not truly polar due to engineering constraints, is selected at about 70° South such that underground water ice can still be detected. ## Exploration NASA has successfully [completed another test](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/01/24/artemis-i-countdown-test-complete) of its fully stacked [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) in preparation for launching the [Artemis I mission](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/around-the-moon-with-nasa-s-first-launch-of-sls-with-orion) to send an uncrewed [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/orion/about/index.html) around the Moon and back. The January 24 simulated launch countdown test demonstrated the working of the ground launch software and its sequencer, specifically how the rocket responds to the countdown and if the system correctly transfers the control of the rocket to the final sequencer, which kicks in 30 seconds before launch. [Few more tests](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-fully-stacked-for-moon-mission-readies-for-artemis-i) remain before rolling out the rocket to the launchpad to test fueling, defueling and related procedures in late February, depending on the success of which NASA will set the target launch date in late March or April. ispace Japan has [provided an update](https://ispace-inc.com/news/?p=2168) on their [first two Moon landing missions](https://ispace-inc.com/hakuto-r/eng), M1 and M2\. The [M1 lander’s assembly in Europe](https://ispace-inc.com/news/?p=2012) will be completed by May 2022, after which the lander will be tested and then shipped to the U.S. for a Q4 2022 launch on a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket. Payloads on the M1 mission include UAE’s [Rashid rover](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirates%5FLunar%5FMission), a [solid-state battery tech demo](https://ispace-inc.com/news/?p=1047), a [transformable lunar robot](https://ispace-inc.com/news/?p=1903) by the Japanese space agency, [multiple Canadian payloads and services](https://ispace-inc.com/news/?p=1905), and more. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fde64eb3e-2378-4b7c-b165-11be280198fd_2000x1414-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of ispace’s Hakuto-R lander to be used for the company’s first two Moon landing missions. [Credit: ispace](https://ispace-inc.com/hakuto-r/eng/about/) The launch of ispace’s second mission, M2, has slipped from 2023 to 2024\. M2 will be the first time ispace’s indigenously built microrover will explore the Moon’s surface. ispace’s European arm is developing the rover, aided by funding from the Luxembourg Space Agency via an ESA contract. [Israel has joined](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/israel-signs-artemis-accords) the U.S.-led Artemis Accords, joining 14 other signee nations who have a consensus on best practices to follow when exploring the Moon and deep space in the coming decades. ## Science NASA’s [HERMES instrument suite](https://science.nasa.gov/missions/hermes), which will be mounted outside the upcoming NASA-led [crewed Gateway station](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway) orbiting the Moon, [passed its preliminary design test](https://blogs.nasa.gov/hermes/2022/01/28/hermes-mission-passes-key-milestone-moves-toward-launch) on January 27\. The team will now move on to the final design. After Gateway becomes operational in 2025, HERMES will monitor the fluctuating space environment in its orbit for years, chiefly focusing on the continuous stream of radiation particles coming from the Sun called [the solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) and its effects. This will make HERMES the latest addition to NASA’s [fleet of space weather observatories](https://science.nasa.gov/science-pink/s3fs-public/atoms/files/HPD%20Fleet%20Charts%5FJun%202021.pdf). HERMES will also take radiation and magnetic field measurements when the Moon passes through the tail of Earth’s magnetic field. This will allow NASA to combine its observations with two nearby [THEMIS](https://www.nasa.gov/mission%5Fpages/themis/mission/index.html) spacecraft having similar instruments, and thus reconstruct changes in the solar wind with time. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fc3689f74-4070-454a-9f87-b2a2a2baf956_800x550-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of the NASA-led Gateway lunar station, with the HERMES instrument suite indicated by the yellow circle. The agency is still deciding on the suite’s exact location. [Credit: NASA](https://science.nasa.gov/missions/hermes) That said, HERMES will mostly measure lower energy radiation, something not concerning enough for astronaut safety on future Moon missions. That purpose will be served by ESA’s instrument suite [ERSA](https://blogs.esa.int/exploration/artemis-introducing-ersa-european-experiment-to-monitor-radiation-in-deep-space/), also to be mounted on the Gateway. ERSA will measure higher energy particles in the solar wind as well as galactic cosmic rays. HERMES and ERSA will be the first space weather monitoring platforms on a crewed spacecraft to venture outside Earth’s protective magnetic field. ESA, in collaboration with JAXA, is also [adding a suite of dosimeters](https://blogs.esa.int/exploration/internal-radiation-payload-approved-for-the-gateway/) inside the Gateway’s habitat module [HALO](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-northrop-grumman-finalize-moon-outpost-living-quarters-contract) to monitor solar and cosmic radiation from within the station, which will help assess requirements for astronaut safety. Together, these instruments will provide a fuller picture of the space weather conditions near the Moon, and allow us to formulate better radiation shielding requirements for hardware we build and people we send on future deep space missions. Related: Two new results on long-term radiation measurements by the [Chang’e 4](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/change-4) lander and rover [on the Moon’s farside](https://jatan.space/change-4-landing-site-farside-von-karman-crater/) are out. - [First measurements of low-energy cosmic rays on the surface of the lunar farside from Chang’E-4 mission](https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abk1760) - [Energetic Neutral Atom Distribution on the Lunar Surface and Its Relationship with Solar Wind Conditions](https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/ac34f3) ## More Moon If you’d like to introduce our Moon’s unique scientific and exploratory importance to your friends and family, I may have just the right webpage for you. Check out my [curated Moon page](https://blog.jatan.space/our-moon) for Earthlings from all backgrounds. I’ve also tried making the page useful to people already enthusiastic about lunar exploration by providing several external resources in context. I’d love to know what you think, especially if you have feedback or ideas to expand the scope of the resource page. [Explore our Moon!](https://jatan.space/our-moon/) --- > *Thank you [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io/) and [SWISSAPOLLO](https://www.swissapollo.com/en/) for supporting me and powering this edition of Moon Monday.* > > *Everyone, I’m publishing this one-of-a-kind Moon exploration newsletter for free, with no ads. And it will stay that way. If you like my work, [support me](https://jatan.space/support) to keep it going.* [Support Moon Monday 🌗](https://jatan.space/support) ### Moon Monday Issue #61 URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-61/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:31.000Z ## Highlight We finally have clarity on what NASA is planning for its fourth and fifth [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) Moon missions after [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) lands astronauts on the Moon in 2025\. [SpaceNews reports](https://spacenews.com/nasa-foresees-gap-in-lunar-landings-after-artemis-3) that Artemis IV will not attempt a landing itself and instead advance the assembly of the agency-led international [Gateway lunar station](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway). This mission agenda was revealed for the first time last week at a two-day meeting of the NASA Advisory Council’s Human Exploration and Operations Committee. Specifically, Artemis IV will deliver the ESA- and JAXA-developed [International Habitation module](https://liquifer.com/gateway-i-hab) (i-HAB) to the Gateway, presumably in 2026\. By that point, the Gateway lunar station would be in its [unique lunar orbit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-rectilinear%5Fhalo%5Forbit) and consist of its two initial modules—the [Power and Propulsion Element](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-artemis-contract-for-lunar-gateway-power-propulsion) (PPE) and the [Habitation and Logistics Outpost](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-northrop-grumman-finalize-moon-outpost-living-quarters-contract) (HALO)—launched on a SpaceX Falcon Heavy rocket in late 2024\. i-HAB will provide more space for crew to live, work, and conduct research in compared to the HALO module. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f7a8fcdee-60db-4dc3-8656-1197388b5748_1620x1080-jpeg.jpg) An illustration of the NASA-led international Gateway station orbiting the Moon. As elements of Artemis progress, NASA is keen on completing Gateway and is prioritizing it over more human landings. [Credit: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-contract-to-launch-initial-elements-for-lunar-outpost) Artemis IV will not only be the first mission to send astronauts to the Gateway but also feature the first flight of the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html)’s [Block 1B](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/sls%5Flift%5Fcapabilities%5Fand%5Fconfigurations%5F508%5F08202018%5F0.pdf) version. This version sports an enhanced upper stage capable of lifting about 10,000 kilograms more cargo than the SLS version to be used on the first three Artemis launches. The Artemis V mission, launching no earlier than 2027, will see humans landing on the Moon after visiting the Gateway. That mission will deliver ESA’s [ESPRIT communications and refueling module](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/European%5FGateway%5Fmodule%5Fto%5Fbe%5Fbuilt%5Fin%5FFrance%5Fas%5FThomas%5FPesquet%5Freadies%5Ffor%5Fsecond%5Fspaceflight), the [Canadian robotic arm system](https://asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/canadarm3/about.asp), an advanced [crewed lunar rover](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-43/), and astronauts to the lunar station. A commercial human landing system, competitively selected by NASA via its [LETS program](https://www.nasa.gov/nextstep/humanlander3), will dock with the Gateway, and land the astronauts and the rover on the Moon’s surface. In the meanwhile, NASA is still hoping to launch the uncrewed [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/around-the-moon-with-nasa-s-first-launch-of-sls-with-orion) mission this March despite [technical delays](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/01/05/artemis-i-integrated-testing-continues-inside-vehicle-assembly-building), as the agency is [inviting media](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-invites-media-to-launch-of-new-mega-moon-rocket-and-spacecraft/) to register for their launch and prelaunch coverage in March itself. ## Exploration [My suspicion](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-59/) that ISRO’s [New Year’s message](https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/new%5Fyear%5Fmessage-2022.pdf) incorrectly implied a year worth of delay in the launch of India’s Chandrayaan 3 Moon landing mission turned out to be correct. ISRO’s newly appointed Chairman S. Somanath told the [Times of India](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/we-have-created-a-bio-bubble-at-sriharikota/articleshow/89043973.cms) (paid article; here’s a [newspaper clipping](https://www.reddit.com/r/ISRO/comments/s9w3ik/gslv%5Fmk3%5Fready%5Ffor%5Fchandrayaan3%5Fcy3%5Fpropulsion)) that Chandrayaan 3 is launching this year itself, as originally planned. In fact, he says the mission’s rocket GSLV Mk III—and India’s most powerful launch vehicle—is ready and awaiting delivery of the spacecraft stack. The stack consists of a [Chandrayaan-2-like](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-2-moon-landing-mission/) lander, and an orbiter to propel the lander to the Moon as well as relay communications during and after landing. This is curious because the [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) was designed to relay communications between that mission’s lander and Earth too, and is still functioning *in the same orbit*. It’s not clear why ISRO has decided to not use the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter for Chandrayaan 3’s relay services. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f8828086a-9842-46e8-bdca-659f0191bcca_1500x1000-jpeg-2.jpg) An artist’s impression of Chandrayaan 2’s lander and rover on the Moon. Since the mission’s landing part failed, India is reattempting it with Chandrayaan 3\. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=--8ORixBXQE) In any case, the Chandrayaan 3 lander will carry, among other experiments, a thermal probe and a seismometer to study the Moon’s interior. Being a repeat attempt of Chandrayaan 2’s surface part of the mission, the Chandrayaan 3’s landing region is expected to be [in a lunar highland region too](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-landing-site-in-the-southern-highlands/). As such, the rover will have a pair of spectrometers to determine what the ancient lunar crust is made of. --- [According to Israel’s Foreign Minister Yair Lapid](https://twitter.com/yairlapid/status/1482677529458757635?s=09&fbclid=IwAR2U1c-JHVOe9I5x7nXFuAnXqkVmpU%5FHRh-YxBMKdN6GQ%5F38vgVNPMcWO%5F0), the country is about to sign the U.S.-led [Artemis Accords](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html). If so, Israel will join the 14 other signee countries who have a consensus on best practices to follow when exploring the Moon and deep space. Spanish-German startup Plus Ultra and ispace Japan [announced a collaboration](https://ispace-inc.com/news/?p=2156) on January 20, which would involve ispace deploying the former’s commercial [communications and navigation satellites](https://www.plus-ultra.space/post/enabling-future-of-lunar-industry-with-harmony) in orbit around the Moon this decade. Each satellite in this constellation of eight weighs about 400 kilograms, which is why it will be up to ispace’s [far more capable Series 2 landers](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-42/) to deploy them, before they attempt landing on the Moon for their primary missions. [Plus Ultra says](https://spacenews.com/plus-ultras-lunar-comsats-to-hitch-rides-on-ispace-moon-landers) once deployed, the satellites will provide continuous high-speed communications of up to 100 Mbps between any location on or around the Moon, including the farside and the poles. ispace itself hopes to use this service as a relay mechanism for their future farside Moon landing missions. ## Science Our leading theory of [how our Moon formed](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/) suggests that shortly after that event, the Moon was covered in a global magma (molten rock) ocean at least 500 kilometers deep. With time, this magma ocean cooled and crystallized to form the Moon’s inner mantle and outer crust. When the magma ocean was crystallizing, the heavier minerals sank and formed the mantle. The less dense minerals floated on top, and crystallized in about a hundred million years to form a light [anorthosite](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anorthosite)\-based crust, best visible to us as the bright regions on the Moon. Analysis of lunar samples brought to Earth by Apollo missions confirmed the molten state of the ancient Moon and how its crust formed. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f839cd6a4-4d99-4eef-90e4-a417666f5fd8_975x389-1.png) Simplified graphic showing how the Moon’s crust and mantle formed. [Credit: Lunar and Planetary Institute](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/LEA/presentations/OpeningPlenary/Pieters%5FNAC%5FNRCpresentation.pdf) However, recent analysis of lunar meteorites, that likely represent a more random sampling of the Moon’s crust than Apollo samples, and remote sensing results from recent missions tell us that the Moon’s crust [isn’t really homogenous](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0016703706020898?via%3Dihub) in its composition. Further, the ages of lunar anorthosites span a range of almost 300 million years, three times more than expected. This means that rapid crystallization of a purely liquid magma ocean cannot explain the full diversity of the Moon’s crust and the time needed to produce it. In a [new paper](https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2021GL095408), scientists [suggest](https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/slushy-magma-ocean-led-to-formation-of-the-moons-crust) based on mathematical models that convection caused by the cooling of the magma ocean should’ve been strong enough to avoid a clean delineation between the heavier and lighter minerals in the mantle. Ergo, the crystals remained suspended for a longer time, turning the liquid ocean *slushy* and varied. The slower cooling of this slushy ocean’s topmost layer and ascending pockets of magma from within together formed the Moon’s crust. The authors say this model reconciles all that we know about the lunar crust now with the most commonly accepted origin scenario of our cosmic neighbor. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fda69aba8-00ae-43b2-a3a6-6902489457c1_1400x1000-jpeg.jpg) An artist's concept of the Moon shortly after its formation, with a mag­ma ocean and a newly forming rocky crust. [Credit: NASA Goddard](https://www.dlr.de/content/en/articles/news/2020/03/20200710%5Fa-slightly-younger-moon.html) ## More Moon Don Mitchell maintains a cool webpage of [Moon images captured by Soviet missions](http://mentallandscape.com/C%5FCatalogMoon.htm), including scans of original film recordings. --- > *Thank you [Arun Raghavan](https://arunraghavan.net) and [Open Lunar Foundation](https://www.openlunar.org/) for supporting me and powering this edition of Moon Monday.* > > *Everyone, I’m publishing this one-of-a-kind Moon exploration newsletter for free, with no ads. And it will stay that way. If you like my work, [support me](https://jatan.space/support) to keep it going.* [Support Moon Monday 🌗](https://jatan.space/support) ### Is life possible on rogue planets and moons? URL: https://jatan.space/is-life-possible-on-rogue-planets/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:31.000Z *This article took weeks to research, consolidate thoughts from the scientists I spoke to, deconstruct, write and refine. Hope you enjoy reading it as much as I did working on it. Also credit to my Editor [Rae](https://www.planetary.org/profiles/rae-paoletta) for helping me simplify the piece.* --- Our search for planets around other stars in our galaxy has yielded us [more than 4,500 worlds](https://exoplanets.nasa.gov/discovery/exoplanet-catalog). Quite a few of these [exoplanets](https://www.planetary.org/worlds/exoplanets) seem to be [Earth-like](https://www.planetary.org/articles/earth-like-worlds), where surface conditions could sustain liquid water and life as we know it. But even as next generation telescopes aim to detect gases on such planets indicative of life, our search for such [habitable worlds](https://www.planetary.org/articles/what-is-the-habitable-zone) remains somewhat limited. Simply put: Earth-like planets are not the only places where life could form. We know from our own solar system that icy moons orbiting giant planets far away from the Sun—such as [Europa](https://www.planetary.org/worlds/europa), [Ganymede](https://www.planetary.org/articles/03121716-ganymede-ocean) and [Enceladus](https://www.planetary.org/worlds/enceladus)—can have underground, habitable oceans too. Their liquid water isn’t due to the Sun’s heat but rather warmed by friction between parts of their interiors being tugged by their planet’s gravity. If sunlight, a surface and an atmosphere aren’t necessary to make a world habitable, then why confine our search for life to Earth-like worlds that orbit stars? Scientists think planets that don’t orbit any star, called free-floating planets or rogue planets, can harbor life too. These planets originally form around stars like any other but get kicked out of their system at some point due to gravitational effects of giant planets within. Planets may have been [ejected out of our solar system too](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-genesis-of-planets) over 4 billion years ago, and now orbit our galaxy as dark worlds. Without a star, how can these dark worlds conceivably host life as we know it? Our exploration of the solar system combined with two decades of exoplanet research tells us there are several possibilities. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f103ee3fb-e302-4669-bbf7-e400cd2fc917_3186x2390-jpeg.jpg) An artist's illustration of a Jupiter-like planet floating freely in space without a star. [Credit: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/a-jupiter-like-rogue-planet-wanders-alone-in-space) ## Oceans on worlds with no Suns but moons Getting kicked out of a star system early on does have at least one advantage: strong ultraviolet light from young stars can’t strip away hydrogen atmospheres of these planets, which helps retain heat. The seminal 1999 research paper *[Life-sustaining planets in interstellar space?](https://www.nature.com/articles/21811)* suggests that a hydrogen-rich atmosphere can not only prevent free-floating planets from losing their internal radioactive heat to space but could also keep surface temperatures warm enough to sustain Earth-like oceans. Simulated hydrogen-rich environments in labs show that certain [terrestrial microorganisms can thrive](https://www.sciencenews.org/article/planets-hydrogen-rich-atmosphere-alien-life) under such conditions. That said, life on free-floating worlds would still have to miraculously emerge using the planet’s miniscule internal energy, compared to over 99% of Earth’s energy coming from sunlight. Hypothetically, if a free-floating planet has a large enough moon, it could further heat the planet using tidal mechanisms, similar to our Moon and Earth. [When the Moon formed](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/) more than 4.4 billion years ago, it was about 15 times closer to us than it is today. It [induced such a strong tidal heating](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12542-021-00582-7) that scientists think the Moon may have played a key role in making the early Earth habitable. Even if such heating lasts only a few hundred million years, it could provide a richer source of energy than the free-floating planet’s own heat to keep an ocean warm, initiate complex geology and possibly develop microbial life. But how likely is it for free-floating planets to have moons in the first place? “There’s nothing theoretically stopping us from having a Moon-sized satellite around a free-floating planet,” said [Nick Oberg](https://www.astro.rug.nl/~oberg), a researcher at the Kapteyn Astronomical Institute and TU Delft studying formation of Jupiter’s moons. “[Orbital simulations show](https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/489/2/2323/5104420) that more than 47% of moons can remain bound to exiled gas giant planets.” Likewise, [simulations with ejected Earth-mass planets show](https://arxiv.org/abs/0709.0945) that more than 4% of them retain their Moon-sized satellite. ## Habitable moons around starless worlds In addition to exiled free-floating planets being able to retain their moons, it’s also possible for free-floating planets and their satellites to coalesce directly from clouds of gas and dust in interstellar space just like stars do. We have already [discovered](https://arxiv.org/abs/1310.1936) a free-floating planet candidate [surrounded by a disk](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/astronomers-discover-beginnings-of-mini-solar-system) from which moons like those around Jupiter could form. “Planets with multiple satellites, such as the [Galilean moons of Jupiter](https://lasp.colorado.edu/outerplanets/moons%5Fgalilean.php), have even better chances of retaining those moons after being ejected,” said Patricio Javier Ávila, a Chilean researcher of free-floating planets at the University of Concepción. Just as tidal heating from [Jupiter](https://www.planetary.org/worlds/jupiter) and [Saturn](https://jatan.space/why-explore-saturn/) creates underground oceans on some of their icy moons, such satellites around free-floating planets [could have subsurface oceans too](https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full%5Fhtml/2020/04/aa37035-19/aa37035-19.html). “If a free-floating planet retains multiple moons and their elliptical orbits, tidal heating could be sustained and with it the subsurface oceans,” Oberg said. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f67290153-d604-4d10-b6af-c2d2e3f064f3_2550x2100-jpeg.jpg) An artist’s illustration of an underground liquid water ocean beneath the thick icy crust of Jupiter’s moon Europa. A similar ocean exists on Saturn’s moon Enceladus too. [Credit: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/topics/solarsystem/features/europa20130305.html) When NASA’s Cassini spacecraft flew through [water plumes](https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/news/12399/cassini-pinpoints-hot-sources-of-jets-on-enceladus) erupting from Saturn’s icy moon Enceladus—sourced from [its underground ocean](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/cassini-finds-global-ocean-in-saturns-moon-enceladus)—it found [a variety of organic molecules](https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/news/13148/complex-organics-bubble-up-from-ocean-world-enceladus/), which are building blocks of life. Cassini’s observations suggest that Enceladus’ ocean seems to have [potentially habitable](https://jatan.space/saturn-moon-enceladus-habitable/) hydrothermal vents similar to those found in the deepest, darkest parts of Earth’s oceans. Not only do various microorganisms like [methanogens](https://portlandpress.com/emergtoplifesci/article/2/4/629/77362/Methanogens-pushing-the-boundaries-of-biology) thrive near such terrestrial vents, scientists think this is [how life on Earth could’ve started](https://www.nature.com/articles/nrmicro1991) in the first place. Microorganisms [can hypothetically survive](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-018-02876-y) on ocean floors of Enceladus-like icy moons around free-floating planets too, well protected from asteroid impacts and harmful radiation by thick icy crusts above. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fec7693c7-6095-4abd-9d30-ec5c9ebe1706_2550x3300-jpeg.jpg) This graphic illustrates hydrothermal vents on Enceladus’ ocean floor that could provide habitable environments for microbial life to form and thrive. [Credit: NASA JPL](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2017/picture-this-selfi-nasa-advances-instrument-to-study-the-plumes-of-enceladus) There’s another possibility, though. Just like Saturn’s moon [Titan](https://www.planetary.org/worlds/titan) has a thick atmosphere, a sufficiently massive moon of a free-floating planet could have one too. Coupled with tidal heating, Earth-mass exomoons of these could have high enough temperatures to [sustain oceans on their surface](https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-astrobiology/article/presence-of-water-on-exomoons-orbiting-freefloating-planets-a-case-study/1863C1DB337F974DF8B2ACE4D5BB8319) for hundreds of millions of years, and be favorable to microbial life. ## Okay, but can we even detect starless worlds? For all their potential to host life, it’s incredibly difficult to detect dark, free-floating worlds in our galaxy using [traditional exoplanet-catching methods](https://www.planetary.org/articles/how-to-search-for-exoplanets). It’s hard enough already to find miniscule planets even when they have stars! Even though free-floating planets should be common, and at least one of them might be lying within (astronomically) merely 10 light years from us, we haven’t found any yet. “It's challenging to verify these objects as true free-floating planets because their mass can be so difficult to accurately estimate,” said Oberg. In 2013, scientists [directly imaged](http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/info/press-releases/LonelyPlanet) a Jupiter-like free-floating planet candidate 80 light years away, but it’s hard to tell it apart from a class of objects called [brown dwarfs](https://earthsky.org/space/definition-what-are-brown-dwarfs). These are more massive than Jupiter but are called “failed stars” because they aren’t massive enough to fuse hydrogen in their cores. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f44f9e9f7-5fef-4d91-b528-75f202ae78bf_900x550-jpeg.jpg) Direct image of the free-floating planet candidate PSO J318.5-22, visible as the dot with the reddish hue. [Credits: N. Metcalfe / Pan-STARRS 1](https://www.cfht.hawaii.edu/en/news/LonelyPlanet) Fourteen [more](https://phys.org/news/2011-05-class-planets.html) free-floating [candidates](https://skyandtelescope.org/astronomy-news/nasas-kepler-finds-outcast-earths) have been detected using a technique called ‘gravitational microlensing’, wherein a planet’s gravitational field bends light from objects behind them and magnifies their view like a fish bowl. These are difficult to confirm too. “Gravitational microlensing detections are one-time events, making them harder to follow up on,” Ávila said. “It’s also difficult to distinguish a light brown dwarf from a free-floating planet as the technique favors more massive objects.” Nevertheless, brown dwarfs could host habitable moons in the same way free-floating planets do. Brown dwarfs have been observed too so there’s some hope. Interestingly, moons of free-floating worlds [may be relatively easier to detect](https://astrobites.org/2021/08/25/rogue-exomoons) than their parent objects. Even as we haven’t yet found an exomoon around a typical exoplanet with a host star, we might spot a free-floating object’s moon first because there would be no noise from a glaring star when the moon passes in front of the planet from our view. Next generation space telescopes, such as NASA’s recently launched [JWST](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/james-webb-space-telescope) and ESA’s upcoming [PLATO](https://sci.esa.int/web/plato) telescope, [could detect](https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/ac1e2d) Moon- and Titan-sized satellites orbiting free-floating planets and brown dwarfs. Wide-field surveys by NASA’s upcoming [Nancy Grace Roman Telescope](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/roman-space-telescope) should increase our chances even more, [as should](https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1086/523103) better gravitational microlensing surveys in the future. Detecting exomoons and the nature of their orbits will allow scientists to determine properties of their parent objects. Even if we discover no or few exomoons around free-floating worlds, next generation telescopes will still advance our understanding of moons in general. “JWST and future telescopes will vastly increase our understanding of moon-forming disks around regular exoplanets, which are not only easier to spot and study than exomoons but have already been detected,” said Jesper Tjoa, a researcher at the University of Heidelberg. An example of such a system is the [moon-forming disk](https://www.eso.org/public/news/eso2111) around the young Jupiter-like planet PDS 70c nearly 400 light years away. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f4034b798-d9c7-4928-ab0c-39455a170a7e_2517x1034-jpeg.jpg) Wide and close-up views of the moon-forming disk surrounding PDS 70c, a young Jupiter-like planet nearly 400 light-years away, as seen with the ALMA telescope on Earth. [Credits: ALMA / ESO](https://www.eso.org/public/images/eso2111a) Finding exomoons across the galaxy and understanding how they form and evolve would provide us insights into how moons in our solar system formed, and how common habitable moons are. ## The habitable worlds next door The possibility that icy moons of free-floating planets or of exoplanets with host stars could harbor life is tantalizing, and ties back to our solar system. Even if we do find habitable exomoons with great difficulty, there’s no way for us to be sure if they host life. The only place for us to definitively confirm alien exomoon life is our solar system, wherein we can send spacecraft to measure things with precision and even fetch samples. In fact, studying icy moons of our solar system with spacecraft is what helps us model the possibilities of habitable exomoons. This is precisely why some of the biggest planetary science missions launching this decade, like [JUICE](https://jatan.space/esa-juice-mission-to-jupiter-moons/) and [Europa Clipper](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/europa-clipper), are dedicated to finding if underground oceans of Jupiter’s icy moons are habitable. Future mission concepts such as the [Enceladus Life Finder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enceladus%5FLife%5FFinder) would look for direct signs of life in Enceladus’ water plumes. NASA is launching the [Dragonfly](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/dragonfly) mission later in the decade to explore Titan’s surface to understand possible starting ingredients for life on early Earth and elsewhere. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fceaf406b-d726-4ebd-9ffc-552484a51f5b_1600x900-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of icy moons in our solar system with likely underground oceans. Left to right: Ganymede, Titan, Callisto, Europa, Triton and Enceladus. [Credit: Nick Oberg](https://www.astro.rug.nl/~oberg/art.html) Moons outnumber planets in our solar system, and moons with liquid water oceans [outnumber](https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/resources/16179/ocean-worlds-infographic/) planets with oceans here too. If our solar system isn’t exceptional—and there’s no reason to think it is—then it’s highly likely that moons make up the most common real estate of the Universe. If life does exist on many of these worlds, they may represent the most common lifeforms, and we might just be the odd ones. *Originally published at [The Planetary Society](https://www.planetary.org/articles/is-life-possible-on-worlds-without-stars).* --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### Moon Monday Issue #60 URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-60/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:31.000Z ## Highlight Two bodies responsible for overseeing NASA’s activities and programmatic direction have issued concerning reports last week. NASA’s Office of Inspector General (OIG) [published a report](https://oig.nasa.gov/docs/IG-22-007.pdf) which examines NASA’s management of its astronaut corps and how well its current state aligns with the agency’s future missions and objectives. It notes that the number of astronauts currently stand at just 44, as compared to over a hundred available during the the Space Shuttle’s last two decades. The OIG says this is an uncomfortably small number to work with and grow quickly so as to meet the agency’s simultaneously expanding goals for sending humans to the Moon with [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) while maintaining presence in Earth orbit. > *The Astronaut Office is in the process of developing a framework for Artemis training, but this framework has not been formally chartered nor have any Artemis crews been announced. As such, specific mission-focused training for the Artemis II mission—the first crewed Artemis flight—has not yet begun. The Agency could be overestimating the time available to develop and implement the necessary training framework and regimen across key Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle (Orion), next-generation spacesuits, and Human Landing. Delays in moving beyond the current ISS-focused approach for current and future astronauts increase the risk of delays in developing the necessary training to meet Artemis mission goals.* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f3db39b36-9aa5-45b4-87bc-1f2a0b0bbfe8_1600x1080-jpeg.jpg) [Credit: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-australia-sign-agreement-to-add-rover-to-future-moon-mission) Next up, the Aerospace Safety Advisory Panel (ASAP), a committee that reports to NASA and Congress, issued [its 2021 annual report](https://oiir.hq.nasa.gov/asap/documents/2021%5FASAP%5FReport-TAGGED.pdf) based on the panel's frequent and periodic observations of NASA’s operations and interactions with personnel. One of its [key recommendations](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasas-aerospace-safety-advisory-panel-releases-2021-annual-report) concerns the fact that NASA’s Artemis program isn’t actually a single program, but a massive collection of related programs none of which answer to a common program manager or board. > *There is no clearly defined leader of the enterprise, transparently endowed with the ultimate authority, responsibility, and accountability to direct all Artemis-related programs and ensure full synchronization and integration of effort.* ## Exploration With the aid of NASA’s [LRO spacecraft](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html) currently orbiting the Moon, Intuitive Machines has validated their communication system to be used on its [first Moon landing mission](https://7c27f7d6-4a0b-4269-aee9-80e85c3db26a.usrfiles.com/ugd/7c27f7%5Fbc896cfc90ca4ae9a0643bfbf5ed214a.pdf) this year, part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://www.nasa.gov/content/commercial-lunar-payload-services-overview), and all missions beyond. Under a Space Act agreement, NASA lent Intuitive Machines access to LRO to conduct a live test using company partner Morehead State University’s [21-meter antenna](https://www.moreheadstate.edu/College-of-Science/Earth-and-Space-Sciences/Space-Science-Center/Laboratories-Facilities/21M-Space-Tracking-Antenna). The radio dish [successfully locked on](https://www.intuitivemachines.com//post/intuitive-machines-validates-lunar-communication-with-msu-for-first-lunar-landing) to LRO’s radio frequency and fed downlinked data back to Intuitive Machines’ Control Center in Houston. The team successfully determined LRO’s orbit too. This is a huge step for Intuitive Machines since NASA has urged CLPS companies to use (commercial) ground stations instead of the agency’s own [Deep Space Network](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/heo/scan/services/networks/deep%5Fspace%5Fnetwork/about). To that end, Intuitive Machines has already signed agreements to get commercial Earth communication services for its lunar missions with [Goonhilly](https://www.goonhilly.org/ges-supports-im-mission-to-moon)’s [GHY-6 deep space antenna](https://www.goonhilly.org/ghy-6-32m-x/s-band) in the UK, [KSAT](https://www.ksat.no/news/news-archive/2021/ksat-to-support-intuitive-machines-missions-to-the-moon/) in Norway, and the high-bandwidth capable [Parkes](https://www.csiro.au/en/news/News-releases/2021/CSIROs-Dish-to-support-one-of-the-first-commercial-Moon-landings) disk in Australia. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f72e33356-53ce-4a4c-ba47-9c4e45a613b0_2179x1165-jpeg.jpg) **Left:** Morehead State University Space Science Center’s 21-meter antenna. **Right:** Graphic of Intuitive Machines lander on the Moon. Credits: [MSU](https://www.moreheadstate.edu/college-of-science/earth-and-space-sciences/space-science-center/laboratories-facilities/21m-space-tracking-antenna), [Intuitive machines](https://www.intuitivemachines.com) After [replacing](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/01/05/artemis-i-integrated-testing-continues-inside-vehicle-assembly-building) one of the eight [faulty](https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2021/12/engine-controller-artemis-1-delay) [engine controllers](https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/nasa-picks-up-where-it-left-off-in-2017-tests-rs-25-flight-controller) on the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) earlier this month, NASA has [completed testing](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/01/14/artemis-i-core-stage-engineering-testing-complete) all of its related functions. The agency also successfully [tested the retraction and extension](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/01/13/artemis-i-progress-continues-in-the-vab) of the crew access arm to [Orion](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/orion/about/index.html), which is what will provide access to the spacecraft to technicians for final pre-launch preparations, and to astronauts for entry during future crewed Artemis missions. The agency is now continuing the fully stacked rocket’s [integrated tests](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-fully-stacked-for-moon-mission-readies-for-artemis-i). and preparing for rolling out the rocket to the launchpad to test fueling, defueling, and related procedures in late February. Depending on the success of this wet dress rehearsal, NASA will set the target date to launch SLS for its [Artemis I mission](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/around-the-moon-with-nasa-s-first-launch-of-sls-with-orion) to send an uncrewed Orion spacecraft around the Moon and back. The launch is likely to take place no earlier than April. Meanwhile, NASA says building hardware for the crewed [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to) and [III](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) missions seems to be [progressing well](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/nasa-prepares-sls-moon-rockets-for-first-crewed-artemis-missions.html). The SLS rocket’s [boosters](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/multimedia/boosters%5F101.html) and [RS-25 engines](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/fs/rs25%5Fcore%5Fstage%5Fengines.html) for both the missions are in the final stages of their assembly. Specifically, the four RS-25 engines for the [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to) mission to send astronauts around the Moon in 2024 have been built and are awaiting assembly with the still-being-built core stage of the SLS rocket. As part of [a New Year update on Russian space agency projects](http://en.roscosmos.ru/22663), the agency’s director general, Dmitry Rogozin, has shared that the [Luna-25](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2021/pdf/2032.pdf) spacecraft was fully assembled and heavily tested last year. The spacecraft will launch sometime in July this year on a Soyuz-2 rocket to attempt an autonomous Moon landing. We know from [past presentations](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2021/pdf/2032.pdf) that Luna-25 will have 9 scientific instruments, including an arm to sample material from 20 to 30 centimeters below the surface and feed it to a laser spectrometer to determine elements and isotopes within. There’s also an ESA camera onboard to image the landing, and a neutron and gamma ray spectrometer to identify the composition of the subsurface. The mission’s landing site, while not truly polar due to engineering constraints, is selected at about 70° South such that underground water ice can still be detected. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f31bff288-3e69-4869-956e-28ec524aae9c_2547x1442-jpeg.jpg) Russian Luna-25 Moon landing mission’s landing site near 70° South. [Credit: I.G. Mitrofanov](https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2021/pdf/2032.pdf) Even as Masten Space is preparing to land [its first spacecraft](https://masten.aero/lunar-lander) on the Moon’s south pole in late 2023 as part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://www.nasa.gov/content/commercial-lunar-payload-services-overview), the company has [announced a second Moon landing mission](https://masten.aero/blog/masten-mission-2-masten-prepares-for-next-mission-to-the-moon). Masten says the mission’s launch date and landing site will be decided by the primary payload customer but they’re targeting a 2024 launch for now. Interestingly, Masten says they can even have the lander touch down in [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/), thanks to their proprietary heat and power system which will allow onboard instruments to survive the frigid regions as well as the lunar night. In order to simultaneously assemble and test two spacecraft, Masten will double the size of its facilities by March 2022. ## Science Our Moon is home to some [lovely lava channels](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-lunar-lava-channels/), relics from the time when our cosmic neighbor was volcanically active. The largest lunar valley, [Vallis Schröteri](https://jatan.space/the-moon-grand-canyon/), is comparable to the Grand Canyon on Earth. Vallis Schröteri is approximately 160 kilometers long, up to 11 kilometers wide and almost 0.5 kilometers deep. [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ff46f988c-610c-40a7-89b2-fa7394d1bc59_2016x1306-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/the-moon-grand-canyon/) The largest valley on the Moon, Vallis Schröteri. [Credit: NASA](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=-54.1467935,18.1693838,-42.7244717,27.7823981&camera=1014928.9566311934,-1299218.4625654237,895956.8873423045,2.761466047347677,-0.879152257191854,3.375077994860476e-14,1876376.333376505&proj=22&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdJUTBOyfI0gIgDMCBLAYwGsBTAE7MAXKwCGBAM59KVchQpA) The river-like lava channel seems to have its source vent at the “Cobra Head” like feature seen to the middle-left in the image. Look closely and you will see that there is another, even longer lava channel running within the primary one. Such nested form of valleys indicate multiple past volcanic eruptions in the region, and that the lava was highly fluid judging by how easily it carved twists and turns in the terrain. Future missions physically examining and sampling such sinuous lava channels, which expose layers of past lava flows, will give us richer views of the Moon's volcanic past. Scientists have recently been vouching even more strongly for missions to Vallis Schröteri. One such [new paper](https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/PSJ/abfec6) combines data from several past lunar orbiters to provide an holistic overview of the region. The authors also propose landing sites and mission concepts to study the Cobra Head source vent of Vallis Schröteri. Interestingly, the [landing site](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=-54.966039,22.6191752,-47.2662137,26.979119&proj=16&features=-50.48957846,24.52992143,-49.31157090,24.53553713&selected=0&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEoAsjYIHYFcA2vIBvAXwF1SiykBmaOAThkQRACYAOUd9RHfS8gNJA) of Intuitive Machines’ [first Moon mission](https://7c27f7d6-4a0b-4269-aee9-80e85c3db26a.usrfiles.com/ugd/7c27f7%5Fbc896cfc90ca4ae9a0643bfbf5ed214a.pdf)—at 24.53N, 50.49W—is about 30 kilometers west of the Cobra Head. However, the mission doesn’t have a mobile platform to rove to and explore the valley. Even if it did, the mission isn’t designed to address questions related to the Moon’s volcanism. That being said, the current landing trajectory of Intuitive Machines’ spacecraft takes it right over the Cobra Head prior to touchdown so we might see some incredible close-up views of the Moon’s Grand Canyon after all. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fbee8592f-04c0-4e33-bd23-31adca89a96e_1892x1675-jpeg.jpg) **Top:** The landing site of Intuitive Machines’ first Moon mission: 24.53N, 50.49W, about 30 kilometers west of the source vent of the Vallis Schröteri lava channel. **Bottom:** The current landing trajectory of Intuitive Machines’ spacecraft takes it right over the Cobra Head prior to touchdown. Credits: [Intuitive Machines](https://7c27f7d6-4a0b-4269-aee9-80e85c3db26a.usrfiles.com/ugd/7c27f7%5Fbc896cfc90ca4ae9a0643bfbf5ed214a.pdf) / [NASA](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=-54.966039,22.6191752,-47.2662137,26.979119&proj=16&features=-50.48957846,24.52992143,-49.31157090,24.53553713&selected=0&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEoAsjYIHYFcA2vIBvAXwF1SiykBmaOAThkQRACYAOUd9RHfS8gNJA); Graphic: Jatan Mehta ## More Moon [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f12e136f2-e1a9-4253-b727-c91e3e76f9e7_2995x1426-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-lunar-lava-channels/) **[Browse a curated gallery of our Moon's lovely lava channels](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-lunar-lava-channels/) that outrun the length of Earth's largest cities.** --- > *Thank you Jamie Rumbelow for supporting me and powering this edition of Moon Monday! He wishes me to link to [GiveWell](https://www.givewell.org) instead of his own website/social.* ☺️ > > *Everyone, I’m publishing this one-of-a-kind Moon exploration newsletter for free, with no ads. And it will stay that way. If you like my work, [support me](https://jatan.space/support) to keep it going.* [Support Moon Monday 🌗](https://jatan.space/support) ### Gallery: Our Moon's lovely lava channels URL: https://jatan.space/gallery-of-lunar-lava-channels/ Last updated: 2024-02-24T10:36:29.000Z Our Moon is home to some lovely lava channels, relics from the time when our cosmic neighbor was volcanically active. My previous blog post of a [curated gallery of lunar mountains](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-moon-mountains/) was received well so here are some of the Moon’s most notable valleys and rilles, many of which were carved by lava flows. **Note:* You can click on the images to learn about each feature.* [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ff46f988c-610c-40a7-89b2-fa7394d1bc59_2016x1306-jpeg-1.jpg)](https://jatan.space/the-moon-grand-canyon/) ****The largest valley on the Moon,** [****Vallis Schröteri**](https://jatan.space/the-moon-grand-canyon/)****. Comparable to Earth’s Grand Canyon, it’s approximately 160 kilometers long, up to 11 kilometers wide and almost 0.5 kilometers deep.** [****Credit: NASA**](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=-54.1467935,18.1693838,-42.7244717,27.7823981&camera=1014928.9566311934,-1299218.4625654237,895956.8873423045,2.761466047347677,-0.879152257191854,3.375077994860476e-14,1876376.333376505&proj=22&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEBmZcAsjYIHYFcAbAyAbwF8BdJUTBOyfI0gIgDMCBLAYwGsBTAE7MAXKwCGBAM59KVchQpA) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f824347f1-3282-4c80-8505-5552f8978350_674x506-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/the-moon-grand-canyon/) ****A close-up view of a part of Vallis Schröteri to show the striking** [****twists and turns**](https://jatan.space/the-moon-grand-canyon/) **of its internal, secondary lava channel. The image is about 10 kilometers across.** [****Credit: NASA Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO)**](http://wms.lroc.asu.edu/lroc/view%5Frdr%5Fproduct/NAC%5FDTM%5FVSCHROTERI%5FM1114497847%5F140CM) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f0fcdb641-f58d-4338-b6e4-dd34ad27f9a2_2995x1426-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/rille-on-a-ridge-rima-ariadaeus/) ****The 300 kilometers long lava channel of** [****Rima Ariadaeus**](https://jatan.space/rille-on-a-ridge-rima-ariadaeus/)****, as captured by Apollo 10 astronauts from orbit. It isn’t carved by lava flows though but formed when a section of the Moon's crust sank.** [****Credit: NASA**](https://www.flickr.com/photos/nasacommons/9457397441/in/album-72157634967503435/) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f536ef87e-6a12-46f8-bcd7-fbbdf878cc92_855x748-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/lava-flow-galore-in-rimae-prinz/) ****The lava-carved rilles of** [****Rimae Prinz**](https://jatan.space/lava-flow-galore-in-rimae-prinz/)****, as captured by Apollo 15 astronauts from orbit. The image spans about 100 kilometers vertically.** [****Credit: NASA**](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Prinz%5Fcrater%5FApollo%5F15.jpg) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fb7a6d39d-e720-4322-af01-66c22eaf3edc_1098x770-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/cutting-through-the-mountains-vallis-alpes/) ****The 166 kilometers long** [****Vallis Alpes**](https://jatan.space/cutting-through-the-mountains-vallis-alpes/) **valley cutting through the lunar Alpes mountains.** [****Inset image credit: NASA Lunar Orbiter 4**](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vallis%5FAlpes%5F4115%5Fh3.jpg) **/ Graphic: Jatan Mehta** [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fb348c669-4588-4a0b-ac0c-45836f690c6b_1100x850-jpeg.jpg)](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/362) ****Part of the 120 kilometers long** [****Hadley rille**](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/362)****, as seen in this rendering of the Apollo 15 landing site.** [****Credit: NASA LRO**](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/1198) **/ Also see:** [****Krieger rille**](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/776)****,** [****Taurus Littrow Valley**](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/613) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f132905e1-e774-4e36-99e5-44e450333923_460x380-jpeg-1.jpg)](https://jatan.space/underground-lava-tubes-on-the-moon-marius-hills/) ****A 65-meter wide pit in the Marius Hills region on the Moon, likely an entrance to an** [****underground lava tube**](https://jatan.space/underground-lava-tubes-on-the-moon-marius-hills/)****.** [****Credit: NASA LRO**](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/286) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fe16ed68f-d327-41cb-ab16-eae847323eb0_1826x1500-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/twists-and-turns-at-rimae-posidonius/) ****Western half of the incredibly sinuous and more than 100 kilometers long lava channel** [****Rimae Posidonius**](https://jatan.space/twists-and-turns-at-rimae-posidonius/)****, as captured by Apollo 15 from orbit.** [****Credits: NASA / Jstuby**](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Posidonius%5Fcrater%5FAS15-91-12366.jpg) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f68ad42ec-38e9-4690-8097-4beeb62d80f9_1159x750-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/lava-filled-gassendi-crater/) ****The several tens of kilometers long and fractured** [****rilles of Gassendi crater**](https://jatan.space/lava-filled-gassendi-crater/)****, formed tectonically, were once filled with lava.** [****Credit: NASA Lunar Orbiter 5**](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/resources/lunarorbiter/mission/?5) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fba0f77b8-6808-4ac5-94a2-00883700201a_1056x799-jpeg.jpg)](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/1147) ****The arcuate rille of** [****Sulpicius Gallus**](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/1147)****. The Image is about 30 kilometers across.** [****Credit: NASA LRO**](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/1147) --- Hope you enjoyed these curated views of some striking lava channels on the Moon. It’s really something to look at our Moon and think about the times when viscous lava flows carved their way across various lunar landscapes. If you’d like to browse more lunar lava channels, the NASA LRO outreach team has [a fantastic blog](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts?page=1&query=lava+channels). ### Moon Monday Issue #59 URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-59/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:32.000Z ## Highlight NASA has progressed well on preparing its ambitious [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) for launch in 2023 to map [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other such volatile resources in and around [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s south pole. The agency has now shared that they had [completed testing VIPER’s wheel design](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/artemis-moon-rover-s-wheels-are-ready-to-roll) before the mission’s recent [Critical Design Review](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/ames/nasa-s-artemis-rover-passes-critical-design-review). One of those critical tests involved roving one wheel in a lunar soil simulant lab setup for more than 40 kilometers—over twice the distance its mission requires—in about three weeks. The wheel handled varying slopes and dealt with slips and sinkage, amid 196 combinations of sizes, shapes, and distribution of [Moon-like terrestrial rocks](https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/146650/montanas-moon-like-rocks), all simulating the breath of drive scenarios VIPER is likely to encounter on the Moon to reduce the chances of failure. NASA did detect minor weaknesses in the wheels during testing, which the mechanical design team has addressed. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9e8ad96a-e259-4497-b6c9-954fbd5c08f3_2233x1597-jpeg.jpg) A test wheel from NASA’s VIPER rover (shown in the inset image) being run through endurance testing in a lab containing lunar soil simulant and some of the most Moon-like rocks on Earth. [Credit: ProtoInnovations, LLC / NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/artemis-moon-rover-s-wheels-are-ready-to-roll) This focus on the sheer agility of a planetary rover is unprecedented but called for by the VIPER mission’s needs. On top of dealing with the numerous challenges in any Moon mission, NASA is designing VIPER to power through one of the harshest planetary environments in the solar system. With temperatures during major investigations [well below -180 degrees Celsius](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/96), a rocky terrain [riddled with steep slopes](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/SPole%5FSRidgemap%5FLOLA-Slope5m%5Fv20190515.pdf), a near-horizon Sun causing long, moving shadows that the solar-powered rover [needs to keep avoiding](https://www.nasa.gov/viper/overview#MissionTimeline) or face a freeze, NASA is sending VIPER to lunar hell. To get its job done under such extreme circumstances, VIPER can traverse 15-degree inclines with ease, and [even 25 to 30 degree slopes](https://www.nasa.gov/viper/lunar-operations#route) if need be. VIPER can drive sideways, diagonally, or move in any direction without changing where it’s facing to keep its solar panels pointed at the Sun. If VIPER gets stuck in fluffy soil, it can lift each of its wheels independently to dig into and sweep along the surface—a bit like swimming—to get out of it. To prevent lunar dust from damaging its wheel system or internals, NASA is wrapping VIPER in [multiple protective layers](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/when-the-moon-dust-settles-it-won-t-settle-in-viper-s-wheels). NASA will begin constructing VIPER’s flight model in late 2022 at their Johnson Space Center, before launch by Astrobotic as part of the agency’s [CLPS program](https://www.nasa.gov/content/commercial-lunar-payload-services-overview) in late 2023 on a SpaceX Falcon Heavy rocket. ## Exploration We learnt last month that NASA’s [first Artemis mission](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/around-the-moon-with-nasa-s-first-launch-of-sls-with-orion), to send an uncrewed [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/orion/about/index.html) around the Moon and back, [has been delayed](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2021/12/17/artemis-i-integrated-testing-update) from February 2022 to at least March. The delay is caused by one of the two [engine flight controllers](https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/nasa-picks-up-where-it-left-off-in-2017-tests-rs-25-flight-controller) on the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html)’s fourth engine [failing abruptly](https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2021/12/engine-controller-artemis-1-delay) during testing. Last week, engineers and technicians [successfully replaced](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/01/05/artemis-i-integrated-testing-continues-inside-vehicle-assembly-building) the faulty engine controller, and are now performing diagnostic checks so as to soon continue the fully stacked rocket’s [integrated tests](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-fully-stacked-for-moon-mission-readies-for-artemis-i). NASA now intends to roll out the rocket to the launchpad to test fueling, defueling, and related procedures in late February, depending on the success of which the agency will set Artemis I’s target launch date, which is likely no earlier than April. Related: Lockheed Martin has partnered with Amazon and Cisco to [add their voice assistant Alexa and Webex video conferencing software respectively](https://news.lockheedmartin.com/2022-01-05-Lockheed-Martin,-Amazon-and-Cisco-to-Bring-Voice-Technology-and-Video-Collaboration-to-the-Moon) to Artemis I, in the form of a tailor-made tablet and associated [radiation-hardened](https://jatan.space/space-grade-electronics/) hardware on the Orion spacecraft’s center console. Collectively called [Callisto](https://www.lockheedmartin.com/callisto), the system will use NASA’s Deep Space Network for [Webex’s video conferencing](https://blog.webex.com/hybrid-work/leaving-earth-without-leaving-home-behind) and a local database onboard Orion for Alexa to function without an internet. Since Artemis I has no crew, operators will interact with Callisto remotely from the control center on Earth. [Specifically with Alexa](https://www.aboutamazon.com/news/devices/alexa-take-me-to-the-moon), the idea is that any crew interfacing with it should be able to access specific real-time mission telemetry data using voice alone. Callisto’s performance on Artemis I will allow for improvements on [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to), where actual crew will be present. NASA is [also considering](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/callisto-technology-demonstration-to-fly-aboard-orion-for-artemis-i) using similar technology for the U.S.-led [Gateway lunar station](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ff44b2835-e62e-4bbf-8516-af02bde1af13_1157x546-png.jpg) A voice assistant and video conferencing software in the form of Callisto will be present on NASA’s Orion spacecraft on its first Artemis mission around the Moon this year. [Credits: Lockheed Martin / Cisco / Amazon](https://blog.webex.com/hybrid-work/leaving-earth-without-leaving-home-behind) In a [New Year’s message](https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/new%5Fyear%5Fmessage-2022.pdf) shared on ISRO’s website on January 3, the agency’s Chairman K. Sivan has put up confusing information regarding Chandrayaan 3, India’s second attempt to land on the Moon after [Chandrayaan 2](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-2-moon-landing-mission/)’s surface mission [failed](https://jatan.space/finding-the-chandrayaan-2-lander/) in 2019\. On one hand, the message says: > *Chandrayaan-3 design changes incorporating and testing has seen huge progress. The mission could be launched by middle of next year.* The media has already run with this text, but the thing is the phrasing isn’t clear, especially when considering that a latter paragraph in the same document says: > *If you look at the immediate task at hand this year, we have many missions to execute. \[…\] In addition, we also have Chandrayaan-03, Aditya Ll , XpoSat, IRNSS and technology demonstration missions with advanced indigenously developed technologies on-board. I am sure that with your continued cooperation, support and enthusiasm, we will be able to achieve all the targets.* Having Chandrayaan 3 launch in 2023 would also contradict [last month’s formal response to a query](https://pqars.nic.in/annex/255/AU1413.pdf) put forth to the *Rajya Sabha*—Indian equivalent to the U.S. Senate—that said Chandrayaan 3 is on track to launch in Q3 2022\. While it’s entirely possible that Chandrayaan 3 is in fact delayed, and history isn’t on its side, I’d nevertheless wait for a clarifying statement from the ISRO Chief or a related new development to take place before being sure. If there indeed is a delay, it likely means that the testing phase, which has been consistently projected to go well, has hit a considerable bump. In any case, we already know the Chandrayaan 3 lander will carry, among other experiments, a thermal probe and a seismometer to study the Moon’s interior, and that a rover onboard will have a pair of spectrometers to determine what the ancient lunar crust is made of. Being a repeat attempt of Chandrayaan 2’s surface part of the mission, the Chandrayaan 3’s landing region is expected to be [in a lunar highland region too](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-landing-site-in-the-southern-highlands/). ## Science China’s [Chang’e 5 mission](https://jatan.space/change-5-landing-site/), which brought to Earth 1.7 kilograms of [lunar samples](https://moon.bao.ac.cn/moonSampleMode/index.html) from near a volcanic dome in December 2020, [confirmed](https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abl7957) that the Moon was volcanically active 2 billion years ago, a fairly recent time on geological scales. However, [as we discussed then](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-50/), the [extremely low water content](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-04107-9) and an [unexpectedly low abundance of heat-producing elements](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-04119-5) in those samples suggested that there seems to have been no significant catalyst to have the Moon spewing out lava for so long after peak volcanism ended over 3 billion years ago. While we don’t know the answer to this mystery yet, another result from the Chang’e 5 mission is helping provide context. A spectrometer on the Chang’e 5 lander [found evidence of surface water](https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/939534) in the lunar soil and a rock at the [landing site](https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/15994) (43.06° N, 51.92° W). While the soil’s water concentration is comparable to the samples—less than 120 parts per million—the rock stands [higher at 180](https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abl9174), something that can’t be solely caused by [the solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/). This means the Moon’s interior, the mantle in particular, is likely a source of that water, a hypothesis scientists say is supported by orbital observations. What likely happened is that the rock was part of a much older landform but got ejected to the Chang’e 5’ landing site at some point due to an asteroid/cometary impact. An implication of this result is that the larger region where Chang’e 5 landed may have higher concentrations of volcanism-aiding elements after all. In any case, the result provides geological context to analyze the Chang'e 5 samples themselves. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f4e0cf6c8-7bf0-482d-b8cf-ee58085c34ff_2104x1600-jpeg.jpg) A) Chang’e 5 image of the sampling site. The right panel shows the enlarged image of the rock with higher water concentrations. B) The colored rectangles represent spots with measured water concentrations. [Credit: Honglei Lin, et al.](https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abl9174) Related: Previously, in an [open access paper](https://spj.sciencemag.org/journals/space/2021/9823609), Chinese scientists [provided juicy details and diagrams](https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/929954) on the Chang’e 5 spacecraft’s guidance, navigation and control system used to successfully execute the complex robotic sample return mission. And now in [another open access paper](https://spj.sciencemag.org/journals/space/2021/9897105), more members of the team [share details on Chang’e 5’s orbit design](https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/939178), including orbit design of lunar orbit rendezvous and docking for the orbiter and sample return modules, the orbit design to enable precision lunar landing, and the design of the Moon-to-Earth transfer orbit for getting the samples. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f38f4fcb6-74cc-4e4c-9b56-dd2a9b90f62f_1572x1380-jpeg.jpg) Flight sequence of China’s Chang’e 5 mission to get samples from the Moon (Time as per Beijing time). [Credit: Zhong-Sheng Wang](https://spj.sciencemag.org/journals/space/2021/9897105) ## More Moon I don’t generally listen to podcasts out of personal preference but when I do, I end up reading the transcripts. In any case, these three podcast episodes caught my eye last week: - [The Planetary Society on Artemis 1 Orion capsule recovery and the upcoming spacesuits](https://www.planetary.org/planetary-radio/2022-ilc-dover-moonsuit-navy-orion-recovery-exercise) - [Gary Cox on Orion’s imaging systems](https://www.nasa.gov/johnson/HWHAP/artemis-imagery) that will enable people worldwide to see the Earth and Moon from deep space during Artemis missions. - A discussion [on the promise of NASA’s CLPS program](https://www.planetary.org/planetary-radio/2022-preview-curry-dreier) to send scientific instruments and missions on commercial landers. The CLPS part starts at about the 43 minute mark. --- > *Dear readers, I’m publishing this one-of-a-kind Moon exploration newsletter for free since over a year now, with no ads. And it will stay that way. If you like my comprehensive global coverage of lunar exploration and science, [support me](https://jatan.space/support) to keep it going.* [Support Moon Monday 🌗](https://jatan.space/support) ### TESS is finding Earth-like planets around the galaxy's most common stars URL: https://jatan.space/nasa-tess-space-telescope/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:32.000Z As of 2021, we have discovered [more than 4,500 planets](https://exoplanets.nasa.gov/discovery/exoplanet-catalog) orbiting other stars in our galaxy. More than half of these [exoplanets](https://www.planetary.org/worlds/exoplanets) were spotted by NASA’s first planet-hunting space telescope called [Kepler](https://www.planetary.org/articles/farewell-kepler) launched in 2009\. While most planets Kepler found are larger and far more massive than Earth, it demonstrated how such a dedicated mission can greatly refine our search for life. As a follow-up, NASA, MIT and [several institutes](https://www.nasa.gov/content/about-tess) launched the [Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS)](https://www.nasa.gov/content/about-tess) in 2018\. TESS has a more focused mission: to spot Earth-size worlds around some of the nearest and brightest stars so they can be comprehensively studied by future telescopes. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9ddd0b7d-62ef-4291-893f-0a8efd40f9a9_1500x1000-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of the TESS planet-hunting space telescope. [Credit: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/content/about-tess) ## How does TESS find planets around other stars and what is its search space? TESS detects exoplanets the same way Kepler did—by looking for periodic dips in the brightness of stars as planets cross in front of them along our line of sight. The larger the planet, the further the drop in brightness during the transit. How long it takes a planet to pass in front of the star and come back tells us the shape of its orbit. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fb2a481d0-917c-4402-aa9c-99a7c8795300_1722x1168-jpeg.jpg) To discover a planet, TESS looks for periodic dips in the brightness of a star as a planet crosses in front of it along our line of sight. [Credit: NASA](https://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/tess/primary.html) Kepler primarily observed faraway stars in a single skypatch. TESS, on the other hand, will cover an area that’s about 400 times larger: roughly 85% of the entire sky. To do that, TESS circles Earth in a [unique high Earth orbit](https://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/tess/objectives.html) of 12 to 15 days, which is inclined in a way that the telescope’s skyview is largely free from obstructions by our bright planet and the Moon. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fd66d7b01-6c34-45c5-81a3-82a2d5387046_1050x782-jpeg.jpg) TESS’ focused search space for exoplanets compared to Kepler. [Credit: Zach Berta-Thompson](https://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/tess/primary.html) Over the course of its two-year primary [mission](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard2020/nasa-s-planet-hunter-completes-its-primary-mission), TESS’ four sensitive cameras systematically [scanned](https://tess.mit.edu/observations) over 200,000 of the nearest and brightest stars, imaging 75% of the sky. It found 2,100 planetary candidates and 66 confirmed exoplanets. The candidates [are observed again](https://astronomy.com/magazine/news/2021/08/tess-a-behind-the-scenes-look-at-nasas-latest-planet-hunter) using a network of dozens of ground-based telescopes to confirm if they’re indeed planets. While TESS data tells us the size and orbits of these planets, ground telescopes [can tell us](https://www.planetary.org/articles/how-to-search-for-exoplanets) their masses. Knowing all three of these parameters reveals if the planet must be rocky like Earth, gaseous like Jupiter and Saturn, or something else entirely. Many TESS-discovered planets will also be observed again by future missions such as NASA’s recently launched [JWST](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/james-webb-space-telescope), which will allow scientists to study exoplanets’ atmospheres in unprecedented detail. In the two-year [extended mission](https://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/tess/extended.html) that started from July 2020, TESS increased its imaging cadence to better find [Earth-like](https://www.planetary.org/articles/earth-like-worlds) [habitable worlds](https://www.planetary.org/articles/what-is-the-habitable-zone) around stars called red dwarfs, the most common type in our galaxy. These stars are of [great interest to find life around](https://jatan.space/life-around-red-dwarfs/) because their lower masses and gravities, and thus slow fuel burn, ensure they will outlast Sun-like stars by a trillion years or more. ## What are some of the planets TESS has discovered? Even though TESS is specifically designed to find relatively smaller exoplanets than Kepler, it has still managed to find a variety of strange worlds. TESS has discovered a few [ultrahot](https://www.universetoday.com/153432/astronomers-find-a-planet-that-orbits-its-star-in-just-16-hours) [planets](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2020/nasa-s-tess-delivers-new-insights-into-an-ultrahot-world) that orbit their stars in less than a day or two, ‘Super Earths’ [up to five times more massive](https://www.universetoday.com/152783/astronomers-look-at-super-earths-that-had-their-atmospheres-stripped-away-by-their-stars) than our planet, [newly](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2021/nasa-s-tess-discovers-new-worlds-in-a-river-of-young-stars) [born](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2020/nasa-s-tess-spitzer-missions-discover-a-world-orbiting-a-unique-young-star) planets, a Neptune-sized world [orbiting two stars](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2020/nasa-s-tess-mission-uncovers-its-1st-world-with-two-stars), and even stars with [multiple](https://news.mit.edu/2021/tess-discovers-four-exoplanets-orbiting-nearby-sun-like-star-0128) [planets](https://exoplanets.nasa.gov/news/1593/tess-scores-hat-trick-with-3-new-worlds). The most notable TESS-aided discovery though is an [Earth-sized planet in the habitable zone](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2020/nasa-planet-hunter-finds-its-1st-earth-size-habitable-zone-world) around its red dwarf star, where conditions could be just right for surface water to exist. This planet, called TOI 700 d, is only 20% larger than Earth and receives 86% as much energy. Future telescopes will peer into its atmosphere to determine if it’s really habitable. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f2706e32e-2f28-4471-bff3-718705c2db9b_1380x1035-jpeg.jpg) An artist’s concept of a habitable exoplanet orbiting a red dwarf star. [Credit: UChicago](https://jatan.space/life-around-red-dwarfs/) ## Not just a planet-hunter but stellar informer too The sensitivity required to register very faint dips in brightness caused by transiting planets also makes TESS a stellar observer. Scientists have been analyzing its data to better understand the nature of stars themselves. To pick just a few examples, TESS gave astronomers a unique [look at a star that’s about to explode](https://warwick.ac.uk/newsandevents/pressreleases/teardrop%5Fstar%5Freveals), helped [identify previously elusive patterns](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2020/nasa-s-tess-enables-breakthrough-study-of-perplexing-stellar-pulsations) in pulsating stars, watched a [star being torn apart by a black hole](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2019/nasa-s-tess-mission-spots-its-1st-star-shredding-black-hole), and even [found a six-star system](https://exoplanets.nasa.gov/news/1672/discovery-alert-first-six-star-system-where-all-six-stars-undergo-eclipses) composed of three pairs of binary stars. ## Shedding light on planets around red dwarfs The fact that TESS is scanning broad swaths of the sky and recording brightness variations of all nearby stars within makes it extremely useful to assess how the [habitability of planets around red dwarf stars](https://jatan.space/life-around-red-dwarfs/) is affected by flaring, wherein those stars unleash waves of ultraviolet and X-ray radiation harmful to life as we know it. And they do so [more frequently](http://www.galex.caltech.edu/newsroom/glx2017-01f.html) than our Sun. If our star can [strip off Mars’ water and dense atmosphere](https://jatan.space/nasa-maven-mars-orbiter/) from a huge distance, habitable zone planets around [furiously flaring](https://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard/nasas-swift-mission-observes-mega-flares-from-a-mini-star) red dwarfs lying about 30 times closer could lose their atmospheres in just a [hundred million years](https://exoplanets.nasa.gov/news/1409/planets-of-red-dwarf-stars-may-face-oxygen-loss-in-habitable-zones/). The intense radiation could prevent life from even arising on such planets. However, initial TESS observations have provided some hope. One TESS study found that unlike generally assumed, the most intense flares from four red dwarf stars [appeared closer to their poles](https://www.washington.edu/news/2021/08/05/superflares-tess/), steering clear of the equatorial plane in which most planets usually orbit. The sample size is small but if further observations support it, it’s good news for possible life on red dwarf planets. Another TESS study analyzed 2532 flares from 112 red dwarfs and showed that the flares, while stronger than our Sun, [weren’t energetic enough](https://arxiv.org/abs/2111.07594) to trigger depletion of an Earth-like protective ozone layer on red dwarf planets. With [over 600](https://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/tess/publications.html) peer-reviewed research results and discoveries published and counting, TESS is helping us refine our search for another Earth like never before. ## How can you help find another Earth? If you are the kind who likes to dive into raw telescopic data of the stars, [TESS data is publicly available](https://archive.stsci.edu/tess) to use for free. Even if you’re not a researcher, you can still help by participating in [TESS’ Citizen Science project](https://www.zooniverse.org/projects/nora-dot-eisner/planet-hunters-tess), which has already helped discover several exoplanets including [a world orbiting two stars](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2020/nasa-s-tess-mission-uncovers-its-1st-world-with-two-stars), like Tatooine in Star Wars. --- *Originally published at [The Planetary Society](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/tess).* *Like what you read? [Support me](https://jatan.space/support) to keep me going.* ### Moon Monday Issue #58 URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-58/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:32.000Z *Welcome back to Moon Monday after the holiday break. It was nice writing another issue again after a bit; I had almost forgotten the excitement of all the momentum that is building up! And that is why I write Moon Monday—to see and show the progress of pieces that are driving our return to the Moon. Even though 2021 didn’t see many of its anticipated Moon missions launch, 2022 will almost certainly see a flurry of spacecraft reach for our cosmic neighbor. Here’s to going forward to the Moon. 🚀* ## Highlight China has [formally approved the fourth phase of their lunar exploration project](https://www.space.com/china-upcoming-moon-missions-details), consisting of three missions: Chang’e 6, 7 and 8 respectively. Chang’e 7 will launch first, around 2024 on a Long March 5 rocket. It will consist of an orbiter and a lander, the latter of which [will likely deploy](https://weibo.com/6618567819/KcpftkBxA?type=comment#%5Frnd1619422059900) a rover and a mini-flying probe to survey the environment and map resources in [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s south pole. Chang’e 6 will launch soon after to return about two kilograms of samples from the Moon’s south pole, similar to [how Chang’e 5 brought samples](https://jatan.space/change-5-landing-site/) in 2020 from a lunar lava plain. The spacecraft will have a [modified sampling system](https://hksar.org/hong-kong-team-behind-chang-e-5-moon-rock-sampling-set-sights-on-chang-e-6) to survive the harsher conditions on the Moon’s south pole. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f6ddf454d-214e-4ee4-a3b5-45ef0f223696_924x631-jpeg-1.jpg) Illustration of the Chang’e 5 spacecraft on the Moon with its sample collector. Chang’e 6 is expected to have a similar spacecraft configuration for its mission to bring samples from the Moon’s south pole. [Credit: CGTN](https://astronomycommunity.nature.com/posts/the-moon-s-last-gasp-dating-the-youngest-lunar-sample) Chang’e 7 and some of the upcoming Russian Luna missions will help select a suitable site for the joint Chinese-Russian long-term scientific base on the Moon’s south pole, called the [International Lunar Research Station (ILRS)](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-32/). Chang’e 8 will launch between 2026 and 2030 to deliver cargo at the selected site to begin setting up ILRS’ basic infrastructure, and test technologies to extract and use local resources for future mission needs, including for when humans eventually start visiting the base. Related: Per Long Lehao, the chief designer of China’s successful Long March family of rockets, China could make a new crewed rocket, [derived from its existing Long March 5](https://spacenews.com/chinas-new-rocket-for-crewed-moon-missions-to-launch-around-2026), to land humans on the Moon before 2030 instead of waiting for the super heavy-lift Long March 9 to be operational by then. This new rocket can put 27,000 kilograms worth of payloads on a trajectory to the Moon, nearly thrice the capacity of the Long March 5\. While Lehao’s words don’t officially represent Chinese space policy, he is an influential figure, and so this is a good indication that China is at least thinking about such an accelerated plan to land humans on the Moon. ## Exploration NASA’s [first Artemis mission](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/around-the-moon-with-nasa-s-first-launch-of-sls-with-orion), to send an uncrewed [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/orion/about/index.html) around the Moon and back, [has been delayed](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2021/12/17/artemis-i-integrated-testing-update) from next month to at least March 2022\. The delay is caused by one of the two [engine flight controllers](https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/nasa-picks-up-where-it-left-off-in-2017-tests-rs-25-flight-controller) on the [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html)’s fourth engine failing abruptly during testing. After performing a series of inspections and troubleshooting, engineers have decided to swap the controller and continue the fully stacked rocket’s [integrated tests](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-fully-stacked-for-moon-mission-readies-for-artemis-i). Once both of these things are done, NASA will roll out the rocket to the launchpad to test fueling, defueling, and related procedures after which the agency will set Artemis I’s target launch date. The current soft target is during the period March 12-27\. As is usual and commendable, [NASASpaceflight has details](https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2021/12/engine-controller-artemis-1-delay) on the delay and the affected road to launch. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f2761761a-0f9f-4668-bba4-3b05e0c81183_2048x1536-jpeg.jpg) Steps for integrated testing of the fully stacked SLS rocket prior to its Artemis I mission launch. [Credit: NASA](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2021/12/17/artemis-i-integrated-testing-update) Related: Last month, NASA and Aerojet Rocketdyne [started a new testing round](https://www.nasa.gov/centers/stennis/news/releases/2021/NASA-Fires-Up-Artemis-RS-25-Rocket-Engines-with-New-Components) of an RS-25 developmental engine after a nearly year-long [test run](https://www.nasa.gov/centers/stennis/news/releases/2021/NASA-to-Begin-New-RS-25-Engine-Test-Series-for-Future-Artemis-Missions). Four older versions of [RS-25 engines](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/fs/rs25%5Fcore%5Fstage%5Fengines.html) currently power the core stage of NASA’s SLS rocket, which will regularly carry humans to lunar orbit as part of the agency’s [Artemis program](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis). The new engine—to be used post 2025 on Artemis IV, V, and beyond—is built with advanced manufacturing techniques to reduce cost and build time, the former by over 30 percent. Given that the SLS rocket currently costs [over $2 billion](https://arstechnica.com/science/2019/11/nasa-does-not-deny-the-over-2-billion-cost-of-a-single-sls-launch/) [per flight](https://oig.nasa.gov/docs/IG-22-003.pdf), and [each RS-25 engine a fiery $146 million](https://arstechnica.com/science/2020/05/nasa-will-pay-a-staggering-146-million-for-each-sls-rocket-engine/), any price reduction is welcome. Also related: Japan’s new prime minister has announced an end-of-the-decade goal to [send Japanese astronauts to the Moon](https://spacenews.com/japan-wants-jaxa-astronaut-to-be-first-non-american-to-join-a-nasa-lunar-landing) as part of Artemis. This intention is part of a [revised national space policy roadmap ](https://www8.cao.go.jp/space/hq/dai25/siryou1.pdf)*[(Japanese)](https://www8.cao.go.jp/space/hq/dai25/siryou1.pdf)*, awaiting cabinet approval, which also calls for cooperating with Japan’s private sector to develop crewed lunar rovers and other systems essential for human activities on the Moon. Astrobotic’s [first Moon landing mission](https://www.astrobotic.com/2019/5/31/astrobotic-awarded-79-5-million-contract-to-deliver-14-nasa-payloads-to-the-moon) as part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://www.nasa.gov/content/commercial-lunar-payload-services-overview) has been delayed to at least the second half of this year because its launch vehicle, ULA’s Vulcan rocket, won’t be ready in time. Eric Berger [reports that Blue Origin isn’t going to deliver](https://arstechnica.com/science/2021/12/ula-disappointed-in-be-4-delay-but-still-aiming-for-2022-vulcan-launch) the two BE-4 flight engines for Vulcan to ULA until at least April 2022 due to unrevealed engine fabrication issues. Once these production kinks are ironed out, Blue Origin will test and reconfigure the two flight engines before sending them to ULA for final testing and flight integration. ## Science NASA has [added eight scientists](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/nasa-selects-new-members-for-artemis-rover-science-team) to the core science team of [VIPER](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/), the agency’s rover that will launch in 2023 to map [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other volatile resources in and around [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) on the Moon’s south pole. These new human talents will expand the mission’s scope by increasing the range of volatiles VIPER will look for, and how they interact with the Moon’s thin exosphere. For a mission as critical as VIPER from both a scientific and exploratory perspective, NASA is all set to maximize its returns. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f78f0330f-2ba2-46e7-a3b3-bdbc3392fc66_2233x1597-jpeg-3.jpg) A reference traverse path for NASA’s VIPER rover (shown in the inset image) in its landing region on the Moon’s south pole near Nobile crater. [Credit: NASA](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bd7ekqMrHkg) Meanwhile, progress continues on better understanding sources of water on the Moon, all of which aids investigations by VIPER and future missions. China’s Yutu-2 rover from the Change’4 mission [on the Moon’s farside](https://jatan.space/change-4-landing-site-farside-von-karman-crater/) has spotted rock fragments in a two-meter crater, the pieces being from the asteroid that created the crater itself. Scientists have [identified the fragments to be from an carbonaceous chondrite](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-021-01530-w), a water-rich class of asteroids. Since the crater is only a million years old—a small period on geological time scale—the authors say that asteroid impacts continue providing water to the Moon even now, in addition to [the solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fbcef38df-0c49-40b1-908b-9d60992059f5_2126x1397-jpeg.jpg) (a) Color mosaic captured by China’s Yutu-2 rover of a small two-meter crater on the Moon’s farside. The enlarged image at the bottom shows the observed glassy material containing fragments of the water-rich asteroid that created the crater. (b) The fragments observed from another direction (c) The relative locations of the observed material per the rover-lander coordinate system and the observation sites for (a) and (b). [Credit: Yazhou Yang, et al.](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-021-01530-w) ## More Moon The United Nations has declared July 20, the anniversary of the 1969 first human lunar landing with Apollo 11, as [International Moon Day](https://moonvillageassociation.org/press-release-proclamation-of-the-international-moon-day-by-the-united-nations). Going forward, it will be an official annual event to educate people globally on Moon exploration, and evangelize for its future prospects and benefits to humanity. The hope is that it would also promote cooperation between lunar exploration stakeholders. [The Moon Village Association](https://moonvillageassociation.org/about) will be the organization leading the International Moon Day activities. --- > *Dear readers, I’m publishing this one-of-a-kind Moon exploration newsletter for free, with no ads. And it will stay that way. If you like my comprehensive global coverage of lunar exploration and science, [support me](https://jatan.space/support) to keep it going.* [Support Moon Monday 🌗](https://jatan.space/support) ### Best of 2021 URL: https://jatan.space/best-of-2021/ Last updated: 2024-02-24T10:32:00.000Z **Dear readers,** I quit my job last year to become an independent space exploration writer and was happy to [have achieved it](https://jatan.space/my-science-writing-journey/), culminating the phase by becoming a [Contributing Editor](https://www.planetary.org/profiles/jatan-mehta) for The Planetary Society! Soon after in the same year, I started writing a one-of-a-kind [Moon exploration newsletter](https://blog.jatan.space/s/moon-monday?no%5Fcover=true) which has proved more useful to the space community than I thought. This year I doubled down on writing about space and our Moon, which has satisfyingly resulted in it being my most productive and most challenging year ever. Here are some of my most notable space articles of 2021\. ☕️ ## Space exploration I got published on Scientific American this year and my parents were so proud! I grew up reading a lot of Scientific American magazines purchased second-hand from stores that collected discarded reading material. And now I got to be an author there and tell the story of how NASA achieved Perseverance’s high-stakes landing. 🛬 [How NASA decides where to land on Mars](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-nasa-aims-to-achieve-perseverances-high-stakes-mars-landing/) --- How we study our own Sun is somehow not talked about as much. And so I was delighted to have written a longform piece on how the Sun drives space weather, affects life on Earth, and why we invest billions in studying it. ☀️ [How we study the Sun and its wind](https://www.planetary.org/worlds/the-sun) --- This next article took weeks to research, deconstruct, write and refine. Presenting a comprehensive article laying out the series of events that made and shaped our solar system, to the best of our knowledge, pieced together from space exploration missions, Earth-based observations, and complex simulations. ☄️ [Solar System History 101](https://www.planetary.org/articles/solar-system-history-101) --- In this next article, I broke down the methodology and implications of an exciting new research result that says Saturn’s moon Enceladus could host life as know it. 🦠 [Water plumes from Saturn’s icy moon Enceladus may show promising signs of life](https://www.planetary.org/articles/signs-of-life-enceladus) --- Since the topic of terraforming Mars keeps on coming up again and again, I wrote an overview of the most compelling ideas to terraform the Red Planet and what we know about the current (in)feasibility of such an endeavor. 🌍 [Can we make Mars Earth-like?](https://www.planetary.org/articles/can-we-make-mars-earth-like-through-terraforming) --- The Red Planet is cool but having a red sun maybe cooler. Shining for literally over a trillion years, red dwarf stars might be the only options for life to take root on long after all Sun-like stars are dead. In this piece, I lay down all that we know about habitability of planets around such stars. 🌄 [Are the Universe's smallest stars promising places for life?](https://www.planetary.org/articles/red-dwarf-stars-life) --- The European Space Agency (ESA) has launched [some of the most interesting robotic explorers](https://sci.esa.int/web/home/-/51459-missions) in the solar system. I’m happy to have written missions pages for The Planetary Society on three of the most ambitious ESA explorers launching in the next 10 years, each leveraging the agency’s two-decade experience to build state-of-the-art instruments to help answer some of the most pressing questions about the solar system and our place in it. - 🪨 The highly autonomous [ExoMars rover](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/exomars-2022-kazachok-lander-rosalind-franklin-rover), designed to detect preserved signs of life unlike any mission before. - 🔥 [EnVision](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/envision), to comprehensively uncover Venus’ past and tell us what drove Earth’s sister planet from being habitable to hellish. - 💧 The [JUICE spacecraft](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/juice), to find out if Jupiter’s icy moons indeed harbor habitable oceans and what it means for life elsewhere in the Universe. --- A space mission is an immensely complex undertaking. Hundreds to thousands of people from several distinct fields of expertise must come together to orchestrate thousands of moving parts and functions to make a space machine behave as expected. As such, failure to communicate or get right even a seemingly minuscule mission aspect can lead to cascading effects that can *and have* resulted in mission loss. Here’s a brief history of some major missions lost because of avoidable human errors. 💥 [A brief history of space missions lost to human errors](https://jatan.space/space-missions-lost-to-human-errors/) --- While the following aren’t articles, I also make space memes sometimes, some of which [got popular](https://twitter.com/uncertainquark/status/1266812794088886275). [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f4f8c81c8-ab2a-4da9-9816-68ae27528c64_1156x694-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/space-memes/) ****From** [****my original space memes collection**](https://jatan.space/space-memes/) **🤓** --- ## Our Moon Every writer has, I think, what they consider to be their flagship article. Their best foot forward. The iPhone to their Apple. Here is mine. 🌔 [Why explore the Moon](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) --- I covered the global and commercial context of two major upcoming Moon missions with their mission pages for The Planetary Society. - 🧊 [VIPER, NASA’s Moon resource mapper](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/viper): NASA’s boldest robotic Moon mission yet will launch in 2023 to study water ice in one of the harshest planetary environments in the solar system. - 🛰 [KPLO, South Korea’s first Moon mission](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/kplo): With KPLO launching to the Moon in 2022, South Korea forays into planetary exploration, begins its ambitious lunar exploration program, and finds a collaborator in NASA. - 🎙 I also [appeared on Planetary Radio](https://www.planetary.org/planetary-radio/the-wonderful-film-clare-lewins-cady-coleman) to talk about the mission and [how it will inspire kids and students](https://jatan.space/moon-moment-for-south-korea/) in the country. --- This year I continued putting out accessible stories about the Moon’s fundamental value to space exploration and science for as broad an audience as I can, and have placed all such work together in context on this upgraded curated Moon page. [🌗 Explore our Moon →](https://jatan.space/our-moon/) --- ### Moon Monday I can’t single out a favorite issue of my [Moon exploration newsletter](https://blog.jatan.space/s/moon-monday?no%5Fcover=true) because it’s the growing momentum of lunar exploration as a whole that’s so exciting and full of hope for the future. As such, it only makes sense to link to the whole [archive of lunar developments](https://blog.jatan.space/s/moon-monday/archive), which clearly shows the progress we’re making towards truly global and sustainable lunar exploration. Said that, I’ll note just how happy I’m with some of the support I’ve been getting for Moon Monday, including from people at NASA, ESA, planetary universities, space companies building Moon landers, and more. Two of my absolute favorite such examples are: - NASA’s Deputy Chief Scientist supporting me on Patreon! 😭 - Getting an email from Apollo 17 astronaut Harrison Schmitt thanking me for writing Moon Monday! He also provided detailed information and context on some lunar samples for my future coverage. :D Here’s to going forward to the Moon. 🚀 --- ## Like what you read? I’m an independent writer on a lifelong mission to evangelize exploration of space and our Moon. I never display ads and [all my work](https://blog.jatan.space/about) is absolutely free to access. If you like my efforts to cover global space exploration & science developments, you can [sponsor my work](https://jatan.space/support). It would mean the Moon to me. [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support) --- *Here’s to this rest of this decade, which promises to be the most exciting one for space exploration in the history of humanity. It’s our collective responsibility to make sure it happens, and to include as many people from across the globe in this as we can.* 🚀 ### Moon Monday Issue #57 URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-57/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:33.000Z *With lunar exploration and science news having slowed down this month, and no major updates expected, I’ll be taking a short break from publishing Moon Monday for two weeks. The next issue will be on January 3, 2022 and cover all updates between now and then.* *I’ll utilize the break to rest a bit, go through all the feedback you guys gave me last month, publish some space stuff, and make a plan to sustain Moon Monday in 2022 and beyond. I hope you enjoy the end of the year doing whatever you love.* ## Highlight We finally have an update on Chandrayaan 3, India’s second attempt to land on the Moon after [Chandrayaan 2](https://jatan.space/isro-chandrayaan-2-moon-landing-mission/)’s surface mission [failed](https://jatan.space/finding-the-chandrayaan-2-lander/) in 2019\. A [response to a formal query](https://pqars.nic.in/annex/255/AU1413.pdf) put forth to the *Rajya Sabha*—Indian equivalent to the U.S. Senate—says that Chandrayaan 3 is on track to launch in Q3 2022\. ISRO has completed testing the rover as well as the lander’s propulsion and navigation systems, with the remaining systems progressing well. We already know the lander will carry, among other experiments, a thermal probe and a seismometer to study the Moon’s interior, and that the rover will have a pair of spectrometers to determine what the ancient lunar crust is made of. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f8828086a-9842-46e8-bdca-659f0191bcca_1500x1000-jpeg-3.jpg) An artist’s impression of Chandrayaan 2’s lander and rover on the Moon. Since the landing part of the mission failed, India is reattempting the same with Chandrayaan 3\. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=--8ORixBXQE) Related: ISRO has published a [new paper on their lunar soil simulant](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0032063321001938) called LSS-ISAC-1, which they developed to test Chandrayaan 2’s lander and rover, and are now using it for Chandrayaan 3\. While previous papers talked about the [process and sourcing of rocks](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S001910352100186X) for making the simulant and its [development method](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0032063320303299), this one characterizes the simulant’s physical and mechanical properties. The bulk chemistry, mineralogy and mechanical properties of LSS-ISAC-1 are similar to Apollo 16 highland soil samples, in part because Chandrayaan 2’s [target landing site](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-landing-site-in-the-southern-highlands/) was in a lunar highland region too. Being a repeat attempt of Chandrayaan 2’s surface part of the mission, the Chandrayaan 3’s landing region is expected to be similar. ## Exploration NASA [confirmed](https://arstechnica.com/science/2021/12/rocket-report-astra-to-launch-from-florida-nasa-troubleshoots-sls-issue) last week that one of the four engine controllers on the agency’s [SLS rocket](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html)’s core stage stopped communicating with other avionic systems onboard sometime in the week of November 22\. The fully stacked SLS rocket was supposed to rollout to the launchpad on December 29 in preparation for the [Artemis I mission](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/around-the-moon-with-nasa-s-first-launch-of-sls-with-orion) launch in mid-February 2022 but the issue’s as yet unknown nature has delayed the rollout to at least mid-January, and the launch to late February at the earliest. NASASpaceflight has more [details on the prelaunch preparations](https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2021/12/artemis-1-update-dec-2021). --- On December 9, Mexico [became the fourteenth country](https://spacenews.com/mexico-joins-artemis-accords) to sign the U.S.-led Artemis Accords, a space exploration framework [NASA calls](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html) “a practical set of principles to guide cooperation among nations participating in NASA’s 21st century lunar exploration plans.” ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fd64be7ef-1121-484d-9ff2-62883afb8eb0_646x485-jpeg.jpg) Mexico’s secretary of foreign relations, Marcelo Ebrard Casaubon, announcing Mexico’s signing of the Artemis Accords on December 9\. Credit: [Mexico Secretary of Foreign Relations](https://spacenews.com/mexico-joins-artemis-accords) At [the U.S. National Space Council meeting](https://spacenews.com/space-council-condemns-irresponsible-russian-asat-test/) on December 1, Vice President Kamala Harris said that the government will next work to expand the number of Artemis Accords signatories, and that France has expressed an interest to join. Relatedly, in September when Indian Prime Minister Modi visited U.S. President Biden, the White House [released a statement](https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/09/24/fact-sheet-the-united-states-and-india-global-leadership-in-action) noting that “The U.S. welcomes India’s consideration of potential cooperation in Artemis and the Artemis Accords.” This is an indication that India could again collaborate with NASA to explore the Moon and might join the other signees of the Accords. --- On November 24, [ESA selected ArianeGroup and ispace Europe](https://ispace-inc.com/news/?p=2144), a subsidiary of ispace Japan, for a test program which hopes to eventually morph into a commercial payload delivery service to the Moon, similar to NASA’s [CLPS program](https://www.nasa.gov/content/commercial-lunar-payload-services-overview) which has already green-lit seven commercial Moon landing missions across four companies before 2025\. If the selection is formalized next year, ispace Europe could host over 15 kilograms worth of ESA science instruments and other payloads on their lander or 5 kilograms of rover instruments. Such missions are intended to be launched on Ariane 6 rockets starting in 2024\. ArianeGroup is already an ispace partner, [currently assembling](https://ispace-inc.com/news/?p=2012) ispace’s lander in Germany for [their first Moon mission](https://ispace-inc.com/hakuto-r/eng) launching in the second half of 2022. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fe9c77579-b6a6-4815-ad3d-a99848b5b465_2000x1414-jpeg.jpg) Illustration of ispace’s Hakuto-R lunar lander design to be used for the company’s first two Moon landing missions, and for potentially future ones to deliver science and technology instruments for ESA. [Credit: ispace](https://ispace-inc.com/hakuto-r/eng/about/) ispace will use their Series 1 lander design for these missions, same as their [first two missions](https://ispace-inc.com/hakuto-r/eng/). This currently leaves out the [vastly more capable](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-42/) Series 2 lander, which ispace unveiled in August and aims to debut on their third Moon landing mission in 2024\. ispace’s U.S. subsidiary will co-build the Series 2 lander along with General Atomics and Draper, and continue to bid for Moon missions under NASA CLPS. ## Science Scientists analyzing data from the ground penetrating radar on China’s now-defunct Yutu rover from the Chang’e 3 mission have [discovered a thick layer of underground, ancient lunar soil](https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2021GL095282) in [its landed region](https://www.airspacemag.com/daily-planet/a-new-site-to-explore-on-the-moon-180948756) on the Moon’s nearside. This ‘paleoregolith’ layer is sandwiched between two layers (and hence two continuous periods) of lava flows, thus dating back to the time when the Moon was volcanically active. Such preserved paleoregolith layers help scientists determine not just the Moon’s volcanic and impact history but also ascertain key events in our [solar system’s history](https://www.planetary.org/articles/solar-system-history-101) and their timings. The roughly 3 billion-year-old paleoregolith layer Yutu discovered is unexpectedly thick—as much as 9 meters—which implies a fast rate of macro and [micrometeorite impacts](https://jatan.space/the-tiniest-of-impact-craters/) in that time of the solar system. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f0eb6f09e-e009-4b96-93c2-db05e82f05f2_1201x900-jpeg.jpg) China’s Yutu rover driving on the Moon, as captured by the Chang'e 3 lander in December 2013\. [Credits: CAS / CNSA / Emily Lakdawalla](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/yutu-on-the-road) Relatedly, the ground penetrating radar on China’s Yutu-2 rover from the Change’4 mission had recently helped [uncover the recent history](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0012821X21003174?via%3Dihub) of [its landed region](https://jatan.space/change-4-landing-site-farside-von-karman-crater/) on the Moon’s farside. The radar found a host of features such as evidence of a [buried crater](https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9467667), layers of ancient ejected material from nearby craters as well as a paleoregolith layer sandwiched between two lava flow layers just like the Yutu discovery mentioned above. Scientists think the buried crater Yutu-2 discovered likely contains ancient materials from the Moon’s mantle, which got uplifted during the formation of the nearby Finsen crater and got deposited here. ## More Moon > *Thank you so much [Dr. Gordon Roesler](http://www.robots-in.space/), [Dany Waller](https://danywaller.github.io/), [Open Lunar Foundation](https://www.openlunar.org/), [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io/), [SWISSAPOLLO](https://www.swissapollo.com/en/) and RBK for supporting me and powering this edition of Moon Monday!* > > *Everyone, I’m publishing this one-of-a-kind Moon exploration newsletter for free, with no ads. And it will stay that way. If you like my comprehensive coverage of lunar exploration and science, [support me](https://jatan.space/support) to keep it going.* [Support Moon Monday 🌗](https://jatan.space/support) ### I’ve had a monumental shift in my worldview after reading Carl Sagan’s Cosmos URL: https://jatan.space/interview-for-literal/ Last updated: 2024-02-24T10:23:59.000Z [Literal](https://literal.club), the new Goodreads competitor in town for book aficionados, interviewed me a few months ago (for some reason) about how my interest in space exploration shapes what I read. Also for some reason, their interview of me or anyone else has no link other than all such posts simply existing on their [Spotlight page](https://literal.club/spotlight). What a strange thing to not have a shareable post link in this day and age! And so I decided to syndicate my interview here on this blog. Here goes the brief interview. --- *Space Exploration Writer. Three words that spark interest the moment you visit* [*Jatan’s profile on Literal*](https://literal.club/uncertainquark) *and take a look at his biography. But what does a writer on outer space do exactly? And most importantly: What does Jatan read?* **Your biography on Literal is quite interesting. You label yourself as a space exploration writer. What exactly is that?** It’s much like a science writer except one dedicated to covering space exploration. I’m passionate about us exploring space as a species, being humbled by those endeavors, and use it as our zenith to push ourselves forward. To that end, I write popular science articles on [my space blog](https://blog.jatan.space/about) and [for publications](https://jatan.space/published/) to get people excited and informed about how and why we explore space, and the science we learn from our missions. **How does the interest in all things space impact your reading behavior?** Space exploration gives me hope for the future. Seeing pictures of a lone Earth from outside and learning about the unforgiving nature of space really makes you wonder about the fragility of our planet as well as the boundless possibility that we can outlive this beautiful [but impermanent](https://jatan.space/timeline-for-life-until-the-end-of-the-universe/) rocky world. As such, I’m always leaning towards science fiction and future-projecting books, even if dystopian. Even for my leisurely reading, you’ll see me pick up a short Sci-Fi story, such as [*The Star*](https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/13598725-the-star) by Arthur C. Clarke. **If someone asks you to recommend a book to them, which one is the first one that comes to your mind?** I’m not an avid book reader but I’d say the entire Robot series by Isaac Asimov, starting with [*The Caves of Steel*](https://literal.club/book/the-caves-of-steel-ibxg5). With the series, Asimov doesn’t just set out to do world-building but to build a galaxy of spacefaring humans and their advanced robots. Personally, I love the consistency of the characters even in an imagined setting. **Which book had the biggest influence on your life?** As with many space enthusiasts, I’ve had a monumental shift in my worldview after reading Carl Sagan’s [*Cosmos*](https://literal.club/book/cosmos-bmjoi). To sweeten the deal, his words were poetic throughout. It’s as if he was acknowledging that for all our flaws and failures, there’s still hope for our future. And there is no place for it but space. --- *P.S. Literal is new and invite-only at the moment. I have two invites for joining Literal if you’d like to track books and interact with the community over there. It’s a good way to support something that’s not Amazon owned i.e. Goodreads. Email me if you’re interested. Or maybe email me anyway just to say hello? I’d love to hear who reads my Blog of Thoughts and why so.* *Also see →* [*Books to remember*](https://jatan.space/books)[ 📚](https://life.jatan.space/p/books) --- **→** [**Browse the Blog**](https://blog.jatan.space/start) **|** [**About**](https://blog.jatan.space/about) **|** [**Donate ♡**](https://jatan.space/support) ### Views of Mars from India's Mangalyaan orbiter URL: https://jatan.space/views-of-mars-from-mangalyaan/ Last updated: 2026-01-09T13:52:06.000Z September 24, 2021 marked seven years since ISRO’s [Mangalyaan spacecraft](https://jatan.space/reviewing-mission-mangalyaan/) entered Mars orbit, making India the first Asian country to do so. What is even more impressive is that Mangalyaan was the country’s first interplanetary mission. I compiled [this video](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T-wyWBKJ8qY) from some pretty views of the red planet shot by the orbiter. Learn about [the mission and its importance](https://jatan.space/reviewing-mission-mangalyaan/) and read about the concerning case of [missing science from it](https://jatan.space/missing-science-from-mangalyaan/). **Image sources:** - [Emily Lakdawalla, The Planetary Society](https://www.planetary.org/space-images/mars?imgkeywords=mars-orbiter-mission) - [ISRO's atlas of pictures from Mangalyaan](https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/article-files/node/8052/Mars-atlas-MOM.pdf) ### Moon Monday Issue #56 URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-56/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:33.000Z ## Highlight ESA’s [Pangaea campaign](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/CAVES%5Fand%5FPangaea/What%5Fis%5FPangaea) to train future lunar astronauts in geology, a highly valuable skill when exploring the Moon and collecting samples, continues strong at the Spanish Canary Islands northwest of Africa. After [exploring lunar-esque volcanic landscapes](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2021/11/11/astronaut-training-in-the-land-of-volcanoes) in Canary’s Lanzorate region last month, the [astronauts next visited](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2021/12/01/goodbye-volcanoes-hello-moon) its 8-kilometer long lava tube *[La Corona](https://www.lanzarotecaves.com/corona-lava-tube-system)*. It resembles the shape of [lava tubes on the Moon](https://jatan.space/underground-lava-tubes-on-the-moon-marius-hills/) and is formed similarly i.e. when volcanic lava flows cease, their surface can harden while the lava within drains to leave behind an underground tunnel. Openings to such lava tubes can form when lava flows breach the surface or if part of a surface collapses due to hot flows beneath. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f2e36f274-4c82-45d1-bc8b-81a19d96aa84_2048x1366-jpeg-1.jpg) ESA’s Pangaea crew exploring minerals in the La Corona lava tube in the Spanish Canary Islands. [Credits: ESA / A. Romeo](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2021/12/01/goodbye-volcanoes-hello-moon) Lunar lava tubes are protected from significant radiation and [micrometeorite bombardment](https://jatan.space/the-tiniest-of-impact-craters/) on the Moon’s surface, making them pristine places to study the Moon’s volcanic past and analyze rock samples untouched for well over a billion years. These traits combined with relatively stable temperatures also make them potentially good places to build sustainable habitats in. While the La Corona lava tube the Pangaea crew are exploring is one of Earth’s largest, it pales in comparison to those on the Moon where lower gravity and lack of intense erosion mechanisms can make for much longer and wider tunnels. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f132905e1-e774-4e36-99e5-44e450333923_460x380-jpeg-2.jpg) A 65 meters wide pit, an entrance to a lava tube, in the Marius Hills region on the Moon. [Credit: NASA LRO](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/286) ## Exploration NASA [awarded a $3.19 billion contract](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-artemis-contract-for-future-mega-moon-rocket-boosters) to Northrop Grumman to produce six more pairs of [boosters](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/multimedia/boosters%5F101.html) by end of 2031 for the agency’s [SLS](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/overview.html) rockets launching on [Artemis](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) missions IV through IX. These twin boosters—based on the Space Shuttle Boosters with an added segment for increased thrust—are mounted on the side of SLS’ core stage and produce more than 75% of the thrust for each launch. With the Shuttle hardware inventory running out though, NASA has asked Northrop Grumman to make [practically new and upgraded boosters](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2021/12/02/sls-booster-fired-up-to-test-improved-design-for-future-artemis-missions) to debut on Artemis IX on a SLS [Block 2 evolved](https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/sls%5Fat%5Fa%5Fglance%5F10202015.pdf) rocket configuration. Artemis IX is also when the [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/orion/about/index.html) on top of SLS will feature [an upgraded main engine](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-orion-main-engine-contract-for-future-artemis-missions) for the second time instead of its current also-Shuttle-era engine. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f8ab3ca5c-07b7-4598-95d7-646b749ee602_1000x719-jpeg.jpg) Hot fire test of a subscale model of an upgraded solid rocket booster to be used on NASA’s SLS rocket starting with the ninth Artemis mission. [Credit: NASA](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2021/12/02/sls-booster-fired-up-to-test-improved-design-for-future-artemis-missions) One way to look at these developments is to say, “These are the upgrades that should’ve been there from the very first Artemis mission” and I wouldn’t even disagree. But the other perspective to consider is that NASA is *actually* planning later-stage Artemis missions and is keen on keeping the momentum for return to the Moon alive, something important in its own right considering failed past efforts. Transitions to better systems can be made later—better than never—but a large-scale collaborative momentum across countries will be hard to kill, for good. --- NASA [completed a second test round](https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/ames/viper-practices-all-wheel-drive-to-the-moon) of how its water-mapping [VIPER rover](https://jatan.space/nasa-viper-mission/) will drive out of a ramp on Astrobotic’s [Griffin lander](https://www.astrobotic.com/griffin) post-landing on the Moon’s south pole in 2023\. The test used a prototype rover with the latest hardware and software in development for VIPER as well as updated ramps on Griffin. The tests were successful even with the lander positioned at tilted angles, simulating a possible touchdown on a harsher area of the [slope-riddled](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/SPole%5FSRidgemap%5FLOLA-Slope5m%5Fv20190515.pdf) lunar polar terrain. NASA will begin constructing the VIPER flight rover in late 2022 at their Johnson Space Center, aiming to deliver it to Astrobotic in mid-2023 for integration with Griffin before launch later that year on a SpaceX Falcon Heavy rocket. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fb0bf5633-9ea2-46ab-bab8-13cdc5c2e578_1041x586-jpeg.jpg) A prototype of NASA’s VIPER rover simulating driving out of its lander via a ramp. [Credit: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/ames/viper-practices-all-wheel-drive-to-the-moon) ## Science Estonian university TalTech and ESA are [co-developing microscopic iron pyrite crystals](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2021/12/Tiny%5Fcrystal%5Fof%5Fpower) that could function as the light absorbing layer of a tiny solar cell to power future hardware on the Moon. The amount of power generated by one solar cell is minuscule but there would be billions of them on human-scale modules, and the crystals are adaptable to different shapes and sizes. The reason ESA is investing in iron pyrite crystals specifically is because iron and sulphur needed to produce them are abundant in the lunar soil. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fe676c90b-d6b1-4b80-842c-8c7adec0ff71_1024x768-jpeg.jpg) A microscopic iron pyrite crystal that functions as the light absorbing layer of a tiny solar cell. [Credit: TalTech](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2021/12/Tiny%5Fcrystal%5Fof%5Fpower) This research is part of [ESA’s Discovery & Preparation program](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Preparing%5Ffor%5Fthe%5FFuture/Discovery%5Fand%5FPreparation/About%5Fus), which supports such infrastructure-building developments using lunar soil, including a study which explored using lunar soil to [store heat and provide electricity](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Preparing%5Ffor%5Fthe%5FFuture/Discovery%5Fand%5FPreparation/Powering%5Fthe%5Ffuture%5Fwith%5Flunar%5Fsoil) for astronauts, rovers and landers. ESA’s blog post on [Off-Earth manufacturing](https://www.esa.int/Enabling%5FSupport/Preparing%5Ffor%5Fthe%5FFuture/Discovery%5Fand%5FPreparation/Off-Earth%5Fmanufacturing%5Fusing%5Flocal%5Fresources%5Fto%5Fbuild%5Fa%5Fnew%5Fhome) provides a good overview of what the agency has been up to in this domain. --- In order to help international planetary scientists, a new paper by several researchers from the Chinese Academy of Sciences explains [how to access, process and understand data](https://doi.org/10.1007/s11214-021-00862-3) from China’s lunar and planetary missions. Specifically, it explains the sources, classification, content and its format, management, and release processes of the [archived Chang’e data](https://moon.bao.ac.cn/web/enmanager/home). I hope this leads to more collaboration and even more exciting lunar and planetary science results. ## More Moon > *Everyone, this one-of-a-kind Moon exploration newsletter is free, with no ads. And it will stay that way. If you like my global coverage of lunar exploration and science developments, [support me](https://jatan.space/support) to keep it going.* [Support Moon Monday 🌗](https://jatan.space/support) ### On some major upcoming European planetary missions URL: https://jatan.space/major-esa-planetary-missions-2021-2031/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:33.000Z European planetary missions seem to be far less popular than ones by NASA, or even Chinese missions for that matter. This is despite the fact that the European Space Agency (ESA) has launched [some of the most interesting robotic explorers](https://sci.esa.int/web/home/-/51459-missions) in the solar system. A part of the reason most certainly is media coverage bias towards the U.S. and China as a result of their sociopolitical and economic influence but I think there are other factors too such as lack of targeted outreach or limited media tools. In any case, in order to offset such bias at individual capacity, I like to track and cover as much global space exploration developments as I can, something readers thankfully say is prominent on my [Moon exploration newsletter](https://blog.jatan.space/s/moon-monday?no%5Fcover=true). Since ESA has been leveraging their two-decade experience to build state-of-the-art spacecraft instruments for upcoming space science missions, especially those part of their ambitious [Cosmic Vision 2015-2025](https://sci.esa.int/web/cosmic-vision/-/46510-cosmic-vision) program, I’ve been wanting to write about it in context for a while now. And so I’m happy to have recently written missions pages for The Planetary Society on three of the most ambitious ESA solar system explorers launching in the next 10 years. Together, they’ll help answer some of the most pressing questions about the solar system and our place in it. Here are links to those pages. [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ff24b015b-6c89-442e-8953-6c7100424ee2_2330x1600-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/exomars-2022-esa-rover/) **The highly autonomous [ExoMars rover](https://jatan.space/exomars-2022-esa-rover/) designed to detect preserved signs of life unlike any mission before.** [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f010f9561-e3b4-4c38-bedd-2b112cc0295e_2088x1144-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/esa-envision-mission-to-venus/) **[EnVision and its sophisticated instruments](https://jatan.space/esa-envision-mission-to-venus/) to comprehensively uncover Venus’ past and tell us what drove Venus from being habitable to hellish.** [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f446251d4-b893-4b15-8048-d138facddb61_4967x2805-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/esa-juice-mission-to-jupiter-moons/) **The sophisticated [JUICE spacecraft](https://jatan.space/esa-juice-mission-to-jupiter-moons/) to find out if Jupiter’s icy moons indeed harbor habitable oceans and what it means for life elsewhere in the Universe.** --- If you like my efforts to better cover global developments in space exploration, support me to keep it going. [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support) ### What are swirls on the Moon? URL: https://jatan.space/swirls-on-the-moon/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:33.000Z The Moon is host to a type of bright features quite glaringly called swirls. Seen below is the lunar swirl of Reiner Gamma. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fbbbbe8ab-7263-4171-8de6-6d5162472d55_1000x750-jpeg-1.jpg) Beautiful and bright lunar swirl of Reiner Gamma. It spans well over a hundred kilometers. [Credit: NASA Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO)](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Reiner%5FGamma.jpg) Reiner Gamma is large enough to be faintly visible on the Moon with the naked eye under favorable conditions. [![02-reiner-gamma-map](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9d1a1f91-5724-42a8-926f-3bb34b66c646_1098x770-jpeg-1.jpg)](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=-67.0083039,2.4397067,-49.8557308,11.9165646&camera=1117512.058560295,-1818766.4416265273,271818.1425204457,6.283185307179586,-1.5707963267948966,0,2151889.791048267&proj=22&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEoAsjYIHYFcA2vIBvAXwF0lRR1Ed8izyTzhw4oNEQBmOOL6rHgJNGDIA) [EXPLORE ON A MAP](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=-67.0083039,2.4397067,-49.8557308,11.9165646&camera=1117512.058560295,-1818766.4416265273,271818.1425204457,6.283185307179586,-1.5707963267948966,0,2151889.791048267&proj=22&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEoAsjYIHYFcA2vIBvAXwF0lRR1Ed8izyTzhw4oNEQBmOOL6rHgJNGDIA) The Moon [lost its global magnetic field](http://advances.sciencemag.org/content/3/8/e1700207) well over 3 billion years ago but it does have local areas that are still magnetic. Interestingly, all swirls on the Moon are associated with a local magnetic field. These fields [protect parts of the swirl’s surface](https://arxiv.org/abs/1605.05778) from being degraded by [the solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) and [micrometeorites](https://jatan.space/the-tiniest-of-impact-craters/), making them brighter than their surroundings. On the other hand, the magnetic field lines accelerate solar radiation weathering on regions just besides them. These two mechanisms together are what give [all swirls](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts?page=1&query=swirl) their distinctive bright and dark look. Here are a plethora of lunar swirls in the Ingenii crater. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f69d57f17-69f0-4159-ae48-71644c898b63_780x640-jpeg.jpg) Lunar swirls in the 282 kilometers wide Ingenii crater. [Credit: NASA LRO](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=146.8130337,-39.692529,174.3825465,-26.0067063&proj=16&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEoAsjZwLrc0A) Mare Ingenii is a case of scattered, magnetized swarm of lunar swirls spread across more than 100 kilometers. It’s one of the key scientific places to visit on the Moon’s farside. NASA had chosen Ingenii as a [landing site for the now-cancelled Constellation Program](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/leag2009/presentations/Day-2%20PM/03-35%5FGruener.pdf). [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f0a1930c3-8353-4815-9545-c298ddbbc04d_1023x767-jpeg.jpg)](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=-171.9751165,-47.0841053,137.3394642,-20.4979433&proj=7&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEoAsjZwLrc0A) [EXPLORE ON A MAP](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=-171.9751165,-47.0841053,137.3394642,-20.4979433&proj=7&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEoAsjZwLrc0A) How do such swirls form in the first place though? We don’t know. Scientists have some [interesting ideas](https://arxiv.org/abs/1207.2076) on the matter but ultimately we need to precisely measure the local magnetic field strength of regions within the swirl by sending a surface mission. We also need to measure exactly how radiation particles from the solar wind interact with the swirl's magnetic field, and how it affects and shapes the local environment. A landing mission to Reiner Gamma or [other swirls](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts?page=1&query=swirl) would be key to understanding these intriguing features and their origin. In November 2021, NASA [funded a commercial Moon mission](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-mission-to-reiner-gamma/) as part of their [CLPS program](https://jatan.space/nasa-clps-moon-missions/) to do exactly that. [Know more about swirls →](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/decadal/leag/GeorgianaYKramer.pdf) --- **→ [Browse the Blog](https://blog.jatan.space/start) | [About](https://blog.jatan.space/about) | [Donate ♡](https://jatan.space/support)** ### Moon Monday Issue #55 URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-55/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:33.000Z ## Highlight On November 19, Japan’s space agency JAXA [announced](https://astro-mission.jaxa.jp/astro%5Fselection) a plan to [recruit new astronaut candidates](https://spacenews.com/japan-to-recruit-first-new-astronauts-in-13-years-to-support-artemis-program) for the first time in 13 years. Selected astronauts, to be announced in February 2023, will be sent to either the International Space Station or the NASA-led [Gateway lunar orbiting station](https://www.nasa.gov/gateway), the latter of which will [launch in November 2024](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-contract-to-launch-initial-elements-for-lunar-outpost) on a SpaceX Falcon Heavy rocket. This move is part of [JAXA’s agreement with NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-government-of-japan-formalize-gateway-partnership-for-artemis-program) to collaborate on the Gateway, wherein in return for Japan’s crucial contributions to the station, NASA will provide opportunities for Japanese astronauts to be onboard. Applications for astronaut candidates start next month. Since Japan has no active female astronauts at the moment, JAXA plans to launch a campaign to encourage women to apply. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fbd007c66-bc8e-45e3-97da-eda3497bec6c_1173x814-jpeg-2.jpg) Illustration of Japan’s HTV-X cargo supply spacecraft approaching the NASA-led Gateway lunar station. [Credit: JAXA](https://japan-forward.com/japan-developing-spacecraft-to-deliver-supplies-to-moon-orbiting-station) Japan will provide life support systems to Gateway’s [International Habitation (i-HAB) module](https://liquifer.com/gateway-i-hab), including space for the crew to live, work, and conduct research. They will also provide batteries, thermal control systems, and imagery components for the module. These capabilities will reduce the Gateway’s logistical supply demands, allowing it to host longer crewed and uncrewed operations. Japan will also supply batteries for the Gateway’s initial crew module, the [Habitation and Logistics Outpost (HALO)](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-northrop-grumman-finalize-moon-outpost-living-quarters-contract). Out of [Japan’s 2021 fiscal budget](https://spacenews.com/japan-budgets-a-record-4-14-billion-for-space-activities) of $4.14 billion, the country is spending $339 million to develop the advanced spacecraft [HTV-X](https://humans-in-space.jaxa.jp/en/htv-x) to supply cargo to the Gateway, and $56 million to develop Gateway technologies. ## Exploration When Intuitive Machines’ [first ever spacecraft](https://7c27f7d6-4a0b-4269-aee9-80e85c3db26a.usrfiles.com/ugd/7c27f7%5Fbc896cfc90ca4ae9a0643bfbf5ed214a.pdf) attempts to land on the Moon in early 2022, it will also attempt a clever selfie. 30 seconds before the landing, a CubeSat on the lander will detach and capture the spacecraft’s lunar touchdown using three wide field-of-view cameras while free falling. This CubeSat, called [EagleCam](https://daytonabeach.erau.edu/eaglecam), is built entirely by students from the Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University. They [completed constructing](https://news.erau.edu/headlines/eagles-complete-cubesat-construction-next-stop-the-moon) EagleCam this month and sent it over to Intuitive Machines for integrating it onto their lander. EagleCam’s images will also help us better understand [how rocket plumes interact with Moondust](https://arxiv.org/abs/2102.12312). Speaking of lunar dust, two of EagleCam’s camera lenses will have a NASA-Kennedy-Center-developed [electrodynamic dust shield](https://news.erau.edu/headlines/embry-riddle-to-demonstrate-dust-shield-on-lunar-surface), which will use an electric field to remove most of the fine lunar dust that accumulates on the lenses ([video](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OhyVPkHKiH8)). The difference in image quality before and after applying the electric field will tell us how efficiently the dust removal system works. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fbd337403-e8ab-49ef-be13-bc172879ef49_1600x1100-png-1.jpg) Illustration of Intuitive Machines’ Nova-C lander touching down on the Moon. [Credit: Intuitive Machines](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-to-deliver-4-lunar-payloads-in-2024) The [Orion capsules](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/orion/about/index.html) to be used on NASA’s first three crewed [Artemis Moon missions](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) are in various stages of production. - Last month, ESA [delivered](https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2021/10/14/orion-powerhouse-for-artemis-ii-arrives-at-kennedy) the second Airbus-built [European Service Module](https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/space/esm) to NASA, to be used on Orion’s first crewed mission, [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to), by May 2024\. The 15,000-kilogram module provides propulsion, water, oxygen, thermal control, and electrical power to Orion. Next, NASA and Lockheed Martin will integrate it with Orion’s Crew Module Adapter and Crew Module. - In September, NASA [completed welding Orion’s pressure vessel](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/next-generation-of-orion-spacecraft-in-production-for-future-artemis-missions) to be used on the [Artemis III](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) mission, wherein Orion will dock with a [SpaceX Starship](https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/starship/) in lunar orbit, following which Starship will land the first Artemis astronauts on the Moon. Lockheed Martin is currently manufacturing the mission’s Orion Crew Module and Crew Module Adapter structure. - Last week, a huge Super Guppy aircraft [transported](https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/ames/super-guppy-arrives) Orion’s [heat shield](https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/heat-shield-milestone-complete-for-first-orion-mission-with-crew) for Artemis IV near NASA Ames, where it will undergo heat- and pressure-treatment to gain the necessary mechanical strength to survive a fiery atmospheric entry on Earth. NASASpaceflight has a great in-depth [interview on Orion’s production progress](https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2021/11/orion-spacecraft-production). ## Science Using 11 years of temperature measurements from NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html), scientists have confirmed the [presence of carbon dioxide cold traps](https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2021GL095533) on the Moon. These require much colder temperatures even in [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) compared to relatively easily [trapped water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/). The authors estimate 200 square kilometers of carbon dioxide traps spread across the Moon’s south pole, compared to the nearly 14,000 square kilometers of water ice traps. This doesn’t mean all the identified traps have carbon dioxide but that it’s likely, especially considering the gas was detected in the [impact plume created by NASA’s LCROSS mission](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010Sci...330..463C/abstract) in 2009. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fb9c09331-ce8b-4789-b6ab-9b3966739439_2128x1776-jpeg.jpg) Map of carbon dioxide cold traps on the Moon’s south pole. Black contours show the boundaries of major water ice traps. Enlarged maps of Cabeus and Amundsen craters on the right show potential for high carbon dioxide concentrations. [Credit: Norbert Schorghofer, et al.](https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2021GL095533) These new maps will help future missions better find concentrated carbon dioxide, an extremely scarce resource on the Moon and one important for producing rocket fuel, biomaterials and more as we seek to establish sustained lunar presence. From a scientific standpoint, it gives us more specific areas that could offer a pristine record of cometary and asteroid bombardment from the [solar system’s early days](https://jatan.space/solar-system-history-101/), something tied to the [origin of Earth and the Moon](https://jatan.space/apollo-moon-origin/). Carbon dioxide being a scarce lunar resource and geographically highly concentrated also has governance and policy implications as specific areas on the Moon’s south pole will become hot targets. ## More Moon The Algerian-based “popular science” [Chihab Science](http://siriusalgeria-mag.net/) magazine has released a special [Moon-themed issue](http://siriusalgeria-mag.net/files/siriusMagazine4.pdf), including exclusive interviews with some well known scientists such as James Head who helped train the Apollo astronauts in geology, and Farouk El-Baz who helped select Apollo landing sites. [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f0d831a35-dc90-4152-9d5a-73d233878496_1641x985-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-moon-mountains/) **Browse a curated gallery of [marvelous mountains on the Moon](https://jatan.space/gallery-of-moon-mountains/)** --- > *Thank you [Epsilon3](https://www.epsilon3.io/) for supporting me and powering this edition of Moon Monday.* > > *Everyone, this one-of-a-kind Moon exploration newsletter is free, with no ads. And it will stay that way. If you like my work, [your support](https://jatan.space/support) will keep it going.* [Support Moon Monday 🌗](https://jatan.space/support) ### Gallery: Our Moon’s marvelous mountains URL: https://jatan.space/gallery-of-moon-mountains/ Last updated: 2026-08-24T10:57:11.000Z The Moon is home to some amazing mountains. Unlike the millions of years it takes for most mountains on Earth to form via slowly colliding tectonic plates, most lunar mountains form near-instantly by asteroid or cometary impacts. I have previously explained [how various Moon mountains form and why to explore them](https://jatan.space/exploring-moon-mountains/) so in this post I just want us to appreciate how beautiful they are. Let’s see some lunar mountains. **Note:* You can click on the images to learn about each feature.* [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f0d831a35-dc90-4152-9d5a-73d233878496_1641x985-jpeg-1.jpg)](https://jatan.space/tycho-crater-mountain/) ****The 1.6-kilometer-high central peak of** [****Tycho crater**](https://jatan.space/tycho-crater-mountain/)****.** [****Credit: NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO)**](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/384) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f47263fc6-0c24-41f0-971c-c35f5f208437_2902x2212-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/the-mountain-range-montes-apenninus/) ****The arc-shaped** [****mountain range of Apenninus**](https://jatan.space/the-mountain-range-montes-apenninus/) **on the Moon.** [****Credit: Tom Wildoner**](https://www.flickr.com/photos/tomwildoner/41384676121/) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9f9814d9-dd0b-478c-aebd-d2eef3a9df30_951x714-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/volcanic-rock-land-of-montes-carpatus/) ****A landscape of mountains, part of the** [****Montes Carpatus**](https://jatan.space/volcanic-rock-land-of-montes-carpatus/) **volcanic range.** [****Credit: NASA LRO**](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/1002) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fd18d63bb-d0cb-4e99-94e5-322114ed8ef6_2500x1600-jpeg-1.jpg)](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/592) ****A spectacular closeup view of the** [****Aristarchus crater**](https://jatan.space/glorious-aristarchus/) **and** [****its central mountain**](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/592)****.** [****Credit: NASA LRO**](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/1022) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f0be5ec2d-ab18-4d1b-9427-9309b86570e0_640x517-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/facing-lava-on-three-sides-promontorium-heraclides/) ****The mountainous cape of** [****Promontorium Heraclides**](https://jatan.space/facing-lava-on-three-sides-promontorium-heraclides/) **on the Moon, surrounded by (now solidified) lava flows on three sides.** [****Credit: NASA LRO**](http://lunarnetworks.blogspot.com/2011/08/lroc-strategic-overhang.html) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f6452fbfe-93cf-4b00-bafe-a3e9e0dec55c_999x825-jpeg-1.jpg)](https://jatan.space/y-shaped-mountains-in-king-crater/) [****King crater**](https://jatan.space/y-shaped-mountains-in-king-crater/) **and its Y-shaped mountains on the Moon’s farside, as captured from orbit by Apollo 16\.** [****Credit: NASA**](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/32) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f263b4be4-8961-46ec-a90e-19f283075670_1100x946-jpeg.jpg)](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/1099) ****The 2.3 kilometers tall** [****Mons Piton**](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/1099)****, one of the few peaks from the largely buried inner mountain ring of the Imbrium basin.** [****Credit: NASA LRO**](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/1099) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f1a62f6c6-be2d-4016-81fe-b3abb994e136_1728x1182-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/unique-volcanic-domes-of-gruithuisen/) ****The unique** [****volcanic domes of Gruithuisen**](https://jatan.space/unique-volcanic-domes-of-gruithuisen/)****—Gamma and Delta.** [****Credit: NASA LRO**](https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu/?extent=-41.7437353,35.3445471,-38.4587252,37.204649&proj=16&layers=NrBsFYBoAZIRnpEpSNggdgVwDY8gN4C+AukqACxqLZ6GlnFnBxxTqIgBMAHAMxdqmXPiaNSSClyocEIKagSxoAOgCckWqIb0SJIA) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fe3abe0a4-1603-48c1-b239-25c25223f1e3_1056x890-jpeg-1.jpg)](https://jatan.space/the-crowned-crater-of-schrodinger/) ****The crown-shaped mountain ring in the 312 kilometers wide** [****Schrödinger crater**](https://jatan.space/the-crowned-crater-of-schrodinger/)****.** [****Credit: NASA LRO**](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Schr%C3%B6dinger%5F%28LRO%29%5F500%5Fkm.png) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fda0e1b96-427f-4fc6-bcff-e97299cfce53_852x676-jpeg.jpg)](https://jatan.space/landslide-on-the-moon/) ****The 2.3 kilometers tall** [****South Massif**](https://jatan.space/landslide-on-the-moon/) **mountain that borders the Taurus Littrow Valley where the Apollo 17 astronauts landed.** [****Credit: NAS LRO**](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/1005) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f303c75fc-698f-4c33-9dc5-996d89c5d772_900x650-png.jpg)](https://jatan.space/zeeman-mons-on-the-moon/) ****The 8.8 kilometers high** [****Zeeman mountain**](https://jatan.space/zeeman-mons-on-the-moon/) **on the Moon’s farside, competing with Earth’s Mount Everest.** [****Credit: NASA LRO**](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/944) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f619843fd-44f0-4b5f-941d-19f16cd43426_950x646-jpeg.jpg)](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/996) ****An** [****unnamed 7 kilometers tall mountain**](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/996) **on the Moon’s farside.** [****Credit: NASA LRO**](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/996) [![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fa6bd5da2-b709-4693-bad0-3de097b2684b_2233x1597-jpeg-1.jpg)](https://jatan.space/exploring-moon-mountains/) [****Changing morphology**](https://jatan.space/exploring-moon-mountains/) **of mountains and craters on the Moon with increasing crater sizes. Image credits: NASA LRO, Graphic: Jatan Mehta** --- Hope you enjoyed these curated images of some of the most amazing mountains on the Moon. As you may have noted, many of these views are captured by NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html). Their outreach team has a fantastic blog where you can [browse more lunar mountains](http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts?page=1&query=mountains) and other Moon-candy, and learn about them. ### Moon Monday Issue #54 URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-54/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:34.000Z ## Highlight & Science [NASA has selected Intuitive Machines](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-for-new-lunar-science-delivery) as the commercial lander provider to deliver 92 kilograms of science and technology payloads to the [swirl of Reiner Gamma](https://jatan.space/swirls-on-the-moon/) on the Moon as part of the agency’s [CLPS program](https://www.nasa.gov/content/commercial-lunar-payload-services-overview). For a bargain price of $77.5 million, Intuitive Machines will land and jointly operate five rovers and a bunch of science instruments in 2024. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9f2bacb5-b2a3-4fa6-96cd-a671f49b97e2_1098x770-jpeg.jpg) Beautiful and bright lunar swirl, Reiner Gamma. [Credit: NASA LRO](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Reiner%5FGamma.jpg) The swirl of Reiner Gamma has a weak local magnetic field, possibly a remnant from the time the Moon [had a global magnetic field](http://advances.sciencemag.org/content/3/8/e1700207). The mission’s primary payload suite [Lunar Vertex](https://www.jhuapl.edu/NewsStory/211018b-lunar-vertex) is a collection of spectrometers and magnetometers on the lander and a rover. The rover, which Lunar Outpost will provide, will drive up to two kilometers over 13 Earth days, exploring at least one bright and dark section of the lunar swirl. Lunar Vertex will study the swirl’s composition, and map the strength and direction of magnetic fields at its surface, complementing observations from past orbiters. This will be the world’s first mission to a swirl, and will provide us insights into how they form and evolve, better understand effects of [the solar wind](https://jatan.space/the-sun-and-its-wind/) and [bombarding micrometeorites](https://jatan.space/the-tiniest-of-impact-craters/) on planetary bodies across the solar system, and shape our understanding of the Moon’s magnetic evolution. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fe765e037-d425-436b-98f7-4756208fa9c3_2189x1440-jpeg-3.jpg) Artist’s impression of the solar-powered Lunar Outpost rover on the Moon with Lunar Vertex instruments. The cylindrical structure on top is the mast for the magnetometer. [Credit: Johns Hopkins APL / Lunar Outpost / Ben Smith](https://www.jhuapl.edu/NewsStory/211018b-lunar-vertex) The other four rovers Intuitive Machines will land in Reiner Gamma are part of NASA’s [Cooperative Autonomous Distributed Robotic Exploration (CADRE)](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/game%5Fchanging%5Fdevelopment/projects/CADRE) project. The shoebox-sized rovers will autonomously navigate the landed region and collectively better map it than a single rover can. Onboard the lander will also be a South Korean instrument to [monitor high-energy particles](http://planetary.kasi.re.kr/clps) as the Moon passes in and out of Earth’s magnetic tail, and an ESA-provided [MoonLIGHT retroreflector](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0032063312002814), which will reflect laser beams from Earth to make precise distance measurements and infer properties of the Moon’s core, the Moon drift rate away from Earth, and test General Relativity. This science-packed mission represents a new phase for NASA’s CLPS program to send instruments on commercial lunar landers, enhanced thanks to the recent [PRISM initiative](https://science.nasa.gov/researchers/solicitations/roses-2021/amendment-22-payloads-and-research-investigations-surface-moon-prism-draft-text-released-community). The [second mission in this enhanced science phase](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-new-science-investigations-for-future-moon-deliveries) will visit the [Schrödinger crater](https://jatan.space/the-crowned-crater-of-schrodinger/) in 2024, for which NASA will announce the winning commercial landing bidder next. The Reiner Gamma landing is Intuitive Machines’ third such NASA contract and also their third Moon mission, following the [first](https://7c27f7d6-4a0b-4269-aee9-80e85c3db26a.usrfiles.com/ugd/7c27f7%5Fbc896cfc90ca4ae9a0643bfbf5ed214a.pdf) [two](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-to-land-water-measuring-payload-on-the-moon) missions in 2022\. All three missions will launch on a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket, with each lander carrying at least 100 kilograms of payloads to the lunar surface. The third lander [will also carry](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/three-peat-intuitive-machines-selects-spacex-falcon-9-rocket-for-third-moon-mission) a thousand kilograms worth of spacecraft on an attached dispenser ring to deploy them on a lunar transfer orbit, [one of which](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-to-deliver-4-lunar-payloads-in-2024) will be the company’s own communications satellite called Khonstellation. This satellite will place itself in an orbit around the Earth-Moon L2 point, like the previous Khonstellation similarly deployed by the company’s second lander, to relay communications between Earth and hardware on the lunar farside or poles. ## Exploration NASA’s Office of Inspector General has released [another critical report](https://oig.nasa.gov/docs/IG-22-003.pdf) on the agency’s [Artemis program](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) to land and sustain humans on the Moon. It summarizes the report as follows: > *NASA lacks a comprehensive and accurate cost estimate that accounts for all Artemis program costs. For FYs 2021 through 2025, the Agency uses a rough estimate for the first three missions that excludes $25 billion for key activities related to planned missions beyond Artemis III. When aggregating all relevant costs across mission directorates, NASA is projected to spend $93 billion on the Artemis effort up to FY 2025., We also project the current production and operations cost of a single SLS/Orion system at $4.1 billion per launch for Artemis I through IV, although the Agency's ongoing initiatives aimed at increasing affordability seek to reduce that cost. Multiple factors contribute to the high cost of ESD programs, including the use of sole-source, cost-plus contracts; the inability to definitize key contract terms in a timely manner; and the fact that except for the Orion capsule, its subsystems, and the supporting launch facilities, all components are expendable and "single use" unlike emerging commercial space flight systems. Without capturing, accurately reporting, and reducing the cost of future SLS/Orion missions, the Agency will face significant challenges to sustaining its Artemis program in its current configuration.* ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9b3ad752-046d-4a26-808b-39440fa987af_1468x1036-jpeg.jpg) Estimated cost of one SLS rocket and Orion launch for NASA Artemis missions I through IV. [Credit: NASA OIG](https://oig.nasa.gov/docs/IG-22-003.pdf) While members of NASA leadership concurred with many of the report findings, [they didn’t agree](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-ig-disputes-nasas-optimism-on-artemis-schedule) on how the costs should be tracked, essentially saying that Artemis is a “campaign” of lunar exploration efforts and not a defined program. For the per-mission cost, they argue the agency “does not account, track, or report costs on a per-mission basis, precisely because doing so would reduce contractual transparency to key stakeholders.” On a non-critical note, the report complimented NASA for using a [commercial model to land Artemis astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) on the Moon, and noted that “SpaceX has contributed much more than half of the required funding to date for the HLS system and plans to continue this level of contribution.” --- Earlier this month, the U.S. Court of Federal Claims [denied Blue Origin’s lawsuit against NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-statement-on-artemis-lunar-lander-court-decision) for the agency [selecting SpaceX Starship](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) as the sole spacecraft provider to land the first Artemis astronauts on the Moon. The court has now released the [47-page redacted report](https://spacepolicyonline.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/BO-lawsuit-full-order-Nov-18-2021.pdf) detailing its decision, [which essentially says](https://spacenews.com/court-ruling-describes-rejection-of-blue-origin-hls-lawsuit) Blue Origin couldn’t prove that NASA’s conduct was “arbitrary and capricious or otherwise contrary to law.” It adds that their price was simply too high for the available budget to NASA and that their bid was noncompliant anyway. It further adds that even if Blue Origin was given the opportunity to alter their bid, they didn’t seem to have a demonstrably different bid. While Blue Origin founder Jeff Bezos has [decided to stop](https://twitter.com/JeffBezos/status/1456311095761637384) pursuing their protests, the drama may not be fully over yet. NASA is still under pressure from the U.S. Senate to include a competitor for the mission. If the senate’s recent [draft of appropriation bills](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/senate-appropriators-increase-nasas-budget-a-tad) for fiscal year 2022 is passed, it would direct NASA to select a second company regardless of funding availability. Either way, NASA has formally begun planning its [Lunar Exploration Transportation Services](https://www.nasa.gov/nextstep/humanlander3) (LETS) program to regularly ferry astronauts to and fro the Moon after the first few Artemis missions. To that end, NASA [funded five commercial companies](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-five-us-companies-to-mature-artemis-lander-concepts) two months ago—including Blue Origin and SpaceX—to advance their crewed and large-cargo lunar lander concepts in specific ways that makes them cost-effective and sustainable. --- In September, [NASA asked the U.S. industry for feedback](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-43/) on how it could go about procuring an [extremely capable](https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-43/), commercial Lunar Terrain Vehicle rover for its Artemis astronauts to explore the Moon. While NASA prepares to solicit said proposals by next year, the bidders are coming out. We already knew [Lockheed Martin and General Motors](https://www.lockheedmartin.com/en-us/news/features/2021/lunar-terrain-vehicle.html) will pitch their co-designed autonomous rover that can handle [rugged terrain](https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar-south-pole-atlas/maps/SPole%5FSRidgemap%5FLOLA-Slope5m%5Fv20190515.pdf) at the Moon’s poles, and survive and “even operate” in the frigid lunar night. Now Northrop Grumman has come forth with its [intent to bid an autonomous rover](https://www.northropgrumman.com/space/lunar-terrain-vehicle) too, in crew and cargo variants, that can [last for 10 years](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5Jak6yv2Hug) as required by NASA. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2ff618f2aa-7ef9-4a3e-9ed8-410a6d484d0d_2400x1500-jpeg.jpg) Concept image of the Northrop-Grumman-led crewed and cargo lunar rovers to be proposed for NASA’s Artemis program. [Credit: Northrop Grumman](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5Jak6yv2Hug) Northrop will partner with Lunar Outpost—the company sending its [small, autonomous, rugged and robotic MAPP rover](https://lunaroutpost.com/nokia-and-intuitive-machines-select-lunar-outpost-for-first-rover-mission-at-lunar-south-pole) on two prior Moon missions—to build the rover, for which AVL will provide the drive, steering and suspension mechanisms and Michelin will design the tires. Since NASA wants the rover to be delivered on a [commercial landing mission](https://www.nasa.gov/content/commercial-lunar-payload-services-overview), Northrop has partnered with [Intuitive Machines](https://www.intuitivemachines.com/) to use their upcoming 500-kilogram capacity Nova-D spacecraft to land the rover on the Moon. In addition to leading the bid and rover integration, Northrop is also engaging Apollo astronauts Harrison Schmitt and Charles Duke to leverage their experience to optimize the rover for the needs of researchers and astronauts. --- NASA and the U.S. Department of Energy are [asking U.S. companies](https://sam.gov/opp/f2610d99cf174e959eede4b170d86e2d/view) to propose designs for autonomous, compact and lightweight [fission surface power systems](https://www.nasa.gov/mission%5Fpages/tdm/fission-surface-power/index.html) that could launch to the Moon within a decade and provide at least 40 kilowatts of electrical power—enough to continuously power 30 households for ten years. Fission systems can operate continuously in the Moon’s [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/) as well as during the long and frigid lunar night, and thus be able to provide crucial and ample power to enable sustained robotic and human presence on the Moon. **Update:* In last week’s coverage, I missed the second company selected for the Canadian rover study. Below is an updated paragraph.* After [requesting proposals from Canadian companies](https://buyandsell.gc.ca/procurement-data/tender-notice/PW-ST-048-39535) earlier this year to [build a lunar rover](https://www.canada.ca/en/space-agency/news/2021/05/backgrounder---canada-moves-forward-with-plans-to-explore-the-moon.html), the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) has awarded [MDA](https://mda.space/en/article/mda-csa-design-contract-lunar-rover-mission) and [Canadensys](https://www.canadensys.com/canadensys-selected-to-design-lunar-rover-concept-for-canadian-space-agency-moon-exploration) detailed design study contracts for a mission at the Moon’s south pole to potentially explore [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other resources in [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/). An interesting and challenging requirement is for the rugged rover to survive an entire lunar night. CSA intends to select one of the two companies to build the rover for the actual mission, which will launch in 2025 onboard an as-yet unspecified NASA-funded U.S. [commercial landing mission](https://www.nasa.gov/content/commercial-lunar-payload-services-overview). ## More Science An object 40 to 100 meters across which quasi-orbits Earth—meaning it actually orbits the Sun but lies very close to Earth, and from our reference looks like its circling us—[may actually be a piece of the Moon](https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-021-00303-7) ejected by a past asteroid impact. The [Washington State University team won](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/washington-state-university-conquers-lunar-dust-with-big-idea-dust-mitigation-concept) NASA’s 2021 [BIG Idea Challenge](https://bigidea.nianet.org/2021-challenge) to develop an effective lunar dust mitigation technique for future crewed and robotic missions to the Moon. They demonstrated a proof-of-concept with a spray-bar which used cryogenic liquid droplets to lift and transport over 90% of hazardous lunar dust from spacesuit materials. The technique’s core operating principle is the [Leidenfrost effect](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leidenfrost%5Feffect), wherein if a liquid is close to a surface significantly hotter than its boiling point, an insulating vapor layer forms that keeps the liquid from boiling rapidly. This makes the droplet hover, much like how water drops sprinkled on an already hot pan skitter. Check out the team’s [poster](https://bigidea.nianet.org/wp-content/uploads/2021-BIG-Idea-Challenge-Forum-Poster-Washington-State-University.pdf) and [technical paper](https://bigidea.nianet.org/wp-content/uploads/WSU-Final-Technical-Paper-2021-BIG-Idea.pdf), as well as the other [novel lunar dust removal ideas](https://bigidea.nianet.org/2021-challenge/2021-forum-results) from the rest of the finalists. ## More Moon If you thought Earth orbit is getting crowded, the Moon maybe next in line. On October 18, ISRO commanded its [Chandrayaan 2 orbiter](https://jatan.space/chandrayaan-2-is-creating-the-highest-resolution-map-of-the-moon/) to [change its orbit slightly](https://www.isro.gov.in/update/15-nov-2021/chandrayaan-2-orbiter-ch2o-performs-evasive-manoeuvre-to-mitigate-critically) to avoid an uncomfortably close approach (about 3 kilometers) to NASA’s [Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/about.html) near the Moon’s north pole. Both spacecraft orbit the Moon in a nearly polar orbit, which is why they can come close to each other over the poles. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f22f3dcee-99f7-47b8-b85c-432bfbb01bf2_1283x869-jpeg.jpg) Projected orbits of ISRO’s Chandrayaan 2 orbiter before and after executing the collision avoidance maneuver. [Credit: ISRO](https://www.isro.gov.in/update/15-nov-2021/chandrayaan-2-orbiter-ch2o-performs-evasive-manoeuvre-to-mitigate-critically) --- > *Thank you [Andrew Cantino](https://orbitalindex.com), [Hunter Danque](https://www.linkedin.com/in/hunter-danque), [Open Lunar Foundation](https://www.openlunar.org/) and [SWISSAPOLLO](https://www.swissapollo.com/en/) for supporting me and powering this edition of Moon Monday.* > > *Everyone, this one-of-a-kind Moon exploration newsletter is free, with no ads. And it will stay that way. If you like my comprehensive lunar exploration and science coverage, [your support](https://jatan.space/support) will keep it going.* [Support Moon Monday 🌗](https://jatan.space/support) ### The Moon will always be there URL: https://jatan.space/the-moon-will-always-be-there/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:34.000Z We’re losing the precious starry night sky to pollution. Most people barely look up anymore. Both of these things make me really sad. Imagine entire generations living their lives with a starless sky. Why are we robbing them of wonder, aspiration and our future? But lately I’ve realized that “Oh wait! The Moon will always be there in the sky, visible even during the day at times.” So there’s some hope. Moreover, we’re going [back to the Moon](https://jatan.space/why-explore-the-moon/) in this decade with a better plan than ever. Humans will walk on the Moon again. We plan to build Moonbases too, which will always be occupied by people at any given point. The coming generations will be able to see the Moon and think about a future where humans are not confined to Earth. As beautiful as it maybe, our [Earth isn’t here forever](https://jatan.space/timeline-for-life-until-the-end-of-the-universe/). The Moon gives us some hope to [settle across the solar system](https://jatan.space/the-moon-as-a-rocket-platform/). We can not only look up at our Moon, but look up to it. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f68a30eb3-9fae-472a-8cf4-c3b299a017a9_1600x1100-jpeg-1.jpg) China’s Long March 2F rocket lifting off. Credit: Xinhua ### Moon Monday Issue #53 URL: https://jatan.space/moon-monday-issue-53/ Last updated: 2024-02-21T09:15:34.000Z *As [Moon Monday](https://blog.jatan.space/s/moon-monday?no%5Fcover=true) completed [a year worth](https://blog.jatan.space/s/moon-monday/archive) of lunar exploration and science coverage, I’m [still collecting feedback](https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSdYRcK0xH8SGxxsiAtfBIJPDqyX43u3lx8-R69Kzco4IfOcDQ/viewform?usp=sf%5Flink) from my readers to better cover the upcoming wave of Moon missions launching from across the globe. Please spare 2 minutes to take this anonymous survey.* [Take the 2-minute survey 📄](https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSdYRcK0xH8SGxxsiAtfBIJPDqyX43u3lx8-R69Kzco4IfOcDQ/viewform) ## Highlight NASA [officially announced](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-outlines-challenges-progress-for-artemis-moon-missions) that [landing of the first astronauts](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon) on the Moon as part of their [Artemis program](https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis) has been delayed from 2024 to 2025\. While this is the first time NASA acknowledged the Artemis III mission’s delay, we already knew from [the August report](https://twitter.com/thesheetztweetz/status/1425095467449323532) by NASA’s Office of Inspector General that the next-generation [xEMU spacesuits](https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/exploration-extravehicular-mobility-unit-xemu) not being ready in time alone would defer the landing to at least April 2025, something NASA didn’t mention during the announcement. The [Artemis II](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to) mission to send astronauts around the Moon has been pushed too, from 2023 to 2024. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f1f4a8541-6743-44a6-99b4-a10053d54328_3488x2158-jpeg.jpg) An artist’s concept of an Artemis astronaut stepping onto the Moon. [Credit: NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/nextstep/humanlander3) NASA said the delays are cumulatively due to first-time development challenges, the COVID-19 pandemic, Blue Origin’s [legal protest](https://www.gao.gov/press-release/statement-blue-origin-dynetics-decision) and [lawsuit against NASA](https://spacenews.com/blue-origin-suit-stops-work-on-nasa-hls-contract-with-spacex) for the agency selecting [SpaceX Starship](https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/starship) as [the only lunar lander provider](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon), and a lack of funding from the U.S. Congress. NASA added that starting with the FY 2023 budget request, they’ll seek significantly more money from Congress for the next nine Artemis Moon landings. NASA also stated that developing the [Orion spacecraft](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/orion/about/index.html) since 2012 has costed $9.3 billion instead of the expected $6.7 billion, in part due to changing requirements. Related: NASA’s Office of Inspector General issued a [highly critical report](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-ig-blasts-nasa-for-excluding-17-5-billion-from-orion-cost-estimate/) last year on how NASA (mis)accounts for Orion costs. Meanwhile, SpaceX is progressing well on their first Starship launch to Earth orbit sometime next year. They recently completed [a static fire test using all six engines](https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/spacex-successfully-tests-all-six-starship-engines) of the second stage. If Starship’s development continues to go well over the next few years, we could see an uncrewed lunar Starship land on the Moon in 2024, giving SpaceX the go to land NASA Artemis III astronauts next. ## Exploration NASA’s [Landing and Recovery](https://www.nasa.gov/content/orion-recovery-0) team completed [final testing and certification](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-recovery-team-certified-for-artemis-i) for securing the [Orion capsule](https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/orion/about/index.html) for when the 6350-kilogram spacecraft splashes down in the Pacific Ocean with astronauts at the end of each Artemis mission, starting with the uncrewed [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/around-the-moon-with-nasa-s-first-launch-of-sls-with-orion) mission next year. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9e9fc1df-e9d9-48d6-beef-37b169df3a3c_1168x957-jpeg.jpg) Members of NASA’s Artemis Landing and Recovery team in the process of securing a mock version of the Orion capsule. [Credit: NASA](https://twitter.com/NASAKennedy/status/1458201320813436936) [Artemis I](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/around-the-moon-with-nasa-s-first-launch-of-sls-with-orion)’s journey around the Moon may not host any humans but the Orion capsule will fly [Snoopy](https://twitter.com/NASAArtemis/status/1459182560257490947), [four LEGO figures](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-and-the-lego-group-building-decades-of-collaboration), [a suited manikin from NASA](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/purposeful-passenger-artemis-i-manikin-helps-prepare-for-moon-missions-with-crew) and [two dummies from ESA](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Orion/Radiation%5Ffor%5Fdummies). Sensors on manikin [Campos](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/public-names-moonikin-flying-around-moon-on-nasa-s-artemis-i-mission)’ seat will record acceleration and vibration throughout the mission. Five additional accelerometers inside Orion will complement that data, including during the final mission phase of [bounced atmospheric reentry](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/orion-spacecraft-to-test-new-entry-technique-on-artemis-i-mission) and splashdown. The ESA-provided dummies will have over 5,000 radiation sensors to measure their radiation exposure for the mission. NASA and ESA will use these comprehensive datasets to best protect astronauts on future crewed missions. The U.S. lunar company Astrobotic has [opened a new “Lunar Regolith Lab”](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-reveals-new-lunar-regolith-lab-for-rover-testing) at its headquarters in Pittsburgh. The lab features a pit filled with about 20,000 kilograms of industry-standard GRC-1 lunar soil simulant to mimic the mechanical properties of the Moon’s surface. Astrobotic will use the lab to verify the performance of their lunar rover designs, including their shoebox-sized 13-kilogram [MoonRanger](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotics-moonranger-moves-into-final-production/) rover, which is set to fly to the Moon onboard [Masten’s 1st lunar landing mission](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-contract-to-deliver-science-tech-to-moon-ahead-of-human-missions/) in [2023](https://masten.aero/blog/masten-mission-to-lunar-south-pole-schedule-shift-to-2023/) as part of NASA’s [CLPS program](https://www.nasa.gov/content/commercial-lunar-payload-services-overview). MoonRanger boasts autonomous navigation and mapping capabilities, which NASA is making use of by putting [a neutron spectrometer](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/where-s-the-water-two-resource-hunting-tools-for-the-moon-s-surface) onboard to detect signs of [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) below the Moon’s surface. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fb9cb51d7-38af-4d6e-b132-9ec7a0ab2941_2560x1920-jpeg.jpg) An Astrobotic CubeRover being tested in the company’s newly built *Lunar Regolith Lab*. [Credit: Astrobotic](https://www.astrobotic.com/astrobotic-reveals-new-lunar-regolith-lab-for-rover-testing) After the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) [requested proposals from Canadian companies](https://buyandsell.gc.ca/procurement-data/tender-notice/PW-ST-048-39535) earlier this year to [build a lunar rover](https://www.canada.ca/en/space-agency/news/2021/05/backgrounder---canada-moves-forward-with-plans-to-explore-the-moon.html), they’ve now [awarded MDA](https://mda.space/en/article/mda-csa-design-contract-lunar-rover-mission) a detailed design study contract for a mission at the Moon’s south pole to potentially explore [water ice](https://jatan.space/ultimate-guide-to-water-on-the-moon/) and other resources in [permanently shadowed regions](https://jatan.space/permanently-shadowed-regions-on-the-moon/). CSA is expected to contract another company for such a study, and then select one of those for the actual mission. The rover, launching in 2025, will be onboard an as-yet unspecified NASA-funded U.S. [commercial landing mission](https://www.nasa.gov/content/commercial-lunar-payload-services-overview). ## Science This week we have two cool lunar science updates from ESA, both to do with how they’re preparing astronauts for upcoming Moon landing missions. ESA continues its [Pangaea campaign](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/CAVES%5Fand%5FPangaea/What%5Fis%5FPangaea) to train future lunar astronauts in geology, a highly valuable skill in exploring the Moon and collecting samples. This year’s participants—European astronaut Andreas Mogensen and engineer Robin Eccleston, and NASA astronaut Kathleen Rubins—first [took field trips](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/Astronaut%5Fgeology%5Fbound%5Ffor%5Fthe%5FMoon) to the Italian Dolomites mountains and the Geman Ries crater, both terrestrial analogues to places on the Moon. Their most recent visit was to the [Spanish volcanic landscapes of Lanzarote](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2021/11/11/astronaut-training-in-the-land-of-volcanoes), whose now solidified basaltic lava flows resemble the Moon’s dark volcanic plains. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f7cbe8d0d-0447-42a0-a863-a2762e950a48_3000x2000-jpeg.jpg) ESA Pangaea trainees reach the top of the crater Montaña Blanca in the Spanish volcanic landscapes of Lanzarote. [Credit: ESA / A. Romeo](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2018/11/Pangaea%5Fexpedition%5Fto%5FMontana%5FBlanca) To aid astronauts on this geology campaign as well as on actual future lunar missions, ESA [continues to build](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2021/11/11/to-all-moonwalkers-update-your-space-tablet) their [Electronic Field Book](https://blogs.esa.int/caves/2021/11/11/to-all-moonwalkers-update-your-space-tablet) or what I like to call the “Moonwalk tablet”. The astronauts use it to: - Access comprehensive geologic maps provided by ESA’s [PLANMAP](https://planmap.eu/planmap-project) project and plan their exploration routes. - Identify minerals and rocks in real-time using thousands of built-in profiles and collect the best samples. - Record their steps and excursions. - Communicate with scientists at mission control to integrate their inputs as well as data from various cameras and instruments. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f9c57d22d-265d-4751-9267-765ede3ed59d_1185x985-jpeg-1.jpg) Interface of ESA’s Electronic Field Book. The tablet allows astronauts to record their steps on geology expeditions, link collected samples to places, and more. Every interaction with scientists at mission control is also stored. [Credit: ESA](https://www.esa.int/ESA%5FMultimedia/Images/2018/11/The%5FElectronic%5FField%5FBook%5Finterface) ESA aims to get the Moonwalk tablet ready for use by astronauts by 2027, including making it lunar [dust](https://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Human%5Fand%5FRobotic%5FExploration/The%5Ftoxic%5Fside%5Fof%5Fthe%5FMoon) and [radiation tolerant](https://jatan.space/space-grade-electronics/), capable of surviving extreme temperatures, having its battery last more than 8 hours, and making it ergonomic so that astronauts with their bulky spacesuits and gloves can easily operate it. ## More Moon > *Dear reader, I’m publishing this one-of-a-kind Moon exploration newsletter for free, with no ads. If you like my comprehensive global coverage, [support me](https://jatan.space/support) to keep it going.* 🚀 [Support Moon Monday 🌗](https://jatan.space/support) ### VERITAS, NASA’s Venus mapper URL: https://jatan.space/nasa-veritas-mission-to-venus/ Last updated: 2024-10-11T04:29:18.000Z [Venus](https://jatan.space/why-explore-venus/) is a hellscape. Its thick carbon dioxide atmosphere creates a runaway greenhouse effect causing average surface temperatures of 470 degrees Celsius—hot enough to melt lead. Venus’ inhospitable nature is further affirmed by its toxic clouds of sulfuric acid. But it wasn’t always this way. Past missions to Venus have observed [granite-like rocks](https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Felsic-highland-crust-on-Venus-suggested-by-Galileo-Hashimoto-Roos-Serote/e251f805ea0cc28680788f0dc865acde415cda38) that require abundant water to form. Scientists think the planet may have had [liquid water on the surface for 2 billion years](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2016/nasa-climate-modeling-suggests-venus-may-have-been-habitable)—far longer than Mars, which hosted surface water for a relatively brief [300 million years](https://www.planetary.org/articles/mars-water-stable-paradox). Due to its similar size and bulk composition, at some point, Venus seems to have been the most Earth-like planet in our solar system. And yet it experienced a dramatic climate shift to hell while Earth remained habitable. What geological mechanisms drove Venus to this unearthly fate? Was Venus really covered in oceans? Is water still present in Venus’ interior? ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2fb4e483a4-bfac-45a7-9dc8-757876202794_2258x914-jpeg.jpg) The different pathways Venus could’ve taken to become the hellscape it is today, despite sharing likely initial conditions with Earth. Understanding exactly what happened to Venus is key to knowing how a planet can be rendered habitable. [Credit: ESA EnVision Assessment Study Report](https://sci.esa.int/web/cosmic-vision/-/envision-assessment-study-report-yellow-book) These are some of the key questions that NASA’s [VERITAS mission](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/veritas) aims to answer. VERITAS—short for Venus Emissivity, Radio science, InSAR, Topography, And Spectroscopy—will provide us with the highest resolution global maps of Venus' surface to identify specific geologic and volcanic processes that actively shape it. The mission will also tell us how [similar planets](https://www.planetary.org/articles/earth-like-worlds) across the universe may evolve, [how likely they are to host life](https://www.planetary.org/articles/fermi-paradox-drake-equation), and how we should define [habitable zones](https://www.planetary.org/articles/what-is-the-habitable-zone) around stars. ## How will VERITAS map Venus? After [launching no earlier than 2028](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=VERITAS), VERITAS will reach Venus about seven months later and enter orbit around the planet. Over the next year, it will use Venus’ upper atmosphere to slow down and circularize its orbit to about 250 kilometers from the planet’s surface to map Venus in detail for years. VERITAS’ radar will map Venus’ entire surface [at 30 meters/pixel](https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=VERITAS)—that’s at least three times higher resolution than NASA’s previous Venus mapper [Magellan](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/magellan). The maps will finally help scientists understand how Venus’ surface changes today and how it has transformed over tens of millions of years. VERITAS will also create coarse 3D maps of Venusian landforms at [5 meters/pixel height resolution](https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2021/07/veritas-nasa-venus) to help scientists find hints of tectonic activity. Scientists will further scan the maps for large, buried impact basins, which might have formed around 4 billion years ago when large asteroids and comets were [bombarding the inner solar system](https://jatan.space/solar-system-history-101/). If Venus doesn’t have several impact basins like other rocky worlds do, it means the planet’s surface has been actively reshaped for that long. ## How will VERITAS find out if Venus is volcanically active? While most planetary orbiters can use typical spectrometers to map an object’s surface, Venus’ thick clouds make it almost impossible to see its surface. However, there are specific wavelengths of infrared light Venus’ atmosphere is transparent to, and VERITAS’ infrared spectrometer will observe in exactly such windows of opportunity. The spectrometer, provided by the German space agency, will look for local hotspots on the surface caused by active eruptions, [such as glowing lakes of lava](https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2021/07/veritas-nasa-venus/2/), and help confirm active volcanism and [hints of the same observed by previous missions](http://www.esa.int/Science%5FExploration/Space%5FScience/Venus%5FExpress/Hot%5Flava%5Fflows%5Fdiscovered%5Fon%5FVenus). ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f4ddc294f-33fe-4cc6-bb4a-1bcbbcd3114a_856x648-jpeg.jpg) An artist's concept of an active volcano on Venus, depicting the foreground surface crust plunging into the planet's interior. [Credit: NASA / JPL-Caltech / Peter Rubin](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/veritas-exploring-the-deep-truths-of-venus) ## How will VERITAS tell us if Venus had oceans of water? VERITAS’ infrared spectrometer [will also map](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/jpl/veritas-exploring-the-deep-truths-of-venus) minerals on Venus’ surface and identify the composition of its rocks, which will tell us if some of it was really altered by abundant water [as many scientists think](https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Felsic-highland-crust-on-Venus-suggested-by-Galileo-Hashimoto-Roos-Serote/e251f805ea0cc28680788f0dc865acde415cda38). If not, Venus [was likely never cool enough](https://www.universetoday.com/153037/a-new-climate-model-suggests-that-venus-never-had-oceans) for significant amounts of water vapor in its atmosphere to condense and fall. Tesserae, [one of the oldest regions](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013AGUFM.P34A..01G/abstract) on Venus, are leading candidates for this search. Tesserae are highly deformed terrain that [might move like Earth’s continents](https://www.planetary.org/articles/the-venus-controversy), which themselves formed when iron-rich oceanic crust plunged into Earth’s interior and melted in the presence of water to produce granitic continental plates which later rose above the ocean. VERITAS’ infrared spectrometer will [identify the tesserae’s composition](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/jpl/veritas-exploring-the-deep-truths-of-venus) and tell us about their size and movement. ![](https://jatan.space/content/images/2024/02/https-3a-2f-2fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984-s3-amazonaws-com-2fpublic-2fimages-2f51eed835-8e14-4490-8d29-0d9a52e7742e_1600x1280-jpeg.jpg) A color-enhanced picture of part of Alpha Regio, a tessera on Venus. Such regions might have formed in the presence of abundant water and might move like Earth’s continents. [Credit: NASA Magellan](https://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA00481) ## How will VERITAS help determine if Venus is habitable? In 2020 scientists announced they [found phosphine](https://www.planetary.org/articles/venus-phosphine-biosignature)—a chemical strongly associated with life—in Venus' clouds 50 kilometers above the surface, where temperatures and pressures are Earth-like. Phosphine’s presence was [disputed a few months later](https://arxiv.org/abs/2010.09761v2) and then [reclaimed](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020arXiv201108176G/abstract) in weaker but still enough amounts that volcanism alone is unlikely to explain it. VERITAS can help clear the air. Its infrared spectrometer will [detect any significant amounts of water vapor](https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2021/07/veritas-nasa-venus/2) in erupted material from the planet’s interior, telling us if Venus holds substantial water below its crust like Earth does. If that’s the case, Venus’ interior isn’t [chemically reduced](https://chemdictionary.org/oxidation-reduction/), which is stable for water but not for substantial amounts of phosphine. So the water measurements by VERITAS will help us move the phosphine mystery forward. ## How will VERITAS know what lies in Venus’ interior? We don’t really know what Venus’ interior is like. VERITAS will help us know that by measuring Venus’ [gravity field](https://jatan.space/the-moons-lumpy-gravity-field/). As the spacecraft passes over denser and hollower regions of Venus, its position and velocity will be impacted by the changes in gravity. The radio communications instrument onboard, which has contributions from the French and Italian space agencies, will note these finer movements of the spacecraft, allowing scientists to infer the planet’s gravity field. This will tell us the likely size of its core, and if its mantle is as iron-rich as Earth or more or less so. ## How are NASA and Europe collaborating to study Venus? In addition to some European countries [contributing instruments](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/veritas) to VERITAS, the European Space Agency (ESA) itself is collaborating with NASA to explore Venus. While VERITAS maps Venus in 2031, ESA will launch the [EnVision](https://jatan.space/esa-envision-mission-to-venus/) spacecraft to holistically study Venus’ surface, subsurface and atmosphere. NASA is [providing one of the two EnVision radars](https://www.nasa.gov/feature/then-there-were-3-nasa-to-collaborate-on-esa-s-new-venus-mission) as well as [Earth communications support](https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/heo/scan/services/networks/deep%5Fspace%5Fnetwork/about) for the mission. Since VERITAS and EnVision will be orbiting Venus at the same time, scientists from the two missions can coordinate observations to enhance the total scientific output. VERITAS’ global radar imaging will provide context to interpret EnVision’s data. And when NASA scientists find something interesting in VERITAS’ data, they can ask ESA to have EnVision take a closer look. Moreover, in 2030 NASA will launch the [DAVINCI](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/davinci) atmospheric probe, [co-selected](https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-2-missions-to-study-lost-habitable-world-of-venus) alongside VERITAS. EnVision and VERITAS will provide context for interpreting precise trace gas measurements and tesserae images DAVINCI will take from Venus’ atmosphere. On the flip side, DAVINCI’s surface and atmospheric data will help calibrate some types of measurements by VERITAS and EnVision. Meanwhile, India’s space agency is finalizing the configuration of its first Venus orbiter, [Shukrayaan](https://jatan.space/isro-venus-orbiter-launch-2024/), with a radar similar to VERITAS and a comprehensive instrument suite like EnVision’s. It will launch sometime before the end of the decade on a four-year mission to study Venus’ surface, interior, and atmosphere. Together, these missions will provide us an extremely comprehensive view of Earth’s sister planet for the first time, helping us understand the delicate physical and chemical balance that ultimately makes Earth habitable and Venus not so much. The 2030s look to be the decade of Venus. --- *Originally published at [The Planetary Society](https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/veritas).* *Like what you read? [Support me](https://jatan.space/support) to keep me going.* _Truncated after 5 MiB. Use `/sitemap.xml` for the complete archive of public content._